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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2004, 39, 223–229 223

Chemical composition, functional properties and baking


potential of African breadfruit kernel and wheat flour
blends

Peter I. Akubor1* & Gabriel I. O. Badifu2


1 Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal Polytechnic, P.M.B 1037, Idah, Kogi State, Nigeria
2 Department of Food Science and technology, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
(Received 8 August 2000; Accepted in revised form 14 March 2003)

Summary The chemical composition and functional properties of African breadfruit kernel flour
(ABKF), wheat flour (WF) and their blends were determined. Cookies prepared from the
blends were evaluated for their protein contents, physical and sensory characteristics. The
flour blends had higher protein, fat and ash contents than WF. The level of these nutrients
improved with increased amounts of ABKF in the blends. Foaming, water and oil
absorption capacities of the flour blends increased, while the foam stability decreased with
increased level of ABKF. The protein contents of the composite flour cookies were higher
than that of the all WF cookie. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the
flavour of the composite flour cookies and that of all WF cookies. However, sensory scores
differed significantly (P < 0.05) amongst them for colour, texture and overall
acceptability.
Keywords Cookies, flour blends, foaming capacity, foaming stability, oil absorption capacity, water absorption
capacity.

The dehulled seeds are used as traditional food


Introduction
and food ingredients (Ariahu et al., 1999b; Badifu
African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne) is a & Akubor, 2001; Iwe & Ngoddy, 2001). However,
member of the Moracea family, which includes there is a need to diversify the use of the seeds by
the Polynesian breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis). developing non-traditional foods. This would
While the Polynesian breadfruit is seedless, the enhance their wider utilization. The production
African breadfruit is widely grown in southern of wheat, which is the major ingredient for making
Nigeria for its seeds. The whole plant is known by cookies, bread and bakery products in the tropics
various tribal names such as ÔUkwaÕ (Ibo), ÔAfonÕ is insufficient and substantial quantities must be
(Yoryba), ÔIzeÕ (Edo), ÔEyoÕ (Igala) and ÔEdikangÕ imported at a high cost. African breadfruit flour
(Efik). The seeds contain 17–23% crude protein alone would not produce good quality biscuits
and 11% crude fat in addition to essential (Akubor et al., 2000).
vitamins and minerals (Edet et al., 1985; Ekpen- The enrichment of cereal-based foods with
young, 1985; Nwokolo, 1985, 1996; Akubor, 1997; oilseed protein has received considerable atten-
Ariahu et al., 1999a; Akubor et al., 2000). The tion. High protein cookies have been prepared
biological quality and safety of the seeds have from such composite flours as wheat flour (WF)
been reported previously (Uzogara et al., 1987; fortified with soyflour (Tsen et al., 1973), cotton-
Nwokolo, 1996). seed flour (Fugy & Tunklun, 1972), sesame seed
flour (Hoojsat & Zabik, 1984) and pigeon pea
flour (Harinder et al., 1999). African breadfruit
*Correspondent kernel flour (ABKF) has not been used in this

 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd


224 African breadfruit kernel in wheat cookies P. I. Akubor and G. I. O. Badifu

way. The nutritional quality of African breadfruit of the flour samples were determined by the
kernel and WF blends appears promising because AOAC (1984) methods. The total carbohydrate
of the complementarity of their proteins (Akubor was calculated by difference as 100 – (%mois-
et al., 2000). However, the effects of such blends ture + %ash + %crude fat + %crude protein).
on the structure, texture, flavour and colour of a The caloric value was calculated using the Atwater
formulated food product needed to be tested. In factor (4 · protein, 9 · fat and 4 · carbohydrate).
this study, blends of African breadfruit and WF
were formulated. The blends were evaluated for
Functional properties
their chemical and functional properties as well as
their performance in cookies. The objectives were Water and oil absorption capacities
to improve the nutritional quality of WF and to Water and oil absorption capacities were deter-
diversify the use of African breadfruit seeds. mined as described by Sosulski et al. (1976). A
gram of flour sample was mixed with 10 mL of
distilled water or oil in a centrifuge tube and
Materials and methods
allowed to stand at 30 ± 2 C for 1 h. Thereafter,
it was centrifuged (200 g, 30 min). Water or oil
Materials
absorption capacity was expressed as per cent
Commercial WF (plain) and African breadfruit water or oil absorbed by 1 g flour.
seeds were purchased from a local market in
Nsukka town, Enugu State, Nigeria. Reagent grade Foaming capacity and foam stability
chemicals were used unless otherwise mentioned. The foaming capacity (FC) and foam stability
(FS) were determined by the method of Narayana
& Narasinga Rao (1982). Two grams of flour
African breadfruit kernel flour
sample were added to 50 mL distilled water at
The fresh African breadfruit seeds (as purchased, 30 ± 2 C in a measuring cylinder. The suspen-
30%, moisture) were washed in a basin of tap sion was mixed and properly shaken to foam, and
water and parboiled (100 C, 15 min) in a stainless the volume of the foam after 30 s was recorded.
aluminum pot with a lid. The boiling time was The FC was expressed as a percentage increase in
taken from the moment the water started to boil. volume. The foam volume was recorded 1 h after
Boiled seeds were drained in a basket within whipping to determine the FS as a percentage of
5 min. Thereafter, the seeds were dehulled manu- the initial foam volume.
ally and the kernels sun-dried (30 ± 2 C). The
dried kernels were milled to pass through a 40 mm Bulk density
mesh (British Standard) in an attrition type mill The bulk density was determined as outlined by
(Asiko All, Ibadan, Nigeria). Okaka & Potter (1979). A 50 g flour sample was
put into a 100 mL measuring cylinder. The cylin-
der was tapped several times on a laboratory
Blend formulation
bench to a constant volume. The bulk density
The blends (WF : ABKF, 100 : 0, 0 : 100, 95 : 5, (g cm)3) was calculated as weight of flour (g)
90 : 10, 85 : 15, 80 : 20, 75 : 25, 70 : 30) were divided by flour volume (cm3).
mixed in a Kenwood food processor (Model KM
201; Kenwood Ltd, Hampshire, UK) at full speed
Product development and evaluation
for 5 min. They were then packed in polyethylene
bags, heat-sealed and stored in a freezer (0–5 C) Preparation of cookies
until required. Cookies were prepared according to the formula
of Nishibori & Kawakishi (1990), with slight
modifications. Sucrose and margarine were used
Chemical analysis
in place of glucose and butter in the original for-
The crude protein (N · 6.25), crude fat (Solvent mula (Akpapunam & Darbe, 1994). The basic for-
extraction), crude fibre, ash and moisture content mulation used was 49.5% flour, 20% margarine,

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2004, 39, 223–229  2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
African breadfruit kernel in wheat cookies P. I. Akubor and G. I. O. Badifu 225

10% beaten whole egg, 20% sucrose and 0.5% evaluation laboratory. The judges were asked to
baking powder. The amounts of ABKF which rinse their mouths with distilled water between
replaced WF were 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%. The samples.
choice of these levels was based on the report of
Dreuiter, (1978) that the maximum level of WF
Statistical analysis
wheat substitution that would produce an accept-
able baked product was 30%. The dry ingredients Data were subjected to statistical analysis of
were weighed and mixed thoroughly. Margarine variance. Significant of mean differences were
was added and rubbed-in until uniform. The egg determined by the least significant difference
was added and dough thoroughly kneaded on a (LSD) test (Snedecor & Cochran, 1980). Mean
flat clean stainless metal table for 5 min. The WF values were accepted at P < 0.05.
and ABKF blends gave cohesive and extensive
dough while the ABKF dough was brittle. The
Results and discussion
dough was rolled thinly on a sheeting board to a
uniform thickness (8.0 mm) and cut out using a
Chemical composition
round scorn cutter to a diameter of 35.0 mm. The
cut out dough pieces were baked on greased pans The chemical composition of WF, ABKF and
at 160 C for 15 min in air oven (F1 Foem, Model their blends are shown in Table 1. The ABKF
4BF; APV-Schroder, Lubeck, Germany), cooled contained higher amounts of protein, fat, crude
at room temperature (30 ± 2 C) and packed in fibre and ash than the WF. Combination of the
high density polyethylene bags. Eight cookies were two flours at various levels significantly increased
baked for each treatment. (P < 0.05) the nutrient contents of the blends
when compared with the WF. The protein, fat, ash
Chemical and physical examination of cookies and crude fibre contents of the blends increased
The crude protein (N · 6.25) content of the with increase in the level of ABKF. This was
cookies was determined by the micro-Kjeldahl probably because of an addition effect, as ABKF
method (AOAC, 1984). Cookie diameters and is higher in these nutrients than WF. However, the
heights were measured with a vernier caliper. moisture and carbohydrate contents decreased as
Weights were determined using a Mettler digital the substitution level of WF increased. The WF
top loading balance (PC 400; Mettler, Buchi contained 10% moisture and 76.45% carbohy-
Switzerland). Biscuit densities were calculated as drate while ABKF contained 8.2% moisture and
biscuit weight/biscuit volume. Biscuit volume was 60.24% carbohydrate. Both WF (372.90 kcal/
determined by the volume of water it displaced 100 g) and ABKF (408.20 kcal/100 g) contained
(Oje & Ugbor, 1991). Measurements were made adequate amounts of energy, which are within the
on eight replicates and mean values were recommended daily dietary allowance of the USA
reported. (UNECA, 1985). The energy value of the blends
increased with the amount of ABKF. This was
Sensory evaluation of cookies probably because of the higher fat content of
Cookie samples, including the control (WF) that ABKF compared to the WF. Energy value of a
had been stored for 24 h in high-density polyethy- food is much more related to the fat content
lene bag at room temperature (30 ± 2 C) were (Ihekoronye & Ngoddy, 1985). The blends had a
evaluated for colour, flavour, texture (hardness) mean caloric value of 377.13 kcal/100 g.
and overall acceptability according to a preference
method (Ihekoronye & Ngoddy, 1985). Ten
Functional properties
(trained) judges participated in the sensory evalua-
tion of the cookies on a 5-point hedonic scale Table 2 shows some of the functional properties of
where 5 ¼ liked extremely and 1 ¼ disliked WF, ABKF and their blends. The bulk density of
extremely. The coded cookie samples were rand- WF and ABKF were 0.71 and 0.54 g cm)3,
omized and presented to the judges in the mid- respectively, and varied from 0.60 to 0.68 g cm)3
morning in white plates in a fluorescent-lit sensory for the blends. The water and oil absorption

 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2004, 39, 223–229
226 African breadfruit kernel in wheat cookies P. I. Akubor and G. I. O. Badifu

Table 1 Chemical composition of wheat flour (WF), African breadfruit kernel flour (ABKF) and their blends

Sample Crude fibre Moisture Total carbohydrate Caloric value


WF : ABKF Protein (%) Crude fat (%) Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) kcal/100 g

100 : 0 9.8 ± 0.35c 3.1 ± 0.04d 0.65 ± 0.01c 0.30 ± 0.10cd 10.0 ± 0.01a 76.45 ± 0.30a 372.90 ± 0.69g
0 : 100 17.06 ± 0.49a 11.0 ± 0.09a 3.50 ± 0.04a 2.50 ± 0.3a 8.20 ± 0.04c 60.24 ± 0.08c 408.20 ± 0.66a
95 : 5 10.15 ± 0.08bc 3.5 ± 0.34d 0.79 ± 0.36c 0.40 ± 0.01cd 10.46 ± 0.81a 75.09 ± 0.40a 372.55 ± 0.82g
90 : 10 10.51 ± 0.04b 3.88 ± 0.83d 0.92 ± 0.72c 0.52 ± 0.02cd 10.36 ± 0.41a 74.33 ± 0.35b 374.28 ± 1.22f
85 : 15 10.88 ± 0.64b 4.30 ± 0.14c 1.05 ± 0.31b 0.62 ± 0.04c 10.23 ± 0.80a 73.54 ± 0.84b 376.38 ± 1.62c
80 : 20 11.26 ± 0.71b 4.62 ± 0.29c 1.21 ± 0.44b 0.74 ± 0.10c 10.13 ± 0.04a 72.78 ± 0.03b 377.74 ± 1.03d
75 : 25 11.60 ± 0.01b 5.06 ± 0.41b 1.53 ± 0.68b 0.84 ± 0.20b 10.00 ± 0.35a 71.99 ± 0.39b 379.99 ± 0.81c
70 : 30 11.98 ± 0.02b 5.46 ± 0.01b 1.50 ± 0.10b 0.95 ± 0.40b 9.87 ± 0.91b 71.19 ± 0.13b 381.82 ± 0.16b

Mean ± SD of three replicates. Mean values within a column with the same superscript were not significantly different (P > 0.05).

Table 2 Some functional properties


Sample Bulk density Foaming Foaming Water absorption Oil absorption of wheat flour (WF), African
WF : ABKF (g cm)3) capacity (%) stability (%) capacity (%) capacity (%) breadfruit kernel flour (ABKF)
and their blends
95 : 5 0.63 ± 0.04c 10.0 ± 0.0g 50.0 ± 0.0c 56.0 ± 0.0h 89.0 ± 0.0h
90 : 10 0.68 ± 0.01c 14.0 ± 0.1f 43.0 ± 0.1d 63.0 ± 0.0g 92.0 ± 0.1f
85 : 15 0.60 ± 0.09c 16.0 ± 0.0e 38.0 ± 0.2f 80.0 ± 0.1f 96.0 ± 0.1e
80 : 20 0.66 ± 0.1c 18.0 ± 0.1d 29.0 ± 0.1g 80.0 ± 0.1c 99.0 ± 0.4d
75 : 25 0.63 ± 0.08c 20.0 ± 0.9c 40.0 ± 0.1e 81.0 ± 0.1c 106.0 ± 0.0c
70 : 30 0.60 ± 0.01c 22.0 ± 0.1b 40.0 ± 0.6e 84.0 ± 0.1b 107.0 ± 0.0b
100 : 0 0.71 ± 0.01a 40.0 ± 0.0a 60.0 ± 0.0b 76.0 ± 0.0e 90.0 ± 0.2g
0 : 100 0.54 ± 0.02b 20.0 ± 0.0c 80.0 ± 0.1a 178.5 ± 0.0a 114.0 ± 0.1a

Mean ± SD of three replicates. Mean values within a column with the same superscript
were not significantly different (P > 0.05).

capacities of ABKF were higher than those of ABKF, the FC was not affected by the level of fat.
WF. These properties increased in the blends with This may be related to the higher proportion of
increase in the levels of ABKF. The high water the non-polar lipids in ABKF than the polar lipids
and oil absorption capacities of the blends com- (Nwokolo, 1985). FC is dependent not only on the
pared to WF, suggested the presence of high amount but also the type of lipid (Kinsella, 1976),
amounts of apolar amino acids and hydrophilic as well as other factors (Badifu & Akubor, 2001).
carbohydrates in the flour blends (Shanmugasun-
daram & Venketaraman, 1989). The level of
Protein content and physical characteristics
ABKF protein also appeared to have a positive
of cookies
influence on the water and oil absorption capa-
cities of the blends. The mechanism of fat The protein content and physical characteristics of
absorption is attributed mainly to the physical cookies prepared from WF, ABKF and their
entrapment of oil and the binding of fats to the blends are shown in Table 3. The ABKF cookies
apolar chain of the protein (Kinsella, 1976). FC of had the highest protein content (18.30%) com-
WF (40%) was higher than that of the ABKF pared to 11.06% for the WF cookie. The protein
(20%) probably because of the higher fat content content of the cookies from the blends decreased
of ABKF. Lipids are well known foam depressants with increase in WF in the blends, varying from
(Poole, 1989). FC of the blends ranged between 10 11.41 to 13.24%. The cookies are thus good
and 22%. This was dependent on the ABKF sources of protein. The protein quality should also
concentration, increasing as the level of ABKF be better than the protein of the WF cookies
increased in the blends. Although the fat content because of the expected complementation between
of the blends increased slightly with increases in the protein of WF and ABKF (UNECA, 1985). At

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2004, 39, 223–229  2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
African breadfruit kernel in wheat cookies P. I. Akubor and G. I. O. Badifu 227

Table 3 Protein content and phys-


ical characteristics of cookies from Cookies Protein Diameter Height Weight Density
wheat flour (WF), African bread- WF : ABKF (%) (mm) (mm) (g) (g cm)3)
fruit kernel flour (ABKF) and their
95 : 5 11.41 ± 0.04g 38.3 ± 0.01a 13.7 ± 0.1a 11.69 ± 0.90a 0.58b
blends
90 : 10 11.77 ± 0.10f 37.3 ± 0.0a 13.7 ± 0.1a 12.30 ± 0.46a 0.62b
85 : 15 12.14 ± 0.09e 37.7 ± 0.2a 13.3 ± 0.1a 11.66 ± 1.06a 0.58b
80 : 20 12.52 ± 0.09d 38.0 ± 0.1a 13.0 ± 0.0a 12.10 ± 0.18a 0.61b
75 : 25 12.85 ± 0.05c 38.0 ± 0.1a 13.3 ± 0.1a 12.25 ± 0.20a 0.61b
70 : 30 13.24 ± 0.31b 38.0 ± 0.1a 13.3 ± 0.1a 12.32 ± 0.02a 0.62b
100 : 0 11.06 ± 0.20g 37.7 ± 0.2a 13.7 ± 0.1a 12.29 ± 0.11a 0.61b
0 : 100 18.32 ± 0.01a 37.7 ± 0.2a 7.3 ± 0.0b 13.16 ± 0.44a 0.88a
Least significant 0.31 0.12 0.12 0.90 0.15
difference

Mean ± SD of eight replicates. Mean values with the same superscripts within a column
are not significantly different (P > 0.05).

all the levels of WF substitution, cookies showed retained and thus, the dough collapsed. Gas
no significant differences (P > 0.05) in weight, retention is the property of the WF protein
diameter and height in relation to the control (WF (gluten), which must be extensible to allow the
cookie). The average weight of the cookies from dough to rise and be strong enough to prevent easy
the blends was 12.05 g as compared to 12.29 g from escape of the gas as this would lead to collapse of
the WF cookie. Similarly, the diameter and height the dough. The density of the all ABKF cookies
of the cookies from the flour blends varied from differed significantly (P < 0.05) from those of the
37.3 to 38.3 and 13.0 to 13.7 mm, respectively. The cookies prepared from WF and ABKF/WF blends.
observed similarity in spread and height for cook- The densities of the ABKF/WF cookies varied
ies from WF and flour blends is consistent with the between 0.58 and 0.62 g cm)3 and were compar-
similar functional properties exhibited by the able with 0.61 g cm)3 for the 100% WF cookie.
flours. It has been suggested that the cookies Cookie density is related to textural attributes like
spread is affected by the competition of ingredients hardness and openness. The 100% ABKF cookie
for available water (Fuhr, 1962). Flour or any with the highest density was considered too hard.
other ingredients, which absorbs water during
dough mixing, will reduce it. However, the results
Sensory properties
obtained in this study showed that ABKF, with the
highest water absorption capacity, had similar Table 4 shows that the cookie prepared from
spread when compared with the cookies from other 100% ABKF was rated lowest for all the sensory
flour blends. It appears that other functional attributes evaluated. The cookie was darker,
properties of the protein may also affect spread. firmer and had the characteristic flavour of Afri-
The 100% ABKF cookie had a slightly heavier can breadfruit seed, which is detested. The WF
weight (13.16 g), though not significantly different based cookie supplemented with various levels of
(P > 0.05) from other cookies. This reflects the ABKF showed statistically similar (P > 0.05)
ability of the ABKF cookie to retain water and oil sensory scores for flavour. However, sensory
from the flour. The similar height for the cookies quality scores for colour and texture differed
from the blends is a reflection of their similar water significantly (P < 0.05) among some of the
and oil absorption capacities. The 100% ABKF cookies prepared from the blends but were
cookie also showed reduced height (7.3 mm), comparable with those of all WF cookies. The
which differed significantly (P < 0.05) from other scores for colour and texture of the cookies
cookies. The CO2 produced by the baking powder prepared from the flour blends decreased with
aerated and caused the dough to rise. In cookies increased level of ABKF. The acceptability of the
prepared from WF and flour blends, the trapped cookies prepared from the blends was not
CO2 was retained and so the risen dough did not significantly different (P > 0.05) up to 25%
collapse. In the 100% ABKF cookie, CO2 was not level of wheat substitution. At the 30% WF

 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2004, 39, 223–229
228 African breadfruit kernel in wheat cookies P. I. Akubor and G. I. O. Badifu

Table 4 Sensory scores of cookies prepared from wheat and bambara groundnut for cookie production. Plant
flour (WF), African breadfruit kernel flour (ABKF) and Foods for Human Nutrition, 46, 147–155.
their blends Akubor, P.I. (1997). Proximate composition and elected
functional properties of African breadfruit and sweet
Sensory attributes potato flour blends. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 51,
53–60.
Cookies Overall
Akubor, P.I., Isolukwu, P.C., Ugbane, O. & Onimawo, I.A.
WF : ABKF Colour Flavour Texture acceptability
(2000). Proximate composition and functional properties
95 : 5 4.5ab 4.1a 3.6ab 4.4a
of African breadfruit kernel and wheat flour blends. Food
90 : 10 4.7a 4.4a 3.7ab 4.4a
Research International, 33, 707–712.
85 : 15 4.4abc 4.1a 4.5a 4.1a
AOAC (1984). Official Method of Analysis, 14th edn.
80 : 20 4.2abc 3.8a 3.8abc 3.8a
Washington, DC, USA: Association of Official Analytical
75 : 25 4.1c 3.5a 3.2b 3.8a
Chemists.
70 : 30 3.6d 3.8a 3.3b 3.2b
Ariahu, C.C., Ukpabi, U. & Mbajunwa, K.O. (1999a).
100 : 0 4.8a 4.4a 3.2b 4.4a
Production of African breadfruit (Treculia africana) and
0 : 100 1.9e 2.2b 2.4bc 2.0bc
soybean (Glycine max) seed based food formulations 1:
LSD 0.40 1.15 1.00 1.00
effect of germination and fermentation on nutritional and
cv (%) 1 3 3 2
organoleptic quality. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition,
SE 0.091 0.259 0.306 0.235
54, 193–206.
Ariahu, C.C., Ukpabi, U. & Mbajunwa, K.O. (1999b).
Mean values within a column with the same letter were not Production of African breadfruit (Treculia africana) and
significantly different (P > 0.05). soybean (Glycine max) seed based food formulations 2:
LSD, least significant difference; cv, coefficient of variation; effects of germination and fermentation on microbiologi-
SE, standard error. cal and physical properties. Plant Foods for Human
Nutrition, 54, 207–216.
Badifu, G.I.O. & Akubor, P.I. (2001). Influence of pH and
sodium chloride on selected functional and physical
substitution level, overall acceptability scores properties of African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne)
decreased significantly (P < 0.05). This suggests kernel flour. Plant Food for Human Nutrition, 56, 105–
that the flavour, colour, texture and overall 115.
Dreuiter, A. (1978). Composite flour. In: Advances in Cereal
acceptability of cookies will be adversely affected
Science and Technology (edited by Y. Pomeranl). Pp.
at WF substitution levels higher than 30%. High 349–385. St Paul, MN, USA: AACC.
levels of wheat substitution decreased textural Edet, G., Eka, O.U. & Ifon, G.T. (1985). Chemical
quality of cookies supplemented with safflower evaluation of nutritive value of seeds of African bread-
(Ordorica-Falomir & Paredes-Lopez, 1991). fruit. Food Chemistry, 17, 41–47.
Ekpenyoung, T.E. (1985). Chemical composition and amino
acid content of African breadfruit (Treculia africana,
Conclusion Decne). Food Chemistry, 17, 50–59.
Fugy, N.E. & Tunklun, G.G. (1972). Influence of glandless
It may be concluded that supplementation of WF cotton seed flour on quality acceptability and amino acid
cookies with as much as 30% ABKF did not of sugar cookies. Cereal Science Today, 17, 70–72.
Fuhr, F.R. (1962). Cookie spread. It’s effect on production
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