Ilya Joohari

School of Environmental Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP)
 Topic: Design of Superstructure
Design of:
 Beam
 Slab
 Column
 Foundation
 Roof
 Detailing of structure
 List of drawing
 Structural Design
• Design is the planning that lay the basis for the making of
every object or system.

• Structural design is the selection of materials and

member type, size and configuration to carry loads in a
safe and suitable for usage. It is also consider to be build
and maintenance with a minimum cost.
Eurocode system
The structural Eurocodes were initiated by the European
Commission but are now produced by the Comité Européen de
Normalisation (CEN) which is the European standards organisation,
its members being the national standards bodies of the EU and
EFTA countries, e.g. BSI.CEN is publishing the design standards as
full European Standards EN Euronorms):

BS EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of design (EC0)

BS EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures (EC1)
Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight and imposed loads
Part 1-2: General actions on structures exposed to fire
Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads
Part 1-4: General actions – Wind loads
Part 1-6: Actions during execution
Part 1-7: Accidental actions from impact and explosions
Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery
Part 4: Actions in silos and tanks
BS EN 1992: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures (EC2)
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (EC2 Part 1-1)
Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design (EC2 Part 1-2)
Part 2: Reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges (EC2 Part 2)
Part 3: Liquid retaining and containing structures (EC2 Part 3)
BS EN 1993: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures (EC3)
BS EN 1994: Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures (EC4)
BS EN 1995: Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures (EC5)
BS EN 1996: Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures (EC6)
BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design (EC7)
BS EN 1998: Eurocode 8: Earthquake resistant design of structures (EC8)
BS EN 1999: Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium alloy structures (EC9)
BASIC CONCEPT
 Material Properties

• For concrete, the property with which the designer is

primarily concerned is its compressive strength (fck).
• For steel, however, it is its tensile strength (fyk)
capacity which is important.
 Characteristic and Design Values

Factors that effect the design:

• The material strength
• The load on the member

Therefore the design strength and design loads will

use characteristic value and partial safety factors to
allow these variations.
 Concrete- clause 3.1
• IN EC 2, the characteristic strength of concrete is based
on 5% compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28
days- fck
• The cylinder strength is 0.8 x fck, cube
oExample concrete compressive strength class C90/105 –
concrete with cylinder strength of 90 MPa and cube
strength of 105 Mpa
oTherefore for design, fck = 90MPa
Compressive strength class
Required
Characteristic
minimum
Specify compressive compressive
characteristic
strength class strength, f ck,
cube strength
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
10 C8/10 8
15 C12/15 12
20 C16/20 16
25 C20/25 20
30 C25/30 25
35 C28/35 28
37 C30/37 30
40 C32/40 32
45 C35/45 35
50 C40/50 40
55 C45/55 45
60 C50/60 50
67 C55/67 55
75 C60/75 60
85 C70/85 70
95 C80/95 80
105 C90/105 90
 Reinforcing steel- Clause 3.2
• Characteristic Strength of reinforcement fyk
Reinforcement Type Characteristic Strength
(N/mm2) fyk
Steel (all three grades)* 500

•Steel reinforcement for all three grades (A,B,C) differ in ductility

•Type B and C are widely available
•Ductility type A –size 12 mm and below

Property Ductility class

A B C
Characteristic yield strength 500

Young’s modulus 200

Characteristic strain at  2.5  5.0  7.5
ultimate force,  (%)
 Partial Safety Factor For Materials
• Based on Table 2.1N

Limit state c for concrete s for reinforcing and

prestressing steel

Ultimate 1.5 1.15

Serviceability 1.0 1.0
the ultimate limit state the partial safety factor for
reinforcement (γms) is always 1.15, but for concrete
(γmc) assumes different values depending upon the
stress type under consideration.
SERVICEABILITY &
DURABILITY
 Requirements for Durability

To ensure the concrete structure is durable, the following

requirements shall be considered during design stage :
• Concrete mix and exposure classes
• Concrete cover (including fire resistance)
• Minimum member dimensions
• Limits on reinforcement quantities
• Limit on reinforcement spacing
Compressive strength class
Required
Characteristic
minimum
Specify compressive compressive
characteristic
strength class strength, f ck,
cube strength
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
10 C8/10 8
15 C12/15 12
20 C16/20 16
25 C20/25 20
30 C25/30 25
35 C28/35 28
37 C30/37 30
40 C32/40 32
45 C35/45 35
50 C40/50 40
55 C45/55 45
60 C50/60 50
67 C55/67 55
75 C60/75 60
85 C70/85 70
95 C80/95 80
105 C90/105 90
 Cover and durability
Description Severity of exposure

X0 No risk of corrosion or attack XO

XC Corrosion induced by carbonation XC-1 XC-2 XC-3 XC-4

XD Corrosion induced by chlorides XD-1 XD-2 XD-3

(non-seawater)

XS Corrosion induced by chlorides XS-1 XS-2 XS-3

(seawater)

XF Freeze/thaw attack XF-1 XF-2 XF-3 XF-4

DC Sulfate attack DC-1 DC-2 DC-3 DC-4

 XC and XD exposures
Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength class,
combination maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination content (kg/m3)
types Nominal cover to reinforcement (mm)
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Carbonation XC1 Dry or All C20/25 <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<<
induced permanently wet 0.7, 240
corrosion XC2 Wet, rarely dry All - - C25/30 <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<<
0.65, 260
XC3 Moderate All except IVB - C40/50 C32/40 C28/35 C25/30 <<<< <<<< <<<<
or humidity or cyclic 0.45, 340 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 0.65, 260
XC4 wet and dry

Chloride XD1 Moderate All - - C40/50 C32/40 C28/35 <<<< <<<< <<<<
induced humidity 0.45, 340 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
corrosion XD2 Wet, rarely dry I, IIA, IIB-S, - - - C40/50 C32/40 C28/35 <<<< <<<<
excluding SRPC 0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
chlorides IIB-V, IIIA - - - C35/45 C28/35 C25/30 <<<< <<<<
from 0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
seawater IIIB, IVB - - - C32/40 C25/30 C20/25 <<<< <<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XD3 Cyclic wet I, IIA, IIB-S, - - - - - C45/55 C40/50 C35/45
and dry SRPC 0.35, 380 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
IIB-V, IIIA - - - - - C35/45 C32/40 C28/35
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
IIIB, IVB - - - - - C32/40 C28/35 C25/30
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

Cover [(cmin) + DCdev ]

Design Aids, Fire
 Durability – Concrete Cover
Sufficient cover is necessary to ensure that:
• Adequate bond develop between the bar surfaces and the
concrete.
• There is adequate protection against corrosion of the
reinforcement
• There is adequate fire resistance of the concrete
• No spalling of the concrete will occur
EXAMPLE 1
A rectangular reinforced concrete beam is simply supported is shown in
Figure. Using the data given, determine the nominal cover required for
the beam considering bond, durability and fire to satisfy the specified fire
resistance.
Data :
Exposure class XCI
Concrete strength class C35/40
Nominal maximum aggregate 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 25 mm
Diameter of shear links 8 mm
Minimum required standard fire resistance R90
Intended working life 50 years
For bond to ensure adequate compaction
Refer Table 4.2 BS EN 1992 – 1- 1:2004, page 50
Bar diameter Øs = 25 mm (based on diameter of main tension bar ) and
the maximum aggregate size given dg = 20 mm
Therefore, Cmin,b = 25 mm (arrangement of bars is separated)
Table A.4 for environmental conditions
For exposure class XCI and strength class C35/45
Cmin,dur = 15 mm

Clause 4.4.1.2(2)P
ΔCdur,γ = 0 (additive safety element)
ΔCdur,st = 0 (stainless steel element)
ΔCdur,add = 0 (additional protection)
Clause 4.4.1.2 (2) P, Equation (4.2)

Cmin = max { Cmin,b ; (Cmin,dur + ΔCdur,γ - ΔCdur,st - ΔCdur,add); 10mm}

= max { 25 mm ; (15 + 0 – 0 – 0); 10 mm}

Clause 4.4.1.3(1)P
Allowance for deviation : ΔCdev, = 10 mm

Cnom = Cmin + ΔCdev = (25 + 10) = 35 mm

Nominal cover for bond, durability = 35 mm.

Tables 5.5 EN 1992-1-2, for : R90, simply supported beam, b = 200 mm

bmin = 200 mm thus amin,req = 45 mm

Asd,min = (45 + 10) = 55 mm

Aactual = (Cnom + Øs/2 + Øs,link)

= (35 + 25/2 + 8) = 55.5 mm > amin,req (45mm)

Thus the axis distance is adequate

Adopt Cnom = 35 mm
EXAMPLE 2
A rectangular reinforced concrete beam is simply supported is shown in
Figure. Using the data given, determine the nominal cover required for
the beam considering bond, durability and fire to satisfy the specified fire
resistance.
Data :
Exposure class XCI
Structural class S4
Concrete strength class C30/37
Nominal maximum aggregate 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 20 mm
Diameter of shear links 10 mm
Minimum required standard fire resistance R90
Intended working life 50 years
For bond to ensure adequate compaction
Refer Table 4.2 BS EN 1992 – 1- 1:2004,
Bar diameter Øs = 20 mm (based on diameter of main tension bar ) and
the maximum aggregate size given dg = 20 mm
Therefore, Cmin,b = 20 mm (arrangement of bars is separated)
Table 4.4N for environmental conditions
For exposure class XCI and structural class ; S4
Cmin,dur = 15 mm

Clause 4.4.1.2(2)P
ΔCdur,γ = 0 (additive safety element)
ΔCdur,st = 0 (stainless steel element)
ΔCdur,add = 0 (additional protection)
Clause 4.4.1.2 (2) P, Equation (4.2)

Cmin = max { Cmin,b ; (Cmin,dur + ΔCdur,γ - ΔCdur,st - ΔCdur,add); 10mm}

= max { 25 mm ; (15 + 0 – 0 – 0); 10 mm}

Clause 4.4.1.3(1)P
Allowance for deviation : ΔCdev, = 10 mm

Cnom = Cmin + ΔCdev = (20 + 10) = 25 mm (Equation 4.1)

Nominal cover for bond, durability = 25 mm.

Tables 5.5 EN 1992-1-2, for : R90, simply supported beam, b = 200 mm

bmin = 200 mm thus amin,req = 45 mm

Asd,min = (45 + 10) = 55 mm

Aactual = (Cnom + Øs/2 + Øs,link)

= (25 + 20/2 + 10) = 45 mm > amin,req (45mm)

Thus the axis distance is adequate

Adopt Cnom = 25 mm
SLAB DESIGN
A. Spinning one way supported on two sides such as between
beams or walls
The way a slab spans its supports has a direct
impact on the way in which the slab will bend.

One-way slabs

Simple and continuous beam

B. Spanning two ways which are supported on
all four sides such as beams and /or walls

Two-way flat plates

Two-way flat slabs (with drop panels)

 One-way Slab
• When a rectangular slab is supported only on two
opposite edges, it is a one-way slab spanning in the
direction perpendicular to the edges. Precast planks fall in
this group.
• When a rectangular slab is supported on all the four
edges and the length-to-breadth (L / B) ratio is equal to or
greater than two, the slab is considered to be a one-way
slab. The slab spans predominantly in the direction
parallel to the shorter edge.
• The following sketches show the plans of the two cases
of one-way slabs. The spanning direction in each case is
shown by the double headed arrow.
 2-way Slab
• Other types of rectangular slabs and non-rectangular slabs are
considered to be two-way slabs.
• If a rectangular slab is supported on all the four sides and the
length-to-breadth ratio is less than two, then it is a two-way
slab.
• If a slab is supported on three edges or two adjacent edges,
then also it is a two-way slab.
• A slab in a framed building can be a two-way slab depending
upon its length-to-breadth ratio. A two-way slab is designed for
both the orthogonal directions.
ONE WAY SLAB
 Design Of One-way Slab
• One-way slab is usually rectangular where the length is two or more times
the width. These slabs are considered to be supported along two long
sides.
• This design is for a typical suspended slab that has dimensions where one-
way action occurs. This occurs when one dimension is longer than the other
one so that the loads are supported in the long direction.
 Idealization for design
(a) Uniformly loaded slab
• Concrete slab are defined as members where the breadth is not less
than 5 x overall depth
• One-way slabs carries uniform load are design on the assumption that
they consist of a series of rectangular beams 1 m wide spanning
between supporting beams and walls.
• The shear stress are usually low in a slab except when there are heavy
concentrated loads and
• Compression reinforcement is seldom required

• The sections can be a simply supported slab and a continuous one-

way slab
 Simply Supported Slab
• If the slab is poured separately from the supporting walls then the
slab can be considered a simple span.
• The slab has positive moment across the complete span with
maximum moment occurring at mid-span and 0(zero) at the supports.

Simple span
Moment diagram

Moment/main Distribution steel

steel
d
h

Simply supported slab

span
 In this case the moment steel is placed in the slab bottom and extends
across the entire slab length. The steel in the other direction is minimum
steel, temperature and shrinkage steel.

Simple span Moment diagram

Continuous One-way Slab

Moment/main steel Distribution steel

span span

Continuous one-way slab

(b) Concentrated loads on a solid slab

• If a slab is simply supported on two opposite edges and carries one or

more concentrated loads in a line in the direction of the span, it

should be designed to resist the maximum bending moment caused
by the loading system
Deflection
 Design of Simply Supported Solid Slab
Step 1: Depth of slab
 Estimate the percentage of steel required in slab for bending
(generally will be lightly reinforced, i.e.  < 0.5%)
 Calculate the span/depth ratio using;

 Determine the effective depth; d,

 Determine the overall depth, h
Moment steel Distribution steel
d
h

span
Step 2: Bending
• Design as if they consists of a series of beam of 1 m breadth.

• Consist of main steel in direction of the span and secondary or

distributed steel in transverse direction.

• The main steel should form the outer layer of reinforcement to

give the maximum lever arm, z.

• The calculation for bending reinforcement follow the procedure

for beam,

• Calculate the area of tension reinforcement (main steel)

As = M/0.87fykz
 Step 3: Shear
• Need to check not to fail in shear

• Can be calculated as beams

• The design shear force, VEd is less than the design of

shear resistance of the concrete alone, VRd,c , no shear

reinforcement is necessary.
Step 4: Reinforcement details
a. Reinforcement area (Cl. 5.4.2.11)
Longitudinal steel
Maximum or minimum % of longitudinal steel;
0.26 f ctm bt d
As , min   0.0013bt d
f yk
and
As  0.04 Ac
Transverse steel
The area of secondary steel;

As ,trans,min  0.2 x As ,main

b. Spacing of reinforcement
 The clear distance between reinforcing bar should not be less than;

 Maximum diameter bar

 20 mm

 dg + 5 where dg is the maximum aggregate

 The maximum bar spacing , smax = 3h < 400 mm generally and 2h

≤250mm in areas of maximum moment where h is overall depth.

 The maximum bar for secondary reinforcement; ,

smax = 3.5h < 450 mm in general and

smax = 3h < 400 in area of maximum moment

Step 5: Detailing
Design of One-way Continuous Solid Slab
For continuous slab with ;

a) Substantially uniform loading

b) Permanent action, gk ≥ Variable action, qk

c) At least 3 spans that not differ by more than 15% of the longest
span

The bending moment and shear forces may be calculated using

the coefficients given in this table below;
Step 2: Bending
• The main steel should form the outer layer of
reinforcement to give it maximum lever arm
• The calculation for bending reinforcement follow a
similar procedure to that used in beam design
• The lever arm, z is used to determine the area of
tension reinforcement is given by
• As = M/0.87fykz
0.26 f ctm bt d
• Max bar spacing < 3h As , min   0.0013bt d
f yk

• As max ≤ 0.04Ac
Step 5: Detailing
Bottom reinforcement is required within the span and top
reinforcement over the supports.
Example

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.
 Step 7: Check deflection
 Estimate the percentage of steel required in slab for
bending (generally will be lightly reinforced, i.e.  < 0.5%)
 Calculate the span/depth ratio using;

 Determine the effective depth; d,

 Determine the overall depth, h

Moment steel Distribution steel

d
h

span
Design service stress, σs = 310/500 x fyk x Asreq/Asprov
= 5/8 x fyk x Asreq/Asprov
= 5/8 x 500 x 349/393
= 275.3 N/mm²
Modification factor = 310/ σs
= 310/275.3
= 1.12
ρ = Asreq/bd
= 349/1000 x 140
= 0.0025 < ρo = √fck x 10-³
= 0.0025 < ρo = √25 x 10-³
Use equation (7.16a) to calculate the basic span/effective depth ratio
K = 1.3 from Table NA-5 for end span of continuous slab
= 1.5 for interior span

l/d = 54.6

Allowable span/effective depth ratio = basic x modification factor

= 54.6 x 1.12
= 61.2
Actual deflection = l/d
= 4500/140
= 32 < 61.2

Therefore the deflection OK. The proposed slab thickness (170mm thick) is
sufficient.
TWO WAY SLAB
 General Considerations
• Solid slab is classified as two way slab when the ratio of

longer side (Ly) to shorter side (Lx) is equal or less than 2,

which is Ly/Lx ≤ 2
1. Design Procedures of Two-way Simply-Supported

Solid Slab

• When simply-supported slabs do not have adequate provision to resist

torsion at the corners, and to prevent the corners from lifting, the
maximum moments per unit width are given by the following
equations:
msx = αxnlx²
msy = αynlx²
Where;

• Msx and Msy are the moments at mid-span on strip of unit width
with span Lx and Ly respectively

• n = (1.35Gk + 1.5Qk) is the total ultimate load per unit area

• Ly and Lx is the longer and shorter span

• The area of reinforcement in Lx and Ly respectively are:

Asx = Msx/0.87fyz per metre width

Asy = Msy/0.87fyz per metre width
• The slab should be reinforced uniformly across the full
width, in each direction

Asy
Asx
• The effective depth, d used in calculating Asy should be
less than that Asx because of the different depths of two
layers of reinforcement

dy

dx
Design Procedure for a solid slab :
Example :Simply Supported 2 Way Slab
A two way spanning slab, simply supported slab supports a
characteristic variable load of 10 KN/m² in addition to its
self-weight. Using the data given, determine the required
areas of main reinforcement
Data :
Slab thickness 220 mm
Characteristic concrete strength 25 N/mm²
Characteristic steel strength 500 N/mm²
Effective span in the x – direction 4.5 m
Effective span in the y – direction 6.3 m
Exposure condition XCI
Assuming cover 30 mm
Diameter of main & secondary bar 10 mm
Solution :
Unit weight of concrete = 25 KN/m³
1. Self weight of the slab = 0.22 x 25 = 5.5 KN/m²
2. Check whether 1 way or 2 way slab
Ly/Lx = 6.3/4.5 = 1.4 < 2 (therefore the slab is design as
2 way slab).
3. Using Table 3.13, Ly/Lx = 6.3/4.5 = 1.4
αsx = 0.099, αsy = 0.051
4. Ultimate design load n = 1.35gk + 1.5 qk
= 1.35 (5.5) + 1.5 (10)
= 22.43 KN/m²
5. Consider bending in the short span (Lx)
Msx = αxnlx² = 0.099 x 22.43 x 4.5²
= 45 KNm
6. Effective depth, d = 220 – 30 – 10/2 = 185 mm
7. K = M/bd²fck = 45 x 10³ x 10³/(1000 x 185 x 25)
= 0.053 < 0.167 (singly reinforced)
8. Z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 – K/1.134)]
= 185[0.5 + √(0.25 – 0.053/1.134)]
= 175.8 mm
Check Z not more than 0.95d = 0.95 x 185 = 175.8 mm
9. Area of steel As = M/0.87fykZ
= 45 x 10³ x 10³/(0.87 x 500 x 175.8)
= 588 mm²/m width
10. From Table A.3, Provide H12 bars @ 175 mm centres,
giving As = 646 mm²/m width
 11.Check deflection
 Estimate the percentage of steel required in slab for
bending (generally will be lightly reinforced, i.e.  <
0.5%)
 Calculate the span/depth ratio using;
Design service stress, σs = 310/500 x fyk x Asreq/Asprov
= 5/8 x fyk x Asreq/Asprov
= 5/8 x 500 x 588/646
= 284.4 N/mm²
Modification factor = 310/ σs
= 310/284.4
= 1.1
ρ = Asreq/bd
= 588/1000 x 185
= 0.0032 < ρo = √fck x 10-³
= 0.0032 < ρo = √25 x 10-³
Use equation (7.16a) to calculate the basic span/effective
depth ratio
K = 1.3 from Table NA-5 for end span of continuous slab
= 1.5 for interior span
= 1.0 for simply supported

l/d = 29.45

Allowable span/effective depth ratio = basic x modification factor

= 29.45 x 1.1
= 32.4
Actual deflection = l/d
= 4500/185
= 24 < 32.4

Therefore the deflection OK. The proposed slab thickness (220 mm

thick) is sufficient.
STAIRCASE
 Staircase Design
Stairs can be classified into two types:
• Spanning horizontally in the transverse direction
• Spanning longitudinally

Spanning horizontally in the transverse direction

• Supported on both sides or cantilevered from a supporting wall
Example

The stairs spanning longitudinally and supported by two supporting

beams. The effective span is 3m and the rise of the stairs is 1.5m

with 260mm treads and 150mm risers. The variable load is 3.0 KN/m²

and the characteristic material strengths are fck = 30N/mm² and

fyk = 500 N/mm². the thickness of waist is 140mm. The effective depth,

d = 115mm.Calculate the area of steel and sketch the detailing.

SOLUTION
Slope length of stairs = √(3² + 5²) = 3.35 m
Consider 1 m width of stairs:
Weight of waist plus steps = (0.14 x 3.35 + 0.26 x 1.5/2) 25
= 16.6 KN
Variable load = 3 x 3 = 9 KN
Ultimate load, F = 1.35 x 16.6 + 1.5 x 9 = 35.91 KN
Assume no effective end restraint,
M = FL/8 = 35.91 x 3/8 = 13.46 KNm
Bending reinforcement
M/bd²fck = 13.46/(1000 x 115² x 30) = 0.034
Z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 – K/1.134)] not more than 0.95d
As = M/0.87fykZ = 13.46 x 10³ x 10³/(0.87 x 500 x 0.95 x 115)
= 283 mm²/m
Maximum allowable spacing is 3h = 3 x 140 = 420 mm with upper limit
of 400 mm.
Provide H12 at 300 mm centres, As = 377 mm²/m

Span effective depth ratio

At centre of the span
100 Asprovided/bd = 100 x 377/(1000 x 115) = 0.33 > 0.15
Limiting span-effective depth ratio for a simply supported span with
ρreq = 0.5% is 20

Allowable deflection = 20 x Asprov/Asreq = 20 x 377/288 = 26.6

Actual deflection = 3000/115 = 26.09
Allowable > actual . Therefore the slab thickness is sufficient.
Secondary reinforcement

As > 0.2 Asmin = 0.2 x 377 = 75.4 mm²/m

Provide H10 at 400 mm centres, As = 174 mm²/m

BEAM
Rectangular and section analysis in bending and shear
 Introduction to Simple R.C. Beam Design
Here are some examples of Reinforced Concrete beams
that you may find in practice

Note: T and L is more economical since the

concrete below the dotted line (neutral axis)
which serves only to contain the
reinforcements, is removed resulting in a
reduced weight of the beam
Any of the previous arrangements can be employed in conditions
where the beam is simply supported or where it is continuous over
the supports.
 Beam Design In Bending

• Ultimately beams may fail due to excessive Bending or Shear.

Excessive deflection will also result in the serviceability being
impaired. Generally structural design will consider each of
these aspects
• Bending and shear are ultimate states while the deflection is
serviceability state.
• Therefore design of concrete beam involves consideration of

 Bending

 Shear

 Deflection
 K’= 0.167

Singly
reinforced
section
How to transfer load from slab to
beam?
Assumption Loading from Slab

 Loading acting on a beam can be contributed by

loading from the supported slabs, supported
secondary beams, brickwall, and other structure
elements such as staircase, roof truss etc.
 Load distribution from the slab to beam always depends
on the geometry of slabs, type of supports condition and
continuity of the slabs.
Assumption Loading from Slab (cont)
 For rectangular slabs that supported in 4-sides, the following
method can be used:
 0ne-way slab (Ly/Lx > 2.0)

where n = uniform distributed load on slab (kN/m2)

ECS 478 – Chapter 2 :
Continuous Beam Design & Detailing – continuous beam design

Assumption Loading from Slab (cont)

 For rectangular slabs that supported in 4-sides, the following
method can be used:
 Two-way slab (Ly/Lx < 2.0)

where n = uniform distributed load on slab (kN/m2)

Design Procedure for a rectangular beam :
Shear Reinforcement (Cl. 6.2)
Shear Reinforcement (Cl. 6.2)
Detailing
Example
A 6 m span simply supported beam carries a permanent
load gk = 60 kN/m and variable load qk = 18 kN/m.
Determine reinforcement requirements.
Take:
fyk = 500 N/mm2, fck = 30 N/mm2, d = 540 mm and
b = 300 mm
 Design loading and maximum moment
Ultimate design load wu
= 1.35 gk + 1.50 qk
= (1.35 x 60) + (1.50 x 18)
= 108 kN/m

ME,d = wul2/8
= 486 kNm
Reinforcement
K = M/(bd2fck)
= 486 x 106/(300 x 5402 x 30)
= 0.185 > K' = 0.167
Design as DRB
Take d' = 50 mm
d‘/d = 50/540 = 0.092 < 0.171
Therefore, fsc = 0.87 fy
Compression steel,
A’s = (K – K’)fckbd2/fsc(d-d’)
= (0.185-0.167)x30x300x5402/(0.87x500x(540-50))
= 222 mm2

Provide 2 H16 bars (A’s = 402 mm2)

Tension steel:
As = (0.167 fck bd2/0.87fyk z) + A’s
= [(0.167x30x300x5402)/(0.87x500x(0.82x540)] + 222

= 2497 mm2

Provide 2 H32 bars and 2 H25 bars (As = 2592 mm2)

Check: 100 As/bd = 1.6 > 0.15

 Check maximum shear at face of support
Maximum design shear
= wu x effective span/2
= 108 x 6.0/2
= 324 kN
Design shear at face of support, VEd
= 324 – 108 x 0.15 (half bearing length)
= 308 kN
Example (Shear design)

Previous beam (wu = 108kN/m)

Take:
fyk = 500 N/mm2,
fck = 30 N/mm2,
d = 540 mm and b = 300 mm
 Check maximum shear at face of support
Maximum design shear
= wu x effective span/2
= 108 x 6.0/2
= 324 kN
Design shear at face of support, VEd
= 324 – 108 x 0.15 (half bearing length)
= 308 kN
Crushing strength, VRd,max of diagonal strut, assuming
 = 22o, cot  = 2.5, is

VRd,max = 0.124 bwd(1-fck/250)fck

= 0.124 x 300 x 540 (1-30/250) x 30

= 530 kN (>308 kN)

Therefore  = 22o and cot  = 2.5 assumed

Shear links
Distance d from face of support,
VEd = 308 – 108 x 0.54 = 250 kN

Asw/s = VEd/(0.78 d fyk cot)

= 250/(0.78 x 540 x 500 x 2.5)

= 0.475

Provide 8 mm links at 200 mm centres (Asw/s = 0.503)

 Minimum links
Asw,min/s = 0.08fck0.5bw/fyk
= (0.08 x 300.5 x 300)/500
= 0.26

Provide 8 mm links at 350 mm centres (Asw/s = 0.287)

Shear resistance of links specified is:

Vmin = (Asw/s) x 0.78 d fyk cot
= 0.287 x 0.78 x 540 x 500 x 2.5
= 151 kN
 Deflection
• The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms
of its deflection from its original unloaded position

Main Factors:
Concrete tensile strength
Creep
Elastic modulus
 Deflection
• Deflection is estimated using span/depth ratio
• To determine the basic design of l/d ;

ρ = As1/bd

ρ’ = As2/bd

• To calculate specific limits on span/effective depth ratio the following

equations are given in EC2, with K taken from Table NA.5
• Table NA.5 provides basic l/d for common reinforced
concrte members and support condition

Note;
This table
assume steel
stress at critical
section
s = 310 Nmm2
COLUMN
Parameters Governing Column Design
• Bracing
If the column can sway, additional moments are generated.
This does not affect the braced column
• Slenderness ratio, 
The effective length divided by the lateral dimension of column
 = lo/i is low, indicate crushing failure
 = lo/i is high denote buckling

 A braced column – the lateral loads are resisted by walls or

some other form of bracing.
 Unbraced column - where the lateral loads are resisted by the
bending action of the columns. Axial loads also taken by the
column
Slenderness ratio- (Clause 5.8.3.2, EC2)

In EC2, the slenderness ratio, λ, is defined as:

Note :: In BS8110, slenderness ratio is based on the section depth (b or h)

and not its radius of gyration.
Effective length of columns partially restrained at
both ends (based on Fig. 5.7f, EC2)
Effective height lo of a column

EC2 suggests that the effective length of a braced member (lo) can vary
between half
and the full height of the member depending on the degree of rotational restraint
at Note :Column height can be found by
column ends. doing interpolation from table 9.1
(Reinforced concrete design – 255)
l/2 < lo < l

The actual value of effective length can be estimated using the following
expression
• In which,
Radius of gyration (i)

• Radius of gyration is defined by:

• where

• I moment of inertia of the uncracked concrete section

• A area of the uncracked concrete section
Threshold slenderness ratio, λlim

• Is a key element of the design procedure as it provides a

simple and convenient way of determining when to take
account of first order effects and,
• when to include second order effects.
• Given by:
• Where,
 Slenderness of columns
20
.A
.B
.C
lo lo λ 
lim
λ  n
i I/A c
i = radius of gyration about the axis considered
I = second moment of area of the section about the axis
Ac = cross-sectional area of column

Effective length, lo

fixed / fixed l o  0 .75 l

pinned / fixed l o  0 .9 l
partially fixed / fixed l o  0 .8 l
pinned / partially fixed l  0 .95 l
partially fixed / partially fixed l o  0 .85 l
pinned / pinned lo  l rm = 1 rm = 0 rm = -1
C = 0.7 C = 1.7 C = 2.7
If λ < λlim
Column is not slender and second-order moments can be ignored
Reinforcement Details
1. Longitudinal steel
- A min four (4) bars is required in a rectangular column and six (6)
in a circular column
12mm dia. Minimum

4 6

- The size of bars should not be less than 12mm

- The minimum area of steel is given by
• The maximum area of steel, at laps is given by

• Where As is the total area of longitudinal steel and Ac is

the cross-sectional area of the column.
Otherwise, in regions away from laps:
PAD FOOTING
 Categories of Foundation
1. Isolated bases for individual columns
2. Combined bases for several columns
3. Rafts for whole buildings which may incorporate
basements

Types :
• Strip Foundation
• Isolated or Pad Foundation
• Raft Foundation
• Piled Foundation
 Typical Subsoil Bearing Capacity

Type Bearing capacity (kN/m2)

Rocks, granite and chalks 600 – 10,000
Non-cohesive soils,
compact sands, loose 100 – 600
uniform sands <600
Cohesive soils, hard
clays and silts
To be determined by
Peat and made ground investigation

Subsoil are the soils below the topsoil, The topsoil being about 300mm deep
 Choice of Foundation Type
For small type of buildings, foundation depends on two factors:-

 The total loads of the building -refer to BS648

• Roof material dead load on the wall

• Floor material dead load on the wall, plus an imposed loading

allowance of people and furniture

• Wall load on the foundations

• Total load on the foundations

 The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil

• Trial holes and subsequent investigation

• Bore holes and core analysis

• Local knowledge
 Loading effect
• The loading effects which occur in foundations are generally one or

more of the following:

 Horizontal forces due to lateral loading such as wind on the

supported structure or friction between the underside of the base

and the ground – horizontal forced are not usually of sufficient
magnitude to affect the size of foundations.

 Vertical forces due to columns and or walls and the bearing

pressure from the ground underneath

 Moments due to loading from columns and/or walls etc which are

eccentric to centroid of the base.

 Design of Pad Footing
- Pad footing can be designed as square footing but where there is a large
moment acting on one axis it may be more economical to have a
rectangular base
- Assuming there is linear distribution under the foundations due to bearing
pressure, it will take three forms:
1. Uniform pressure (no moment) : e=0 – compression throughout ; The
under pressure base, P is given by :

N
P = Applied Load
Base area
B = N/BD

P P D
 2. Varying pressure (compression throughout)

• When a foundation is subject to an eccentric load or a central load combined

with a moment M acting as shown, the pressure are given by the axial and
bending.

e<D/6
M=Nxe
P = N/BD ± 6M/BD²
e

P2 P2
P1 P1
 3. Varying pressure (compression over part of the base)
• When the eccentricity is > D/6, there is only a part of the positive
compressive pressure along D,

M=Nxe
e

M e>D/6

P = 2N
3B D -e
2
P1 P1

Y= 3 D -e
The centroid of the pressure y
2
diagram must coincide with e
Middle third rule: If the eccentricity e of the load lies within the middle third
of the base length, then there will be no tension under the base.
 Design Procedure for Pad Footing
1.Size of pad footing

(i) Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing
pressure and the critical loading arrangement for serviceability limit
state.
N = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk
Area of pad footing = N
Permissible bearing pressure

(i) Calculate the bearing pressure associated with the critical loading
arrangement at the ultimate limit state.
N = 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
Earth pressure = N
Area of pad footing
2.Bending
- The critical section of an isolated pad footing due to
moment is at the face of column or wall
- The reinforcement calculation same as beam

Critical section
for bending
3. Reinforcement area

(i) MRd = 0.167fckbd2 > MEd

(i) As = MEd / 0.87fykz

(ii) As min

(iii) Max spacing and max bar size base on the stress level, fs.
4. Shear

EC 2 requirements must check the pad will not fail due to face,
transverse or punching shear.

a) Face shear (EC2-6.4.5)

• Ultimate shear stress ≤ Max allowable shear resistance

where
Fcd= ccfck/c
Where; VEd applied shear force
Uo is the perimeter of the column
b) Transverse/maximum shear (vertical shear)[clause 6.4.4]
• Critical section for vertical shear is at 1.0d from the column
surface.
• Design shear force, VEd ≤ Design shear resistance, VRd,c
where


VRd ,c  0.12 k (100  t f ck )1/ 3  2d / a  vmin x 2d / a

As
k  1
200
 2.0 t   0.02 1.0d
d bw d

where vmin  0.035k 3/ 2 f ck1/ 2

a is the distance from the periphery

of the column to the control
perimeter considered
c) Vertical shear

Max. shear

h d

Direct shear

1.0d

B
2.0d
punching shear
bending
perimeter = column
perimeter +4d
D
d) Punching shear
• No punching shear reinforcement is required if the applied
shear stress, ѵEd < design punching shear resistance of
concrete, ѵRd.
• Critical perimeter for punching shear is at 2.0d
• ѵEd = VEd
u1 d

where; VEd = earth pressure x critical area

u1 = critical perimeter = column perimeter + 4d
Example

The footing as shown is required to resist characteristic axial loads of

1000 KN permanent and 350 KN variable from a 400 mm square
column. The safe bearing pressure on the soil is 200 KN/m² and the
characteristic material strengths are fck = 30 N/mm² and fyk = 500
N/mm². Assuming a footing weight of 150 KN so that the total
permanent load is 1150 KN.
Solution

1. Serviceability limit state.

Total design axial load = 1.0gk + 1.0qk
= 1150 + 350
= 1500 KN
Required base area = 1500/200 = 7.5 m²
Provide a base area = √7.5 = 2.8 m x 2.8 m
2. Ultimate limit state
Column design axial load, NEd = 1.35gk + 1.5qk
= 1.35 x 1000 + 1.5 x 350
= 1875 KN
Earth pressure = 1875/2.8²
= 239 KN/m²
3. Assume a 600 mm thick footing and with the footing constructed on a
blinding layer of concrete the minimum cover is taken as 50 mm. The
effective depth, d = 600 – 50 – 30 = 520 mm
At the column face, maximum shear resistance,VRd,max
= 0.5ud [0.6 (1 – fck/250) ] fck/1.5
= 0.5 (4 x 400) x 520 [0.6 (1 – 30/250) ] 30/1.5 x 10-³
= 4393 KN > NEd = 1875 KN

4. Punching shear
The critical section for checking punching shear is at a distance 2d from
column face.
Critical perimeter = column perimeter + 4πd
= 4 x 400 + 4π x 520
= 8134 mm
Area within perimeter = (400 + 4d)² - (4 – π)(2.0d)²
= (400 + 2080)² - (4 – π)(1040)²
= 5.22 x 10⁶ mm²
Therefore
Punching shear force, VEd = 239(2.8² - 5.22) = 626 KN
Punching shear stress vEd = VEd/(perimeter x d)
= 626 x 1000/(8134 x 520)
= 0.15 N/mm² < 0.4 N/mm²
Therefore the 600 mm thick footing is sufficient.
5. Bending reinforcement
At the column face which is the critical section
MEd = (239 x 2.8 x 1.2) x 1.2/2 = 482 KNm
2.8/2 – 0.4/2 = 1.2
For the concrete
Mbal = 0.167fckbd²
= 0.167 x 30 x 2800 x 520² x 10-⁶
= 3793 KNm > 482 KNm or K = M/bd²fck
As = M/0.87fykZ
= 482 x 10⁶/0.87 x 500 x 0.95 x 520
= 2243 mm²
provide 12H16 bars at 225 mm centres, As = 2412 mm²
100As/bd = 100 x 2412/2800 x 520 = 0.165 > 0.15 table 6.8, therefore
the minimum steel is satisfied.
6. Final check of punching shear
The shear resistance of the concrete without shear reinforcement can
be obtained from table 8.2 where
ρ1 = = As/bd = 2412/2800 x 520 = 0.0017 (= 0.17% < 2%)
Hence from table 8.2, vRd,c = 0.4 N/mm²
Therefore the shear resistance of the concrete, VRd,c given by:
VRd,c = vRdc ud = 0.4 x 8134 x 520 x 10-³ = 1691 KN > VEd = 626 KN
7. Maximum shear force
At critical section for shear, 1.0d from column face:
Design shear VEd = 239 x 2.8 x 0.68
= 455 KN
vRd,c = 0.4 N/mm² , therefore VRd,c = vRdc bd = 0.4 x 2800 x 520 x 10-³
= 582 KN > VEd = 455 KN
Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.
PILE CAP
PILE CAP (CL 9.8.1)
Introduction

A pile cap is defined as a

concrete block cast on
the head of a pile, or a
group of piles, to
transmit the load from
the structure to the pile
or group of piles.
 Sizing of the pile cap

Spacing of the piles in the pile group

Pile Type Spacing between piles centre to centre

Not less than the perimeter of the pile. This is

Friction
taken as three times the diameter of the piles. The
Piles minimum spacing is 1000 mm.

End
Not less than twice the least width of the pile. The
Bearing minimum spacing is 750 mm.
Piles
Arrangement of the pile in pile caps
 No. of piles
No. of piles use in a pile cap depending on the
capacity of the pile (or working load per pile).

No. of pile = Axial load (SLS)

capacity of one pile

Ultimate limit state (ULS) = 1.35gk + 1.5qk

Service limit state (SLS) = gk + qk or ULS/(1.35 + 1.5)/2
= gk + qk (ULS/1.425)
 Pile

Spacing of pile

Extension of pile caps

150 mm
COLUMN

Thickness of pile caps

= 2Øpile + 100

Pile insert into pile cap about

75mm
 Shear
1. The shear capacity of a pile cap should be checked at the critical section.
Hence, in determining the shear resistance, shear enhancement may be
considered such that the shear force, Ved, may be decreased by av/2d.


VRd ,c  0.12 k (100 t f ck )1/ 3 bw d 
A
Where

k 
1
200
2
.0 and 
t  s
0
.02
d bw d
2. Where the spacing of the piles exceeds three times the pile diameter then
the pile cap should be checked for punching shear.

3. The shear force at the column face should be checked to ensure that it is
less than the max shear resistance;
f   f ck 
VRd m ax  0.5 1  ck ud where  1  0.61  
 1.5   250 
and u is the perimeter of the column.
RETAINING WALL