Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

Japanised English: two sides of the same coin.

Literature Review

Contact among Western societies can be accounted for on the basis of mutual influence given

by borrowings. On such occasions, an extreme point of linguistic predominance over another

language does not take place nowadays, but it is plausible to affirm that the language of origin or

foreign language (FL), out of which the word is loaned, either is transformed or transforms. On

the one hand, both the morphophonology and the syntax of the loanword might undergo change to

accommodate that of the source language (SL) (Tsuchida: 1995). On the other hand, the SL is

enriched with new foreign inventory to refer to new ideas or old concepts which once lacked a

lexical element that expressed it.

Koscielecki (2006) argues that Japan can be expected not to have borrowed from any language

due to its remoteness with Europe or America, but it actually does. He argues that foreign

languages have contributed to the modernisation of the country through different phases of time.

In his study, he provides different waves where English (E) came to effect in Japan, notably before

and after the Second World War, and discusses that the increase in English loanwords is due to

ensuing teaching of English, albeit imperfect, and improved communication technologies.

However, so much has this borrowing multiplied in the last decade, that English and Japanese now

happen to be in daily contact. As a result, there is sometimes overlap of English borrowings over

native Japanese, as it is used in many spheres and affairs of society, and new terms have been

coined to refer to the linguistic amalgamation: Japlish, Janglish, Japangurishu, Engurishu and,

most formally, Japanised English (Koscielecki: 2006). He distinguishes the last term with

Americanised Japanese, because it appear as though it is the English language that is being

transformed in Japan, not the other way round.

Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

Concerning the usage of English loanwords, Hoffer (1990) discusses that at some point, there

were denouncements on the part of Japanese people alluding that English was corrupting their

society. However, he infers this accusation was ironical, because the vehicular language of

complaint showed, in turn, great influence of Chinese. This being the case and as a result of the

increasing appropriation of English endowment in the Japanese (J) inventory, complaints

eventually ceased to ensue. Koscielecki (2006) bolsters this idea stating that borrowing is taking

place in the commonplace, that is, in the every-day life and that complaining about it would be

ironical, because native Japanese are including loanwords both from Chinese and English in their

daily speech very frequently. On the other hand, research on the actual usage of English

borrowings shows that it is young people who are prompter to include them in daily speech. Hoffer

(1990) shows that there is an invisible line within the Japanese society that traces those who vouch

for the inclusion of English borrowings against those who dismiss it on the assumption English

embodies the pollution of their endowment. According to Seargeant (2005), it seems as though the

old generation are unwilling to acknowledge the use of English loanwords. He argues that they are

determined to maintain tradition and are adamant that Japan make contact with the outside. This

position is understandable if the mindset is taken into account that for many decades in the history

of Japan, international contact has been highly restricted (Hoffer: 1990, Seargeant: 2005,

Koscielecki: 2005 et Barrs: 2015) and they could only have contact with China, a neighbouring

country. It is interesting to portray that though that limitation, they adopted their language, their

writing system of kanjis and their literature. Thus, they still profited from the situation. Barrs

(2015) discusses that had Japan had access to the outside before the Restoration by the Emperor

Meiji in 1868 –first mission by Japan to put paid to its local enclosure and embrace other cultures,

the Japanese culture would have been greatly enriched and a less conservative mindset would be

governing many of its citizens in the present. Since the Restoration propelled their ambition to

learn from their outside, 10.000 scholars were sent to study the trends of the West and return with
Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

the acquired knowledge to share it. As a matter of interest, the presence of Shakespeare’s familiar

English also reached Japan and early borrowings were imported (Hoffer; 1990).

Up to this point, the influence of English in Japan has not been as strong as that of Chinese,

but it is claimed that eventually the balance will tilt in its favour because it is said to be the

vehicular language of the future (Koscielecki: 2005) whereas Chinese displays the prospects of

the past. Moreover, the presence of English is growing stronger and so is its statue in the Japanese

Educational system (Hoffer: 1990, Koscielecki: 2005). Barrs (2015) claims that English is the

language of the time, and that Japan is to evolve further by acknowledging its status as lingua

franca. Seargeant (2005) contends English is spontaneous, neutral and beneficial. Hoffer (1990)

yields that the rank of English as a national language has increased thanks to its commitment to

the latest contributions to science, technology and literature. He claims that it would be rather

surprising not finding the English language walking its way through Japanese. Koscielecki (2006)

treats English as the source of innovation and claims that Japanese institutions are deeming it as

the language of modernisation. He also contends that Japanese needs of the presence of Western

languages in order to detach itself from the tradition and thus from the old Chinese conventions

that have influenced Japan for centuries. For example, the Japanese old “Business Girls”

eventually transformed into “Office Lady”. In both cases, the presence of English is clear, but the

term was changed due to ideological conflict. It appears that “lady” empowers the figure of the

woman and raises her value. On the other hand, the term “girls” appeared to be controversial, as

it was disrespectful towards women. In his work, Seargeant (2005) mentions that English would

result in the liberation of Japan from the imperialism that had strongly marked its development

historically and, in line, from the hitherto fragile vision of women.

The tuition of English in Japan is a reality. However, there appears to be a clear distinction

between two English languages (Hoffer: 1990). On the one hand, he mentions the FL that is studied

at school on a daily basis for at least six consecutive years and also at universities. Nowadays,
Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

potentially successful scholars must show proficiency in English. On the other hand, he makes

reference to the English loanwords that have ploughed their way through the daily life. He is

interested in the borrowings and in his findings he states that English loanwords are implemented

in the Japanese language in such “creative ways” that they become part and parcel of the daily

speech. For instance, the use of initials or acronyms such as ABC can stand for both American

Broadcasting Company and Asashi (Japanese) Broadcasting Company. Hoffer (1990) noted that

the second interpretation was a patchwork of Westernised and native Japanese elements because

it shares trades of both modernisation ( E Broadcasting Company) and tradition ( J Asashi). That

is, on the basis of the assumption that English was the language of the century (Barrs: 2015),

Japanese felt the need to include it so that they, too, would be able to embrace the new era of

globalisation. Hoffer (1990) gives account of English loanwords which fulfil the purpose and are

an evolved stage or successors to the native Japanese term; either in form, that is, showing a more

neutral yet refined, polite and direct tone, or in function, now portraying the development of Japan

as a less traditionalist society, and thus the adopting of Western elements. A case in point is the

acronym “DK” standing for Dining Kitchen versus the J “daidokoro”. In this case, both stand for

a place to dine, but the evolutionary process involved between the English and the native Japanese

term is not one improvement in the form, but the inclusion of a new function: the display of new

Western elements within Japanese dinners in contrast with the traditional Japanese ones.

The previous is an instantiation of foreign cultural presence which is more present in touristic

areas in Japan. Hoffer (1990) shows that English loanwords are not much recurrent in the outskirts,

contending that the farther it is traversed from the overcrowded centres, the less western traces

will be encountered and the truest roots will be seen According to Seargeant (2005), there is a

dichotomy in the configuration of present-day Japan. He argues that the perception of Japan by

foreigners is marked by the principles of “consumerism and endless technological possibility” and

is critical that Japan attempts to sell only the fantasy of a modern, technologically developed and
Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

diverse country, overlapping its roots and making it distinctive only in its “made-in-Japan” labels.

This idea is reinforced with the implementation of English loanwords; they propel not the

traditional areas nor the roots, but the touristic Japan. As a result, the oriental side of Japan is

“removed in time and place” and the country itself becomes “weightless and deterritorial”

(Seargeant: 2005). This means that only the visual and superfluous aspects of Japan will form part

of the Western characterisation of the country, not its distinctive oriental traits that set it apart from

the rest.

Thus, it has been studied that the presence of English is inevitable in a country such as Japan,

whose culture oftentimes gives no way to modernisation due to its strict norms. A division has

been observed by Hoffer (1990) between those who embrace globalisation –and thus Western

influence – and those who uphold to their old conventions, denying both foreign influence and

foreigner themselves. Ultimately, he contends that these two sides go hand in hand, for they are

sides of the same coin and they ought to motivate and influence each other positively. However,

in Seargeant’s words (2005), it seems as though the Japan at the vanguard of technological and

architectural achievement is overwhelming the traditional one, blurring its own origins and

detaching itself from being a cultural mainland to its fullest. Furthermore, he asseverates that there

is not much contribution to other arenas by the Japanese other than “Japanese-made products”.

Doubting about Japan’s contributions is rather risky, as it can be proved wrong, but he concludes

that present-day Japan is mostly ornamental, as the extended touristic surface conceals a rather

obscure country which appears not to be growing keen on such modernity. Thus, further research

could unveil this dichotomy and analyse how modern Japan is merging with the old one.
Marvin Sánchez Muñoz 1362586 Literature Review.

Works cited
Barrs, Keith. “Errors in the Use of English in the Japanese Linguistic Landscape” English Today,
vol. 31, issue 4, 2015: 30-33
Hoffer, Bates. “English Loanwords in Japanese: Some cultural implications” Language Sciences,
vol. 12, issue 1, 1990: 1-21
Koscielecki, Marek. “Japanized English, Its Context and Socio-Historical Background” English
Today, vol. 22, issue 4 [88], Oct. 2006: 25-31
Seargeant, Philip. “Globalisation and Reconfigured English in Japan” World Englishes, vol. 24,
issue 3, 2005: 309-319
Tsuchida, Ayako. “English Loans in Japanese: Constraints in Loanword Phonology”. Working
Papers of the Cornell Phonetics Laboratory, vol.10, 1995: 145-164