energies

Article
Thermoelectric Generators on Satellites—An Approach
for Waste Heat Recovery in Space
Marian von Lukowicz *, Elisabeth Abbe, Tino Schmiel and Martin Tajmar
Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany;
elisabeth.abbe@tu-dresden.de (E.A.); tino.schmiel@tu-dresden.de (T.S.); martin.tajmar@tu-dresden.de (M.T.)
* Correspondence: m.v.lukowicz@gmail.com; Tel.: +49-351-463-38125

Academic Editor: George Kosmadakis

Received: 29 January 2016; Accepted: 30 June 2016; Published: 14 July 2016

Abstract: Environmental radiation in space (from the Sun, etc.) and operational thermal loads result
in heat flows inside the structure of satellites. Today these heat flows remain unused and are collected,
transported to a radiator and emitted to space to prevent the satellite from overheating, but they hold
a huge potential to generate electrical power independently of solar panels. Thermoelectric generators
are a promising approach for such applications because of their solid state characteristics. As they
do not have any moving parts, they do not cause any vibrations in the satellite. They are said to be
maintenance-free and highly reliable. Due to the expected small heat flows modern devices based on
BiTe have to be considered, but these devices have no flight heritage. Furthermore, energy harvesting
on space systems is a new approach for increasing the efficiency and reliability. In this paper, different
systems studies and applications are discussed based some experimental characterisation of the
electrical behaviour and their dependence on thermal cycles and vibration.

Keywords: thermoelectric generator; space power systems; energy harvesting; autonomous systems

1. Introduction
Inside a satellite’s structure high heat flows occur that are driven by environmental and operational
heat loads. The environmental or external heat is generated by different loads such as solar radiation,
Earth infrared radiation or Albedo radiation. The amount of absorbed heat depends on the surface area
and its coating and the orientation to the radiation source, but also on the attitude (eclipse, etc.).
However, the operational or internal heat is driven by subsystems and its electronics. These
systems convert the electrical power into heat, so that up to 98% of the generated electrical power is
converted [1]. All these heat flows are concentrated and transported to radiators that emit the heat to
deep space. This is mandatory to protect the satellite against overheating. Although there is a high
potential using this heat for electrical power generation these heat flows are unused so far. Among
others the main reason for that is high needed technical effort and because of the transient behaviour
and typical space requirements it is complex to use terrestrial recovery systems.
One approach to convert this heat into electrical power is using thermoelectric generators (TEGs).
Because of their solid state behaviour, they are particularly suitable for space applications: As they are
not based on a dynamic conversion process they do not put any vibrations on the satellite. Furthermore
TEGs are considered maintenance free and highly reliable [2]. TEGs are not a new technology in space
application. They are used since the 1960s in radioisotope-thermoelectric generators (RTGs) to supply
space systems to deep space with electrical power. In RTGs a radioactive decay of a radioisotope
produces radiation that is decelerated by a graphene core. Thereby the core is heated up (ca. 1200 K).
This heat source is coupled by TEGs to radiator. The main differences of RTGs to the application of
TEGs for energy harvesting, as discussed in this paper, are [3,4]:

Energies 2016, 9, 541; doi:10.3390/en9070541 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 541 2 of 14

‚ The temperatures are significantly higher.

‚ The thermal conditions are more constant.
‚ The generated electrical power supplies the main power system.
‚ Therefore, the used TEGs are much bigger and consist different materials.

2. Functionality of Thermoelectric Generators

2.1. Physical Basics

A potential difference occurs between two points with different temperatures on an electrical
conductor. Therefore there is a measurable voltage caused by thermodiffusion of electrons. The reason
for this lies in the temperature-dependent oscillation of electrons that is higher on the hot side than
on the cold side. Consequently an adjusted motion of electrons to the cold side occurs. Due to the
increasing strength of the electrical field a balance between these two against each other acting forces
is established. This is the so called Seebeck effect. This effect occurs in homogeneous conductors, but it
can only be used if different materials are connected in series.
If an electrical load is applied to such a configuration a current flows through the conductors.
At one of the material junctions heat is absorbed; at the other one heat is emitted, depending on the
materials and direction of current. Thus one junction is cooled, one is heated up. This so-called Peltier
effect is the basis for Peltier devices that are used for cooling or for temperature control, but in this case
this effect represents an internal loss. Additional losses are the Thomson effect which is very small and
the Joule heat. For detailed information about the physical basics readers are referred to [5,6].

2.2. Materials
There are three main requirements on thermoelectric materials concerning an efficient power
conversion [6]:

‚ The Seebeck coefficient α shall be as high as possible;

‚ The electrical resistance ρ shall be as low as possible;
‚ The thermal conductivity λ shall be as low as possible.

Because the generated open-circuit-voltage is proportional to the temperature gradient and the
Seebeck coefficient, a high coefficient yields to a high voltage. This is important for a more efficient
power conversion. Due to the internal electrical losses the material should be a good electrical
conductor. However, the thermal conductivity should be as low as possible to minimize thermal losses
through the material. The last two requirements illustrate the challenges in new material developments
because of the similar and linked thermal and electrical transport mechanisms.
These three requirements are combined in the so called figure-of-merit or zT-value:

α2 ¨ T
zT “
ρ¨ λ

Because all material properties are temperature sensitive the zT value also depends on the
temperature T (in Kelvin). All material developments aim at increasing zT [7].
Today, semiconductors are the most used class of materials because these combine the described
requirements, but also in this class there are differences between the materials which affect mainly the
best performance temperature. In Figure 1 the temperature dependence of different n- and p-doped
materials is shown. The differentiation between n- and p-doped materials is important, because
n-doped materials have a negative Seebeck coefficient, p-doped materials a positive one and therefore
not electrons but holes are moveable. It is obvious that there is not an all-in-one solution that is
powerful in a wide temperature range. Bismuth telluride (BiTe) is the most suitable material for using
the heat flows inside of a satellite because the temperatures will be lower than 100 ˝ C. This is also the
Energies 2016, 9, 541 3 of 14

temperature area of typical terrestrial low power energy harvesting applications. Therefore, in the last
years
Energiesa2016,
lot of commercial thermoelectric generators appeared on the market.
9, 541 3 of 14
Energies 2016, 9, 541 3 of 14

Figure 1.
1. Temperature dependence
dependence of the
the figure-of-merit zT;
zT; it is obvious that
that every material
material has an
an
Figure 1. Temperature
Figure Temperature dependence of
of the figure-of-merit
figure-of-merit zT;ititisisobvious
obvious that every
every material has
has an
own
own preferred operating temperature [2].
own preferred
preferredoperating
operatingtemperature
temperature[2].
[2].

2.3. Thermoelectric
2.3. Devices
2.3. Thermoelectric
Thermoelectric Devices
Devices
The
The most common design of of a thermoelectric generator generator is shown inin Figure Figure 2. Metal
The most
most common
common design design of aa thermoelectric
thermoelectric generator isisshown shown in Figure2. 2. Metal Metal
interconnections are
interconnections printed on an alumina
alumina oxide substrate.
substrate. On top of every one of these (copper)
interconnections are are printed
printed on on an
an alumina oxide oxide substrate. On On top
top of
of every
every one one ofof these
these (copper)
(copper)
interconnections are
interconnections both: aap- p-and
andan ann-doped
n-dopedleg. leg.Here
Hereaaacombination
combinationof a p- and anann-doped legleg
is
interconnections are are both:
both: a p- and an n-doped leg. Here combination ofofa ap-p-and
and n-doped
an n-doped leg is
called
is a thermocouple.
calleda athermocouple.
thermocouple.InsideInside a thermoelectric
Insidea athermoelectric generator
thermoelectricgenerator a
generatoraa lot lot of
lot of thermocouples
of thermocouples are connected
called thermocouples are are connected
connected
electrically
electrically in series and thermally in parallel. On the top side of the generator a further substrate is
electrically in
in series and thermally
series and thermally in in parallel.
parallel. On
Onthethetoptopside
sideofofthethegenerator
generatora afurther
further substrate
substrate is
connected.
is connected. Both
Both substrates
substrates have
have to tobebeparallel
parallel because
because they
they establish
establish the
the thermal
thermal interface
interface of
of the
the
connected. Both substrates have to be parallel because they establish the thermal interface of the
generator. The
generator. The heat flowflow crosses the the substrate; therefore
therefore this design
design is called crossplane.
crossplane. Generators
generator. The heat heat flow crosses
crosses the substrate;
substrate; thereforethis this designisiscalled
called crossplane. Generators
Generators
commercially available
commercially available nowadays are are mostly partpart of this
this class. They
They can be manufactured in in various
commercially available nowadaysnowadays aremostly mostly partof of this class.
class. They can can bebe manufactured
manufactured in various various
dimensions.
dimensions. The
The smallest
smallest device
device have
have a
a cross
cross section
section of
of around
around 33 mm
mm ×
ˆ 33 mm
mm with
with a
a height
height of
of 11 mm,
mm,
dimensions. The smallest device have a cross section of around 3 mm ×
the
the functional material has a height of 19 µm. These devices are made by a thin-film process inspired
the functional
functional material
material has
has aa height
height of of 19 µm. These
19 µm. These devices
devices are are made
made by by aa thin-film
thin-film process
process inspired
inspired
by processes
by processes from thethe
chipchip industry. Because thesedevices
small devices are veryagainstsensitive against
by processesfrom from the industry.
chip Because
industry. these small
Because these small are very sensitive
devices are very sensitive mechanical
against
mechanical
stress bigger stress
devices bigger
(so calleddevices (so
bulk-device) called
are bulk-device)
preferred for are
most preferred
applications. for most
Bulk-TEGs applications.
are made
mechanical stress bigger devices (so called bulk-device) are preferred for most applications.
Bulk-TEGs
of differentialare made of differential parts that are soldered in semi-automatic processes. In Figure are33
Bulk-TEGs areparts
made that
ofare soldered parts
differential in semi-automatic
that are solderedprocesses. In Figure 3 different
in semi-automatic processes.Bulk-TEGs
In Figure
different
shown, Bulk-TEGs
along are
with details shown, along
like thealong
solder with details
joints. like the solder joints.
different Bulk-TEGs are shown, with details like the solder joints.

Figure 2. Schematic drawing of a thermoelectric generator; according to [2].

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Schematic
Schematic drawing
drawing of
of aa thermoelectric
thermoelectric generator;
generator; according
according to
to [2].
[2].

Another basic design of TEGs is the so called in-plane device. Inside these devices the heat flow
Anotherbasic
Another basicdesign
design ofTEGs
TEGs isthe thesosocalled
calledin-plane
in-planedevice.
device.Inside
Inside these devicesthethe heat flow
is parallel to the substrate ofwhich isiscommonly a flexible film these
or foil like kapton. devices
The main heat flow
advantage is
is parallel
parallel to to
thethe substrate
substrate which
which is is commonly
commonly a a flexible
flexible film
film or
or foil
foil like
like kapton.
kapton. The
The main
main advantage
advantage
of such devices is their flexibility. Thus, gaps can be bridged without inserting a new mechanical
of such
of such devices
devices is
is their flexibility.
flexibility. Thus, gaps
gaps can
can bebe bridged
bridged without
without inserting
inserting aa new
new mechanical
mechanical
connection, which their
is important for Thus,
an easy integration, but the efficiency of such a design is lower
connection,
connection, which
which is
is important
important for
for an
an easy
easy integration,
integration, but
but the
the efficiency
efficiency of
of such
such a
a design
design is lower
is lower
than that of crossplane devices, because only a part of the available heat flows through the functional
than that of crossplane devices, because only a part of the available heat flows through the functional
material, the remaining heat passes the device through the substrate that cannot be used for power
material, the remaining heat passes the device through the substrate that cannot be used for power
generation. Also the manufacturing process differs strongly from that of crossplane devices. It is
generation. Also the manufacturing process differs strongly from that of crossplane devices. It is
dominated by cost-effective printing processes like screen- or inkjet-printing.
dominated by cost-effective printing processes like screen- or inkjet-printing.
Energies 2016, 9, 541 4 of 14

than that of crossplane devices, because only a part of the available heat flows through the functional
material, the remaining heat passes the device through the substrate that cannot be used for power
generation. Also the manufacturing process differs strongly from that of crossplane devices. It is
dominated
Energies 2016,
Energies by
2016, 9, cost-effective printing processes like screen- or inkjet-printing.
9, 541
541 44 of
of 14
14

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 3.
Figure
Figure 3. (a)(a)
3. (a) Three
Three different
different
Three thermoelectric
thermoelectric
different generators
generators
thermoelectric withwith
with
generators aa surface
surface area of
area
a surface ofarea
33 mm
mm
of ××333mm
mm,ˆ
mm, 103mm
10 mm ××
mm,
10
10 mm
mm and
and 30
30 mm
mm ×
× 30
30 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) Details
Details of
of a
a big
big bulk-TEG.
bulk-TEG.
10 mm ˆ 10 mm and 30 mm ˆ 30 mm; (b) Details of a big bulk-TEG.

3. Characterisation
3.
3. Characterisation of
Characterisationof Thermoelectric
ofThermoelectric Generators
ThermoelectricGenerators
Generators

3.1. Test
3.1. Test Bed
Bed for
for the
the Characterisation
Characterisation of
of Thermoelectric
ThermoelectricGenerators
Thermoelectric Generators(TEGs)
Generators (TEGs)
(TEGs)
For the
For the electrical
electricalcharacterisation
electrical characterisationofof
characterisation ofTEGs
TEGs
TEGs aa test
a testtestbedbed
bed
was was
was developed
developed
developed (Figure
(Figure
(Figure 4). Inside
4).
4). Inside Inside the bed
the
the test test
test
bedtoup
bed
up up to four
to
four four
TEGsTEGs TEGs
can becan
can be evaluated
be evaluated
evaluated in parallel;
in parallel;
in parallel; thereby thereby
thereby the temperatures
the temperatures
the temperatures on the onhot
on theand
the hot the
hot andcold
and the cold
the cold
side
side
side
of ofTEG
theof the TEG
the TEGset
are are
are set
asset as boundary
as
boundary boundary conditions.
conditions.
conditions. The hot The
The hottemperature
hot
side side temperature
side temperature is provided
is
is provided provided by aa Peltier
by
by a Peltier Peltier
cooler
cooler
cooler
in in combination
in combination
combination with
with awithheat aaexchanger.
heat exchanger.
heat exchanger.
On theOnOn the
hotthe hota side
hot
side side aa foil
foil heaterfoil heater
heater
providesprovides
provides the temperature.
the temperature.
the temperature. Both
Both temperatures
Both temperatures
temperatures are measured
are
are measured measured by Pt1000-sensors.
by Pt1000-sensors.
by Pt1000-sensors. WhileWhileWhile testing
testingtesting the voltage
the
the voltage voltage
of a TEG of aaisTEG
of TEG is measured.
is
measured. measured.
Up to
Up to
Up
five to
loadfive
five load resistances
load
resistances resistances can be
can be automatically
can be automatically automatically
connected connected
connected
to the TEG toto
to the
the TEG to
TEG
determine to determine
determine
the generated thepower
the generated
generatedand
power and
power
electric and electric
electric
current. current.
current.
Although Although
theAlthough the thermal
the thermal
thermal resistance resistance
resistance
of TEGs cannot ofbe
of TEGs
TEGs cannot itbe
cannot
measured, beismeasured,
measured,
not a majorit itproblem
is not
is not aa
major
major
for problem
ourproblem
studies due forto
for our
our studies
thestudies due to
due
uncertainties tointhe
the uncertainties
uncertainties
thermal contacts in in athermal
thermal contacts Therefore
contacts
real application. in aa real
in real application.
application.
information
Therefore
Therefore information
information
from the datasheets from
willfrom
be used the datasheets
the datasheets
to determine will
will
thebebe used
used
heat flow to determine
to atdetermine the heat flow
the heat flow Because
adjusted temperatures. at adjusted
at adjustedwe
temperatures.
temperatures.
focus our studies Because
Because we focus
we
on space focus our studies
our
applications,studies on space
the on
testspace
bed can applications,
applications,
be integrated the test
the test bed
in abed
vacuum can be
can be integrated
integrated
chamber. inis
in
This aa
vacuum
vacuum
also chamber.
chamber.
necessary This is
This
to eliminateis also
also necessary
necessary
errors caused to to eliminate
byeliminate errors caused
errors
(forced) convection. caused by (forced)
by
Detailed(forced) convection.
convection.
description Detailed
of theDetailed
test bed
description
description
can be found ofinthe
of the test bed
test
[8,9]. bed can
can be be found
found in in [8,9].
[8,9].

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Test bed
bed for characterisation
characterisation of thermoelectric
thermoelectric generators; the
the TEG is
is coloured yellow.
yellow.
Figure 4. Test
Test bed for
for characterisation of
of thermoelectric generators;
generators; the TEG
TEG is coloured
coloured yellow.

3.2. Current
3.2. Current and
and Voltage
Voltage
The voltage-current-characteristics
The voltage-current-characteristics ofof aa generator
generator include
include different
different aspects
aspects like
like the
the
open-circuit-voltage, the
open-circuit-voltage, the generated
generated power
power and
and the
the internal
internal resistance.
resistance. The
The V-I-characteristic
V-I-characteristic of
of TEGs
TEGs
is nearly
is nearly linear
linear and
and is
is shifted
shifted parallel
parallel by
by changing
changing the
the heat
heat flow
flow or
or rather
rather the
the temperature
temperature gradient.
gradient.
Energies 2016, 9, 541 5 of 14

3.2. Current and Voltage

The voltage-current-characteristics of a generator include different aspects like the
open-circuit-voltage, the generated power and the internal resistance. The V-I-characteristic of TEGs is
nearly linear and is shifted parallel by changing the heat flow or rather the temperature gradient. This
Energies 2016, 9, 541 5 of 14
behaviour is shown by the example of a small Bulk-TEG in Figure 5. The tested TEG has a cross-area
of 10 mm
power ˆ 10 mm
is given and
by the a high
low of ca.
voltage. 2 mm
The [10]. Atemperature
expected major challenge for using
gradients the generated
are mainly lower thanpower30 K, is
given by the
therefore thelow voltage.
current will The
alsoexpected
decrease.temperature gradientsconstant
Due to the required are mainly lower
higher than 30for
voltage K,supply
therefore of
the current will also decrease. Due to the required constant higher voltage for supply
consumers, the voltage has to be converted. It is assumed, that the conversion efficiency is ca. 30% of consumers,
the voltage
[11,12]. Onehas to be converted.
approach to increaseIt the
is assumed, that theofconversion
output voltage efficiency
the generator is ca.
is given by 30% [11,12]. One
thin-film-device
approach
due to thetohigh increase the output
amount voltage of theAgenerator
of thermocouples. is given
characteristic by thin-film-device
under similar conditions dueistoshown
the high in
amount of thermocouples. A characteristic under similar conditions is shown in Figure
Figure 6. Since a lot of small thermocouples are realised in a small area the internal resistance 6. Since a lot of
small thermocouples
increases strongly. This are realised in a small
can be seen in thearea the internal
lower generatedresistance
current.increases
For thisstrongly.
reason we Thisneed
can be to
seen in the lower generated current. For this reason we need to consider between
consider between lower conversion losses but lower generated current (thin-film device) and higher lower conversion
losses at
losses buthigher
lowercurrent.
generated current (thin-film device) and higher losses at higher current.

Figure 5.
5. V-I-characteristic
V-I-characteristic of
ofaasmall
smallbulk-TEG
bulk-TEGat at different
different temperature
temperature gradients
gradients and and a constant
a constant cold
cold side temperature˝
side temperature (0 C). (0 °C).

Figure 6. V-I-characteristic
Figure 6. V-I-characteristicofofaa thin-film
thin-film TEG
TEG at
at different
different gradients
gradients and
and aa constant
constant cold
cold side
side
temperature (0 °C).
˝
temperature (0 C).

3.3.
3.3. Electrical
Electrical Power
Power and
and Resistance
Resistance
Beside
Beside the
the V-I-characteristic
V-I-characteristic the
the generated
generated electrical
electrical power
power is
is the
the most
most important
important value
value forfor the
the
evaluation of the potential of thermoelectric generators. Power is only generated
evaluation of the potential of thermoelectric generators. Power is only generated if a load is connected if a load is
connected to the generator. Therefore it is mandatory to consider the load resistance
to the generator. Therefore it is mandatory to consider the load resistance when talking about the when talking
about thepower.
electrical electrical power.
In most In most itapplications
applications is important itto is important
generate as muchto generate
power asaspossible
much due power as
to the
possible due to the fact that the power level is low in general. The maximum electrical
fact that the power level is low in general. The maximum electrical power can be generated if the load power can be
generated
resistance isifequivalent
the load toresistance is equivalent
the connected to the which
internal resistance connected internal resistance
is temperature dependent.whichThereby is
temperature dependent. Thereby the load resistance is not given by the consumer
the load resistance is not given by the consumer but by the power converter. To maximise the power but by the power
converter. To maximise the power output a maximum-power-point-tracking (MPPT) can be foreseen.
Of course, this produces additional small losses. In particular for transient thermal conditions a
MPPT could be interesting. Nevertheless, it is important to realise a (rough) load matching. Figure 7
shows the load-dependent behaviour of a small Bulk-TEG. It is obvious that there is a distinct
maximum power point. If the connected load is smaller than the internal resistance the generated
Energies 2016, 9, 541 6 of 14

output a maximum-power-point-tracking (MPPT) can be foreseen. Of course, this produces additional

small losses. In particular for transient thermal conditions a MPPT could be interesting. Nevertheless,
it is important to realise a (rough) load matching. Figure 7 shows the load-dependent behaviour of a
small Bulk-TEG. It is obvious that there is a distinct maximum power point. If the connected load is
smaller than the internal resistance the generated power drops down significantly. In contrast higher
load resistances have a smaller influence on the generated power. Therefore the load resistance shall
be a little
Energies bit9,larger
2016, 541 than the internal one. This applies particularly to applications without a MPPT.
6 of 14
Energies 2016, 9, 541 6 of 14

Figure 7.
7. Load-dependent generated
generated electrical
electrical power of aa small
small bulk-TEG at
at different temperature
temperature
Figure
Figure 7. Load-dependent
Load-dependent generated electrical power of
power of a small bulk-TEG
bulk-TEG at different
different temperature
temperature level was
gradients; temperature was at 00 °C.
˝
gradients; temperature level
level was at C.
at 0 °C.

As discussed above the available voltage is an important evaluation criterion. Therefore in

As discussed above the available
available voltage
voltage is
is an
an important
important evaluation
evaluation criterion.
criterion. Therefore in
Figure 8 the electrical power of a small Bulk-TEG depending on the voltage is shown. This graph
Figure 8 the electrical power of a small
small Bulk-TEG
Bulk-TEG depending
depending on the
the voltage
voltage is
is shown.
shown. This graph
underlines the maximum power point again that amounts to half of the open-circuit voltage.
underlines the maximum power point again that amounts to half of the the open-circuit
open-circuit voltage.
voltage.

Figure 8. Generated electrical power of a small bulk-TEG depending on the voltage at different
Figure 8. Generated
Figure 8. Generated electrical
electrical power
power of
of aa small
small bulk-TEG
bulk-TEG depending
depending on
on the
the voltage
voltage at different
at different
temperature gradients.
temperature gradients.
temperature gradients.

Summarising, the generated electrical power depends strongly on the electrical conditions
Summarising, the generated electrical power depends strongly on the electrical conditions
Summarising,
(especially on the load theresistance).
generatedOf electrical
course, forpower
a highdepends strongly
power output on the
a high heatelectrical conditions
flow or temperature
(especially on the load resistance). Of course, for a high power output a high heat flow or temperature
(especially
gradient ison themandatory.
also load resistance). Of course,
As discussed, foravailable
the a high power output agradient
temperature high heatinflow or temperature
an application will
gradient is also mandatory. As discussed, the available temperature gradient in an application will
gradient is also mandatory. As discussed, the available temperature gradient
be mostly lower than 30 K, in ideally 10 mW is generated. Furthermore, it is reduced by the in an application
be mostly lower than 30 K, in ideally 10 mW is generated. Furthermore, it is reduced by the
will be mostly
conversion lower than 30 K, in ideally 10 mW is generated. Furthermore, it is reduced by the
losses.
conversion losses.
conversion losses.
3.4. Specific Power and Efficiency
3.4.
3.4. Specific
Specific Power
Power and
and Efficiency
Efficiency
Particularly for space application lightweight technologies are mandatory, so the specific power
Particularly
Particularly for
for space
space application
application lightweight
lightweight technologies
technologies are
are mandatory,
mandatory, so the
so thetospecific
specific power
power
(W/kg) of generating devices and specific electrical energy of storing devices have be increased.
(W/kg)
(W/kg) of generating
of generating devices
devices and specific electrical energy of storing devices have to be increased.
Therefore, the electrical powerand specific
shown electrical
in Figure energy
8 is of storing
divided by the devices
weight have
of thetodevice
be increased.
that is
Therefore, the
Therefore, theelectrical
electricalpower
powershown
shown in Figure 8divided
is divided byweight
the weight of the device that is
shown in Figures 9 and 10. For the calculation the mass of the device without cables isorshown
in Figure 8 is by the of the device that other
shown in Figures 9 and 10. For the calculation the mass of the device without cables or other
infrastructure was taken. The mass is 0.03 g for the thin-film device, 0.61 g for the small bulk device
infrastructure was taken. The mass is 0.03 g for the thin-film device, 0.61 g for the small bulk device
and 10.69 g for the big bulk device. There are big differences between the two classes of TEGs: the
and 10.69 g for the big bulk device. There are big differences between the two classes of TEGs: the
thin film device achieves a specific power of 700 mW/g, the Bulk-TEGs start at 52 mW/g. But it could
thin film device achieves a specific power of 700 mW/g, the Bulk-TEGs start at 52 mW/g. But it could
be possible, that the bulk devices generate benefits at higher heat flows due to the higher electrical
be possible, that the bulk devices generate benefits at higher heat flows due to the higher electrical
current. In these cases the lower internal resistance of the TEGs could decrease losses. Nevertheless,
current. In these cases the lower internal resistance of the TEGs could decrease losses. Nevertheless,
Energies 2016, 9, 541 7 of 14

in Figures 9 and 10. For the calculation the mass of the device without cables or other infrastructure
was taken. The mass is 0.03 g for the thin-film device, 0.61 g for the small bulk device and 10.69 g for
the big bulk device. There are big differences between the two classes of TEGs: the thin film device
achieves a specific power of 700 mW/g, the Bulk-TEGs start at 52 mW/g. But it could be possible, that
the bulk devices generate benefits at higher heat flows due to the higher electrical current. In these
cases the lower internal resistance of the TEGs could decrease losses. Nevertheless, the later discussed
applications work only in low power conditions, therefore the thin-film devices are superior in terms
of theEnergies
specific2016,power.
9, 541 7 of 14
Energies 2016, 9, 541 7 of 14

Figure 9. Specific power of three different TEGs at a temperature gradient of 50 K and a temperature
Figure 9. Specific
Figure power
9. Specific of of
power three different
three differentTEGs
TEGs at
at aa temperature
temperaturegradient
gradient of K
of 50 50and
K and a temperature
a temperature
level ˝of 0 °C.
level level
of 0 ofC.0 °C.

Figure 10. Details of the lower curves shown in Figure 9 under same conditions.
Figure 10. Details of the lower curves shown in Figure 9 under same conditions.
Figure 10. Details of the lower curves shown in Figure 9 under same conditions.
3.5. Thermal Cycling and Vibration
3.5. Thermal Cycling and Vibration
Thermoelectric
In energy harvesting generators in spaceisapplication
the efficiency not crucialunderlie
since the different
heat ismechanical loads during
available anyway. Eventheat low
Thermoelectric generators in space application underlie different mechanical loads during the
missions.
efficiencies TEGs Thereby
will vibrations
generate and thermal
benefits if cycling
their power are particularly
can be used. challenging.
The efficiencyWhile is vibrations
lower than 2%
missions. Thereby vibrations and thermal cycling are particularly challenging. While vibrations
under occur
the only duringmentioned
conditions a short period in of time 8.
Figure during launch, thermal cycling loads has to be taken into
occur only during a short period of time during launch, thermal cycling loads has to be taken into
account over the whole mission time. Thermal cycling results in micro cracks within the material
account over theofwhole
and at junctions differentmission time.They
materials. Thermal cyclingby
are caused results in micro
different thermalcracks within and
expansions the material
result in
3.5. Thermal Cycling of
and at junctions and Vibration
different materials. They are caused by different thermal expansions and result in
mechanical stress. Consequently the internal resistance increases until the conduction is interrupted.
mechanical stress.generators
Thermoelectric Consequently in the internal resistance
space increasesdifferent
until the mechanical
conduction is interrupted.
The mechanical stress is caused by twoapplication
mechanisms:underlie
inside the functional material a loads during the
temperature
The
missions. mechanical
Thereby stress is
vibrations caused by two
andof thermal mechanisms: inside the functional material a temperature
gradient arises along the height a leg thatcycling
causes inare particularly
mechanical stress.challenging.
Thus the cracks While vibrations
are parallel
gradient arises along the height of a leg that causes in mechanical stress. Thus the cracks are parallel
occurtoonly
the height
during of athe leg. However,
short period ofattimejunctions
during of different materialscycling
launch, thermal the temperature
loads has is constant but into
to be taken
to the height of the leg. However, at junctions of different materials the temperature is constant but
the coefficient
account over the wholeof thermal expansions
mission (CTE) differs
time. Thermal abruptly.
cycling Mechanical
results in microstress
cracks is also
within caused
the and
material
the coefficient of thermal expansions (CTE) differs abruptly. Mechanical stress is also caused and
and atcracks occur of
junctions on the junction layer. This effect is reinforced by a diffusion barrier that isand located
cracks
between occur ondifferent
the junction
the functional
materials.
materiallayer.
and the
Theyeffect
This are caused by different
is reinforced
copper contacts by crack
[13]. The
thermalbarrier
a diffusion expansions
growth is aided that
by is
result in
thelocated
brittle
mechanical stress. Consequently the internal resistance increases until the conduction
between the functional material and the copper contacts [13]. The crack growth is aided by the brittle is interrupted.
function material and the dynamic occurrence of the mechanical stresses by thermal cycling. An
The mechanical
function materialstressandis caused by two
the dynamic mechanisms:
occurrence inside the functional
of the mechanical materialcycling.
stresses by thermal a temperature
An
estimation how many cycles can be suffered cannot be made due to the strong dependence on the
gradient arises
estimation along
how manythe height
cycles of
cana be
leg that causes
suffered cannotin mechanical
be made duestress.
to the Thus
strongthe
thermal conditions, the device and the mechanical interface. Studies of other institutes achieved up cracks
dependence are parallel
on the to
thermal
the height of conditions,
the leg. the deviceatand
However, the mechanical
junctions of interface.
different Studies
materials the oftemperature
other institutes is achieved
constant up
but the
to 45,000 cycles until the device failed. For detailed information and studies see [14].
to 45,000
coefficient of cycles
thermaluntil the device failed. For detailed information and studies seeis[14].
First vibrationexpansions
tests of TEGs (CTE)
werediffers
executedabruptly. Mechanical
at the Institute stress
of Aerospace also causedSeveral
Engineering. and cracks
First vibration tests of TEGs were executed at the Institute of Aerospace Engineering. Several
occurbig
onandthe small
junctionbulklayer.
devices This effect
were is reinforced
exposed by avertically
to vibrations diffusionand barrier that is located
horizontally between the
to the substrate.
big and small bulk
Consequently devices were
the mechanical exposed
loads can betodistinguished
vibrations vertically
betweenand horizontally toand
tension/pressure the shear.
substrate.
All
Consequently the mechanical loads can be distinguished between tension/pressure and shear. All
devices were glued on a thin alumina plate for mounting on the shaker, than characterised as
devices were glued on a thin alumina plate for mounting on the shaker, than characterised as
discussed above, exposed to the vibration and characterised again to determine differences. Thereby
discussed above, exposed to the vibration and characterised again to determine differences. Thereby
the loads consisted of sinus vibration (3.7 g2/Hz up to 200 Hz) and random vibrations (up to 0.035
the loads consisted of sinus vibration (3.7 g 2/Hz up to 200 Hz) and random vibrations (up to 0.035
g2/Hz up to 2000 Hz). Both test were executed consecutively, every 2 minutes. In Figures 11 and 12
g2/Hz up to 2000 Hz). Both test were executed consecutively, every 2 minutes. In Figures 11 and 12
the V-I-characteristics of the big bulk device are shown. It is obvious that in both vibration directions
Energies 2016, 9, 541 8 of 14

functional material and the copper contacts [13]. The crack growth is aided by the brittle function
material and the dynamic occurrence of the mechanical stresses by thermal cycling. An estimation how
many cycles can be suffered cannot be made due to the strong dependence on the thermal conditions,
the device and the mechanical interface. Studies of other institutes achieved up to 45,000 cycles until
the device failed. For detailed information and studies see [14].
First vibration tests of TEGs were executed at the Institute of Aerospace Engineering. Several
big and small bulk devices were exposed to vibrations vertically and horizontally to the substrate.
Consequently the mechanical loads can be distinguished between tension/pressure and shear. All
devices were glued on a thin alumina plate for mounting on the shaker, than characterised as discussed
above, exposed to the vibration and characterised again to determine differences. Thereby the loads
consisted of sinus vibration (3.7 g2 /Hz up to 200 Hz) and random vibrations (up to 0.035 g2 /Hz
up to 2000 Hz). Both test were executed consecutively, every 2 minutes. In Figures 11 and 12 the
V-I-characteristics of the big bulk device are shown. It is obvious that in both vibration directions the
Energies 2016, 9, 541 8 of 14
curveEnergies
drops2016,
and that the vibration vertical to the substrate will be more critical. This behaviour
9, 541 8 of 14 can
also be
theobserved
curve drops at aandtested
thatsmall device.vertical
the vibration For a better
to the understanding
substrate will bethe more topcritical.
substrates of the devices
This behaviour
the
were can curve
removed drops and that the vibration vertical to the substrate will be more critical. This behaviour
also beand the cracks
observed were analysed
at a tested in detail.
small device. It wasunderstanding
For a better obvious that the a majority of the of
top substrates legsthebroke
at thecan also be observed at a tested small device. For a better understanding the top substrates of the
interface
devices werebetween
removedfunctional
and the cracksmaterial and copper
were analysed contact.
in detail. It wasThus,
obviousthethat
interface
a majority is not only at
of the
devices
legscycling
brokewere removed
ata the andbetween
interface the cracks were analysed inand
detail. It was obvious thatthe
a majority of
is the
thermal mechanical problemfunctional
but also atmaterial
vibration copper
loads. contact.
Optical Thus,
examinations interface
show not
cavities
legs broke at the interface between functional material and copper contact. Thus, the interface is not
only
in theonly at thermal
solder cycling
of the cycling
interface.a mechanical problem but alsobe
So one explanation at vibration loads. Optical examinations show
at thermal a mechanical problem butcan also at the insufficient
vibration soldering
loads. Optical of the components.
examinations show
cavities in the solder of the interface. So one explanation can be the insufficient soldering of the
In a further
cavities material
in the solderanalysis (EDX)
of the of theSofractured
interface. surface can
one explanation nickel
be was identified.soldering
the insufficient It must not be used
of the
components. In a further material analysis (EDX) of the fractured ˝ surface nickel was identified. It
for soldering
components. since Innickel solders
a further have
material a melting
analysis point
(EDX) over
of the 900 Csurface
fractured and therefore
nickel was it isidentified.
not suitable It for
must not be used for soldering since nickel solders have a melting point over 900 °C and therefore it
soldering
must BiTe
not bewith
usedafor considerable
soldering sincelower melting
nickel point.
solders have It can therefore
a melting be
point over
is not suitable for soldering BiTe with a considerable lower melting point. It can therefore be
assumed,
900 °C andthat the
therefore nickel
it is
is not suitable
an element of a for soldering
diffusion barrier BiTe with athe
between considerable
copper lowerand
contact melting point. It
functional can therefore
material to be an
prevent
assumed, that the nickel is an element of a diffusion barrier between the copper contact and
assumed,
arising
functional that the nickel
bridle intermetallic
material is anan
phase.
to prevent element
This of a diffusion
is a common
arising bridle approachbarrier
intermetallic between
to increase
phase. the
the
This is copper stability
a thermal
common contact
approach and
oftoTEGs
functional
but itincrease
seems to material to prevent an arising bridle intermetallic phase. This is a common approach to
thedecrease the mechanical
thermal stability of TEGs butresistance.
it seems to decrease the mechanical resistance.
increase the thermal stability of TEGs but it seems to decrease the mechanical resistance.

Figure
Figure 11. 11. ComparisonofofV-I-characteristics
Comparison V-I-characteristics of
of the
thebig
bigbulk
bulkdevice between
device before
between and and
before after after
Figure 11. Comparison of V-I-characteristics of the big bulk device between before and after
horizontal
horizontal vibrations.
vibrations.
horizontal vibrations.

Figure 12. Comparison V-I-characteristics of the big bulk device between before and after the vertical
Figure
Figure 12. 12. Comparison V-I-characteristics
Comparison V-I-characteristics of the big bulk
of the big device betweenbetween
bulk device before andbefore
after the vertical
and after the
vibrations.
vibrations.
vertical vibrations.
4. System Studies
4. System Studies
4.1. Occurring Heat Flows in Commercial Satellites
4.1. Occurring Heat Flows in Commercial Satellites
For the evaluation of the principle application potential it is important to have some
For the evaluation of the principle application potential it is important to have some
information about available heat flows that can be used for power generation. Since satellites are
information about available heat flows that can be used for power generation. Since satellites are
mostly individual models with their own orbits it is only feasible to make reliable statements about
Energies 2016, 9, 541 9 of 14

4. System Studies

4.1. Occurring Heat Flows in Commercial Satellites

For the evaluation of the principle application potential it is important to have some information
about available heat flows that can be used for power generation. Since satellites are mostly individual
models with their own orbits it is only feasible to make reliable statements about general thermal
conditions. Nevertheless, it is a good base to evaluate the potential for a specific application later on.
For this analysis a detailed thermal model of the European satellite Sentinel-2 (S2) was used [15].
In a first step the model was calculated without any modifications to generate some information about
available heat flows. In a second step TEGs were integrated into the model by changing the thermal
resistance between different knots. Thereby the generated electrical power and temperature changes
were calculated. The latter is important to have some information whether the integration of TEGs has
an influence on the thermal housekeeping. In all cases different modes were calculated. The hot case,
the cold case and the safe mode were considered. Thereby the evaluated locations of integration of
TEGs can be divided into three groups:

‚ Between an electronic unit and the floor which it is mounted on;

‚ Between two redundant electronic units;
‚ Between the two outer surfaces of the solar panel.

In the first case a TEG was integrated between an electronic unit and the floor which it is mounted
on. Thereby the majority of the heat that is generated in the unit is given to the floor via the mechanical
interface. Therefore the interface has to be a good thermal conductor. The TEG should be thermal
in parallel, but for increasing the available heat flow through the TEG the thermal conduction to the
floor has to be decreased. In most cases this is not possible to prevent the unit against overheating. In
summary this kind of integration is promising concerning available heat flows but not suitable due to
the influence on the thermal housekeeping of the satellite.
More interesting is the integration of a TEG between two redundant electronic units. For a higher
reliability important components are often duplicated. In Sentinel-2 these units are located side by
side but only one of them is working. For an evenly aging the satellite switches between the two
units periodically. Such a design and operation can be found in a lot of satellites. By operating the
unit heat is produced. However the inactive unit is significantly colder. Therefore a heat flow occurs
if a TEG is integrated between the active and the inactive component. This heat flow can be used
for generating power and also to adjust the temperatures of both units. In the studies according
to Sentinel-2 up to 50 mW electrical power can be generated. But in most configurations that were
analysed the electrical power is in the range of 10 mW. Nevertheless, using this heat flows is an elegant
way for integrating TEGs in satellites. The main disadvantage is that the power is only available if the
satellite and its components are working. In these cases power from the solar panels is also available
and therefore some milliwatts do not cause a significant change.
The third investigated group of potential applications is represented by an attachment to the solar
panel. Sentinel-2 has one traced solar panel. Therefore inside the structure of the panel a high heat
flow occur due to the fact that a part of the absorbed solar radiation is heat that has to be radiated to
space. This is done by the backside of the solar panel. The heat flow is distributed on the whole cross
sectional area of the panel, so the specific heat flow is low. To use the heat for conversion into electrical
power it is mandatory to focus on these heat flows. This can be done by decreasing the thermal
conductivity between the two surfaces and the integration of thermoelectric generator in parallel to
this conductor. The main problem of this approach is that the solar cells will become hotter than in the
standard configuration. Since the efficiency of solar cells decreases with higher temperatures, there
could be a negative impact on the available electrical power of the satellite. Another approach is the
usage of flexible TEGs that are mounted at the front surfaces thermal in parallel to the structure. Even
in this case the thermal conductivity of the panel structure has to be decreased. In our studies we
Energies 2016, 9, 541 10 of 14

analysed the electrical potential at the standard configuration, at halved thermal conductivity and
at an assumed adiabatic structure. Thereby the TEGs have a thermal conductivity of a Kapton foil
and adapted electrical parameters. The main results of these studies are given in Table 1. In total
48 TEGs were evenly distributed. It is obvious that in the adiabatic case the amount of generated
energy is bigger than in the other cases. But also the maximum temperature increases strongly. A
middle course is reducing the internal thermal resistance of the panel since the temperature increases
only by 3 K. By using the standard configuration it would be possible to generate some electrical
energy and having a positive impact on the thermal housekeeping of the solar panel. Due to the low
impact on the manufacturing and design of such panels it would be a preferred application.

Table 1. Main results of the thermal analysis of Sentinel-2 solar panel in different thermal configurations.

Category Standard Halved Adiabatic

Max. Energy per Orbit (Ws) 72 312 11,280
Change of hot case temperature (K) ´1 +3 +35

In summary, inside the satellite usable heat flows are available but only some of them have the
potential for energy harvesting due to the impact on the thermal housekeeping and design of the
satellite. In these cases, especially high heat flows cannot be used.

4.2. Autonomous Systems Powered by Thermoelectric Generators

To generate benefits by using thermoelectric generators in an energy harvesting content it is
mandatory to have electrical loads that can be supplied. The main challenge is the low available
power that is reduced by the required conversion as discussed above. Therefore a feed-in of the
electrical power into the main power system is not feasible. Nevertheless autonomous systems can
be supplied by the generated power. Such systems do not exist on today’s satellites but there are
some requirements for these: There should not be any electrical interface to the satellite, since by
this interface the system can also be powered by the satellite. Furthermore these systems should not
replace common technologies but provide new features. Possible systems could be:

‚ An independent thermal control would increase the reliability of the satellite. Today an active
thermal control is only possible if the satellite is in a nominal working mode. By TEGs different
actuators can be driven to switch heat flows or changing optical surfaces. An approach is to
power electrochromatic devices (ECD) that change their optical properties depending on an
applied voltage [16,17]. Only during the switching power is required. By ECDs radiators can be
controlled and thereby the radiated thermal power. Such systems are of particular interest since
heat flows are always available that can be used directly or in a thermal bypass to avoid higher
thermal resistances.
‚ An independent and simple communication system could enable a basic communication between
the satellite and a ground station. In case of a failure of the satellite or its subsystems this system
can send fundamental information (temperatures, filling level of the tank, etc.). This information
can be used to detect the failure, to repair the satellite or to provide a disposal manoeuvre to avoid
new space debris. It is also conceivable that telecommands are received, processed and different
simple tasks are executed. An example for such tasks is the controlled discharging of the batteries
that is determined in international standards and agreements. A detailed description of such
systems can be found in [18].
‚ Another conceivable application is an autonomous attitude determination. Particularly coarse
earth sun sensors are suitable to be powered by TEGs [19]. Such sensors consist of two adiabatic
mounted equal surfaces with different coatings. So the temperatures driven by the radiation (earth,
sun) of both areas differ. Around the satellite six of these sensors are mounted. By measuring the
temperature differences between the areas of each sensor, the attitude can be determined with
Energies 2016, 9, 541 11 of 14

an accuracy of more than 10˝ . Such sensors are very simple and have a low power demand. By
connecting the surfaces via a TEG, a heat flow occurs that can be converted into electrical power.
Thereby an independent and own power supply can be realised. Of course, the temperatures drop
down, so an optimisation has to be executed. Such raw attitude information can for instance be
used in safe mode or LEOP and an information can be send by the independent communication
system to earth as discussed above.

All applications need next to the TEG an electrical infrastructure that includes a power
management for the conversion and a storage device. It can be expected that generating and consuming
of electrical power is not simultaneously. Therefore the power has to be stored. Due to the transient
thermal conditions there will occur a lot of charging ad discharging cycles. Since batteries are very
sensitive against electrical cycling, they need to have a high mass to fulfil the requirements [20,21].
However, supercaps are suitable for these applications. Next to the insensitivity against cycling they
have not any requirements on the temperature [22,23], but compared to batteries, the self-discharging
is higher. Furthermore the specific energy is quite low. Next to the compensation of a power mismatch
supercapacitors can be used if a low heat flow occurs over a long time and the supplied system only
works
Energies for
2016,a 9,
short
541 time with a higher electrical power. 11 of 14

4.3. Small Satellites

Considering the available electrical power of satellites Cubsats seem to be satellites on which which
TEGs could provide the main electrical power
could provide the main electrical power system. system. Cubesats have an installed power lower than
5 W.
W. Therefore
Therefore also
also some
some milliwatts
milliwatts of of additional
additional power have a high impact on the efficiency of the
satellite. This examination is based on the CubeSat of the Institute of Aerospace Aerospace Engineering at TU
Dresden was used same thing written three different ways in two sentences—pick a style and use it
consistently.
consistently. This
This is
is aa double
doubleunit
unitCubesat
Cubesat(100 (100mmmmˆ× 100 mm mm ˆ 200 mm) that has solar cells on four
× 200
surfaces. Characteristic are the two PCB stacks that have a different orientation. In this configuration
two different
differentdesigns
designswere weretaken
takeninto
intoaccount.
account. The Thethermal model
thermal as shown
model in Figures
as shown 13 and
in Figures 1314 were
and 14
built
were up in ESATAN-TMS
built up in ESATAN-TMS and includes 86 knots.
and includes 86Different conductors
knots. Different between between
conductors the outerthesurfaces
outer
and PCBsand
surfaces arePCBs
implemented; the viewthe
are implemented; factors
viewwere
factorsdetermined by the Monte-Carlo-Method.
were determined by the Monte-Carlo-Method.On the
PCBs
On thedifferent configurations
PCBs different of heat of
configurations loads
heataccording to power
loads according consumption
to power of the of
consumption satellite were
the satellite
foreseen. Next toNext
were foreseen. the mechanical configuration
to the mechanical differentdifferent
configuration operationoperation
modes were investigated.
modes The orbit
were investigated.
is a high ˝ ) that is typical for such scientific missions. Also a
i = 70km,
The orbit inclined
is a highcircular
inclinedorbit (600orbit
circular km, (600 i = 70°) that is typical for such scientific missions.
rotation around around
the flight axis of 0.5 ˝ /s was considered. A verification of the model was not executed
Also a rotation the flight axis of 0.5°/s was considered. A verification of the model was not
due to thedue
executed greatly simplified
to the greatly internal
simplified design. Thisdesign.
internal is mandatory
This is because
mandatory the because
optical and
the geometrical
optical and
properties are very complex (e.g., cables) and therefore the calculation is both,
geometrical properties are very complex (e.g., cables) and therefore the calculation is both, very very time-consuming
and unreliable. But
time-consuming andthe representation
unreliable. But the accuracy is adequate
representation for general
accuracy results.
is adequate for general results.

Figure 13. Thermal

Figure 13. Thermal model
model of
of aa double unit Cubesat
double unit Cubesat including
including solar
solar cells
cells (blue)
(blue) and
and structure
structure (green).
(green).
Energies 2016, 9, 541 12 of 14
Figure 13. Thermal model of a double unit Cubesat including solar cells (blue) and structure (green).

Figure
Figure 14.14. View
Viewononthe
theinternal
internalthermal model
thermal with
model payload
with PCBs
payload (orange)
PCBs andand
(orange) the the
PCBs of the
PCBs of
satellite (red).
the satellite (red).

Although different locations of integration were considered, the potential for an energy
Although different locations of integration were considered, the potential for an energy harvesting
harvesting on small satellites is quite low with today’s technologies. The temperature gradient that
on small satellites is quite low with today’s technologies. The temperature gradient that occurs at the
occurs at the integrated TEG is in all cases lower than 3 K. The highest thermal potential with up to
integrated TEG is in all cases lower than 3 K. The highest thermal potential with up to 3.5 K arises if
3.5 K arises if two facing solar cells are connected directly by a TEG. Due to the integration effort and
two facing solar cells are connected directly by a TEG. Due to the integration effort and specific power
specific power this is only a theoretical approach. The main problem of using the heat inside small
this is only a theoretical approach. The main problem of using the heat inside small satellites is their
satellites is their compact design. In contrast to big satellites the whole internal space of small
compact design. In contrast to big satellites the whole internal space of small satellites is filled by PCBs
and cables. Consequently the heat flow is very diffuse. A great effort would be necessary to concentrate
the heat flows and guide it through a TEG. Since in reality there are much more thermal contacts
between PCBs and the outer surfaces like connectors or cables, the heat flows will be more diffuse.
In summary, an application of TEGs in small satellites is not promising today due to the diffuse
heat flows. Nevertheless, a technology demonstrator will be launched in 2017 on a small satellite built
by TU Dresden. The demonstrator is located under a solar cell that is adapted to this application.
The assumed temperature gradient of 3 K is not high enough to feed in the generated electrical
power into the main power system. But test results show that it is high enough to characterize the
thermoelectric generator under real space conditions. After that mission the results will be used for
further experimental setups and are therefore the next step to bring TEGs into space in an energy
harvesting application.

5. Conclusions
Inside the structure of satellites heat flows occur that are driven by environmental (sun radiation,
etc.) and operational loads (electronics, etc.). These heat flows are unused so far, although there is
a potential for generating electrical power in general. Thereby the generated electrical power can
be used for an increase of the satellites efficiency by a feed-in to the main electrical power system.
Because of the low efficiency of available TEG technology this is not sufficient today. Also inside small
satellites with a very low power demand the generated power is relatively low due to the diffuse
heat flows. Another approach is to use the generated power to increase the reliability of the satellite
by implementing new systems. These systems should have a low power demand and no electrical
interface to the satellite. Tasks of such systems could be an autonomous thermal control or a redundant
communication system as discussed above.
In general it is feasible to use low power thermoelectric generators that are manufactured for
terrestrial applications in space. Examinations of the device behaviour under thermal cycling and
vibration loads show that they can withstand them if they are exposed to medium loads. The diffusion
barrier between the copper contacts and the functional material was identified as a main weakness.
Besides the generator a power-management and an electrical storage system is required. The
power management converts the transient and low voltage into a constant usable voltage. At such low
Energies 2016, 9, 541 13 of 14

voltages the efficiency of this process is in the range of 30%. Storage is used for balancing the power
mismatch because the time of available and required power is not synchronised. A promising storage
is presented by supercapacitors due to their insensitivity to temperature and loading cycles.
It can be expected that generators with better electrical performance will appear on the market.
But according to the physical basics their efficiency will also be limited in future. Another approach is
to develop the manufacturing process towards printing. Consequently large area devices are feasible;
therefore the heat does not to be concentrated. Furthermore functional surface coatings could be
conceivable [7,24,25].
In a next step a technology demonstrator will be launched in 2017 on board of small satellites as
discussed above. The generated power will not be used but the TEGs will be characterised under real
space conditions. New knowledge about the behaviour and thermal potential of space applications for
an energy harvesting is expected.

Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the German Space Administration for funding the project
“Potential of Thermoelectric Generators for Energy Harvesting on Space Systems” and also the European
Commission for funding the NanoCaTe project.
Author Contributions: Marian v. Lukowicz did already the main work like the most examinations and writing
the paper. Elisabeth Abbe did some experimental analysis concerning the discussed application, especially she
made test of screen printing of thermoelectric generators. Tino Schmiel had the original idea for the idea in the
paper and was in charge of managing the research project. Martin Tajmar discussed the appilcations, the ideas
and gave some new approaches.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
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