CSI Analysis Reference Manual

where k2 and k3 are the elastic spring constants, yield2 and yield3 are the yield
forces, ratio2 and ratio3 are the ratios of post-yield stiffnesses to elastic stiff-
nesses (k2 and k3), and z2 and z3 are internal hysteretic variables. These vari-
ables have a range of z2 2 + z3 2 £ 1, with the yield surface represented by
z2 2 + z3 2 = 1. The initial values of z2 and z3 are zero, and they evolve accord-
ing to the differential equations:

ì k2 & ü
d
ì z&2 ü é1 - a2 z2 2 -a3 z2 z3 ù ïï yield2 u2 ïï
í ý=ê úí ý
î z&3 þ êë-a2 z2 z3 1 - a3 z3 2 úû ï k3 & ï
d
ïî yield3 u3 ïþ

Where:

ì1 if d& u2 z2 > 0
a2 = í
î 0 otherwise

ì1 if d& u3 z3 > 0
a3 = í
î 0 otherwise

These equations are equivalent to those of Park, Wen and Ang (1986) with
A = 1 and b = g = 0.5.
• If only one shear degree of freedom is nonlinear, the above equations reduce to
the uniaxial plasticity behavior of the Plastic1 property with exp = 2 for that de-
gree of freedom.

A linear spring relationship applies to the axial deformation, the three moment de-
formations, and to any shear deformation without nonlinear properties. All linear
degrees of freedom use the corresponding effective stiffness, which may be zero.

Friction-Pendulum Isolator Property

This is a biaxial friction-pendulum isolator that has coupled friction properties for
the two shear deformations, post-slip stiffness in the shear directions due the pen-
dulum radii of the slipping surfaces, gap behavior in the axial direction, and linear
effective-stiffness properties for the three moment deformations. See Figure 64
(page 265).

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 Chapter XV The Link/Support Element—Advanced

P P

P P

3 2

Figure 64
Friction-Pendulum Isolator Property for Biaxial Shear Behavior
This element can be used for gap-friction contact problems

This element can also be used to model gap and friction behavior between contact-
ing surfaces by setting the radii to zero, indicating a flat surface.

The friction model is based on the hysteretic behavior proposed by Wen (1976),
and Park, Wen and Ang (1986), and recommended for base-isolation analysis by
Nagarajaiah, Reinhorn and Constantinou (1991). The pendulum behavior is as rec-
ommended by Zayas and Low (1990).

The friction forces and pendulum forces are directly proportional to the compres-
sive axial force in the element. The element cannot carry axial tension.

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Axial Behavior
The axial force, f u1 , is always nonlinear, and is given by:

ì k1 d u1 if d u1 < 0
f u1 = P = í
î0 otherwise

In order to generate nonlinear shear force in the element, the stiffness k1 must be
positive, and hence force P must be negative (compressive).

You may additionally specify a damping coefficient, c1, for the axial degree of
freedom, in which case the axial force becomes:

ìc1 d& u1 if d u1 < 0

f u1 = P + í
î0 otherwise

The damping force only exists when the isolator is in compression.

Force f u1 is the total axial force exerted by the element on the connected joints.
However, only the stiffness force P is assumed to act on the bearing surface, caus-
ing shear resistance. The damping force is external.

The purpose of the damping coefficient is to reduce the numerical chatter (oscilla-
tion) that can be present in some analyses. You can estimate the damping coeffi-
cient needed to achieve a certain ratio, r, of critical damping (e.g., r = 0.05) from the
formula
c1
r=
2 k1 m

where m is the tributary mass for the isolator, which could be estimated from the
self-weight axial force divided by the acceleration due to gravity. It is up to you to
verify the applicability of this approach for your particular application. See the
SAP2000 Software Verification Manual for a discussion on the use of this damping
coefficient.

Shear Behavior
For each shear deformation degree of freedom you may independently specify ei-
ther linear or nonlinear behavior:

• If both shear degrees of freedom are nonlinear, the friction and pendulum ef-
fects for each shear deformation act in parallel:

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 Chapter XV The Link/Support Element—Advanced

f u2 = f u2 f + f u2 p
f u3 = f u3 f + f u3 p
The frictional force-deformation relationships are given by:

f u2 f = - P m 2 z2
f u3 f = - P m 3 z3
where m 2 and m 3 are friction coefficients, and z2 and z3 are internal hysteretic
variables. The friction coefficients are velocity-dependent according to:

m 2 = fast2 - ( fast2 - slow2) e - r v

m 3 = fast3 - ( fast3 - slow3) e - r v

where slow2 and slow3 are the friction coefficients at zero velocity, fast2 and
fast3 are the friction coefficients at fast velocities, v is the resultant velocity of
sliding:

v = d& u2 2 + d& u3 2

r is an effective inverse velocity given by:

rate2 d& u2 2 + rate3 d& u3 2

r=
v2

and rate2 and rate3 are the inverses of characteristic sliding velocities. For a
Teflon-steel interface the coefficient of friction normally increases with sliding
velocity (Nagarajaiah, Reinhorn, and Constantinou, 1991).

The internal hysteretic variables have a range of z2 2 + z3 2 £ 1, with the yield

surface represented by z2 2 + z3 2 = 1. The initial values of z2 and z3 are zero,
and they evolve according to the differential equations:

ì k2 ü
d& u2 ï
ì z&2 ü é1 - a2 z2 2 -a3 z2 z3 ù ïï P m 2 ï
í ý=ê úí ý
î z&3 þ êë-a2 z2 z3 1 - a3 z3 2 úû ï k3 &
d u3 ï
ïî P m 3 ïþ

where k2 and k3 are the elastic shear stiffnesses of the slider in the absence of
sliding, and

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CSI Analysis Reference Manual

ì1 if d& u2 z2 > 0
a2 = í
î0 otherwise
ì1 if d& z > 0
u3 3
a3 = í
î0 otherwise

These equations are equivalent to those of Park, Wen and Ang (1986) with
A = 1 and b = g = 0.5.
This friction model permits some sliding at all non-zero levels of shear force;
the amount of sliding becomes much larger as the shear force approaches the
“yield” value of P m. Sliding at lower values of shear force can be minimized by
using larger values of the elastic shear stiffnesses.

The pendulum force-deformation relationships are given by:

d u2
f u2 p = - P
radius2
d u3
f u3 p = -P
radius3

A zero radius indicates a flat surface, and the corresponding shear force is zero.
Normally the radii in the two shear directions will be equal (spherical surface),
or one radius will be zero (cylindrical surface). However, it is permitted to
specify unequal non-zero radii.

• If only one shear degree of freedom is nonlinear, the above frictional equations
reduce to:

f f = -Pm z
&
m = fast - ( fast - slow ) e - rate d

ïì d& (1 - z ) if d& z > 0

2
k
z& = í&
Pm ïî d otherwise

The above pendulum equation is unchanged for the nonlinear degree of free-
dom.

Linear Behavior
A linear spring relationship applies to the three moment deformations, and to any
shear deformation without nonlinear properties. All linear degrees of freedom use

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 Chapter XV The Link/Support Element—Advanced

the corresponding effective stiffness, which may be zero. The axial degree of free-
dom is always nonlinear for nonlinear analyses.

Double-Acting Friction-Pendulum Isolator Property

This is a biaxial friction-pendulum isolator that supports tension as well as com-
pression, and has uncoupled behavior in the two shear directions. The frictional re-
sistance can be different depending on whether then isolator is in tension or com-
pression. This device consists of two orthogonal, curved rails that are interlocked
together. It is intended to provide seismic isolation with uplift prevention, and is
described in detail by Roussis and Constantinou [2005].

Axial Behavior
Independent stiffnesses and gap openings may be specified for tension and com-
pression. The axial force, f u1 , is always nonlinear, and is given by:

ì k1c ( d u1 + openc ) if ( d u1 + openc ) < 0

ï
f u1 = P = í k1t ( d u1 - opent ) if ( d u1 - opent ) > 0
ï0 otherwise
î

where k1c is the compressive stiffness, k1t is the tensile stiffness, openc is the gap
opening in compression, and opent is the gap opening in tension. Each of the four
values may be zero or positive.

You may additionally specify a damping coefficient, c1, for the axial degree of
freedom, in which case the axial force becomes:

f u1 = P + c1 d& u1

The damping force exists whether the isolator is in tension, compression, or is gap-
ping.

Force f u1 is the total axial force exerted by the element on the connected joints.
However, only the stiffness force P is assumed to act on the bearing surface, caus-
ing shear resistance. The damping force is external. See Topic “Friction-Pendulum
Isolator Property” (page 264) for a discussion on the use of this damping.

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CSI Analysis Reference Manual

Shear Behavior
For each shear deformation degree of freedom you may independently specify ei-
ther linear or nonlinear behavior. The behavior in the two shear directions is uncou-
pled, although they both depend on the same axial force P.

For each nonlinear shear degree of freedom u2 or u3, you independently specify the
following parameters:

• Stiffness k, representing the elastic behavior before sliding begins. This value
is the same for positive or negative P.
• Friction coefficients slowc and fastc for friction under compression at different
velocities, and coefficients slowt and fastt for friction under tension at differ-
ent velocities.
• Rate parameters ratec and ratet for friction under compression and tension, re-
spectively. These are the inverses of characteristic sliding velocities. For a Tef-
lon-steel interface the coefficient of friction normally increases with sliding ve-
locity (Nagarajaiah, Reinhorn, and Constantinou, 1991).
• Radius radius, which is the same for tension and compression.

Looking at one shear direction, and considering either tension or compression us-
ing the appropriate friction parameters, the shear force f is given by:

f = ff + fp
f f = -Pm z
&
m = fast - ( fast - slow ) e - rate d

k ìï d& (1 - z 2 ) if d& z > 0

z& = í&
Pm ïî d otherwise

d
f p = -P
radius
where d is the shear deformation and z is an internal hysteretic variable. In the
above, the indicators for shear degree of freedom u2 or u3, as well as for tension or
compression, have been dropped.

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 Chapter XV The Link/Support Element—Advanced

Linear Behavior
A linear spring relationship applies to the three moment deformations, and to any
shear deformation without nonlinear properties. All linear degrees of freedom use
the corresponding effective stiffness, which may be zero. The axial degree of free-
dom is always nonlinear for nonlinear analyses.

Nonlinear Deformation Loads

A nonlinear deformation load is a set of forces and/or moments on the structure
that activates a nonlinear internal deformation of an Link/Support element. A non-
linear internal deformation is an Link/Support internal deformation for which non-
linear properties have been specified.

Nonlinear deformation loads are used as starting load vectors for Ritz-vector analy-
sis. Their purpose is to generate Modes that can adequately represent nonlinear be-
havior when performing nonlinear modal time-history analyses. A separate nonlin-
ear deformation load should be used for each nonlinear internal deformation of
each Link/Support element.

When requesting a Ritz-vector analysis, you may specify that the program use
built-in nonlinear deformation loads, or you may define your own Load Patterns for
this purpose. In the latter case you may need up to six of these Load Patterns per
Link/Support element in the model.

The built-in nonlinear deformation loads for a single two-joint Link element are
shown in Figure 65 (page 272). Each set of forces and/or mo ments is
self-equilibrating. This tends to localize the effect of the load, usually resulting in a
better set of Ritz-vectors. For a single-joint element, only the forces and/or mo-
ments acting on joint j are needed.

It is strongly recommended that mass or mass moment of inertia be present at each

degree of freedom that is acted upon by a force or moment from a nonlinear defor-
mation load. This is needed to generate the appropriate Ritz vectors.

For more information:

• See Topic “Internal Deformations” (page 236) in this Chapter.

• See Topic “Link/Support Properties” (page 238) in this Chapter.
• See Topic “Mass” (page 246) in this Chapter.
• See Topic “Ritz-Vector Analysis” (page 311) in Chapter “Load Cases.”

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CSI Analysis Reference Manual

1
L = Element Length
dj2

1 dj3
j j j

1
1 1 1

2 2 2
3 3 3

L–dj2 1

i i i
1 L–dj3

Load for Load for Load for

Deformation Deformation Deformation
1 du1 du2 du3

1
j j j

1
1 1 1

2 2 2
3 3 3

i i i
1

Load for Load for Load for

Deformation Deformation Deformation
1 dr1 dr2 dr3

Figure 65
Built-in Nonlinear Deformation Loads for a Two-joint Link Element

272 Nonlinear Deformation Loads