Theory and practice in feminist therapy Susan Amelia Thomas Feminist therapy developed largely in response to what maniy women viewed as hurtful, oppres- sive, and destructive in more traditional forms of psychother- ‘apy. The study reported here explores the mature and practice of this newly emerging mode of therapy and is based on inter- views with therapists who identify themselves as feminist therapists. Susan Amelie Thomas, MSW, was, at the time of writing, Junior Psychiatric Social Worker, Clackamas County Day Treatment Programm, Gladstone, Oregon. This article is bared on re- search from the author's MSW thesis, > School of Social Work, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon. “Ts Pun aT 19605 in ‘States, @ social moyement referred 10 4s the second wave of feminism began, ‘The movement was called x “second wave” because it represented a re: awakening of the feminist movement ‘of the late 1800s and early 1900s. An analysis of society from a Feminist per- spective has been an essential part of this new movement. According to the feminist critique, the traditional view ‘of men and women that has prevailed in society states that because _women differ from men biologically they should serve different social functions and engage in different social roles Advocates of feminism reject this view, believing that the assumption of different roles according to sex is the result of social conditioning and an in- stitutionalized sexual class system and is dictated by sociocultural as opposed to biological determinism. Proceeding logically from the feminist critique of society is the idea that although social conditioning and institutionalized sex roles have been oppressive to members of both sexes, they have oppressed ‘women in particular by preventing them from functioning and making ‘contributions according to their poten- tial and by relogating them to inferior status and second-class citizenship? ‘The critique of society from a femi nist viewpoint has placed particular emphasis on the psychological oppres- sion of women, pointing to the damage they have suffered in regard to self- ‘concept, identity formation, intllec- tual development and aspirations, and overall emotional well-being as a result of the socialization they have undergone and the sociopolitical status assigned them? Although one of the ‘early targets of feminist criticism was Freudian psychotherapy. all. psychol- ogy and psychotherapy, including that practiced as part of social work, has come increasingly under fire as being dominated by males and as adhering to a standard of mental health deter mined by males: In the early 1970s, many in the mental health fild began to respond, sometimes. disparagingly, at other times, positively, t0 the criti cisms leveled by feminists.® Those who responded positively began to develop and publish new models for working eee United ‘counseling, and transition houses, dis- covering ways of modifying therapy and women’s experiences in therapy, utifizing referral services, and calling for a new psychology of women. Feminist therapy developed out of the responses of the mental. health field to feminist criticism and the search by feminists for alternatives 10, therapy. In April 1973 an advertisement of- tain, omnis therapy appeared ae ‘Ms, magazine. Three years later, de- scriptions such as “ferninist therapist” or “feminist psychotherapy" appeared in half the advertisements listed in Me. for therapists and therapy referral services. Feminists in many major eit. ies across the country had established referral services for feminist therapy.? However, despite this evidence that something referred to as feminist ther- apy exists (at least to the extent that there are women who label themselves as feminist therapists and their work as feminist therapy), discussion of what feminist therapy is and of what feminist therapists doin practice is absent from the literature, particularly from academic and professional journals, Generally speaking, definitions of feminist therapy that do appear in the litereture are vague, For example, Walstedt defines a feminist psyeho- therapist simply as “someone who sup- Ports and understands the desire for female equality,” and Silveira explains that feminist therapy is “counseling Which affirms women's liberation and proceeds without power differentials between counselor and counseled.” * With the exception of the recently Published work of the Washington, D.C. Feminist Counseling Collective, ‘most descriptions of feminist therapy jn the literature of a professional, popular, or “underground” nature are largely hypothetical and nonspecific? Although significant agreement can be found regarding certain basic as sumptions—in particular regarding those forming the basis of the feminist critique of society and psychotherapy—and their operationalization, much (of the literature to date on feminist therapy has essentially consisted of position statements and has remained tunpublished. The majority of those writings that have appeared in print have been published in various non- academic, feministoriented newspa- pers and magazines."° RESEARCH DESIGN In short, it appeared to the author that no systematic study based on a formal sampling of those actually en- ‘gaged in feminist therapy had been undertaken to determine specifically the nature and definition of such thet- apy. In response, in the spring of 1974 she initiated a research study designed to explore this newly emerging field. ‘The goal of the research was to char- acterize feminist therapy by drawing 4 profile of its theoretical perspectives and the nature of its practice and by describing feminist. therapists. The study was deliberately exploratory in nature and was not designed to test any hypotheses, measure the validity of feminist therapy or any of the as- sumptions on which it is based, or compare it to other forms of therapy. Rather, it was designed to answer five basic questions about feminist therapy: 1. Who are feminist therapists? 2, How do feminist therapists de- fine feminism? 3. What is feminist therapy? 4. How do feminist therapists per- ceive therapeutic issues and. incorpo- rate them into therapy? 5. How do feminist therapists per ceive feminist issues and incorporate ‘them into therapy? This article reports some of the find- ings relating to the frst and third ques- 3s posed. 12 study assumed that a natural helping network, or “natural system lof service delivery,” existed within the feminist movement.!" An initial pro- cess of systematically making contact with and moving through this network in three major metropolitan areas on the West Coast—Portland, Seattle, ‘and the San Francisco Bay Area— generated a potential sample frame of 448 175 therapists, each of whom was sent fa questionnaire to determine self-iden- tification as a feminist therapist. The ‘questionnaire also asked for data about the respondents and their work. ‘The return rate on the questionnaires was 77 percent. Seventy-eight percent fof those who returned the question- naire identified themselves as femin- ist therapists. As this process was taking place, the author obtained the names of 98 more people who might bbe feminist therapists, but these indi viduals were not sent questionnaires because of time constraints, ‘The pri mary information for analysis was then collected by conducting struc- tured interviews with a random sam- ple of 19 (approximately 20 percent) ‘of those who considered themselves feminist therapists. The interviews were tape-recorded and_ transcribed, and their contents were then analyzed for the purpose of delineating issues, identifying areas of consensus and dis- agreement, and characterizing cluster- ings of responses and belief systems within the population. To the degree that the sample frame is representative ‘of the population of feminist thera- pists in Portland, Seattle, and the Bay ‘Area—which it was designed to be— the study findings about feminist the apy as it is practiced at this point in its development in these three areas fon the West Coast represent state- ‘ments capable of being generalized FEMINIST THERAPISTS Descriptive information regarding feminist therapists was derived from fan analysis of the questionnaires re- turned by all members of the sample frame and from answers to the inter view question, “Did you become a fetminist fist and then a therapist, of fa therapist fist and then a feminist?” (Of the 273 potential feminist thera- pists generated, only four were males, and only one of these four identified himself as a feminist therapist. As gen- eralized from the analysis of the ques- tionnaires, a “typical” feminist thera- pist is a woman living in the Bay Area who is most likely an MSW in prac: tice five years and who works full time, either in private practice or for eee 1 public agency such as a community ‘mental health clinic. She sees clients, particularly women, both individually and in groups, specializes in some 3s- pects of women's problems, and bases her work on either an eclectic or @ gestalt theoretical orientation. How- ever, this characterization does. not indicate the degree to which feminist therapists differ from one another within the bounds of these generaliza- tions of the extent to which the diver- sity found among them consistently takes avant-garde rather than tradi- tional forme. For example, when the respondents wore asked to describe their theoretical orientation, 33 different orientations were listed, Twenty-four of these (73 percent) can be characterized as newly developing and nontraditional in. na- ture, In keeping with this, the thera- pists in the sample were engaged more ‘often in private practice than in work- ing for a public or private agency. ‘And although the master's degree in social work is the degree most com- monly held by the therapists in the sample (36 percent), a significant number of respondents did not make tase of formal academic training in traditional fields such as psychology and social work to learn therapy. Nevertheless, certain common ele- ‘ments emerge in the interviews from the personal histories of the respon- dents regarding their development as feminists and therapists, These ele- ments pertain to the way in which the respondents began to identify with feminism, and the commonalities they share are particulary striking because fan identification with feminists was not something taught to those in the sample in any school or advanced to them by any one leader. Rather, these therapists explained that they em- braced feminism because its message had relevance for them, because it reduced their feelings of isolation and provided them with support and a sense of identification with other ‘women, and, perhaps most important, because incorporating feminism into their awareness had a profound im- pact not only on their consciousness ‘but also on their lives. Most of the therapists traced their identifiestion Soctst. Work / Novemoen 1977ta feminism as a group: but for each ‘one, identification was an individual process. Similarly, it seems that the respondents became feminist. thera- pists in much the same way, finding as individuals ther own ways in which to combine feminism and therapy. Whether an individual was a feminist who learned to conduct therapy or therapist who identified with feminism, her feminist beliefs had an impact on her therapeutic orientation, and vice versa, In short, a meshing took place whereby feminism and therapy a0 longer existed as discrete parts of the individuals life but became integrated into feminist therapy. DESCRIPTIONS OF THERAPY ‘Questions regarding the nature of fem- inist therapy were the broadest and most open-ended in the interviews, and they elicited descriptions of rela tively amorphous concepts and behav- fors dificult for any therapist to spec- ly. The questions included queries such as “What do you do with your feminism in therapy?” and “What do you think a person gets from you that she wouldn't get from someone who isn't a feminist therapist?” ‘As feminist therapists describe fem- init therapy, they basically seem to be saying, “I am a feminist. Out of ‘my feminism comes for me certain values, beliefs, and ways of perceiving and acting that T integrate, build on, and utilize in the therapy f do." The ‘essence of their value system as they escribe it consists of a belief in the Potential of women (which can be referred to as feminist humanism) and fan awareness of how this potential has. been thwarted by the prevalence in society of stereotyped sex roles (Which can be referred fo as feminist con- sciousness). The feminist humanism ‘and feminist consciousness its practi- toners bring to bear on the therapeu- tic process make feminist therapy what it is and differentiate it from other therapies. For purposes of presenting he study findings about the nature of feminist therapy, its components (as delineated by feminist therapists) were Twonas / Feminist Therapy therapists interviewed described actv- ites that fell into the category: fem- inist humanism (16), feminist con- sciousness (16), changes in the tradi- tional relationship between therapist and client (16), consciousnes-raising (10), and emphasis on the common- ality’ characterizing the experiences women undergo (9) FEMINISM IN THERAPY Feminist humanism essentially con- sists of belief in the potential of women and in each woman's knowing ‘what she wants and what is best for her. Out of these beliefs comes a desire to free women of roles that prohibit ‘them from realizing their individual potential. Feminist therapists believe that a major difference between them- selves and other therapists has to do with their way of looking at women and men and at each individual's po- tential. They see this difference a centering on the depth and degree of their commitment to equality be- tween the sexes, to freedom from sex- role stereotypes, and to a person’s— ‘especially a woman's—right to self actualization without having to grap- ple with restrictions stemming from preconceived sexual (or any other) roles. They feel that other therapists are influenced by certain stereotypes and values regarding so-called appro- priate behaviors, lifestyles, interests, roles, and directions for growth and change for each sex. As one therapist who was interviewed sai 1 think that perhaps more than most people, Tm wiling to Jet women that T see... be women however they want to be. [ think Tm more wiling to let the definition of “what is a woman’ be wider Feminist therapists see themselves as being supportive to women and as siving them permission to act in ways denied them by adherence to tradi tional sex roles, such as being asser- tive, making nonstereotypical life deci- sions, developing equality in the divi sion of tasks in their relationships, eee ting in touch with their needs and taking the actions necessary to meet them, feeling their own strength and power, and becoming their own per- son. A number of therapists spoke in particular of using their feminist hu- ‘manism in therapy by presenting themselves as positive models for their clients. That is, they behaved in ways: assertive, sexual, independent, and supportive of feminism—against which women are generally conditioned, One therapist felt that model ‘most important way in which she brought her feminism to bear while conducting therapy: “I'm living fem- inism and sharing it with my clients as 'm living it” Coupled with the feminist human- ism of such therapists is their fem consciousness and feminist framework, which are revealed in a particular sen- sitivity to and understanding of the problems women bring to therapy, the experience of being a woman, and the limitations that stereotypical sex rotes have historically placed on women and ‘continue to place on their achievement of selfactualization. Feminist thers- pists assert that their feminism causes them to adopt a different, more en- compassing frame of reference from which to approach what a client says and has experienced, This frame of reference includes not only the tradi- tional forms of assessment but also ‘an emphasis on the psychological ef- fects on women of social conditioning, sex roles, and secondary status. These therapists fee! that because they have more understanding and awareness of the problems a woman may be expe- riencing, they are less likely to dis count her problems or perceptions as inconsequential, not real, oF less. im- portant than her husband's and more likely to appreciate what she is saying, question certain of her initially stated oals, and take seriously the pressures imposed on her by society. From their own experiences as women, feminist therapists offer fe- male clients validation of what they hhave experienced, Similarly, from their feminist consciousness these therapists offer clients @ social context and sense 49,ae es “feminist therapists argue that unless therapists are particularly sensitive to feminist issues or committed to feminism, a certain amount of bias will exist in their therapy, no matter how humanistic they perceive themselves as being.” ‘of reality enabling them to understand their perceptions and experiences bet- ter. One therapist expressed this point in the following way: I think they get [from me) someone ‘who has a clearer, more complete pic ture of what our social. structure like. Anybody who isn'ta feminist and doesn't have that kind of awareness, regardless of how they've labeled them- aclves,... does’t have as complete a picture of our culture and what it does to women and how outside pressures, situational things, and historical things have contributed to the elieat’s psy chodynamics [as I do]. So [the client) sets, I think, a better clinician in me, ‘Therapists interviewed also indicated it was less likely that women being treated by them would be subjected in therapy fo the kind of oppression ex- perienced by other women whose ther- ‘pists were not feminists. They main- tained that a therapist who did not share the feminist consciousness would respond to a female client in much the same way that the culture as a ‘whole responds to women. One thera- pist, for example, commented in this way: If you have any Kind of prejudive, it gets communicated. . . . At the most ublle level you just don't pick up things that someone else who wasn't prejudiced would pick up. One of the faeues that therapists deal with all the time is that of people trying to decide whether or not to stay in their marriage. Tt seems to me thatthe traditional view is very committed to marriage, at the fexpente of the woman's Identity. 15 fever at the expense of the man's iden tity. With the best of intentions and the beat of theories, if somebody hhas that Kind of bias, on an unconscious lev it gets communicated. Thats something wwe all have to strugele with, You're {aught not to valve Women as much a5 ‘men, and the more you are caught in that, the less you can help your patients set through it 450 In short, feminist therapists argue that unless therapists are particularly sen- sitive to feminist issues or committed to feminism, a certain amount of bias will exist in their therapy, no matter how humanistic they perceive them- selves as being. ‘THERAPIST AND CLIENT ‘Therapists interviewed indicated that they had made certain changes in their practice in the traditional relationship between therapist and client. In gen- ‘eral, three areas of change were men- tioned: changes in the therapis’s role, changes in the focus of therapy toward action rather than introspection, and changes in orientation, expressed in negative altitudes toward long-term therapy. ‘Changes in the therapist’s role were ‘mentioned most frequently. Two types ‘of changes were described. The first pertained to ways in which feminist therapists perceive or deal with the power imbalance often evident in the therapist-client relationship. These therapists attempt to foster equality or mutuality in the relationships they have with their clients and to break down the hierarchy of power they perceive as operational in traditional forms of therapy. They view them- selves as sensitive to the ways in which they may abuse their power as thera- pists, such as by diagnosing unneces- sarily, making decisions or interpreta- tions for clients, staying aloof from clients in the security of the therapist's role, or discounting the impact that the power imbalance between therapist and client has on the therapeutic rela- tionship. In the study interviews, they presented a number of ways in wl they attempt to lessen the power im- balance between themselves and a client. Some discussed limiting the potentially oppressive power of the eee therapist by focusing on the power that the client has in the therapeutic relationship. Many feminist therapists see women as being out of touch with their personal (and collective) power and then turning their frustration into “whining and tears and cating too moch and pills that dull aware- ness” rather than into action. If, in her relationship with her therapist, the client is given responsibility for her- self and is encouraged to get in touch with her feelings, take charge of her life, and be aware of the process by which she relinquishes her power and allows others to be powerful over her, she can begin to reclaim her power. When this happens, the therapist be- ccomes less a leader or director and more a vehicle or catalyst for change. With regard to this, one therapist made the following comments: see my whole job... fas making) women take responsibility [for them- selves], so that they can say “yes” and no" Tearn how to ask for what they ‘want, and learn how to get in touch with themselves, If they say they don't want fo get info something, Tl honor that, If T have some feelings or some Ibunches about that, TH say so; but Ym not going to say, “hey, you're avoid: ing,” Hike T know best, oF better than they do. . .. {Tm} also noninterprete tive. No way would Tsay... “I know ‘what this means and you don't.” These therapists, then, consciously re- fuse to accept power that clients give away of project onto them—"When the client gives me power, I give it back.” Another therapist’ explained that increasingly she was turning the responsibilty for problem-solving away from herself and back to the other women in the groups she conducted “The therapists interviewed also gave examples of more direct means by which they make certain they and their clients are on a more equal foot ing. Contracts were mentioned in this regard as a way to limit the therapist's power to areas negotiated between herself and the client. When therapist ‘and cliont agree to a contract, the goals of both individuals involved are overt rather than covert, and the thera- pists power to conduct the therapy in accordance with unstated ideas about Soctat, Work / NoveMen 1977study spoke of reducing the discrep- ‘ancy in power held by themselves and their clients by demystifying their therapeutic skills. They described “let- ting clients in on what's going on” by sharing with them their own percep- tions about the direction in which the therapy is moving, outlining the pos- sible effects of a particular technique ‘and their rationale for suggesting it, and respecting a client's decision re- garding whether she wants to go ahead ‘with a form of treatment or not, Four other therapists discussed their use of less emotive therapy in favor of ther- apy oriented toward problem-solving, of increased personal contact with their clients, of self-disclosure to de- ‘mystify the aura surrounding them- selves as therapists, and of attempts fo enter the therapeutic relationship more as a person and less as a thera- pist. One therapist described such at- tempts in this way: {A client said something to me that I could have dealt with as a “therapist” but didn't... . T didn't just want to Jabel it transference [right away], ever though it seemed Tike that's what it was. So I checked... out where 1 was... to see where T stood and if] Twas doing what she accused me of. T think that a feminist therapist would... be much more willing to {ake responsitility for her part in some thing and not just chalk i up to some thing else. [$0] I don't approach every- thing therapeutically... but) more as me, jst asa person fo a person rather than as a therapist to a person. ‘The second type of change many feminist therapists spoke of making in the role as therapist involved the de- liberate use of themselves—that is, of their values and their experiences-—in conducting therapy. One of them ex- plained this point in the following way’ One of the things that I fect is very important... as a feminist therapist isto share yoursel. I feo i's important {to not put myself up oF to come off as somebody who's better than or more together than [my cllets}. That's not where T am, 'm very much info shar ing where T am and what's going on with me, as well as having the person Tuomas / Feminist Therapy ‘es very important to not project a tot ‘of power onto the therapist or [onto] the tole of the therapist. In addition to sharing with her clients examples of the sexism she has experi- enced, one therapist also shared her positive experiences as a feminist with them as a conscious form of role modeling: share} what it means for me to be 2 feminist and how I consider that to be ‘growing, dynamic thing in terms of my ever-changing life... . 1 share hhow] my feminism enables me to see myself a5 a dynamic, growing person and not a static person, and how that allects my emotional life, my profes- sional life, my personal life, even my physical life Most of the therapists who spoke of stating their feminist values during the course of therapy did so in the con- tent of explaining its usefulness in the therapeutic encounter. As they de- scribe their values to a client, a pro- cess of negotiation, interchange, ot working out a contract takes place, As indicated earlier, such negotiations are designed to change the balance of power in the therapeutic relationship. The other area of change men- tioned by feminist therapists as relat ing to the traditional therapist-client relationship had to do with focusing ‘on action more than on awareness of introspection (or focusing on a coup ing of the two), with the result that the duration of therapy is shortened, ‘These therapists were particularly con- cerned with the development of alte natives to therapy within the women’ ‘movement, and they explained that they encourage their clients to set up Women’s support groups for them- selves outside therapy. One of the ‘ways in which they do this is by mak- ing a point of obtaining and then giv- their clients information about various women's groups in the com- munity, to a much greater extent than they fee! nonfeminist therapists would. ‘The goal of their efforts in this regard is to move their clients through ther- apy and into the larger support system of the feminist community as rapidly 8 possible—or at least to help them eee ao “Unlike most forms of therapy, fem-—— inist therapy isnot merely a means to be used from time to time to-al- leviate stress but away of life...” lationship to become another area in which women remain in a dependent role for long periods of time. interviewee’s ultimate goal as a fem- inist therapist was to see the women she worked with become feminists themselves and work for societal change: If they become feminists themselves, they will Tove to be with ciher women, and will support other women, and will be involved in women’s. groups, and will try to further the cause of women, ‘which is my goal—not an individual solution, but a total change of the system, CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISING Over half the therapists interviewed described as part of feminist therapy behaviors that basically constitute con- sciousness-raising, That i, they involve making women aware of the existence of sexerole stereotyping and sex-role oppression and the effects of social influences on their personal expeti- ence. These behaviors are based on the idea that relearning precedes be- hhavioral change in the individual, Some therapists make their clients ‘more aware by asking them questions phrased to expose entrenched stereo- ‘typical assumptions that the clients hhave unquestioningly accepted. One therapist described these questions. in this way: think there are a lot of questions that ‘an be raised... When women come jin and talk abovt their tives. - and they talk about where they have been, Tl say something to them to the effect of, "Did you feel like you were doing what was expected of you at that point?” They'll say, “Well, of course," and It say, “Was that your decision ‘oF somebody else's decision? And how o you feel about that?” . which ‘ay Tead into {my saying), “OK. Who 454‘are you? What do you want to do?” ‘and “Tt sounds to me like you've been ‘spending your life trying to meet other people's needs, Have you ever sat down and thought about what your ‘own needs sre?" These questions lead into discussions about being 2 woman and what women are expected to do— ta make sure to meet fother] people's needs. [As the'therapists ask questions, they are at the same time modeling ques- tioning behavior and giving their cli- ents permission to ask questions of them and of society as wel Other feminist therapists reported that in the course of therapy they dis- ‘cussed the societal influences they per- ceive as having an impact on their clients. One therapist described how she incorporates into therapy her own ‘rowing awareness of society's infiu- ences on women: ve become much more aware of the societal influences on women, and 1 bring that into what I do . . . aot only in working with an individual woman's intrapsychic. processes but in dealing ‘with the effect of the culture on women. Sometimes women will say they" afraid of men, 1 ued to interpret that ‘as a totaly individual thing, that the ‘woman's own personal histery alone had contributed to making her afreid— her father was punitive, and s0 on But if you look at the farger societal envelope that goes around that, every ‘woman is afraid of men, and they have 2 Tot of reatons to be afraid of them. So that [perspective] gets pointed out at the same time that the individual [perspective] does. EMPHASIS ON UNITY For nine therapists, part of feminist therapy is giving a female client a sense of her unity and commonality with other women. Some therapists do this in conjunction with consciousness. raising. In presenting the broader cul- tural perspective of how a woman's personal experience is often a condi- tioned social experience, the goal of these therapists is to break down the isolation many women feet regarding the problems they bring to therapy and to promote in them a sense of unity with other women, One therapist de- seribed how she accomplishes this dur- ing therapy 452 H.do} a lot of reflecting back initially to check and see where their fvarensss is. Are they really aware that what they'e saying is that some of ‘these psychological problems have come about because of their status as ‘women and the fact that they've been discriminated against, and not just be- cause of the sadness of human experi fences and the existential situation—but because as women they have experi enced some real hardship and diserim- ination. ‘As they become ava of that, T give them support... . [tell this to women over and over again: “I see women in therapy: I work with women’s groups; Ttalk to women’s organizations; and 1 want you to know that's one of the most common complaints I hear. You hhave sisters all over saying the same thing you'e saying and they all thought they were alone too." 1 [want] to let these women Know that even if they [feel] isolated because they have no social skills, because they fee! they're Only housewives, or whatever, they're not alone. Another therapist uses self-disclosure fas the means by which she breaks ddown her clients’ sense that they have rot experienced discrimination or op- pression as women, As she relates her ‘experiences, her clients realize that what she has been describing has been true for them as well. Other feminist therapists promote their clients’ sense ‘of community with other women by encouraging the women in the groups they conduct to share with, feel a tunity with, and support and nurture each other and to break down the traditional mistrust, competitiveness, ‘and hatred they have been conditioned to feel with respect to other women, Just being in a group with other women who have similar problems (particularly problems of a sexual na- ture) sometimes helps female clients feel less isolated and less of the stigma attached to being 2 woman, DISCUSSION Ifa theoretical orientation to therapy is defined in the traditional sense as en- ‘compassing a series of propositions land techniques, a: mode! for problem assessment, and a training methodol ogy, it may be concluded from the eee responses given by the sample of fem- inist therapists described here that fom- inist therapy as such does not exist, However, there are therapists who have incorporated feminism into their therapy and who call themselves fem- inist therapists. This suggests that fem- init therapy must be understood more as part of a social movement than as a type of psychotherapy and less as f theoretical orientation in the tradi- tional sease than as a belief system and a number of ways in which that system is put into practice. Is strik- ing that with none of the accoutre- ments of most therapies in evidence— without 2 feminist therapy journal, numerous training seminars, and a prominent leader or mentor in the field-—~and despite numerous. differ- ences in theory and practice, the similarities among feminist therapists jn three metropolitan areas, each io a different state, are still pronounced, ‘As feminist therapists describe femi- nist therapy, it seems to be based on three components that are intertwined: first, a belief system composed of fem. inist humanism and feminist con- sciousness, the two complementary parts of the feminist value system; see- fond, a therapist-client relationship that renders the therapeutic process com- patible with the feminist value system; and third, two processes—conscious- ness-raising and placing emphasis on the commonality shared by all women —that enable the feminist value sys- tem to be witilized not only by the therapist but to be transferred in turn totheclient. There is a high degree of interrela- tion between the values of feminist therapists and the ways in which they incorporate them into therapy. For ‘example, feminist therapists indicate they ask their clients certain kinds of questions about roles and role behav- jor that are designed to break down their acceptance of sex-role_stereo- types, and they also encourage the women they see similarly to question these sexist assumptions. In this con text, asking questions of clients and ‘encouraging them to ask questions can be viewed as a therapeutic technique, However, such behavior also repre- Soctat Wonk / Novemuen 1977‘value because ferminists feel itis portant for women to look critically at previously unquestioned roles and stereotypes, Similarly, feminist ther- pists frequently mention the value they attach to being honest and open about their views, However, the pro- cess of being honest and open in sharing and clarifying their values be- comes in tura a means by which they model this behavior for their clients and bring into question unexamined values or assumptions a client may hold. The difficulty in separating val- ues from such a process in feminist therapy says a great deal about this form of therapy. It reflects the con- gruence found and emphasized in feminist therapy between the ther apis’s values and the therapeutic pro- cess and the therapist's professional and personal life Feminist therapists use their value system in what may be a unique way, namely, as a consciously acknowl ‘edged filter. As a client speaks, the therapist brings to bear an added pperspective—her feminism—on what she hears. In other words, what these ‘therapists hear a client say has already been filtered through and heightened by their feminist humanism and fem- ‘nist consciousness, which have given them another perspective on the cli- ‘ent’s potential for self-actualization, the roles she has assumed, the nature and causes of her problems, and the social structure that influences her After input from the client passes through the filter of their feminism, such therapists then rely on their theo: retical orientation, whatever it may be, to choose an appropriate therapeutic response or technique, Their belief in feminism, however, has already influ- enced their choice. They will respond in a way that breaks down hierarchy: and establishes mutuality in the ther- spist-lient relationship. Furthermore, the techniques ltimately chosen by the feminist therapist are less impor- fant to her than the shift in values hat was engendered by her feminist belies. Finally, approximately half the fem- inist therapists interviewed mentioned ‘TnoMas / Feminist Therapy ‘twined activites undertaken with cli ents as a way of bringing feminism to bear in their therapy. These activities in essence are designed to change the client's perceptions by heightening her consciousness, which in turn affects hher manner of relating to and identi fying with other women. CONCLUSION Beginning with their efforts to inte- ‘grate two important parts of their lives —their feminism and their therapy— the feminist therapists interviewed hhave continually striven to make their actions congruent with their beliefs. Integration is, in fact, the making of ‘multiple connections, and. femini and feminist therapy can be seen a the making of connections on many levels—connections between feminism and therapy, between one woman and all women, between one's personal problems and one's social awareness, between one’s beliefs and what one does, and between what one does ia therapy and how one lives one’s life. Thus, unlike most forms of therapy, feminist therapy is not merely a means to be used from time to time to al- Teviate stress but a way of life for ‘the therapist and, potentially, for the client as well. Therapy becomes nor- ‘malized and is connected to rather than divided from everyday life. In its beginnings, feminist therapy seems to have developed as an anti- thesis to what feminists found hurtful, oppressive, and destructive in the male-dominated institution of tradi- tional therapy. Tt was begun, in short, ‘out of attempts to make it different from something rather than attempts to create something in and of itself However, as more therapists and fem- inists seek to connect feminism with therapy and to remove sexism and traditional abuses of power from ther- apy, as they meet with each other in peer consultations, publish books and articles, and develop training models and systems of referral, more becomes clear about this form of therapy. It is becoming easier to identify what fem- eee inist therapy is, what the besic areas ‘of consistency and inner congruity ‘among feminist therapists are, what istinguishes feminist therapy other therapies, and how feminist ther- piss differ from cach other, As fem-_ inist therapists continue to work tomard bailing common theoretical bases and develop new ways of inte rating feminism and therapy, fem-, inist therapy will increasingly emerge asa distinctive therapeutic form, And 88 more professionals become fem init therapists and more feminist learn therapeutic skills, feminist there apy will have aa increasing impact on the institution of therapy and on the lives of women. Firestone, The Dialect of Sex: The Case for Femiist Revolion (New York: Bantam Books, 1970) p. 15. See, for example, Simone de Beau. voit, The Second Sex (New York: Bans tam Books, 1952); Jo Freeinan, The Women's Liberation Movement: ie Ort gins, Structures and Ideals (Pittsburgh: | KNOW, Inc, 1970); and Betty Frieden, The Feminine Mysique (New York: Dell Publishing Co, 1963) 3. See, for example, Phyllis Chester, Women and Madness Rew York: Avo Boots, 1972); Jo. Freeman, The Social ‘Construction of the Second Sex (Pitts burgh! KNOW, Tne, 1970); and Mating Horner, “The Motive o Avoid Success and Changing Aspirations of College | Women” in Jodi M, Bardvick, ed, Readings om the Prychology of Women (ew York: Harper & Row, 1972), pp. 2-61 | 4. See, for example, Ingo Broverman et al., “Sex-Role Stereotypes and Clinical” Jadgiets of Mental Health.” Journal of Consulng and Clinic Psychology, 34 (February 1970), pp. 1-7; Chesley op. cit; Joyce Walstedt, The Anatomy of Opprestion: A Feminist Anayss of Pay chotherapy ‘(Pitsburgh: KNOW, Inc, _ 1971); and Judith L. Yurmatk, “The Role of Women in Social Casework Literature fnd Te Relation to Psychoanalytic The: ‘ores of Female Paychalogy” MSW the- sis, Smith Coleg School for Socal Work, 192, abstracted in Smith Coleg Studies in Sociol Work, 43 (November 1972), Pp. 884, 5. For examples of the more dspar- aging respons, see Ruth Moulton, "Psj- shoanalytie Reflections on Women's Lib- 453emtion” Contemporary Prychoanalysis, ets Training,” Counseling Paychotogit, (1972), pp. 197-225; and. "Special 4 (1973), pp. 75-86, See abo Annette ‘Symposium: The Mental Health Move- Brodsky, "The Consciousnes-Raising 9, Washington, D.C, Feminist Coun- iment Meets Womer's Lib,” Mental Hy- Group as a Model of Therapy f0% seling Collective, “Feminist Psychother {Hene, 58 (January 1971), pp. 1-9. For Women,” Peychotherapy: Theory, Re- apy," Social Policy, 6 (Seplember-Oct0- fzamples of the more pose responses, search ond Practice, 10 (Spring 1973), er 1975), pp. 54-82 fee Carol Barret et aly “Implications ofp. 24-29; Alice Krakauer, “A Good "19. Sec, for example, Taie Dejanikus ‘Women’s Liberaion and the Future of Therapist Is Hard 19 Find." Ms, 1 (Oc- and Fran Poller, "Feminist Counseling,” Paychotherapy,” Peychotherapy: Theory, tober 1972), pp. 33-35; Anica Vesel Rough Times, 4. (March-Apul-May Research en Practice, 2 (Spring 1974), Mander and Aane Kent Rush, Feminism” gry. pp. 10-12; Diane Mavieeild and pp. 11-15; Barbara Stevens, “The Psy: as Therany (Berkeley, Calif: Bookworks, Jey.” Wiliams, “Feminist. Therapist a3 Shoherapist and. Women's Liberation,” 1974); Anne Kent Rush, Geiting Clear’ Vane Willane, “Fernie! Themes a Social Work, 16 July 1971), pp. 12-18; Body Work for Women (Berkeley, Cait: MUlwite” RT: 4 fowna! of Radia nd Carol Wesley, “The Women's Move: Bookworks, 1973); and Jeannette Silveira, Therapy, (Desember 1974), p. 6: and tment and Prychoiherapy.” Social Work, The Effect of Sexism on Thought: How Bat Webbink, "A Feminist "Therapist 5. Walstedt, op. cit; and Silveira, op. 20 (March 1975), pp. 120-124 Male Bias Hurts Psychology and Some 8 Our Backs, 3 (February-March 6. See, for example, Betty Kronsky, Hopes for a Woman's Psychology (Pitts: 1973), P. 2 “Feminism and Psychotherapy,” Journal burgh: KNOW, Ine. 1972). 11. Alice Collins, “Natural Delivery of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 3 7. Gersten Grimstad and Susan Ren- Systems: Accessible Sources of Power for (Spring 1971), pp. 89-98; and Patricia nic, cus, The New Woman's Survival Mental Health,” American Journal of JakubowskiSpector, “Facilitating the Sourcebook (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Orthopsychiatry, 43 January 1973), pp. Growth of Women Through Assertive- 1975), p 60. 46-92. 4 SAFEGUARD AGENCY SERVICE with valuable protection through the NASW-sponsored Professional Liability Insurance Program, underwritten by American Home Assurance Company. Social service agencies that meet the pro- gram’s qualifications may now obtain comprehensive malpractice coverage, which includes protec- tion for all employees, directors, trustecs and executive officers while working in the agency. Employees hired during the policy term are automatically covered, thus providing an important “fringe” benefit. Also, the agency is protected for students in field placement and for volunteers. Malpractice suits against agencies and helping professionals have increased alarmingly in re- cent years. Judgments, settlements, and legal fees continue to escalate, and courts tend to place inereasing responsibility on the professional and the ageney. Along with its concern for guaranteeing proper standards of service, NASW intends to pro- tect agencies and professionals from unjustified attacks on their practice. Remember, malprac- tice need not actually occur for a suit to be brought, but the burden of defense falls on the agency and the practitioner. Defense alone can be devastatingly expensive. For information on the Professional Lial ity Insurance Program for agencies, please contact: Sing NASW Professional Liability Insurance NAB c/o American Professional Agency 95 Broadway SWE Amityritie: Rx. 11701 —! NOTE: American Home Assurance Company is a member company of American International Group. This is the only professional liability insurance program sponsored by NASW. 454 Soctat, Work / Novemoen 1977 eee