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URBAN POVERTY AND SOCIAL

EXCLUSION

Edited by

DINESHA P.T

Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy


University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
© Authors

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored,


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The views and opinion expressed in this book is author own and the facts
reported by them have been verified to the extent possible and the
publishers are not in any way liable for the same.

ISBN: 978-81-923619-1-8

Price: 1200/-

First Published in 2017

Published by
Spring Leaf Publications
Vinayaka Nagar, Mysore -570 012
Phone No: 8105806756
Email: jythidcn@gmail.com

Printed at: Sri Annapurna Offset Printers, Mysore, Karnataka

ii
FOREWORD

As per Census of India 2011, there are 7,935 towns in the country. The
number of towns has increased by 2,774 since last Census. The total number
of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is
6166 in the country. Already the number of metropolitan cities with
population of 1 million and above has increased from 35 in 2001 to 50 in
2011 and is expected to increase further to 87 by 2031. The cities in India are
projecting immense development with sky scrapers, fancy flyovers, massive
shopping malls and multiplexes. However, what are co-existing are
problem of poverty, inequality of income, exclusion, lack of basic
infrastructural facilities etc., in urban areas. In India, most studies on
poverty, exclusion, inequality have been centered on the rural areas and
urban areas have received little attention of the policy makers and
academicians. Though, both rural and urban areas struggle with the
developmental problems the picture of urban poverty and exclusion is
unique.
It is revealed that, despite various policies and programmes since
independence, including recent policies, the situation of urban poor is still
not improved up to a satisfactory level due to numerous reasons. It is,
therefore, at this level that social justice and equity issues need to be
addressed in order to create a fair and just social order that will bring
harmony in economic and societal relations. The caste anonymity of
migrants is not enough to allow access to all urban spaces as their social
profiling restricts entry to most of these enclaves and urban spaces in India
have become notorious for being the silent propagators of discrimination
and marginalization. I hope this volume also facilitate to develop some
information and analysis on theoretical understanding and practical
implications of various inclusive urban development initiatives. I take this
opportunity to congratulate Dr. Dinesha P T, and other colleagues of the
CSSEIP centre for this vital volume which will be an added asset to the
existing knowledge.

DR. NANJUNDA D.C


ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
CSSEIP
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE

iii
FROM THE EDITORS DESK
There are many reasons for urban poverty, exclusion and inequality,
which have become the hurdle for the inclusive urban development. One of
the important constraints that poor people face to come out of poverty is
lack of access to credit. It is argued that in spite of large network of finance
companies, urban cooperative societies, private and public sector banks,
ATMs that exist in cities, many of the poor find their financial needs largely
unmet due to many reasons like lack of documentation (permanent
address, ration card, voter card etc) irregular incomes and low degree of
comfort in visiting banks for transactions etc. Migration from the rural to
urban area also adds to problem of urban poverty and social and financial
exclusion. As the number of migrants increase, so does the index of
poverty. The poor do manage to find some work, but it is either not regular
or in the unregulated sector with no guarantee of minimum wages and
number of working hours. Unsecured employment or no employment force
the urban poor to eke out a living somehow. All these problems ultimately
lead to inequality in income and poverty. Hence, there is an urgent need to
find solutions to these problems. In this context the need of the hour is to
discuss the urban problems in-depth and give geographically compatible
and divergent policy measures to bring urban poor and excluded sections
into mainstream development. In this moment we would like to thank
ICSSR and university Mysore for their support. We hope this conference
volume will provide a common platform for current discussion, sharing
ideas, exploring reasons for inequality, social exclusion, financial exclusion,
poverty, lack of basic infrastructural facilities etc. We would like to express
my heartfelt thanks to all the authors who have enriched the book by
contributing their learned papers. I also thank Prof..K.S.Rangappa,
Hon.Vice Chancellor and Prof..Rajanna, Hon. Registrar, University of
Mysore, Mysore for their never ending encouragement and logistic support.
I thank to Dr.Nanjunda and Dr.Siddaraju V.G faculty members, Research
Assistants and Non-Teaching Staff of CSSEIP, University of Mysore for
their support. I acknowledge all others who have supported and assisted
directly and indirectly for completion of this work. I also grateful to the
Spring Leaf Publications Mysore, Manish DTP Centre Mysore and Sri
Annapurna Printers, Mysore Karnataka for publishing this edited volume.

Editor
Dr. Dinesha P.T
iv
CONTENTS

1 Understanding Social Exclusion of Marginal Urban 1-9


Communities in the Benefits of ICDS: Some Findings,
Discussions and Insights from the Case Study
-Devendraraj M

2 Urban Exclusion And Social Stigma: A Case Study Of 10-17


Pettipalam Colony In Thalassery Municipality, Kerala.
-Jyothsna E P

3 Issue Of Marginalization, Exclusion And Poverty Of Dalits 18-28


In Urban Sanitation Occupation
-Kalidas Khobragade

4 Urban Poverty In India And The Role Of Microfinance: 29-36


Issues And Suggestions
-Kiran Kumar P

5 Urbanisation- Its Impact On Coastal / Marine Resources 37-43


In Coastal Karnataka
Gunakara S

6 Urban Agglomeration, Deprivation In Basic Amenities, Poverty 44-52


And Social Exclusion In India
-Sukumaran and Santhosh Areekuzhiyil

7 Demographic Dimensions And Problems Of Slums -A Case 53-62


Study Of Belagavi City
-M.S. Kurani, Prasanna B. Joshi and Abhay M. Patil

8 Problems and prospect of student migrants in Mysuru city- A 63-71


Sociological study.
Jessy C.A Sr.Prafula and Rekha Jadhav Dr.

9 Equality of Educational Opportunity in the Present Context- 72-79


Issues and Challenges.
-Sharmista

10 Housing Problems In Slums: A Case Study In Mangalore City 80-89


-B M Kumara

v
11 Migration and Growth of Urban Population in Karnataka 90-99
-Nagaraj M Muggur

12 Public-Private Partnership In Karnataka 100-107


-J. L. Banashankari

13 NGO and Its Impact on Poverty Reduction in Karnataka: 108-115


An Analysis
-Ramesha H. C. and Dr.K.C. Basavaraju

14 Meeting Urban Environmental Challenges: A Case With 116-125


Solid Waste Management
-Abhay M. Patil, Prasanna B. Joshi and M.S. Kurani

15 Civil Society And Urban Governance Problems In India 126-132


-Ishwarya. R and Ramya.S

16 Socio-Legal Issues of Female Migrants in India 133-139


-Sridevi Krishna

17 An Analysis Of Socio Economic Condition Of Women In 140-148


Slum Area – With Special Reference to Hebbal Extension Area
of Mysore City
-R.H.Pavithra

18 Urbanisation and rising urban poverty with reference to Kodagu 149-158


district
-Girish.H.R

19 A Study of Economic Condition of Slum Dwellers 159-166


- With Special Reference to Slum of South of Kumbarkoppal
-Prakasha.N

20 Corporate Social Responsibility and Urban Development – 167-170


A Conceptual Framework
-Mahesha, V, Siraj Basha, R and Naveen.G.V

21 Regional Disparities, And Social Development In Urban 171-175


India A Study
-G.H.Nagaraju

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22 Exclusion, Poverty And Inequality In Urban India 176-179
An Analysis
-M.D.Umesha

23 Economic Development And Urban Poverty 180-183


-T. Ramesh

24 Analyses of Urban Issues in Karnataka: A Study 184-192


-Huchhe Gowda

25 The Role of Public Private Partnership in 193-202


Infrastructure Development in India
-Veena .K P and Shilpa D

26 Impact Of Global Urbanisation On India 203-208


-Ramesh.M.N and Sneha D.R

27 Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India 209-216


-Ohila MP

28 Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India 217-225


-Wajeeda Bano

29 Urban Poverty: A Threat To Economic Development – A 226-232


Critical Review
-Lija Merin John and Tejashree

30 Bridging Law And Society With Urban Poor’ 233-241


-Vaishnavi Vasanth and Shilpashree L

31 Exclusion Poverty and Inequality in Urban Area 242-248


-Tanya and Shubham C H

32 Rural and urban differential in academic achievement 249-256


among institutionalized adolescent orphans in Kerala
-Jyothy G Vijayan and Santhi S

33 Inclusive Urban Development - Service Sector Employment In 257-263


The Era Of Globalisation
-Margaret Mary

34 Urban Development and Migration in India: An overview 264-270


-Siddaraju VG
vii
35 Urban Cooperatives’ For Social Inclusion: Some Thoughts 271-274
-Nanjunda

36 The Problems of Rural- Urban Women Entrepreneurs in 275-282


Mysore District: A Feministic Study
-Bhaskara.D

37 A Study on Infrastructure Development Projects under 283-290


Public Private Partnership
-Dilip.S.Chavan

38 Dynamics of Poverty Inequality and Exclusion In Urban India: 291-297


Debates And Discussions
-Harendra Singh and Varun Kumar

39 Urban development Vis- A - Vis Social inclusive: A Study of 298-305


CSR in India
-Kavyashree.N

40 Dynamics Of Poverty, Inequality And Exclusion In Urban India 306-312


-Kumar Gaurav And Jasjit Pranjal

41 The Role of Social Inclusion In Tackling The Problem Of Poverty 313-317


Reduction
-Manjunatha K G

42 Socio-Cultural Transformation and Urbanization in India 318-324


-Manjunatha B T

43 MGNREG Act and Urban Migration in Backward Areas – 325-335


A Micro Level Investigation in Yadgir District in Karnataka State
-Ramesh Rangappa, Shripathi Kalluraya P and Anilkumar B Kote

44 Slum Education: Importance of Present And Future Scenario 336-340


-H.N. Narasingappa

45 Performance of National Urban Livelihood Mission in India – 341-348


An Evaluation
-Manjuprasad C, Yogesh H S and Naveenkumar R

46 Policies And Legal Framework For Alleviation Of Poverty: 349-356


Critique Of International and National Efforts.
viii
-Kumar Salva Raghuvanshi and Jwngthima Brahma

47 Roots of Social exclusion 357-364


-Harshit P. Tayal, Jayesh Hariramani and Govind Bhadoria

48 Urban Poverty and Inclusive Growth: An Overview 365-370


-Srikantha K N

49 Effects of Demonetization on Street Vendors 371-375


-Ramesh and Ashraya.S.Chakrabarty

50 Poverty And Social Security Protection Among The Women In 376-380


The Informal Sectors
-Mohan Das. K and Kavallaiah . C

51 Poverty, Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion: Understanding 381-388


Indian Experience
-K.L. Chandrashekhara

51 A Study of Yashasvini Health Insurance Scheme in Urban 389-393


Karnataka
-Dinesha P T and Ramachandra Murthy K

ix
List of Contributors

 Abhay M. Patil, Dr. Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Studies


in Geography, RPD College of Arts and Commerce, Rani Channamma
University, Belagavi.

 Anilkumar B Kote Dr. UGC-Post-Doctoral Fellow, Department of


Studies and Research in Economics Karnatak University, Karnataka

 Ashraya.S.Chakrabarty, Research Assistant, Department of Studies and


Research in Law, Manasagangothri, Mysore.

 B M Kumara Dr, Assistant Professor, Centre for Study of Social


Exclusion and Inclusive Policy(CSSEIP), Mangalore University,
Mangalore, Karnataka

 Bhadoria, 4th year Bsl LLB, ILS Law College, Pune, Maharashtra.

 Bhaskara.D, Research Scholar, Centre For Women’s Studies,


Manasagangothri ,University of Mysore, Karnataka

 Devendraraj M, PhD Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and


Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Maharashtra

 Dinesha P T, Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive


Policy, University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka

 G.H.Nagaraju Dr. Associate Prof. Dept. of Political Science and public


administration, Maharaja’s College university of Msyroe, Karnataka

 Girish.H.R. Assistant Professor, Sarvodaya College of Education,


Virajpet, S. Kodagu, Karnataka

 Gunakara S Dr., Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce, Pompei


College, Aikala, Karnataka

 H.N. Narasingappa, Assistant professor, Hasanamba College of


Education, Hassan- 573202, Karnataka

 Harendra Singh, 4th year, B.A.LL.B. (Hons.), School of Law, Galgotias


University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
x
 Harshit P. Tayal, 4th year Bsl LLB, ILS Law College, Pune, Maharashtra.

 Huchhe Gowda Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Studies in


Economics, Rani Channamma University, Vidyasangama, Belagavi,
Karnataka

 Ishwarya. R, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science,


K.S.O.U, Mysuru, Karnataka

 J. L. Banashankari Dr, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics,


Karnataka State Open University, Muktha Gangothri, Mysuru,
Karnataka

 Jasjit Pranjal, 2nd Year, Bba.Llb, Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad

 Jayesh Hariramani, 4th year Bsl LLB, ILS Law College, Pune,
Maharashtra, Govind

 Jessy C.A Sr.Prafula, Research Scholar, DOS in Sociology, University of


Mysore,Mysore, Karnataka

 Jwngthima Brahma, National Law School Of India University,


Bangalore, Karnataka.

 Jyothsna E P, Research Scholar, Department of Anthropology, Kannur


University, Thalassery Campus Palayad, Kannur District, Kerala.

 Jyothy G Vijayan Department of Education, MSM College of Education,


Kayamkulam Kerala.

 K.C. Basavaraju Dr., Associate Professor DOS in Economics & Co-


operation, University of Mysore, Mysuru Karnataka

 K.L. Chandrashekhara, Research Scholar,University Law College & P.G.


Dept. of Law, Jnanabharati Campus,Bangalore, Karnataka

 Kalidas Khobragade, Research Scholar, Tata Institute of Social sciences


Mumbai, Maharashtra.

 Kavallaiah . C, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science,


SSA, GFGC, Autonomous), Ballari, Karnataka

 Kavyashree.N , Dr., Assistant professor of law, Government law college,


Kolar, Karnataka

xi
 Kiran Kumar P, Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Rani
Channamma University, S.R Kanthi P.G Centre, S.C Nandimath Law
College Premises, Anubhava Sangama, Bagalkot , Karnataka

 Kumar Gaurav, 2nd Year ,Bba.LLB, Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad

 Kumar Salva Raghuvanshi, National Law School Of India University,


Bangalore, Karnataka

 Lija Merin John, 3rd Yr B.A.,LL.B.E, Bangalore Institute of Legal


Studies, Bangalore, Karnataka.

 M.D.Umesha Dr Faculty Dept. of Gandhian Studies Manasagangothri


Mysore University, Mysore, Karnataka

 M.S. Kurani Dr., Assistant Professor, Department of Studies in


Geography, RPD College of Arts and Commerce, Rani Channamma
University, Belagavi.

 Mahesha, V, Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce,


Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru, Karnataka

 Manjunatha B T, Research scholar, Department of sociology, Bangalore


University, Bangalore-560056, Karnataka

Manjunatha K G, Research scholar, Department of Studies in English,


Gnanabarathi Campus, Bangalore University, Karnataka

 Manjuprasad C. Dr., Research Assistant (ICSSR Project), Centre for


Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, University of Mysore,
Mysore.

 Margaret Mary, Assistant Professor of Commerce, Maharani’s


Commerce and Management College for Women, JLB Road, Mysore,
Karnataka.

 Mohan Das. K, Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Studies in


Political Studies, VSKU, Ballari, Karnataka

 Nagaraj M Muggur Dr. Assistant Professor cum Assistant Director,


Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSEIP)
Mangalore University, , Mangalore, Karnataka

Nanjunda, Centre Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy,


Humanities Block University of Mysore, Mysore- Karnataka.

xii
 Naveen.G.V, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Karnataka
State Open University, Mysuru, Karnataka.

 Naveenkumar R., Research Scholar, DoS in Economics and Cooperation,


University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India

 Ohila MP, Research Scholar, DOS in Journalism and Communication,


University Of Mysore Manasagangothri, Mysoru, Karnataka.

 Prakasha.N Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,


Government First Grade College, Krishnarajanagar, Mysore, Karnataka

 Prasanna B. Joshi, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Studies in


Economics, RPD College of Arts and Commerce, Rani Channamma
University, Belagavi, Karnataka

 Prof.Dilip.S.Chavan, Asst. Professor, SBES College of Arts and


Commerce Auranagabad, Maharashtra

 R.H.Pavithra Dr., Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,


Karnataka State Open University Muktha Gangotri, Mysore, Karnataka

 Ramachandra Murthy K, Research Scholar, DoS in Economics and Co-


operation, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysuru.

 Ramesh Rangappa, Research Scholar, Department of Studies and


Research in Economics, Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka.

 Ramesh, Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Studies and Research


in Law. Manasagangothri, Mysore.

 Ramesh.M.N., Dr., Assistant Professor, Dept of Political Science, Rani


Channamma University, Belagavi, Karnataka.

 Ramesha H. C, Research Scholar, DOS in Economics & Co-operation,


University of Mysore, Mysuru, Karnataka

 Ramya.S, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, K.S.O.U,


Mysuru, Karnataka

 Rekha Jadhav Dr. Associate Professor, Maharajas College, University of


Mysore, Karnataka

 Santhi S, Department of Education, MSM College of Education,


Kayamkulam Kerala

xiii
 Santhosh Areekuzhiyil, Assistant Professor in Educational Psychology,
Government Brennen College of Teacher Education Thalassery, Kannur.
Kerala

 Sharmista Dr., Associate Professor, BGS.B.Ed college, Mysore,


Karnataka

 Shilpa D. Research Scholar, Dept. of Master of Business Administration


(MBA), Visvesvaraya Technological University, Post Graduation
Studies, Mysore Regional Centre, Mysore, Karnataka.
 Shilpashree L , 3rdYr B.A.,LL.B. Bangalore Institute of Legal Studies,
BTM layout Bangalore, Karnataka

 Shripathi Kalluraya P, Dr. Professor and Research Guide, Department


of Studies and Research in Economics, Mangalore University,
Mangalore, Karnataka

 Shubham Ch., Designation: Student, 4th year, B.A.LL.B, Bangalore


Institute of Legal Studies, BTM layout Bangalore, Karnataka

 Siddaraju V.G, Associate Professor, Centre for Study of Social Exclusion


and Inclusive Policy, University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India.

 Siraj Basha, R, Assistant Professor, Department of Management,


Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru, Karnataka

 Sneha D.R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Political Science, Indo Asian


Academy, Hennur Crosss, Bangalore, Karnataka.

 Sridevi Krishna, Assistant Professor, Vidyavardhaka Law College,


Mysuru, Karnataka

 Srikantha K N, Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive


Policy, University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India.

 Sukumaran, Research Scholar, Government Brennen College of Teacher


Education Thalassery, Kannur. Kerala

 T. Ramesh, Dr., Faculty, DOS in Gandhian Studies, Manasagangothri,


University of Mysore, Karnataka.

 Tanya, Student, 4th year, B.A.LL.B, Bangalore Institute of Legal Studies

 Tejashree R, 3rd Yr B.A.,LL.B.E, Bangalore Institute of Legal Studies,


Bangalore, Karnataka

xiv
 Vaishnavi Vasanth, 3rdYr B.A.,LL.B. Bangalore Institute of Legal
Studies Bangalore, Karnataka

 Varun Kumar, 4th year, B.A.LL.B. (Hons.), School of Law, Galgotias


University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh

 Veena .K P, Dr. Associate Professor, Dept. of Master of Business


Administration (MBA), Visvesvaraya Technological University, Post
Graduation Studies, Mysore Regional Centre, Mysore, Karnataka.

 Wajeeda Bano Dr., Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,


Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka.

 Yogesh H S., Dr. Post Doctoral Fellow, DoS in Economics and


Cooperation, University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India

xv
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Understanding Social Exclusion of Marginal Urban


Communities in the Benefits of ICDS: Some Findings,
Discussions and Insights from the Case Study

Devendraraj M
Introduction:
The concepts of social exclusion and inclusion have been widely
discussed in both policy and academic arenas for the last two decades. The
concepts and definitions of social exclusion vary according to countries,
communities and social groups. And also, it varies according to time. De Haan
(1999) defined social exclusion as ‘the process through which individuals or
groups are wholly or partially excluded from full participation in the society
within which they live’. Miller, J (2007) stated the need to understand the
dynamics of social exclusion and the need to measure social exclusion
according to social indicators overtime. Social inclusion refers to a policy
designed to ensure that all people are able to participate in society regardless
of their background or specific characteristics, which may include: language,
culture, gender, disability, social status, age, and other factors. The goal of
social inclusion is to give all people an equal chance for participation in
society.

Background of objectives of ICDS: A brief understanding


NIPCCD (2006) gives a detail picture of ICDS and its objectives. It has
been summarized here. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is the
only major national programme that addresses the needs of children under the
age of six years. It is the largest child care program in the world. It seeks to
provide young children with an integrated package of services such as
supplementary nutrition, health care and preschool education. Because the
health and nutrition needs of a child cannot be addressed in isolation from
those of his or her mother, the program also extends to adolescent girls,
pregnant women and nursing mothers. ICDS program was launched on 2
October, 1975. It is one of the country’s most comprehensive & multi-

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

dimensional programs. State government takes the basic responsibility of


implementing the program. The nodal department responsible for
implementing ICDS at the state level is typically the Women and Child
Development Department, or sometimes a related department (e.g. the Social
Welfare Department). ICDS program is universal one and it mainly targets the
children and women who belong to low socio-economic criteria. The services
offer by ICDS are i) Immunization, ii) Health Check-up iii) Referral Services iv)
Nutrition and Health Education v) Supplementary Nutrition vi) Early
Childhood Care and preschool education (ICDS, Government of India).
Centrally sponsored ICDS Scheme is implemented in all 32 districts of
Tamilnadu with 434 Projects. In Tamil Nadu, ICDS is being implemented
through 54,439 Child Centres (comprising 49,499 Anganwadi Centres and
4,940 Mini Anganwadi Centres) in 434 Child Development Blocks (385 rural,
47 urban and 2 tribal). (Government of Tamil Nadu, Policy note, 2013 - 2014).

A brief review of literature and research gaps:


NCEAR (2001) made concurrent evaluation of the ICDS and evaluated
the overall functioning of the ICDS and its administration. NCEAR found out
the key weaknesses in ICDS and gave some recommendations to the
administration to ameliorate that. It pointed out that ICDS failed to gather
community support while implementing the places where scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes live. Children from wealthier households participate
much more than poorer ones.
Harsh Mander and his team in their study on ICDS (2005) explored about the
social exclusion in ICDS. They made researches through a wide range of
instruments to assess and locate exclusion in ICDS. They attempted to
introduce the concept of social exclusion in ICDS and gave evidence that
substantial number of eligible children do not avail good services of ICDS in
rural India and as well as urban India. This study gave some suggestions &
recommendations to the authorities to improve social inclusion in ICDS.
Kaveri Gill, 2012 discussed the social welfare programs through social
exclusion lens. She discussed how gender, caste and other social exclusionary
forces excluded certain community/social groups to get the benefits of social
flagship programs. After that, she discussed how scheduled caste and
scheduled tribes people are excluded from the benefits of ICDS and how they
are denied to get access of the implementation and delivery of the schemes.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

She also discussed about ‘macro-institutional bias’ and ‘micro institutional


bias’ in ICDS and how scheduled caste and scheduled tribes are getting
affected and denied to get access of the benefits of ICDS.
Dilip Diwakar G, 2014 studied how caste and class play the roles in
deciding the utilization of ICDS in Tamil Nadu. This study shows that the
‘poorer’ sections of SC utilize the benefits of ICDS than the ‘poorest’ sections.
Also, the ‘poorer’ sections have more chances of utilizing the benefits of ICDS
than the ‘poorest’ sections as they have less social vulnerabilities and social
exclusionary factors than the ‘poorest’ section. This study emphasized the fact
that among all class and caste groups the “poorest” SCs in Tamil Nadu have
utilized the benefits of ICDS at least. It emphasized the danger of targeting the
poor as a homogenous category without considering the fact that ‘caste’ plays
the dominant role in deciding the utilization of ICDS. Malnourishment among
the poorest section of SC remains higher than other social groups due to social
exclusionary factors and these factors play the major in hindering the
utilization of ICDS among the SC people.
Mamgain & Diwakar, 2012 reviewed the social exclusion of scheduled
caste children and mothers in the utilization of ICDS. This study addresses the
exclusion of scheduled caste section in access, participation, implementation
and delivery process of both ICDS and mid-day meal schemes. It also suggests
a number of recommendation measures to ensure greater participation by
marginalized groups like scheduled caste sections in service planning,
implementation and delivery processes of the schemes. Also, it suggests policy
guidelines to the government and policy planners to ensure the participation
of marginalized section towards ICDS. Overall, it reviews the exclusion and
addresses the discrimination of SC sections in the schemes that are mostly
nuanced and uncovered.
UNICEF recent survey on malnutrition (2011) stated that almost two
thirds of Tamil Nadu’s children are anemic and about one third are
undernourished; it make them more susceptible to serious illness. Apart from
these, many challenges are there to ensure the quality of education,
particularly for children who belong to scheduled caste and tribes. The
literature shows that despite Tamil Nadu play well in alleviating malnutrition
and improving the status of preschool education, some more special
considerations are must to ensure proper implementation and delivery of the
government’s flagship programs like ICDS. Harsh Mander & Kumaran, 2012

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

stated that there is a wide evidence that large number of eligible children and
beneficiaries do not avail, deny, exclude, discriminate the utilization of the
Integrated Child Development Scheme in India due to their caste, religion,
location, race, disability and other social and economic reasons. This study
analyzed whether social exclusionary factors that deny community
participation in ICDS and explored about the ways to interconnect social
inclusion and community participation in urban blocks of ICDS. The proper
understanding, awareness and satisfaction regarding ICDS are indispensable
for the participation of community with this scheme. So, this study also
analyzed about the awareness, perception and satisfaction of the community
about this scheme in those blocks. The research was conducted to address the
following research questions. i) Are there any social barriers that disrupt the
urban community for good social inclusiveness and effective participation
towards ICDS? If yes, does it results to the social exclusion of any social
groups in the community? ii) What are the influences and mutual impacts
between community participation and social inclusion of the community
towards the scheme?

Research setting: A brief overview


The selection of the particular urban blocks and the samples were made
on the purposive sampling method. Since this study analyzed about social
exclusion, community participation and social inclusiveness of the scheme, the
samples include parents of the children benefitting from ICDS services,
parents who are not benefitting from ICDS, pregnant women and their family,
Anganwadi workers and helpers, child development officers and authorities
for execution of ICDS in the particular areas.
The research was conducted in both urban and rural blocks of ICDS in
Tiruppur district. It is to noted that the present article utilizes only a selective
part of the findings of the study. The research was conducted as a part of
M.Phil research work of the author in the year 2011 - 2012. On the basis of the
research gaps, the particular research setting was selected. Pilot study was
directly conducted by the researcher in the field to get knowledge about ICDS
program and the perception and participation of the children’s parents
towards the program. Informal discussions were made with the parents of the
particular research setting and Anganwadi teachers and workers to get good
understanding about their socio-economic nature and the various social

4
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

factors that deny/discriminate/exclude them to participate with the program


in the processes. It was helpful to understand the ways that they exclude from
the utilization of ICDS in both obvious and nuance ways. On the basis of that,
interview schedule was prepared. This paper presents the findings of the
research that was conducted in Six ICDS centres in the urban blocks of ICDS.
All of them are situated in Tiruppur city. The particular ICDS centres were
selected after getting guidance of the project officer. Also, these ICDS centres
were purposively selected because these areas are socially and economically
backward regions; most of their livelihoods depend on every day and weekly
wages. Also, substantial numbers of families in the areas belong to scheduled
caste. Majority of the families in the region are Hindus. More than 80 percent
of the respondents interviewed have less than tenth standard education.

Research methods
Case-study research design method was adopted to conduct the study as it is
most suitable to collect collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. It
allows flexibility and simplicity in the data collection (Eisenhardt, K M, 1989).
The method adopted to conduct this study is both quantitative and qualitative.
The author adopted a fixed schedule to cover each centre. The parents
whoever are available during this period were interviewed by the researcher.
By adopting this strategy, the researcher was able to collect the data from
around 60 respondents. Also, the author conducted interviews with the
Anganwadi teacher and the worker of the particular centre. It should be noted
that this paper selectively and partially utilized the data that comes from both
methods. The primary data (quantitative) was analyzed in SPSS software and
the results are interpreted. The primary data (qualitative) was sorted in excel
sheets and the results were manually interpreted. This paper selectively
utilizes the primary data and the discussions are made on the basis of the
findings that come from that data.

Findings: A brief overview


Around 30 percent of the respondents (beneficiaries) belong to scheduled caste
and 45 percent of the beneficiaries belong to backward caste and the remaining
beneficiaries belong to most backward caste. This article gives more emphasis
to the responses of the scheduled caste people and their exclusion and
inclusion towards the scheme. The interviews and the discussions with the

5
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

respondents reveal the disappointing picture of the community participation


towards the scheme. The study shows that around 25 percent of the
respondents participated in ICDS program to improve the efficiency and
around 75 percent of the respondents never participated in any activities and
processes of ICDS program. They simply remained as beneficiaries. Despite
the respondents show interest to involve themselves in monitoring activities
like checking the food and water that are provided by ICDS centres to their
children, they don’t show interest to involve themselves in planning and
implementation activities of ICDS. It is to be noted that the parents who
belong to SC community don’t have any awareness of participation towards
ICDS. Also, questions were posed to them about the denial of access and
discrimination of Anganwadi workers towards them in the utilization of ICDS.
It was found that the majority of the respondents (SC community) had not
faced any discrimination or exclusion from the Anganwadi workers and
teachers. Also, there are no chances of getting discriminated due to their caste
as the Anganwadi teachers and workers are also belong to the same
community. It was found that some ICDS centres are situated in the areas
where the SC community people mostly populated. In such centres, almost all
the beneficiaries belong to SC community. Hence, in such cases, there are very
less chances of getting discriminated or excluded from the utilization of ICDS.
But, we should also note that though there have not been deliberate attempts
to exclude certain community from the utilization of ICDS, there are many
subtle ways of social exclusion. Some of the subtle ways of social exclusion of
certain community or the beneficiaries who belong to backward section are
there in the planning and implementation of the scheme. The ICDS centres
which are located in the areas where SC community people populated lack
good infrastructure facilities and adequate spaces as compared to the ICDS
centres of the other areas. There were many administrative reasons were
attributed to the lack of proper infrastructure facilities such as lack of fund
resources and spaces etc. But still it is easy to feel some isolation and exclusion
of SC community people in the planning and implementation of the program.
The author directly interviewed the parents of the children and Anganwadi
workers and found that 58 percent of the respondents accepted that
Anganwadi workers and ANM visited their house for delivering services but
42 percent of the respondents denied that they never visited their home to
deliver the services of ICDS. This shows that the direct visitation of the ANMs

6
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

to the respondent’s home seem somewhat less. The remaining respondents


replied that ANMs used to visit to the particular ICDS centres in certain period
intervals; in that place, only ANMs interact with all the respondents. Also, it
was found that the visits of ANMs to the houses of SC community people are
less than the visits of ANMs to the people who belong to other community.
Anganwadi workers and teachers said some reasons such as administrative
procedures, lack of human and fund resources to the less visits of ANMs to the
houses of SC community people. But still, this study unearths some interesting
subtle social exclusionary forces in the delivery of the schemes at ground
level. It has been found that the voice of the beneficiaries who are in marginal
strata (both economic and social) are often unheard in the planning and
implementation of the scheme. The beneficiaries suggested many measures to
improve the scheme at the times of interviews; but they are not aware of how
to convey their voices to the people who administer this scheme.
It has been found that the people who belong to SC community have much
hesitation to raise their voices and to convey their needs. The interviews and
discussions with the beneficiaries show that more than 90 % of the poorest
section of scheduled caste people are not aware of the importance of their
participation with the scheme. Though they are largely benefited from ICDS,
they are not aware of the ways to participate with the scheme. It has been
found that no officers or other community people are making any deliberate
attempts to deny the access of the benefits of the scheme; but still, we can have
a feel of social exclusion in ICDS when we compare the facilities and the types
of services in the ICDS centres which are located in the areas where scheduled
caste people live with the other ICDS centres. We can understand the social
exclusionary forces that prevail in the society to hamper the utilization of
ICDS. Apart from caste, class also plays a major role in excluding and
discriminating the beneficiaries from the utilization of ICDS.

Concluding discussion
It is understood that mostly the people who belong to the lower strata of the
society are the main target groups of this scheme. This study shows that the
people who belong to the lower strata of the society are not ready to
participate for the effective implementation of this scheme as they are daily
wage labourers. At maximum, they can participate in any small meetings at
weekend days in the ICDS centres and they can convey their needs to the

7
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Anganwadi workers. Apart from that, they don’t have any ideas to render
their participation towards the scheme. The research shows that this scheme
(ICDS) approach all the sections of the people in the community through same
policies and guidelines. Though this approach takes care all the sections of the
society, some more social inclusionary policies are necessary to include the
marginal urban communities and the ‘poorest’ section of the society. This
article urges the need to conduct more researches to understand ‘social
inclusion’ in ICDS that will lead to provide high quality innovative strategies.
Moreover, this will open the path to future researchers in the area of
community involvement in framing social welfare schemes, the role of social
capital and the need to include social inclusionary measures to ensure the
participation of marginal strata of urban community in ICDS.

References:
 De Haan, A 1999. Social Exclusion: Towards an Holistic Understanding of Deprivation,
Social Development Department, Dissemination Note No. 2, Department for
International Development, London, U.K.
 Dilip Diwakar G, 2014. Addressing utilization of the ICDS programme in Tamil
Nadu, India: how class and caste matters. International Journal of Sociology and
Social Policy, Vol. 34:3/4, 166 – 180/
 Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of
Management Review, 14 (4), 532–550.
 Harsh Mander & Kumaran, M, 2005. Social Exclusion in ICDS: A Sociological
Whodunit? Retrieved from
ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/food/resource/res15071101.
 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme. Ministry of Women and
Child Development Website, Government of India. Retrieved from
http://wcd.nic.in/icds.html
 ICDS Scheme in Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from Department of Social Welfare and
NMP, Government of Tamil Nadu Website: http://icds.tn.nic.in
 Kaveri Gill, 2012. Promoting ‘Inclusiveness’: A Framework for Assessing India’s
Flagship Social Welfare Programmes. UNICEF India. New Delhi.
 Mamgain Rajendra P and G. Dilip Diwakar, 2012. ‘Elimination of identity-based
discrimination in food and nutrition programs in India’, IDS Bulletin, Vol. 43,
Special issue, July 2012, pp-25-31
 Millar, J., 2007. Social Exclusion and Social Policy Research: Defining Exclusion.
In: Abrams, D., Christian, D. and Gordon, D., eds. Multidisciplinary handbook of
social exclusion research. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 1-16.
 National Council of Applied Economic Research, 2001. Concurrent Evaluation of
the ICDS. (Vol, 1). New Delhi. Retrieved from.

8
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

http://www.sccommissioners.org/News/Documents/ICDS_Literature-Survey-
on-ICDS.pdf
 NIPCCD, 2006. National evaluation of Integrated Child Development services,
New Delhi.
 NIPCCD, 2009. Research on ICDS: An Overview (1996-2008) - Volume 3. Ministry
of Women & Child Development. Retrieved from NIPCCD website.
 Policy note, 2013. Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from minister for social
welfare and nutritious meal programme department.
 UNICEF, 2011. The Situation of Children in India: A Profile. New Delhi.
Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org
 Note: The present paper comes from the M.Phil research work of the author. The
primary data of this research was collected for about 2 months in the years 2011
and 2012.

9
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

2
Urban Exclusion and Social Stigma: A Case Study of
Pettipalam Colony in Thalassery Municipality, Kerala.

Jyothsna E P

Introduction
This paper attempts to look at the everyday living condition of the people of
Pettipalam colony in the outskirts of Thalassery municipality in Kannur district
of Kerala, whose lives are made miserable by the waste dumping site of the
municipality. In the municipality’s efforts at greater urbanization, modernity
and aesthetic town development, a few communities have been pushed to the
peripheries; exclusion from the urban center and its amenities have pushed
these populations to inhabit the available wasteland in the suburbs, thus
forming a congested urban slum where urban wastes and refuse get dumped. In
approaching the issue of social exclusion arising out of urban development and
beautification, this grass root level empirical study attempts a critical
engagement with the living condition of the affected people of Pettipalam and
the everyday practices of waste management of the Thalassery municipality, in
the context of revised rules and policies of waste management.

Study Area and Methodology


The study was conducted in the Thalassery municipality of Kannur district,
Kerala state; it covers an area of 23.93 sq.kms. It is located in the western coast of
the Kannur district. Thalassery is half island lying on the banks of the rivers and
surrounded by the Arabian Sea. Geographically the town is surrounded by sea.
The town is situated between 11°44’N latitude and 75°26’E longitude, at an
altitude ranging between 2.5 m above the mean sea-level in the low-lying areas, to
30 m above the mean sea-level in the higher regions. As per the 2011 Census
Report of the Government of India, the total population of the municipality is
92,558.
This person who was excluded from Thalassery’s urbanization and
beautification and got pushed to the puramboke land (waste land) of the
municipality in Pettipalam is the study population here. The study sample
comprises of 50 households, including 20 households living in the flat built by the

10
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

municipality to resettle them when they were dislocated from the railway
precincts on account of urban developments initiated in the area and the rest of
the people are in the single huts.
Data collection was done through various anthropological techniques like
Observation, Interview and case studies. Secondary sources were also utilised to
interpret data on the topic and to understand existing rules and regulations
regarding waste management and practical problems if any, in complying with
the rules.

Thalassery’s Urban Ambitions and the Unwitting Creation of a Slum


In the mid-half of the 20th century Thalassery had actively engaged in
commercial trade and contributions of Europeans had influenced Thalassery’s
industrial development. An unusual increase in population had been observed
from the 1960s mainly as a result of the geographical expansion of the
municipality. Diverse cultures and communities in the area resulted. Earlier,
the main town center of Thalassery was very small and included the vegetable
market, fish market, and slaughter houses located in front of the municipality
office itself and the nearby places were covered with wetlands, ponds, and
rivers. Many of the population had come from Tamil Nadu and a few others—
gypsies-- from Mangalore in Karnataka. The main source of income of all these
people came from train begging. ‘Theevandi kulam’(railway pond) near rail way
station acres of land covered with water, part of this area and street path was
their habitat of the community. Migrated people settled in this area for easy to
transportation and they built small huts and started settled life.
In the beginning there were 23 households and the number increased later.
Thalassery appeared like a ‘cheri’ (slum) and these people quarrelled with each
other day and night. Their quarrels and the insanitary atmosphere disturbed the
inhabitants of Thalassery, who started to protest against these newcomer
communities and burnt their huts and evicted them from the heart of Thalassery
town. These newcomers had no space to shelter and they slept on footpaths and
railway premises. Some political groups took up their cause; they started agitation
before the municipal office demanding shelter. On the fifth day of the agitation one
child died due to health problem and this gave ammunition to the agitation and the
agitators became violent. It was then that municipality allotted one-and-a half acre
puramboke land near the seashore for their settlement near the municipality waste
dumping site. Pettipalam colony thus emerged in 1978.

11
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The new infrastructural developments of railway station and bus station


came at the expense of the Theevandikulam which got filled. It had taken six long
years to complete the targeted buildings, roads, and markets and the big
commercial establishments like hotels and restaurants, textile industry etc. that are
now found around the railway lines and station. Now Thalassery is on the way to
becoming a mega city. Nearly 120 textile shops and more than 150 hotels and
restaurants, petty shops, cool bars, tea shops, coffee house etc. exist in Thalassery.
now. 14 registered slaughtering houses, of which more than five are functioning
illegally, one fish market on the seashore and one vegetable market near the new
bus stand also can be found today. Twelve registered hospitals and thirty two other
medical institutions including clinics and medical shops, and fourteen public
education institutions have also come up. Three parks and a major drive-in beach
that is claimed to be the largest and the most beautiful drive-in beach in South Asia
have been developed, aiming to attract tourists to Thalassery. The urbanisation of
Thalassery town has reached an accelerated momentum. What is not immediately
visible amidst these welcoming changes is the fact that these beautifications and
infrastructural developments have cast aside some people who had lived near the
railways and that where they came to be relocated now happens to be where the
urban population’s increasing waste gets dumped.

Plight of Pettipalam colony


This wasteland is in a very unhygienic situation. The people of Thalessry
called this area ‘Cheri’ (slum) and do not give a second thought to the miserable
living conditions of the people living therein. In the place of the 23 households,
now there are 80 houses and demographic profile shows 163 males and 229
females. Sixty households still live in single room huts; two or three generations
huddle together and there is no separate room for cooking and sleeping. There are
no toilets, public or private and the necessity to openly defecate embarrass both
male and female. Children and men bath before the public tap in the community.
Some people also use pond near dumping sites of the municipality for bathing and
washing etc. These dumping areas and seashore are the places of open defecation.
Twenty households inhabit five flats built by the municipality in the area,
with toilet and separate bath rooms but the people living in the flats do not allow
these facilities to be shared by the others in the community who are denied toilet
facilities. For the seventy six households that applied, paying ten percentage of

12
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

beneficiary funds, only five flats have been built. This shows the insufficient
housing for these dislocated people.

Of the total population of 392 in the puramboke land, only 371 people are literate,
most of them female (221). Bachelor degree is the highest educational level in the
community. Most of these people have no stable occupation. Now the source of
income has changed; from begging in trains, they have moved to diverse
occupations like fishing, wage labor, driver, head load worker, bookkeepers in
shops, nurse, washer men, domestic labor, making of soaps and detergent
powders, organizing themselves into self-help groups. Some people collect old
clothes from houses and sell these second-hand clothes on the wayside. In the
household survey both male and female are income generators, majority of
household heads are female, and they bring income to the family. The male
members are getting income, but a major chunk of their income is being spent for
alcohol, drugs and smoking. Majority of the people in this new formed colony are
Muslims, but some Hindus and three Christian households are there. Inter-
marriages happen.

The living setting has a vital role in the health of the community especially in the
slums. If living environment is poor, this will get reflected in the poor health of the
people (Gangadharan, 2008). The community’s health condition is very poor; one
year back, all people in the colony had fever. Water from polluted pools used for
drinking and bathing cause spread of diseases. Eighty percentages of all human
diseases are linked to unsafe water, poor sanitation and lack of basic knowledge of
hygiene. According to Donaldson (1976), the health status of inner urban area is
worse compared to the urban centers with their problem of unemployment,
overcrowding, air pollution etc.

One of the major reasons of ill-health of the people of Pettipalam, is the


unscientific and unsatisfactory treatment of municipality solid waste management
system. Among the affected populations those who are economically sound alone
have started to protest the municipality’s waste management practice of dumping
Thalassery’s waste in Pettipalam; those who have absolutely no financial stability
maintain a silence despite the gravity and injustice of their situation because of
their greater vulnerability and sense of social exclusion. The community has
become victim of the developing municipality’s illegal waste management system.

13
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

For more than 140 years continuously, Thalassery has been dumping its waste in
the trenching ground near the Pettipalam in New Mahe Panchayat. When
originally that practice began the area was a sterile uninhabited land, population
very low also in the surrounding areas and wastes were not so hazardous as it is
today because most of the wastes then were food waste, paper etc., all degradable
wastes. They used this land as a trenching ground. There were no environmental
concerns then. Later the population increased in that area, and also the amount of
waste dumped here increased due to the increase in industries, hotels and
hospitals in Thalassery and the discard of plastics is very high. The plastic waste
from hotels, plastic bags, covers etc. and the disposable syringes, bottles, blood
and urine bags, catheters, surgical gloves, etc used in healthcare are mixed into the
compostable ones. The mixing of waste causes foul smell besides spread of
epidemics. 30-35 tons of waste per day is dumped in the trenching ground. People
living in surrounding areas complain of many health problems like lung disease
and asthma and most of the diseases increase in the rainy season. Both
municipality wastes and some of the hospital liquid wastes are dumped in the
coastal region where most of the people are engaged in fishing. During fishing,
many times, instead of fish, they catch waste in their nets. Due to the toxic wastes
in water fishes are becoming extinct. Thus, this waste disposal is also affecting
their livelihood.
Pettipalam residents also complain that they are facing the problem of drinking
water. Of the nine public taps, only five are working, and quarrels for water are
frequent. The public tap water is not only uncertain, but also its quality is suspect
due to its yellow color. When there is water scarcity, people have to cut across the
National highway and the railway line to collect water from the public well that is
located one k.m away from their settlement. In open wells in the area water purity
is said to have decreased. This too leads to many health problems.

Protests for Inclusionary Rights


Waste dumping in Pettipalam and the stigma of living amidst waste negatively
impact peoples’ lives. To protest the exclusion from basic civil rights and
inclusion in citizen’s basic rights, the people of Pettipalam have organized an
action committee and have voiced protest against the waste dumping.
Pettipalam local agitation continued for one hundred and forty days from October
31st, 2011 to March 20th 2012. This prolonged agitation made the municipality stop
its waste dumping in this place. It is however, interesting that the study

14
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

community of Pettipalam colony did not participate in the agitation because they
were “outsiders” who in-migrated to Kerala and got settled in the municipality
puramboke land and somehow did not feel the exclusion. For a migrant nomadic
population from diverse and difficult backgrounds, settling in Pettipalam as a
community might have been inclusion, however peripheral.

23 Years old woman named Jisha shared with me the difficulties she faced during
her pregnancy periods and delivery. She was carrying twins and there was
deficiency of amniotic fluid in her sac. It caused complications and she gave birth
in the seventh month of her pregnancy. There was no toilet facility in her home.
They go to seashore early in the morning, preferably before four ‘o’ clock, for open
defecation, to avoid the fishermen who might be out for fishing. During
pregnancy period also, the need to go to seashore for defecation, made her control
her eating. As she used clothes during her menstrual periods, scarcity of water
made her not to change the blood stained clothes frequently. They use diapers for
babies due to the problem of having to wash napkins and throw the soiled diapers
into the sea.

A 55 year old informant—Krishnan--, a social worker, speaks of the outsiders’


approach towards people in this community. Now the colony people are
educated, working in different areas and also engaged in different economic
activities, but outsiders still consider them as beggars, he regrets. He says that for
15 years they have been demanding homes but only five flats have been provided
so far and only twenty families resettled; 56 families are still waiting for a house.
He concludes that they are the excluded people and that they have a request to be
considered as human beings.

Waste—Municipality’s responsibility? Revision in Policies


According to Misra and Prasad (1992), ten percentage of urban solid waste
everywhere is buried in unsanitary landfills, and the rest is allowed to spread
along the road, in barren lands, in ditches and even in rivers and oceans. They
caution that insanitation and diseases are two main outcomes of solid waste. The
public waste dumping sites are full beyond capacity. The excluded populations
are the main victims of these management practices and they are humiliated by
the mainstream of the city.

15
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Kerala Municipality Act 1994 and the Panchayat Raj Act 1994 (together they may
be called the LSGB [Local Self – government Body] Acts)), clearly point out that it
is the duty of LSGBs to ensure proper sanitation and a clean and safe environment.
LSGBs also have rights regarding the waste generated in the Panchayat or
municipalities. Nevertheless, many Panchayats and Municipalities fail to rise up to
this responsibility due to various factors. The Environment Ministry has revised
Solid Waste Management Rules after 16 years. The Rules are now applicable
beyond Municipal areas and extend to urban agglomerations, census towns,
notified industrial townships, areas under the control of Indian Railways, airports,
airbase, port and harbor, defense establishments, special economic zones, State
and Central government organizations, places of pilgrims, religious & historical
importance. According to revised policy of municipal solid waste management,
any person who generates the waste is the only responsible person to manage it
properly. If it is not possible to find proper space for waste management system
the concerned authorities-- local self-government, municipality or co-operation—
have to arrange the facility and give proper guidance. The LSGs can take any
action against improper any waste management practices of the public.

The Thalassery municipality presently does not collect any degradable waste.
Since July 1, 2016, the municipality has started plastic collection from households,
having coordinated with a private recycling center at Mysore. The municipality
banned plastic cover below 20 microns in 2012, but still hotels and shops are using
plastic bags but no action according to the policy is taken. Presently 40 tones
plastics are collected per month in the municipality. The municipality has started
to supply pipe composting plant and bio- gas plant for managing degradable
waste. Presently 5200 pipes for composting and 500 bio-gas plants are distributed
through subsidy. This is a first step for reducing waste from municipality. But this
project does not seem to have succeeded as most of the bio gas plants are not
working well and some of them are dysfunctional, as gathered during my field
study. People say that as all food waste cannot be put in these pipes and as
removal process is difficult, they do not use pipe compost. In the case of slaughter
houses, hotels and restaurants there are no treatment facilities; some restaurant
owners say that it is the duty of the workers to dispose waste and that they do not
know where waste is dumped. The slaughter houses prefer two ways of waste
management; one is pig farms and other is to pay people to manage waste some
way or the other. Thus, even the revised waste management policy has not

16
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

succeeded in Thalassery municipality. All uncollected waste is dumped in the


road sides and seashore, and the people inhabiting near seashore face the waste
problem of own and others.

Conclusion
The citizens in urban centers increase their quality of life at the expense of
the excluded communities who are denied even a basic quality of living. These
excluded, like in Pettipalam colony, are denied their basic needs and excluded
from the urban center and its amenities such as safe water supply, sewage and
sanitation and clean toilets. The Pettipalam community has poor housing and poor
living environment, amidst the municipality dumping site. Of the affected
populations those who are economically sound alone have started to protest the
municipality’s waste management system, others severely affected, have not
participated in this. They continue to live the stigma of an excluded population
living amidst waste mostly generated elsewhere, and witnessing the aesthetic and
sanitizing urban center nearby.

References
 Donaldson. K.J. (1976) Urban and suburban differentials in co-carter and john
peel (eds). Equalities and inequalities in health. London. Academic press.
 Gangadharan.k.2008.health and living environment in urban slum: a micro level
analysis. Delhi. Manglam publications.
 India census report 2011. http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/803263-
thalassery-
 Ministry of Environment and Forest Notification, “Municipal Solid Wastes
(Management and
 Handling) Rules, 2000.
 Misra. S.G. and Prasad D. 1992. Environmental pollution, solid waste. New Delhi.
Venus publishing house.
 Solid Waste Management Rules in India Revised after 16 Years: new rule
2016.http://www.miscw.com/solid-waste-management-rules-india-revised-16-
years-new-rule-says-6326.html.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

3
Issue of Marginalization, Exclusion and Poverty Of Dalits
In Urban Sanitation Occupation
Kalidas Khobragade

Introduction
The urban life has made it possible for a large number of its inhabitants
to go through the processes of Sanskritisation for enhanced status (Srinivas
1966), acquisition of wealth and consumption, educational achievements,
socio-religious reformism and new social networks (Osella and Gardner 2004).
Urbanization has brought about a considerable degree of occupational
mobility and change (Sharda 1991: 262). The exposure to new places, ideas and
practices has led to the questioning of existing forms of hierarchy or a
reinvention of the self place within the social order. One of the major
drawbacks of the form of urbanization in India is that it has contributed to
enlargement of social contradictions. It led to massive migration of rural poor
to cities without their integration in the urban-industrial economy (Jain: 2002).
The volume of urban poor living in slums of the cities has increased
tremendously
With the growth of urbanization, where an estimated 27 percent of the
population now live in the cities, both the ideology and organization of the
traditional caste system have seen some changes. Nonetheless, caste exhibits
its adaptability under the transformed conditions of urban life in India. It has
been claimed that traditional Indian social institutions such as the caste and
joint family have not disappeared under the modernizing influences of urban
life, but adapted themselves to changing conditions (Kosambi 1994). The
blatant display of untouchability is not manifested in urban areas but is
practiced with sophisticated concealment in a variety of ingenious ways
(Krishnan 2002: 279). the experience of segregation and exclusion of the ex-
untouchables in rural life were not reversed in the urban context. They were
absorbed almost entirely in poorly paid, menial, and low status service jobs.
Caste divisions prevalent in the rural situation were replicated in urban areas,
notwithstanding the relaxation of direct caste domination in employment

18
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

relations. The caste distinctions were not eradicated in the crucial area of
employment opportunities. can city life wipe out differences caused by
gender, caste, race or culture, where a large majority of its population is
marginalized and excluded based on differences and inherent inequalities.
A large number of poor and the ex-untouchables have remained excluded
from liberating modern processes and continue to experience deprivations.
Nevertheless, it provided environment to the marginalized, conducive for the
construction of cultural and social identities. The poverty and its dimension
involve inequality, injustice, insecurity, vulnerability, discrimination,
powerlessness, marginalization and exclusion. The poverty causes due to not
only economic background but also causes from such inequality, human
rights, entitlement. (Parsuraman 2003, 3)

Exclusion of dalits by occupation


The most influential work of Amartya Sen (1991) he focuses on the poverty
and its causes in on broad level. Sen Focuses is on the full representation of the
all member in society such as in area social, economical cultural and political.
He stressed on the possession of goods and services, command over goods
and services, by using the various opportunity in social, economical and
political (Sen 1981).
The concept of social exclusion of dalits is occurring in India only by caste
system, poverty and marginalization of dalit. The exclusion of dalit has due to
lack of equal distribution of the resources (Prasad 2003). The dalit exclusion
merely beyond social and economical ground, the aspect denial of social equal
opportunity of development, dignity, occupation, equal status and freedom. In
political aspect denial of the political right such as political participation in all
aspect of society, right to freedom, right to life and personal security. (Bhalla
and Lapeyere 1997,420) The caste exclusion of dalit not only division of labour
and their occupation but also based on life style of the dalits such as worship,
marriage, food, occupation and education. The traditional occupational
impurity and pollution causes unequal of status strong custom in society. The
status of the dalit or untouchables was lower and most deprived their life in
many ways. (Nayak 1994) The caste based exclusion of the dalit in caste
structure society the traditional occupational group was excluded from their
basic right or human right in social political, cultural and economical sphere.
The exclusion of dalit was from the centuries on caste bases lower status of

19
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

inequality and dignity. The hindu social order was mythical and unwritten
legal document which people are separated from one another by hierarchal
status of caste and varnas (Louic 2002). The exclusion of the dalit is on
traditional occupational slavery which causes inequality and vulnerability to
untouchables. By this occupational degradation of dalit more oppressed in
dominated by higher caste (Alam, 2004,xvvi).

Dalit in urban India


The Dalit population in an urban area increased in few decades. The census
report by the government of India shows information and population of the
Schedule Caste in urban since 1961 to 2011. The urban population of Dalit was
10% in 1961 by census report of the government. It was increased and 12% in
1971. The population of Dalit in Urban was 16% in 1981 and 20% in 2001
census report, it is increasing in 2011 and 23.60% Dalit population in the urban
area of schedule caste. This figure of census report shows that Dalit population
in the urban area in most of the slum part, and poverty causes more in urban
Dalit which they did any work and occupation which is accessible.( Baud, I., S.
Grafakos, M. Hordijk and J. Post ,2001) The higher percentages of Dalit are in
urban who live in slum more than any other caste and community (Anandhi
1995). The urban modernization can bring change in the caste structure society
but it did not succeed (Beteille 2002, 6). The modernization was failed in
removing caste system in urban under the different forces and opened a new
issue for dalit in social and political life ( Srinivasan 1962, 197). The caste
structure is an integral part of the urban area was found by various study of
the migration of dalit in urban. In Uttar Pradesh, the ex-untouchables
community in urban done by Gooptu examined the dalit from rural got a very
low payment of manual job and it was direct discrimination in recruitment of
dalit in municipal (Gooptu 1996). The Gooptu report really found the
condition of dalit in urban and their caste issue. The caste discrimination and
caste eradicating were not possible in employment (Gooptu 1999,297).

Caste identity in modern India


In modern India, the caste identity is not removed and the hierarchal
distinction between higher and lower caste continued, it has expressed in
larger literature over caste in urban. The caste and its reality do not remove
from the urban area also (Beteille 2002). In modern India society is mostly

20
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

identified on the caste association and their habitat style. Hence, the caste
identity is one of a factor of Indian social culture and it has strong connectivity
with their livelihood and rights (Alam 2004). The modern Indian politics has
based on caste voting and identified as caste politics. Dalit or ex-untouchables
are oppressed caste group outcome from with different socio-political
background ( Omvedt 1995). Caste identity of oppressed and untouchables as
Dalit was very different socio-economical background in Indian social
structure. Dalit is not the name of caste but is the identity of caste where they
divided into different caste into sub-caste based on in caste system (Shah A M
2002). The concept of daily is struggling for revolution and change in socio-
economic life. (Zelliot 2001)

Occupational Dalit in urban India


The occupational dalit in an urban area more marginalised and exploited
under the caste identity. The Dalit migrate from rural for employment,
education or any other factor in urban they survive or temporary settle in an
urban slum. In every big city most population are lived in a slum and most are
they from the dalit. The education and economic condition of Dalit are not
more and strong, so they chosen traditional caste-based occupation. In all
public and private institution for the cleaning Dalits recruited mostly in an
urban area with caste identity. Caste is one of the indicators of a lower job for
dalit in urban and rural part of India. Only Caste is remained factor of
discrimination in occupation, employment, living of standard, food living area
in urban. (Shah G. 2002)
Occupational Dalit are marginalised caste group and they struggling for
dignity and economic development in urban.(Chikarmane, P., M. Deshpande
and L. Narayan (2001). My study focuses on the “Issue of Human Right in life
experiences of safai kamgar (Scavengers) in Pune Municipal Corporation. The
caste based occupation of custom is living example of safai kamgar in Pune
Municipal Corporation and life experiences on the issue of human right. In
Municipal Corporation for learning dalit are engaged from centuries and ago.
From dalit Bhangi, Mehtar, Matang, Mahar, are mostly involved in this
occupation.(Bhaskar A and Chikarmane P , 2012) This community from Dalit
is bottom of caste hierarchy. The most of people are from slum of pune city.
The large section of in Pune still continue part of occupation of cleaning and
scavenging in rural and urban area ( Chikarmane P 2006). The Pune city is

21
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

second largest city in Maharashtra and having second number of population


of state. From the Dalit caste, Matang is the most servant in safai kamgar or
scavengers in PMC (Chikarmane, P. and L. Narayan (2000a),
Scavengers in Urban sanitation occupation
The origin of manual scavenging existed from ancient time by Indian caste
structure. The functions of manual scavengers were engaged untouchable
under the caste society and it has no legal resources available for their
existence. The different study over scavengers done by many scholars and
founded the Bhangi caste from untouchable engaged in the traditional
occupation (Shamlal 1992). The manual scavengers were the ex-untouchables
engaged by their socio-economic condition under caste (Choudhary 2000).
Some scholar founded in their research manual scavengers existed in Mughal
era. The Muslim reign needed scavengers for their cleaning (Prasad V.2000).
The manual scavengers in India were engaged traditionally under occupation
in rural. They sweeping, removing excreta, dead animal and so many. The
urbanization and its sanitary system of the city had a need for cleaning
manual scavengers for night soil, cleaning sewer, septic tank, toilet cleaner,
sweeper and many more required for cleaning. The issue of cleaning in urban
was the biggest problem. The area of cities grown day by day and they need a
sanitary worker for their maintenance (Choudhari 2000). The demand of
manual scavengers increased in urban and labour from the migrate from the
rural to urban for employment from lower caste engaged in occupation from
Dalit or Ex-untouchables ( Singh K P 1998).
The changing pattern of sanitation work in modern period labour from the
lower caste was a servant for the upper caste as safai kamgar in Municipal
Corporation. The safai kamgar are also from only Dalit or untouchables for
working sanitation. The municipal corporation recruited to untouchables as
safai kamgar in for cleaning. The ex-untouchables are sanitation worker in
urban Municipal Corporation (Gill, K. (2009). The safai kamgar are sanitation
worker who cleaning sewer, septic tank, toilet, and gutter and they disposing
in dumping space by the municipal manual scavengers. The safai kamgar
worked as the manual scavengers in Municipal Corporation. The
administrative term safai kamgar are given by the government in sanitation
work of Municipal Corporation. The nomenclature of scavengers into safai
kamgar is who work as sanitation worker in Municipal Corporation.

22
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The municipal work done by scavengers is legitimate by government as safai


kamgar. The name used safai karmachari of corporation is official name given
by government. The safai karmachari defines as, a person who engaged and
employed by municipal corporation for manually carrying any work or any
sanitary work.( National Commission by safai karmachari 1993). The change
in name of manual scavengers into safai kamgar or karmachari does not make
change in work ( Vivek 1998). The scavenging community from caste of
bhangi, mehtar are specially recruited for manual work in urban area. The
labours are recruited in urban as safai kamgar by Municipal Corporation
under the post of safai karmachari. The safai karmachari is also known as
sanitation worker in PMC. The other sociological study used the term for safai
kamgar as professional of the city worker. In Delhi municipal corporation safai
kamgar are known as the Health Worker of Municipal Corporation (Vivek
2000).

Discrimination and marginalization of safai karmachari


The subject exclusion of safai karmachari by discrimination and
marginalization are in society and workplace day to day in their life. The
responsibility of safai karmachari are more pressurised by the Municipal
Corporation. They do not have any weekly leaves or off for work. They should
be keep clean city without any demand. The issues of safai karmachari are
more exploited to them by authority and citizen. The authorities penalised to
safai karmachari for not working also civil citizen assaulted to them. The
worker are beaten by civil citizen is the one form of discrimination to them.
The issue of violence or assault by citizen and discrimination of safai
karmachari settle between them without any justification to safai karmachari
(Singh Bhasha 2012).
The working in drainage and sewer are worst affected to safai karmachari.
Safai karmachari died many time in manhole work and in drainage. This kind
of worked banned by Supreme Court but till continued in Municipal
sanitation work. The wages problems are more in contract labour they do not
pay properly by wages laws. Women are more vulnerable they came from
long distance on working place. They exploited for work, sexual desire of
authority, by civil citizen (Pathak B 2014).

Methodology and objective

23
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

This paper have objective to study the marginalization. exclusion and poverty
of the dalit in urban sanitation occupation. The present paper used the
empirical research method based on primary and secondary data. The
research area of this study is done in Pune Municipal Corporation.
Caste in city and economic condition
The caste practice are more exploitative nature and dalits are victim of the
caste practices and faced the discrimination and untouchability in all sphere of
the life. Out of the all respondent 83% sanitation worker said that no change in
the caste practices in city, 5% sanitation worker said that caste practices are not
in city, 11% sanitation respondent are replied the somewhat caste practices are
in city and 1% said city does not forger the caste practices and untouchability.
The economic condition of sanitation worker are responsible for the poverty
and practices of the caste. 67% safai karmachari are said from the respondent
have same condition in sanitation work, 29% sanitation worker said they have
perceives the economic condition than past in this occupation those who are
working permanently in PMC, 4% are said can’t said about their economic
condition.

Variable Cording Frequency Percentage Total


Category
Migration of worker Yes 65 65 65
village to city No 35 35 35
Total 100 100 100
City forget Completely 5 5 5
untouchability Somewhat 11 11 11
Not at all 1 1 1
No change 83 83 83
Total 100 100 100
Untouchability in Some what 96 96 96
city No change 4 4 4
Total 100 100 100
Perceive economic Same 67 67 67
condition Improved 29 29 29
Can’t say 4 4 4
Total 100 100 100
1000-5000 10 10 10
6000-10000 40 40 40
Income 11000-15000 18 18 18

24
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

16000-20000 17 17 17
21000-25000 10 10 10
26000-30000 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100

PMC neglecting to sanitation worker


The sanitation workers are exploited in PMC based on caste, working hour
and working condition, 92% sanitation worker replied they are discriminated
on caste and 8% are no replied. The 100 % all sanitation worker faced the
discrimination by PMC to sanitation.100% there is no decency in sanitation
worker by respondent. They don’t have dignity under this occupation, out of
all 100% respondent have replied. PMC does not provide any kind of
education and training to sanitation worker. 92% have neglected by PMC
regarding education and 85% respondent are don’t have any training
provided them by PMC.

Variable Cording Frequency Percentage Total


Category
Yes 92 92 92
Administration No 08 08 08
Exploitation Total 100 100 100
Yes 100 100 100
Administration No 00 00 00
Discrimination Total 100 100 100
Decency of Yes 00 00 00
work No 100 100 100
Yes 100 100 100
Occupational Yes 00 00 00
dignity No 100 100 100
Total 100 100 100
Yes 08 08 08
Education No 92 92 92
scheme Total 100 100 100
Yes 15 15 15
Training No 85 85 85
Total 100 100 100

Impact of sanitation occupation

25
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The impact of sanitation occupation over worker is bad in condition. They


have atrocity by the administration and civil citizen from the upper caste, they
are forced and pressurised for the work and they don’t get equal treatment
like another occupation. In sanitation occupation 95% respondent faced the
atrocities by the administration of the PMC, civil citizen and public institution.
Only 5% are not facing atrocities. Out of all 65% respondent are pressurised
for the sanitation work and 35% are don’t get any pressure of the work. Out of
all 52% are working as force labour and 48% are not affected from forced.
100% sanitation worker gets unequal treatment for their occupation. For this
all issues 92% respondent are not raising their issue and 8% are revolt against
justice. The conditions of the women in occupation are more exploitative
nature. They are exploited for caste, working hour, sexual aspect and desire,
for leave. The large number of women are harassed by administration and
civil citizen, about 95% are harassed on working places and only 5% are not
faced any kind of harassment.
The impact of the occupation over sanitation worker very badly and faces
unequal treatment, discrimination, untouchability and bias. Only due to this
sanitation worker get isolation, marginalization and exclusion.
Conclusion
The context of this study was the modernization began with independence of
India and continued significance of caste every day in of historically excluded
community in rural and urban area on their occupation by Hindu upper caste
and non dalit people. It is assumed that caste system and its impact remains
significant factor effecting to dalits and schedule caste of people community.
Yet in India caste is more influential factor on socio-economical life of citizen
in modern India. The caste practices are remain in traditional occupational in
Indian society. The practice of the caste based exclusion and discrimination of
the sanitation worker thus necessary involvement failure of access and
entitlement not only economic rights but also civil cultural and political rights.
The living mode of the exclusion involves exclusion from the political
participation and exclusion from the disadvantages from the social and
economic opportunities. The caste untouchability based on the exclusion, it
reflects the inability of individual and group like dalit sanitation worker to
interact freely and productively with other and to take part in social, economic
and political life in community and society. The safai karmachari are most
excluded community in urban area in sanitation work. The sanitation work is

26
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

easily accessible to slum dalits and which they had monopoly or 100%
reservation in sanitation work of PMC. The privatization of sanitation work
organised the informal sector in PMC. The large section of safai karmachari
community experience is increasing vulnerability in urban area and labour
market due to lack of education and poverty in dalit.
Variable Cording Frequency Percentage Total
category
Atrocity Yes 95 95 95
No 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100
Yes 65 65 65
Pressure of No 35 35 35
work Total 100 100 100
Forced Yes 52 52 52
employment No 48 48 48
Total 100 100 100
Equal Yes 00 00 00
Treatment No 100 100 100
Total 100 100 100
Raising of Yes 08 08 08
issues No 92 92 92
Total 100 100 100
Harassment of Yes 95 95 95
women No 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100

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Untouchability, Bombay: Government of Maharashtra (1954)
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 Bhalla, A. and F. Lapeyre. 1997. 'Social Exclusion: towards an Analytical and
Operational Framework', Development and Change, Vol. 28, Pp. 413-433
 Chaudhary, S.N. 2000. Occupationally Mobile Scavengers, Delhi: Har- Anand
Chicago: University of Chicago Press

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 Chikarmane Pornima, Study of Economic Aspects of the Waste Informal


Sector in Pune, GTZ, Berlin. (2006) -- Dumont, Louis. 1970. Homo
Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications,
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Pradesh in the Early 20th Century" in Peter, Robb (ed.) (1999) pp 297
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Kolkata: Samya
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 Sen, Amartya. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Destitution,
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 Sen, Amartya. The idea of justice. Harvard University Press, 2011
 -Shah Ghansham, "Untouchability in Rural Gujarat: Revisited" in Ghanshyam,
Shah (ed.), -Dalits and the State, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company,
2002, Pp. 129-146
 Shamlal, The Bhangi: a Sweeper Caste - its Socio-Economic Portraits, With
Special Reference to Jodhpur City, Bombay: Popular Prakashan (1992)
 Sharda, Bam Dev (ed.), 1991. Tribes, Castes and Harijans, Structured
Inequalities and
 Shrinivasan M N Caste in Modern India and Other Essays, Bombay: Asia
Publishing House (1966)
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Weekly, Vol. 35 (42), October, (2000) Pp. 3722-3224

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

4
Urban Poverty in India and the Role of Microfinance:
Issues and Suggestions

Kiran Kumar P
Introduction
Economic development and urbanization are closely interlinked and the
urban cities in India are contributing 60 percent of country’s GDP, thus
urbanization has been recognized as an important component of economic
growth. However, the labour force is falling into poverty in urban areas due to
lack of housing and shelter, water, sanitation, education, health, social security
and livelihoods. 27.8 per cent of the country’s population comprising 285.4
million people lives in urban areas. India’s urban population grew by 31.2 per
cent during the decade 1991-2001 which is significantly higher than the rural
rate of 17.9 per cent. Population projections by the United Nations indicate
that by 2030, India’s urban population will grow to 538 million with more than
half of the total population living in urban areas (United Nations, 2005).
Poverty is one of the bottlenecks of development and at the same time
alleviation of poverty is recently recognized as the primary objective that a
development process shall pursue, especially in developing countries. More
than one billion people live on less than a dollar a day in the world and such
higher level is partly ascribed to increase of poverty in the last generation. The
most important constraint that poor people face to come out of poverty is lack
of access to credit to run their own businesses. Complementary to this
microfinance through self help groups proving good in alleviating poverty by
providing easy and affordable credit facilities to the poor and become an
effective strategy of financial inclusion in rural India. However, while rural
areas account for up to 95% of current microfinance outreach in India, its cities
are under served i.e outreach of microfinance activities in urban India is much
less compared to rural areas. Hence, urban poor feel forced to rely on informal
credit from moneylenders who demands interest as high as 10% per day from
borrowers. In spite of large network of bank branches and ATMs that exist in
cities, many of the poor find their financial needs largely unmet due to lack of
documentation, regular incomes, and a low degree of comfort in visiting banks

29
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

for transactions. Thus, it is argued that providing urban micro financial


services can be a tremendous opportunity, given the gravity of the prevailing
situation, existing demand and expanding market.

The Poverty Line


In India measuring poverty is a difficult exercise. In its most basic
manifestation, poverty can be defined as socially perceived deprivation with
respect to basic human needs. Basic human needs include food, clothing,
shelter, health facilities and minimal education. Poverty in India, as is the case
in other countries, is measured in terms of the poverty line. This line is defined
as the minimum expenditure that an individual has to incur to meet his/her
basic needs. The idea of a poverty line was first introduced in India by the
Indian Labour Conference in 1957. Subsequently, in 1962, a poverty line was
computed in India for the first time by the Working Group of the Planning
Commission. India has recently redefined poverty to include access to six basic
amenities, in addition to consumption of food. Poverty is now defined more
comprehensively as deprivation of access to facilities like education, health,
infrastructure, clean environment and benefits for women and children, in
addition to food consumption. In the new system, poverty would be measured
with reference to basic facilities like quality education, good health sectors and
clean drinking water availability. The poverty line stands at a rough figure of
$1.25 per day.

Situation of Urban Poverty in India


As per the 2011 Census, the total population of India was 1210.2
million. Of this, the rural population stands at 833.1 million and the urban
population 377.1 million. In absolute numbers, the rural population has
increased by 90.47 million and the urban population by 91.00 million in the
last decade (GOI: 2011). These figures show that urban population is
increasing faster than increase in rural population. India’s urbanisation
challenge is compounded by the fact that 25.7 per cent of the total urban
population still lives below the poverty line as defined officially by the
Planning Commission based on survey data from the NSSO. The incidence
of urban income poverty declined significantly from 49 per cent in 1973-74
to 25.7 per cent in 2004-05. Even though the urban poverty ratio has
declined by half over the 30-year period since 1973-74, there were still 80.8

30
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

million persons in urban India in 2004-05 who were officially defined as


‛poor’, increasing from 76.3 million in 1993-94 (GOI: 2011b). Migration from
the rural to urban area also adds to problem of urban poverty. Unsecured
employment or no employment force the urban poor to eke out a living
somehow. The skilled ones manage to get employed somehow, but the large
majority of unskilled people forces work in the unorganized sector. The gap
in financial services in urban areas, though less than in rural areas, is huge.
A number of finance companies, a few urban cooperative societies and
banks, as also several credit and savings mechanisms have been present in
the urban areas, but, still, the level of exclusion has been high. Now the
microfinance institutions (MFIs) seek to fill in the void and provide the
service for the urban poor (Srinivasan, 2008).

Urban Community Development


Community Development generally defined as "The process of
developing active and sustainable communities based on social justice and
mutual respect. It is about influencing power structures to remove the barriers
that prevent people from participating in the issues that affect their lives."
UCD in India derives its origin from the rural community development
programmes which commenced on 2nd October, 1952. The first pilot project
under UCD was begun in Delhi, during the year 1958, that was followed by an
another project in Ahmedabad in 1960 and the third in Baroda in 1965.The
first and second were assisted by the Ford Foundation while the third was
launched with the help of the American Friends Committee. The ingredients
of an UCD programme are the people and their problems, the government and
voluntary resources available to stimulate self-help, and urban community
organizers to locate and develop indigenous leaders and to translate their
problems in such a way that can be adequately interpreted by government and
private agencies. Community development assumes the existence of people's
initiative in one form or the other, which can be developed to alter the
environment (ADB 2011).

The Role of Microfinance


Since formal credit institutions rarely lend to the poor, special
institutional arrangements become necessary to extend credit to those who
have no collateral to offer. Microfinance, by providing small loans and savings

31
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

facilities to those who have been excluded from commercial financial services,
has been promoted as a key strategy for reducing poverty in all its forms by
agencies all over the world. Microcredit has been defined as “programmes that
provide credit for self-employment and other financial and business services
(including savings and technical assistance) to very poor persons” (Micro
Credit Summit, 1997). Nowadays, microfinance represents something more
than microcredit - it also refers to savings, insurance, pawns and remittances,
in sum to a much wider range of financial services (Tankha, 1999). The basic
idea of microfinance is that poor people are ready and are willing to pull
themselves out of poverty if given access to economic inputs. Micro-finance is
a new development in which Indian institutions have acquired considerable
expertise and where up-scaling holds great promise both to expand the nature
of financial services offered to micro enterprises and to make these the
springboard for entrepreneurial development (Planning Commission, 2006
and Christabell and Vimal Raj 2012).

Microfinance in Urban India


In India Self help Groups (SHG’s), dominates microfinance. These
groups promote savings among members and use pooled resources to meet
the emergent needs of their members, including consumption needs. Due to
easy terms, low interest rate and informal contract among members, there is
fast recycling of group money and more than 90 percent recovery. The
saving amount multiplies due to accumulation of income from saving
habits, which help the members to be freed from the clutches of
moneylenders. This will create self-confidence and decision making power
and ultimately lead to the empowerment of people. Thus micro finance is
emerging as a powerful instrument for poverty alleviation in the new
economy. According to the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP),
people with access to savings, credit, insurance and other financial services
are more resilient and better able to cope with everyday crisis. Though,
nearly 30% of the Indian population lives in urban areas, only 5% of all
microcredit in India goes to the urban poor. However, the potential of urban
microfinance is huge; the urban population is expected to increase to 50% of
the total population by 2030. There are many successful examples of
microcredit programmes in rural India, but few have had a specific focus on
urban India. In India, microfinance activities in cities remain limited. In

32
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

contrast with the development of the sector in rural areas, various


challenges in the urban context have resulted in a near absence of urban
MFIs; there are a limited number of practitioners who have been able to
offer microfinance while building client loyalty, mitigating risk, and
responding to a variety of needs of a diverse urban population (CMR: 2006).

Microfinance, Urban Poverty and Constraints


Alleviating urban poverty requires many tools including food,
shelter, employment, health services, financial services and education
infrastructure. For a country like India where a substantial number of
populations is poor, access of the poor to credit facilities is not only
necessary but also indispensable for optimizing their contribution to the
growth of Indian economy. Experience has shown that many of the poverty
alleviation programmes through organized credit channels have not
achieved the required success. At this juncture micro finance has become in
recent years a fulcrum for development initiatives particularly in the third
world countries.
In most of the developing countries including India microfinance has
been predominantly rural-oriented with both the self-help group and
Grameen principles models, working largely based on community trust and
peer pressure. These principles seem to work well in rural areas where there is
intimate knowledge of the transactions within families and where the living is
in a community (Sriram, 2005). Credit, thus, has largely remained less
accessible for the lower income households in urban areas then to their rural
counterparts. The reluctance of microfinance intermediaries to work among
the urban poor is evident from their minimal presence in towns and cities. In
this context, providing urban micro financial services can be a tremendous
opportunity, given the existing demand and expanding market. At the same
time, there are challenges unique to the urban environment that microfinance
practitioners and policy-makers must consider. Financial service providers
operating in cities are faced with a highly competitive environment among the
organized and unorganized banking sectors.
Urban clients are more likely to come from various parts of the country
and social groups, possibly impacting the quality of social networks formed
within self-help groups as well as restricting the ability of an MFI to gather
information on clients. Other difficulties in catering to the urban space

33
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

include a lack of requisite documentation, irregular incomes, and migration


among workers to and from rural areas. For an MFI seeking to catalyze
microfinance in India’s cities, finding innovative ways of overcoming these
challenges is essential to delivering financial services to this market (Vinod
Kumar : 2009). Another main reason for microfinance institutions to avoid
urban areas comes from their lack of homogeneity of culture. Indeed, if
there is not enough intimate knowledge of the transactions within families
or within the community, the risk of over indebtedness increases. This is
especially relevant when loan sizes are relatively high. As microfinance
spreads to urban locations some of the basic premises of trust and
knowledge get questioned. Studies also indicated the complexity and
persistent nature of problems of the poor in urban settlements. This
automatically translates into the complex nature of financial services both
demanded for and offered to the poor in those areas. It has been widely
observed that some slum settlements have strong political affiliations and
anti-social undercurrents. Though this cannot be generalised for all areas,
this issue cannot be ignored especially from the point functioning of MFIs.

Suggestions to Improve Microfinance Activities in Urban Areas


The studies reveal that there is need for more flexible loans. This
would require a serious restructuring of financial products and marketing
strategies for many MFIs. Some progressive MFIs have introduced loan
products with this greatly needed flexibility in order to better suit the urban
environment. Since space is often a premium in India’s cities, finding a
sufficiently large gathering place for group meeting in the urban
environment can be challenging. Hence there is a need to create suitable
places to the meetings to be held. Establishing a credit bureau should be a
top priority and seen as an opportunity to strengthen the sector.
Traditionally, microcredit has been for businesses purposes for self-
employed women. This excludes poor, salaried women who might still need
a supplement to their meager income to make housing repairs, send
children to school, or even to get vocational training. A very businesslike
relationship should be maintained with the clients at all times. MFIs need to
take special care with in training their staff members in dealing with urban
poor clients. Career paths for field staff and their financial and professional
satisfaction affect the image of microfinance within a community. Currently,

34
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

the goal is to hire and retain field staff in the urban space where demanding
work of this nature is not particularly glamorous when compared with
office jobs. There is a need to hire female field staffs not only to meet staffing
needs but also to develop an even further supportive environment for
women (CMR: 2006). Problem of migration is a major problem faced by
urban microfinance industry. Ujjivan (A leading microfinance institution in
India) had adopted a new strategy to handle this problem. That is it added a
residency requirement stating that clients must have lived in an area for a
certain period of time prior to joining the group. As cities expand and new
cities are developed, special care will have to be taken to ensure that there is
room for economically weaker sections alongside the higher income groups
in the urban areas. Rental markets for low income housing will have to be
developed. There is also need for promoting access to home-ownership
through necessary interventions in the market for low income housing
(GOI: 2011b). There is a need to develop new poverty reduction tools and
approaches to attack the multi-dimensional issues of urban poverty (CMR:
2006).

Conclusions
Micro Credit to the urban poor is strongly evincing interest from all
quarters of the sector; this is an excellent opportunity to help improve the
livelihoods of a vast majority requiring these services. At the same time, it is
also an opportunity to build strong and sustainable MFIs specializing in
catering to the financial needs of the urban poor. Microfinance is
considered to be a valuable tool for the alleviation of poverty around the
globe and urban poverty, in absolute terms, is far too huge for micro finance
to make a sizeable dent. Moreover, it is pointed out by critics that funds
obtained from micro credit are often employed on domestic necessities, such
as marriage or cost of hospitalization and not on profit generating activity.
Hence it can at best be a community lending activity without an adequate
rate of return or an agent of profit generation. But, it is accepted that micro
finance is still in its nascent stages in India and given the right fillip, can
metamorphose into a bigger activity in the urban areas.

35
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

References
 Asian Development Bank (2011): Understanding the Poverty in India
 Centre for Microfinance Research (CMR) (2006): Reaching the Other 100
Million Poor in India: Case Studies in Urban Microfinance, Chennai.
 GOI: (2011): Census of India, Provisional Populations Total, Census of India,
2011
 GOI: (2011b): Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India
 NABARD (2011): ‘Status of Microfinance in India’, 2010-11, Mumbai, India.
 Rachel Bergenfield (2010): The Urban Market Potential, Centre for
Microfinance Research
 Srinivasan, (2009): Microfinance India: State of the Sector Report 2008, Sage
Publications, New Delhi.
 United Nations, 2005, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. New
York: United Nations Population Division.
 Varda Pandey (2007): Urban Microfinance – Efforts towards a Lasting
Impact, Microfinance Focus, Vol-2, Issue-1.
 Vinod Kumar (2009): Microfinance, University Science Press, New Delhi,
2009.
 Dr. Christabell. P. J. 2Vimal Raj. AFinancial Inclusion in Rural India: The role
of Microfinance as a Tool, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science
(JHSS), Volume 2, Issue 5 (Sep-Oct. 2012), PP 21-25
 Tankha, Ajay. “Some NGO Dilemmas In Reaching The Poorest With
Microfinance.” Search Bulletin 14(1), 1999, Pp.73-79.
 Planning Commission, Towards Faster And More Inclusive Growth: An
Approach To The 11th Five Year Plan, Government Of India, New Delhi, 2006

36
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

5
Urbanization- Its Impact on Coastal / Marine Resources in
Coastal Karnataka
Gunakara S
Introduction
Coastal and marine ecosystem plays an important role in the livelihood
of the fishermen communities who largely depend upon sea to earn their
livelihood. As many as 3.5 million people depend on marine fisheries for their
livelihood in fishing, processing, marketing and other ancillary activities. The
vast majority of them belong to traditional fishing communities. A substantial
part of the fishing communities live close to coastal or an estuarine shoreline.
About 40% of the worlds’ population lives within 100 km of coast. India has
long coastline about 7,500 km including that of its island territories. In India 73
coastal districts (out of a total of 593) have a share of 20% of the national
population live within 50km of the coastline. In the south west-coast,
Karnataka is one of the Coastal states, its ecosystem consists of mosaic of
monsoon wetlands, beaches and mountains, stretched along its 300 km long
shoreline from Ullal in south to Majali in north with 27,000 sq.km of
continental shelf and 87,000 sq.km and Exclusive Economic Zone. The coastal
eco-region of the state is separated by Western Ghats where 14 rivers originate
and connected by 26 estuaries with more than 70,000 Ha. of water-spread area
and 8000 Ha of brackish water area render the inshore area rich in nutrients
(Bhatta, Rao & Nayak 2003). All these natural phenomena create conducive
conditions that attract fish and other marine organisms to inshore waters. A
shallow continental shelf, wet lands and mangroves provide rich breeding and
feeding grounds for fish and other marine species (Nandakumar & Nayak
2010). In addition to marine fisheries, coastal Karnataka also has a large
potential for brackish water fisheries. According to Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute (CMFRI) 2010 census Coastal Karnataka has 144 marine
fishing villages spread over the three districts (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and
Uttara Kannada), each covering about 1.6 km of the coastal line, with 30,173
fishermen families which forms 5.3 per cent of the total fisher population of
the country.

Objectives of the study


The present study has the following objectives
1. To identify the variables for measurement of urbanization.

37
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

2. To assess the impact of urbanization on coastal/marine resources along


coastal Karnataka coast.
3. To offer suggestion for policy making based on the findings.

Methodology
The study is based on both primary and secondary data. Vast set of secondary
data were collected from various reports of state and central government.
Socioeconomic data on coastal villages to estimate the trend in population
density, literacy, gender ratio, employment and occupational changes were
collected from National Census 1991, 2001, 2011. Further, the primary data
related to ddevelopment of a regional plan were collected by interviewing the
community leaders of coastal fishing villages and also on the basis of field
observation.

Measurement of urbanization
The urbanization could be measured in terms of-
a. Land use/land cover changes
b. Density of population
c. Social conflicts

Natural resources of coasts


Coastal environment is crucial for fishing communities. They are crucial from
the point of view of socio-economic and cultural aspects. The sea shore is an
integral part of their social, cultural and economic fabric (Rodriguez 2010). It is
the place where they live and depend on coastal space and resources for their
life. It also contains resources and processes that affect the marine eco-system
and their livelihood. The coastal region of the state is characterized by sandy
beaches, dune formations, mangrove-studded estuaries, and sprawling
brackish backwaters. The long-term sustainability of fisher folk depends on
the critical services they provide. Their presence is as important as availability
of fish in the sea. The fisher is heavily dependent on the availability of beach
space as their coastal properties. They have an intimate relation with
particular stretches of coastline that they use, that is in front of their
settlement.
The table 1 depicts the available natural resources and their uses in coastal
areas.
Natural Uses/Value
resources
Beach space Landing traditional boats after fish catch, parking boats
regularly and off-season /hauling shore seine, net mending,
net repair, to provide temporary shelter at the time of fish

38
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

harvesting, to provide sheds for their boats , pulling nets,


laying and operating shore seine, mending and
maintenance of nets, to dry the cleaned nets, fish drying, fish
curing, to sit and relax, resting, to convene meeting, play
ground, recreation, bus stop, community hall, community
temples, community cultural activities/ festivals, fish
markets, toilets etc.,
Coastal forest Firewood, to protect their houses/huts form storms, sea
erosion
Wet lands like - Ecological buffers that provide coastal areas with protection
Creeks/rivers, from erosion, floods, storm surges, salt-water intrusion,
River mouth spawning zones for some species of fish. Form as natural
/estuaries harbour for mechanised boats, ground for fish breeding,
/Sand dunes, Recharge of groundwater, recreation to society, Fishing ,
lagoons, bays supply of nutrient to the fishes
Mangrove Stabilizing shorelines and protect the coast by acting as
barriers against storm surges and heavy tides, source of
nutrients and supports highly productive marine food
chains. Provide shelter to fish.
Coastal dunes with Protection form erosion
vegetation like casurina,
beach ridges
Backwater Fishing, fish landing, breeding ground for
fishes
Marsh vegetation Shoreline protection

Coastal population within 1 Km from coast within Karnataka

Table 2 Density of population in coastal area


Districts Are No. of Total population % Growth Population
a in fishing density
sq. village 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 201 201 199
km s 1 1 1
Dakshin 211 11 32414 47798 56958 47.4 19.1 153 226 269
a 3 0 4 6 6 6 5 9
Kannad
a
Udupi 307 39 19624 20636 22230 5.15 7.72 639 672 724
9 3 2

Uttara 391 57 17416 28330 32475 62.6 14.6 445 724 830

39
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Kannad 7 7 0 6 3
a
(Source: Census data 1991,2001,2011)

As a result of urbanization pressure on coastal land is increasing, which is


shown in Table 2.The table depicts that density of population is increasing in
coastal areas year after year. This means, the coastal people who are
depending on coastal resources are getting less space for their livelihood
activities

.Impact of Urbanization on coastal/marine resources

a. Threats to access to coastal space and ecosystem


India possesses around 18 percent of the world’s population, but only 2.4
percent of land and 4.2 per cent of water resources. As a result to achieve
higher GDP our natural resources such as water, forests, fisheries and marine
resources are being overexploited. Coastal land forms are unique and dynamic
in nature and are vulnerable to the anthropogenic and socio-economic factors.
Over the years, as a result the marine resources and coastal area of the
country is under increasing pressure such as urbanization, tourism
development, discharge of waste effluents, municipal sewage, climate change,
overexploitation of coastal resources and continued development in hazard
prone areas. Further, periodic storms and cyclones, construction of seawalls,
harbor structures like jetties and breakwaters are degrading the coasts. In
addition to these impacts, human activities such as construction of dams
across rivers, dredging in harbours, port infrastructure, coastal aquaculture,
expansion of urban areas, sand and shell mining are indirectly affecting the
coastal environments. Above all, global warming is leading to serious
consequences in the coastal regions. But the modern state impacted marine
resources, ecosystem services and customary practices of these communities
without communitarian controls.

b. Coastal erosion: Sea erosion has substantially affected the livelihood of


fishermen especially the traditional fishermen who largely depend upon
seashore for their fishing activities particularly in case of shore seine. The
present developmental activities at the coast like coastal protection structures,
breakwaters, dredging in harbours, removal of sand from beaches intervened
the coastal zone and threatened existence of the traditional fishermen who live
near to the coast and make use of their fishing activities. For example the
coasts of fishing villages like Ullal of Dakshina Kannada district and Moollr
of Udupi district are severely affected by sea erosion on account of

40
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

breakwater structure constructed to Mangalore fishing port and Udupi


Power corporation Limited (UPCL) respectively. It is estimated that about
50% of the coastal zone (490,000 ha) is subject to moderate soil erosion and 6%
(56,000 ha) to severe soil erosion (Karnataka Pollution Control Board 2007).
The other places which are badly affected by sea erosion are Tannirbavi,
Bengre, Sasihitlu in Dakshina Kannada District, Udyavara, Hoode, Kundapur-
kodi, Hangarkatta, Kirimanjeswara in Udupi district , Honnavar, Shiralli,
Manjuguni, Karikodi etc in Uttara Kannada district. Further flora of the
beaches like casurina and other shrubs destructed because of increasing
human pressure, sand mining. Trampling, grazing, dumping of trash etc on
the coast and

b. Marine resources and urbanization


The study shows that with respect to fish production the share of non-
mechanised/traditional sector declined from 59 per cent in 1977 to 6 percent in
2009. A review of contribution of various types of mechanised crafts to fish-
catch quantity suggests that the trawlers and purse-seines have a major share
with 49 per cent and 26 per cent respectively in 2008-09. The increase in the
contribution of trawlers is due to the increase in the number of multiday
trawlers and use of high speed engines. The concept of modernisation and
mechanisation to increase the fish production marred the lives of marginalised
traditional fishermen intensively who at the bottom of the spectrum. Today,
all the fishermen are able to lead their life, to some extent, just because of the
rise in the price of the fishes. The state has been encouraging development
without sufficient emphasis on resource conservation. This resulted in
increased disparity in the social and economic status of various fishing groups
Fisher communities, particularly the artisanal communities, find themselves
most impacted by this alienation, as the development drive has left them
marginalized. Furthermore, the there is a pressure by the invisible hands to
encourage the industrial deep-sea fishing which would further responsible
for irresponsible and unsustainable utilization of the marine ecosystem (
Kurien 1991).

d. Coastal tourism
Nature-based and coastal tourism is a growing sector in India and around the
world. There has been rapid growth of urban populations in coastal areas and
domestic and international demand for tourism has been increasing with
increase in income. India has 590 protected areas covering less than 5 % of the
total land area; they are small (<300 km2) and are highly fragmented. One of
the key challenges in managing these coastal tourism areas is to protect them
from commercial interests such as infrastructure developments, ports,

41
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

hazardous industries, coal-fired power plants and public utility services, and
tourism adds another significant dimension to these challenges. Tourism
affected the social life and culture apart from environmental degradation.

e. Coastal areas and violation of CRZ


Today, there is a clear violation of CRZ regulation by the wealthy private
people who grabbed large chunk of land at cheaper rate from the poor fisher
folk, by constructing big bungalows as a holiday home. They encroached the
kumki land which otherwise used by the fishermen for the purposes stated in
the Table 1. This has opened up the coast to various forms of real estate
development by dispossessing them of their rights to coastal land and
livelihood.

d. Industrial effluents and marine resources


In coastal Karnataka, apart from 35 existing hazardous industries many
industries/facilities are established or proposed which could cause burden on
the water quality and quantity. These include are coal-fired thermal power
plants (Udupi dist.), existing and expansion of petroleum refinery(MRPL)
petroleum and petro chemical complex (MSEZ), chemical fertilizers (MCF),
chemicals and pesticides (BASF), iron and steel (KIOCL), existing and
proposed shipyards. A plan for river linking could divert fresh water into
other upland regions leading to reduced environmental flow in the rivers.
Mangalore refinery and Petro chemicals limited setup Single Point Mooring
SPM facility along with coastal booster pumping station within the port limits
at a location of 16 Km from the shore having the draft availability of 32 M for
handling Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC), at a cost of Rs 1,044 Crores
(Actual cost as on 31/03/2015 is Rs 807 Crores). Area up to 350 meters radius
from the S PM is marked as safer zone and no fishing crafts are allowed to
anchor and fish in this area. This has polluted the sea water by oil spillage and
took away the fishing ground.
Conclusion
Coastal ecosystem and livelihood of fisher folk are threatened by
urbanization. The increased use of coast for developmental purposes reduced
the availability of coastal space for fisheries activities which in turn, affected
the sustainability of fish production, biodiversity and other ecosystem
services. There is a decline in the per capita availability of physical space both
within 500 meters and outside 500 meters although the rate of decline in less
than 500 meter-zone from High Tide Line was relatively less compared to area
in greater than 500 meters. The rate of decline accelerated in recent years
indicating the vulnerability of coastal fishers to reduced space and declining
benefits of coastal commons and decline in the reduction of provisioning and

42
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

supporting services of coastal ecosystem. Therefore, the conservation and


protection of Coastal ecosystem assumes greater significance in order to
reduce the biodiversity loss and to enhance the livelihood systems of fisher
folk on a sustainable basis. The framework and institutional mechanism of the
coastal management must both firmly uphold the primacy of rights of
fishermen communities to coastal areas. They should be centrally involved in
the management of the resources. In preparing any policy to protect the
coastal ecosystem, the government should recognise and acknowledge the
rights of the fishing community to have access and control over lands that are
used for fishing purposes and for their economic, recreational, social and
cultural purposes. The research institutions should come up with appropriate
management strategies, with budget options for the conservation of our
natural resources. A more responsible approach towards sustainable use of
natural resources by mainstreaming or inclusion is needed Examine the
relationship between population/infrastructure development and land use
changes. Assess the need for investment in conservation and sustainable
management. Identify the critical regions of the ecosystems with high
community dependency. Evolve institutions to manage resources with
community participation. Create Awareness on the need for conservation
References
 FAO. (2004). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture (SOFIA). Fisheries
Department, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.
 CMFRI. (2005). Marine fisheries census 2005. Cochin: Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute.
 CMFRI. (2010). Marine fisheries census 2005. Cochin: Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute.
 CMFRI. (2003). Status of exploited marine fishery resources of India. Cochin:
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.
 Bhatta, R., Rao, K. A., & Nayak, S. K. (2003). Marine fish production in
Karnataka: Trends and composition. Economic and Political Weekly, 38(44),
4685-4693.
 Nandakumar, D., & Nayak, N. (2010). Coastal fisheries in India: Current
scenario, contradictions, and community responses. In R. A. Grafton., R.
Hilborn., D. Squires., M. Tait & M. Williams (Eds.), HandBook of Marine
Fisheries Conservation and Management (pp. 274-286). New York: Oxford
University Press.
 Kurien, J. (1991). Ruining the commons and responses of the commoners: Coastal
overfishing and fishermen’s actions in Kerala state, India. Switzerland: United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

43
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

6
Urban Agglomeration, Deprivation in Basic Amenities,
Poverty and Social Exclusion in India

Sukumaran and Santhosh Areekuzhiyil

1. Introduction
The historical legacy of poverty alleviation in India can be traced back to
the trickledown theory in the early years of planning. Later the growth
oriented approach, generation of employment and income through creation of
assets and work and provision for basic amenities to the poor were the
approaches of the government in the strategies of poverty eradication in India.
But even after the experimentation of myriads of poverty eradication
strategies, the problem of poverty is still pervasive in India in
multidimensional structure. It is noted that the characteristics and the
dimensions of poverty in India has been encompassing radical changes from
the basic necessities to multidimensional poverty, rural and urban poverty is
decreasing but still a small portion of the Indian urban population is also
endure the poverty and approaches to social exclusion. Thus it requires
government attention to alleviate the urban poverty and social exclusion along
with strategies for rural poverty eradication. In this juncture this paper is an
attempt to analyse how the urban agglomeration stimulates urban poverty
and deprivation in basic amenities and amplify social exclusion of urban poor.

2. Need and significance of the study


Poverty and social exclusion is one of the serious challenge that the
nation facing today even in the era of global technological upswing. We have
given much emphasis to the eradication of poverty since the initiation of
planning in 1951. The growth oriented approach, trickledown approach and
the pull up approach were some of the approaches followed by the
government since independence. All these poverty eradication policies and
programmes were basically intended to rural poor and eradication of rural
poverty. But at present as a result of the growth of education and resultant
changes in migration from rural area to urban area has been accelerated ever

44
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

before. The tendency of the people to migrate urban area has been increased.
Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher
education and rural people have to migrate to the urban centres for this
purpose. Many of them settle down in the cities for earning a livelihood after
completing their education (Tyagi, R.C. et al. 2016).
It is observed that the magnitude of urban migration has been increased
as a result; the urban population has been increasing. Increased urban
population and density in urban area cause to boost the disequilibria between
the availability of resources and the population in urban area. It increases the
vulnerability of poverty in Urban India. When the number of poor increases, it
also lead to many other sociological problems including social exclusion. Thus
it is the responsibility of the researchers and social scientists to shed light on
the increasing trends of urban migration and resultant socio-economic
problems. This paper will be an asset in the literature of urban agglomeration,
poverty and social exclusion and will be an eye opener to the policy makers
and planners to policy formulation and planning in the field of poverty
eradication in urban India.

3. Methodology
This paper is based on the secondary data collected from census of 2001
and 2011, Reports of the Working Group on Urban Poverty, Slums and Service
Delivery System 2011 by the Planning Commission and World Migration
Report 2015 and information collected from some other literature on Urban
Poverty and Social Exclusion. The results of the study has been generalised
using various empirical studies gathered in India. The present study have
been used the simple statistical techniques for data analysis such as
percentage, averages and diagrammatic presentations.

4. Results and Discussion


4.1. Urban Agglomeration
India’s population in 2001 and 2011 is presented in Table.1. It shows that the
population in rural India has been increased from 74.3 crores in 2001 to 83.3 in
2011 similarly the urban population is also increased from 28.6 to 37.7 crores.
This enables to reveal that the increase in urban population is greater than the
increase in rural area. The growth rate of population in India from 2001 to 2011
census is shown in Table.2. From the data it is emphatic that the growth rate of
population with respect to the rural and urban areas of India shows a clear

45
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

difference of growth in urban area of 0.3 in 2011 census whereas, it is -5.9 in


rural area. The population in India since 1961 to 2011 and projected increase in
population in absolute value shows that, the urban population in India has
been increasing from the 1961. It also reveals the increasing trends in
population in urban area from 1961 to 2050. This trend shows that, the increase
in population will be more than the double in 2050.Population in India. The
data in presented in Table.3.
In the past, rural to urban migration was largely directed to big cities
and to a few small cities and towns where large scale industries had
developed. This trend continues but migrants are now moving to the
peripheries of metropolises and large cities which are often devoid of basic
services and have largely grown in an unplanned manner (Baghat, B,R. 2015).
The contribution of Net Rural Urban Migration in Urban population
growth has been presented in Table.4. Number of factors affects the growth of
urban population such as natural increase, rural urban migration and increase
in population due to the reclassification of rural and urban areas. The
statistical table shows that, increase in growth rate of urban population was
mainly due to the natural increase in population in urban areas during 1981-
1991. It was 62.3 in this period. It is found out that, the relative contribution of
rural urban migration and reclassification of rural and urban areas were
comparatively very less during this period. But the relative contribution of
rural urban migration has increased marginally since 1981-1991 and the
contribution of reclassification has increased sharply in 2001-2011 period. Its
contribution was 19 percent during 1981-1991 increased to 35.6 percent in
2001-2011.

4.2. Poverty in India


The data presented in Table.5 reveals the magnitude of poverty in rural and
urban area of India. From the data it is clear that the percentage of poor in
rural and urban India has decreased considerably. At the same time the
decrease in number of poor in urban area is larger than the decrease in rural
area. It is decreased from 50.1 to 25.7 in rural area and 31.8 to 13.7 in urban
area respectively in the year 1993-94 to 2011-12 respectively. The fact is that,
13.7 percent of the Indian urban population are still in poverty. They are away
from the purview of poverty eradication programmes and policies of the
government.

46
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table.6 and 7 shows the percentage of persons below different levels of


Median Per capita Consumer Expenditure in rural and urban areas of India.
From the data it is very much obvious that, the percentage of population
belongs to lower median consumption expenditure group has increased from
3.5- to 4.2 and the percentage of higher median group decreased from 72.0 to
70.7 respectively in rural area during 2004-05 to 2011-12 respectively. Whereas,
in urban area, the percentage of people belongs to lower medina consumption
expenditure group has increased from 9.6 to 10.9 percent and the percentage
of people belongs to higher median consumption expenditure group is also
increased from 65.7 to 66.4 percent respectively in the periods of 2004-05 to
2011-12 respectively. Thus it indicates the increasing magnitude of poverty in
urban areas with respect to consumption expenditure terns.

4.3. Basic Amenities


The percent of urban population not having various basic amenities is
presented in Table.8. From the data it is evident that, very meagre percent of
the urban population not having the basic amenities like housing, bathing
facilities, latrine and electricity. Whereas, percent of urban population not
having drainage and drinking water are something more than the former.

5. Findings of the Study


1. Population in India has been increased. Increase in urban population is
greater than increase in rural population. It is very much emphatic from the
statistics on the growth rate of rural urban population in India since 2002 to
2011. In rural area growth rate is -5.9 and in urban area it is 0.3 percent
respectively.
2. The study reveals the increasing trends in urban population. It is evident
from the projected population in India from 1961- 2050. The projected
increase is more than the annual growth rate of previous years that is, 410
and 814 million respectively in 2014 and 2050.
3. Reclassification of rural and urban areas has a significant role in the increase
in urban population compared to the natural increase and rural urban
migration. That is
62.3 to 43.8 from natural increase, 18.7 to 20.6 from rural urban migration
and 19 to 35.6 from reclassification of rural and urban areas respectively in
the years 1981-1991 and 2001-2011.The percentage of poverty in rural and

47
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

urban areas has decreased but still, 13.7 percent of the urban population is
in poverty.
4. The percentage of poor belongs to lower median consumption expenditure
and upper median consumption expenditure has increased from 9.6 to 10.9
and 65.7 to 66.4 respectively 2004-05 to 2011-12. It is very interesting to note
that in the rural area, increase in percentage of poor on the basis of median
consumption expenditure has increase only in lower median consumption
expenditure where the percent of upper median consumption expenditure
has not increased instead decreased marginally.
6. Some of the urban population not having basic amnesties such like housing,
bathing facilities, latrine and electricity. Whereas, percent of urban
population not having drainage and drinking water are something more
than the former.

6. Conclusion
From the result and discussion it is apparent that, urban population has been
increasing over the years. Where, the rural urban migration and the
reclassification of rural and urban areas plays important role. It magnifies the
degree of urban agglomeration in India. At the same time rate of poverty is
decreased in the urban population but some of the urban population still
undergoes in poverty. Some of the urban population not having basic
amenities about 15 percent of the urban population are illiterate (Census, 2011)
and lacking banking services etc. It is realised that when the population
pressure increases the available resource in the urban area may not be
sufficient to effectively address the problem of poverty. Thomas Malthus
believed that the world's population and resources grew at different rates. He
believed that the Population would increase geometrically but food
production would only grow arithmetically, which would result in famine and
starvation (Wikipedia). It creates disequilibrium between available resources
and population.
Thus the present study forwards some of the postulates that, the
escalating trends in urban agglomeration step up the susceptibility to poverty
through the inadequacy of resources and fatalities the urban poor to social
exclusion. Poverty increases the deprivation in basic amenities, literacy. and
the participation in main stream activities. Poverty leads to myriads of socio-
political, economic and psychological deprivation. It rampant the

48
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

stigmatisation of the poverty affected. Poverty is a moral concept as well as


descriptive one, material deprivation and poverty are the potent drivers of
stigmatisation (Spicker, 2007). This ultimately keep the urban poor away from
the decision making agents in the political economy of the nation.
Thus social exclusion is defined as a multi-dimensional process, in
which various forms of exclusion are combined: participation in decision
making and political processes, access to employment and material resources,
and integration into common cultural purposes (Madanipour. Et al. 1998). This
is the evolution of social exclusion in urban areas as a corollary of poverty.
Further, most of the poverty eradication policies and programmes in the
contemporary India have been giving emphasis to rural poverty alleviation
than the urban poverty. It increases the magnitude of urban poverty and
problems of the urban poor have been alive for ever and the planned
spontaneous social exclusion of the urban poor has become pervasive. The
study thus invites the attention of the planners and policy makers to have a
foresight on the challenging social problems like poverty and the highlighting
the emergency of addressing this issue. It is also significant to not that, even
though urban poverty is microscopic compared to rural poverty, the
opportunity cost of poor due to poverty is considerably very high. They have
been stigmatised due to the lack of fundamental requirements for sustenance
sliding in to social exclusion.

References
 Bhagat, B.R. (2014). World Migration Report 2015. Urban Migration Trends,
Challenges and Opportunities in India. International Institute for Population
Sciences.
 Chandramouli, C. (2011). Houses, Household Amenities and Assets Data 2001 -
2011 Visualizing Through Maps, Census of India. Retrieved from
censusindia.gov.in/2011.../H.
 Madanipour, A., Cars, G. and Allen, J. (eds) (1998) Social exclusion in European
cities. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishing
 Planning Commission. (2014). Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Delivery System.
New Delhi: Retrieved from planningcommission.nic.in/.
 Spicker, P. (2007). The idea of poverty. In Shildrick, T and Rucell, J. (2015)
Sociological Perspectives on Poverty. Joseph Rountry Foundation. Retrieved from
https://www.jrf.org.uk/.../soc..
 Tyagi, C.R and Tarannum Siddiqui. (2016). Causes of Rural Urban Migration in
India: Challenges and Policy Issues. Indian Journal of Research, 5(6), 173-176.
 .

49
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

8. Tables and Figures


Table. 1: India’s Population (in Crore)
Year 2001 2011 Difference
India 102.9 121.0 18.1
Rural 74.3 83.3 9.0
Urban 28.6 37.7 9.1
Source: Census 2011 Data updates.
Table.2: Growth Rate of Population (in %)
Year 2001 2011 Difference
India 21.5 17.6 -3.9
Rural 18.1 12.2 -5.9
Urban 31.5 31.8 +0.3
Source: Census 2011 Data updates.
Figure.1: Growth Rate of population (in Percent)

40 31.5 31.8
30 21.5
17.6 18.1 2001
20 12.2
2011
10

0
India Rural Urban

Table. 3: Urban population in India 1961-2050)


Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2014 2050
Population in 78 109 159 217 286 377 410 814
Million
Source: Source: Census of India 1961 to 2011 in World Migration Report India 2015.
Figure.2: Urban population in India (1961-2050)
Indian Urban Population( in Million)
1000
800 814
600
400 377 410 Population in Million
286
200 159 217
78 109
0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2014 2050

50
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table.4: Contribution of Net Rural to Urban Migration in Urban Population


Growth (in Percent)
Natural Increase Rural Urban Reclassification
Migration
1981- 1991- 2001- 1981- 1991- 2001- 1981- 1991- 2001-
1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011
62.3 57.6 43.8 18.7 20.8 20.6 19 21.5 35.6
Source: R.B.Bhat, 2012 in Word Migration Report, 2015

Figure.3: Contribution of Net Rural to Urban Migration in Urban Population


(%)

70 62.3
57.6
60
43.8
50
35.6 1981-91
40
30 18.7 20.8 20.6 19 21.5 1991-01
20 2001-11
10
0
Natural increase Rural Urban Reclassification
Migration

Table.5: Percentage of Poor Estimated (Tendulkar) Methodology


Year Rural Urban Total
1993-94 50.1 31.8 45.3
2004-05 41.8 25.7 37.2
2009-10 33.8 20.9 29.8
2011-12 25.7 13.7 21.9
Source: Planning Commission 2014.

Figure.4: Percentage of Poor Estimated 1993-2012 (Tendulkar) Methodology

60 50.1
50 45.3
41.8
37.2
40 31.8 33.8 Rural
29.8
25.7 25.7
30 20.9 21.9 Urban
20 13.7 Total
10
0
1993-94 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12

51
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table.6: Persons below Different Levels of Median PCE in Rural Areas (in
%).
Year and Rounds 2004-05 (NSS 2009-10 (NSS 66th 2011-12 (NSS 68th
61st Round) Round) Round)
1. 0.5 of Median 3.5 3.9 4.2
2. 0.6 of Median 9.4 10.1 10.4
3. 0.7 of Median 18.6 19.0 19.4
4. 0.8 of Median 29.4 29.3 29.9
5. 0.9 of Median 40.0 40.0 40.4
6. 1.0 of Median 50.0 50.0 50.0
7. 1.1 of Median 58.6 58.7 57.9
8. 1.2 of Median 65.8 66.0 64.8
9. 1.3 of Median 72.0 71.9 70.7
Source: Planning Commission 2014
Table.7: Persons below Different Levels of Median PCE in Urban Areas
(in%)
Year and Rounds 2004-05 (NSS 2009-10 (NSS 2011-12 (NSS
61st Round) 66th Round) 68th Round)
1. 0.5 of Median 9.6 10.4 10.9
2. 0.6 of Median 18.1 18.9 18.9
3. 0.7 of Median 26.7 27.9 27.4
4. 0.8 of Median 35.4 35.9 35.6
5. 0.9 of Median 43.1 43.2 43.2
6. 1.0 of Median 50.0 50.0 50.0
7. 1.1 of Median 55.7 55.9 56.3
8. 1.2 of Median 60.8 60.7 61.6
9. 1.3 of Median 65.7 65.2 66.4
Source: Source: Planning Commission 2014
Table. 8: Urban population not having basic amenities (in percent)
Serial No. Basic Amenities Percentage
1 Dilapidated houses 3
2 No bathing facilities 13
3 No latrine 8
4 No drainage 18.2 (37.3 OD)
5 No electricity 7
6 Drinking water away from premises 29
Source: Census data update 2011.

52
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

7
Demographic dimensions and problems of slums -A
Case Study of Belagavi City

M.s.kurani1 Sri. Prasanna B. Joshi Dr. Abhay M. Patil


Introduction:
Urbanization is taking place significantly in numerous developing countries
including India. The Urban population has increased by almost ten times
between the years 1901 to 2001 and number of urban settlements has nearly
doubled during this period from 1916 in 1901 to 5161 in 2001 in India.
Although small towns are numerous, the 400 odd cities harbor two third of
India’s urban population. These urban centers offering diverse employment
opportunities and means of livelihood are the main centers of attraction for
migration, despite the facts that physical infrastructure in terms of housing
drinking water supply; drainage etc, are inadequate (Register General of India,
2001).
Quality of life has suffered in these urban centers not only due to migration
but more so due to expanding gap between the demand and supply of
necessary services and other infrastructure facilities. Unchecked land prices
and unaffordable housing has forced the poor to search for informal solutions
resulting in mushrooming of slums and squatter settlements (Retnaraj, 2001)
slums develops on peripheral and marginal lands on the outskirts of city, on
hills, slopes and low lying areas, and also on the land which has little use to
the owner in near future. They also developed on the land left unused by
public bodies like railways, Municipal Corporation, port trust etc. (Nandia and
Gupta, 1993)
Today 3 billion people nearly half of the world’s population lives in cities. One
third of them are slum dwellers. Moreover, four out of ten inhabitants in the
developing world are living in informal shelters. They experience manifold
deprivations such as houses unfit for habitation but also lack of education,
health and basic services. As such, slum improvement is not only a goal for a
better quality of life but also provides a positive impact on the health burden
and the economic development of a country. Slums in the world are the face of
urban poverty in the new millennium (UN – HABITAT, 2003).

53
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The phenomenon of slum is worldwide and no country or no city in


any country is without slums even in Europe and America but the definition
and type varies from place to place. As the capitalist mode of production
started in 18th century, poverty, unemployment, lack of employment in rural
areas and over population are the factors responsible for the existence of slums
everywhere. No nation has ever been able to prevent the emergence of slums
(Abrams, 1970). Slums are characterized by overcrowding, heterogeneous and
ethnically multiracial population, largely inhabited by poor and social weaker
section of the society. Local administration always failed to provide urban civil
amenities and sewage facilities to them.

Study Area
Belagavi is referred to as “venugram” (bamboo village) in the early inscription
of 12th and 13th centuries . It is located in sourth western part of Belagavi
district and extended between 15 - 15’ north latitude to 74 -31’ east longitude
at an height of 710 mtrs above the mean sea level . the total geographical area
of the city is about 94.08 sq.kms , It is fifth biggest city among the cities of
Karnataka state in terms of area and population and also district and
divisional head quarters of the state
FIG NO 1 AREA UNDER STUDY

Objectives
The aim of the present investigation is to analyse the socio- economic status of
slums and suggest possible measure for the improvement of the quality of life
of slum dwellers in Belagavi city. The study has following objectives.
 To assess the demographic pattern of slums of Belagavi city

54
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 To analyze amenities and infrastructure exist and also bring out the
Deficiency in them.
 To study various problem associated with slum dwellers in the city.
 To suggest the planning for the improvement of environmental condition
of slums of the city.
Methodology
 Belagavi Municipal corporation is divided into 58 wards in which there are
36 slums are notified by the KS CB and Municipal Corporation. Hence Data
will be collected from both primary as well as secondary sources.
 The parameters for demarcating the slums are water supply conditions,
sanitation amenities and infrastructure and housing conditions.
 To study of demographic pattern and problems of slums ,a primary
survey was conducted through questionnaire , which was covered about
462 households in 36 different slums at Belagavi Municipal Corporation
limit. 10% of the households from each slum pocket were interviewed on
the basis of stratified random sample technique. This ten percent is
considered on the basis of information on the total number of household
collected from the leaders of each slum pocket.
 The secondary sources of data related to population, existing amenities &
government policies and Programmes was collected from slums clearance
Board Belagavi Municipal Corporation and BUDA etc.
 In the present investigation necessary statistical and cartographic
techniques will be employed for tabulation, analysis and mapping of
analyzed data.

Spatial Distribution Of Slums:


Table No (1) explains that there are 30 declared, and 16 undeclared slums in
Belagavi city according Municipal Cooperation records 2005. The total
population of declared slum is 38395 persons. The Banjar Colony (Nagar) is
largest in population size and number of families than the other slum of in the
city. Out of 56 slums only five slums i.e., Jadhav Nagar (5847 persons) Banjar
Colony (3960 persons), New Gandhi Nagar (3245 Persons) Nazar Camp (2350
persons) and Kanabagi Ext (1290) have greater concentration of slum
population. It is observed from the study that the slums ie Azad Nagar,
Goodshed Road, Beldar Chavani, Matang Colony Railway Bridge Angol etc
have very low population concentration.

55
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table No. 1.1: Distribution of population in slums 2015.


Sl No. Slums Source: Municipal Corporation Belgaum. Population
1 Beldar Chavani 450
2 Ganapat Bund Galli 374
3 Kasai Galli 558
4 Malaprabha Nagar 705
5 Indira Nagar Angol 520
6 Near Railway Bridge- Angol 320
7 Harijanwada- Angol 400
8 Waddar Galli 795
9 Laxmi Galli 795
10 Nazar Camp 2350
11 Godas Bavadi 515
12 Alwan Galli 878
13 Gayatri Nagar- Vadagon 493
14 Goodshed Road 353
15 Fulbag Galli 215
16 Matang Colony 237
17 Banjar Colony (Han) 3860
18 Markandy Nagar 386
19 Ashok Nagar Huts 641
20 Beldar Chavani 459
21 Ambedkar Nagar 1060
22 Ramnagar 517
23 Kanchikeri Colony 1013
24 Azada Nagar 350
25 Basavankol 1370
26 Kanchikeri Colony 1013
27 Azada Nagar 350
28 Basavankol 1370
29 Old Gandhi Nagar 450
30 Yamanpur 647

Population Characteristics Of Slums Of Belagavi City.


Economic well being of a region depends on the quality and number of
inhabitants. The demographic factors not only influence the nature and quality
of all factors of production but also determine the kinds of economic activity
and development. There are 46 slums in the city, of which 32 are declared
slums and 16 undeclared slums according to the Municipal Records 2011. The

56
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

total population of declared slums is about 38395 persons, which accounts for
about 10 per cent of the total population of the city. Out of the total population
the male population is 54: 10 per cent and rest are females.
Table No 1.2 Slums Classified According To Sex Ratio
Sl No Sex Ratio No Of Slums % To Total
(Females Per 1000 Males)
01 Less Than 950 02 5.12
02 950-960 17 43.58
03 Above 960 20 51.28
Total 39 100.00

Age Composition Of Slum Dwellers


Age composition is one of the most important aspects of population
study it influences the rate of growth and has profound effects on the socio-
economic conditions and development. There are three basic determinants of
age composition they are mainly as follows- i) fertility ii) mortality and iii)
migration, these are interdependent, and they change from one city to another.
Fertility and migration influence much on population growth and socio-
economic development. The fertility rate that determines the proportion of
population in different age categories. That is why, most of the countries of
Asia. L. America and African countries experience the longevity and life
expectancy. If we analyze the age groups (table no 1.3 ), 11.45 per cent
belongs to the age group of 0.5 years, About 13.26 percent belong to the age
group of 6-14 years and the percentage of population lying in the age group of
15-34 years is about 24 percent. The highest percentage is 39.76 belongs the age
group of 35-60 years and only 10.61 percent lie in the age group of about above
60 years. Which indicates that about 35.00 per cent of the population surveyed
households are dependent people.

Table No 1.3 Age Composition Of Slum Dwellers Of Belagavi City


SL NO AGE GROUPS PERCENTAGE
01 0-5 11.45 %
02 6-14 13.26%
03 15-34 24.00
04 35-60 39.76
05 ABOVE 60 10.61
Source- Field Survey

57
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Religious And Caste Composition Of Slum Dwellers


A. Religious Composition
Religious composition of the population determines the type of human
resources. India is land of diversity, and the same is reflected in the population
characteristics which varies from one region to another. Religion plays an
important role in formulating and preserving a culture system, which has been
well recognized in the city. However there are many ways in which the
religion may reflect its influence on the way of life of its institutions, political
ethos and even the laws. For example the social institutions of marriage
requires traditions and systems in every religion and each religion has its own
codification. Islam permits polygamy while Christianity and Hinduism insist
on monogamy.
Table No 1.4 Religious Composition Of Slum Dwellers (Figures
Percentage)
Sex Total Pop Hindus Muslims Christians Others
Male 54.1 37.27 12.62 2.2 1.31
Female 45.9 33.00 10.00 2.0 1.60
Total 100 70.27 22.62 4.2 2.91
Source: Field Survey And Percentage Is Computed By Researchers
It is observed from the table no 1.4 and figure no 1.4 that the Majority of
sample respondents are the followers of Hindu religion. 70.27percent of
sample respondents are Hindus. Of which 37.33percent male and 33.00
percent females About 22.62 percent of the respondents are Muslims, In which
12.62 male and 10 percent females. and 4.2 percent are Christians and
remaining 2.91 percent are the people belongs to other religious
groups(Jains,Sikhs,Buddist,Parsi) etc

Caste Composition
Table No 1.5 Caste Composition Of Notified Slums
Sl No Social Category Total Popn Percentage
01 Others 20518 72.09
03 Schedule Caste 7286 25.60
04 Scheduled Tribe 656 2.30
Total 28460 100.00
Source –Office Of Ksdb And Percentage Is Computed By Researcher

58
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

A good number of slum dwellers belong to Scheduled Caste category. (table


no-1.5) . As many as 25.60 percent of the slum dwellers belongs to Scheduled
Caste and 15.00 and 2.30 percent of belongs to scheduled tribe. and more
number of slum dweller ie-72.09 percent belongs to other social category
groups, which includes backward classes ,minorities and others .

Occupational Structure
It is observed from the survey that a majority of the households are engaged
in low-income occupations such as daily wages, rickshaw pulling, household
industry, construction, wooden works furniture making and begging. About
28.16 per cent people are daily wagers. 8.10 per cent construction workers 12.0
per cent transport and communication 18.0 per cent wooden and furniture
makers, 6.08 per cent industrial labours, 5.23% Beggars and 20.31 per cent
other workers. (Table No. 1.6 )
Table No.1.6 Occupational Structure of slum dwellers in Belagavi city.
Occupation Percentage of households
Daily wagers 28.16%
Construction 8.10%
Rickshaw pullers 12.00%
Transport & Communication 2.07%
Wooden and Furniture 18.00%
Industrial Labors 6.08%
Begging 5.28%
Others 20.31%
Total 100.00%
Source: (Computed by researcher)
Problems of Slums:
Housing Condition : The basic frame of environment in which man lives in
his house, housing condition not only reflect the material status of population
but also the rate at which improvement or deterioration of general quality of
life takes place. If we compare the housing conditions of slums of Belagavi
city with either areas it can be considered as worst standard because about
70.18 per cent of houses are made up of roof with locally available materials
like, grasses, mud etc, and about 20.38 per cent houses are thatched, rest of
houses are asbestos or miscellaneous materials. The structure of wall and floor

59
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

are generally of almost mud and in general the conditions of houses are not
suitable for habitation.
Water Supply And Electricity: Slum areas are very poor in terms of water and
electricity supply In this regard the situation of slum are not satisfactory.
Spatial distribution of these facilities may at best be put as haphazard. Due to
low income a majority of the population cannot afford to these facilities. About
85per cent of the slum people getting their drinking water from municipality
tap and about 82 percent of the slum dwellers do not have electricity supply,
they are using kerosene and oil, wood as a fuel.
Sewerage and Sanitation: The sewerage and sanitation facilities one of the
vital element of the quality of the environment are very unsatisfactory.
Stagnant pools of water and flooding of low lying slum areas by rain water are
a common sight. Sewerage and sanitary conditions are extremely poor
especially in slum areas of Gandhinagar, Azadnagar, Zatpat, colony,
Gangawadi etc. The living conditions in these slums are unhygienic and
inadequate.
Amenities And Infrastructure : Amenities and infrastructural facilities
constitute an important part of the environment. These facilities in these slum
areas are very poor both in quality and quantity. About 78.32 percent the slum
dwellers do not have separate kitchen, separate bathroom separate latrine and
separate room to entertain their guest. Quality and size of the roads are not
good in slum areas. 98per cent of the total households in slum areas do not
have telephone facilities, but they use mobiles.

Suggestions for Development:


The success of ensuring a healthy living in slums lies with the improvement by
providing adequate facilities. The problems of one slum differ from another.
From the observation made in the present survey a few broad
recommendations are outlined which may help in the improvement of the
microenvironment in slums of Belagavi Municipal Corporation area. The slum
dwellers should be allowed to stay in the respective pockets without any
programme of rehabilitation unless and otherwise the situation compels.
Further the people living here may be given the chance of having ownership
of rights of the land they are occupying. The provision of housing of the
economically weaker section is to be taken under the minimum need
programme

60
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Water Supply and Sanitation: The existing system of tap water supply is to
be augmented to meet the minimum requirement. The water supply system in
the slums. It is needed to be treated with integration of city supply system. To
meet the immediate requirements deep tube wells be installed in suitable
locations.The slums should be provided with drainage facilities i.e. integration
with the master plan drainage system of the city. All Kaccha drains should be
made pucca. During rainy season conditions of water logging is serious and
that deteriorates the environment, which needs a permanent pumping system.
It is very much necessary to extend the facilities of cleaning the slums daily
and to dispose of the garbage. It is desirable to provide Garbage pockets to
each slums which can dispose of waste at least twice in a week. Further public
toilets should be provided at suitable sites. The community organizers should
take special care to convince the people the implication of unhealthy
environment and insist on them to follow the practice of using toilets.

Electricity: It is observed from the study that, all slum pockets should be
supplied with electric connections street light. The tube lights which are not
functioning, properly they should be replaced immediately with new ones.
The slums have approaches by earthen roads. These roads are to be provided
with at least moron roads and the major roads should be provided with black
top road.

Education: In order to increase the standard of living of the slum dwellers the
expansion of educational facilities are very necessary Pre-primary education
for children in the age group of 3-6 should be encouraged. Informal education
facilities need to be extended to the adult members of the households. Specials
care should be taken to discourage the dropouts among the children.
Health: Improvement of health condition of the slum people is essential hence
preventive measures are to be taken to arrest the incidence of common
diseases in the slums than going for curative measures. Immunization
programmes should be organized to arrest specific disease like T.B. polio, etc.
Additional dispensaries and health center are required to be established at
various centrally located areas. Health education programme is required to be
conducted in slum so as to make the inhabitants understand the implications.

61
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

References
 Abbot D and Barke M (1998):A review of slum housing policy in Mumbai Cities
– 269 – 283
 Abrams Charles (1970):Slums. In (ed) Desai A R and S Devadas Pillai – Slums
and Urbanization Popular Prakashan Bombay
 Agarwal S A Satyavada S Kousik & R Kumar(2007):Urbanization Urban
poverty and Health of Urban poor status, challenges and the way forward.
Demography India Vol 36 (1) 121-134
 Bhandari L & K Basu (2000) :In Action plan for slum Auction & Relocation for
the state of Delhi New Delhi – National Council of Applied Economic Research
 Bose M (1998):Women work and the built environment ; Lesson from the slum
of Calcutta – India habitat International 5-18
 Desai A.R. and S. D. Pillai (1970):(eds) Slum and Urbanization Bombay Popular
Prakashan PP – 48
 Davis M (2006):Planet of slums – Newyork : Verso
 Grodzins Morton(1970):The New shames of the cities, In (ed) Desai A.R. and S.
Devdas Pillai – Slums & Urbanization – Popular Prakashan Bombay
 Hans Schnk(2001):Living in India’s slums – A case study of Bangalore
 H Afshar(2002):Age and Empowerment amongst slum dwelling women in
Hyderabad
 Imparto IVO & Jeff Ruster (2003):Slum upgrading and participation : Lesson
from the Latin, America The World bank Washington DC
 Kundu A (2007):Stigmatization of Urban processes in India; An Analysis of
Terminology with special reference to slum situation
 Mohammad Akthar & Kavita Toran (2003):Migration, Slums, & Urban squator –
A case study of Gandhinagar
 N. Rai (2009): Strategies issues in infrastructural development of slums in
Lucknow city
 Nangia Parveen and Gupta Kamal (1994):Morphology of slums in Thane Report
series No. 6 International Institute for Pop Sciences – Mumbai – India
 Operational Research Group (1989): Accessibility to Basic Services in
slums of five urban centres – Baroda
 P. Gupta(2010):New born case pattern in Urban slums of Lucknow city

62
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

8
Problems and prospect of student migrants in Mysuru
city- A Sociological study.
Jessy C.A Sr.Prafula and Rekha Jadhav

Introduction
Migration is movement of people from one place to another for
education, work and for better living standards. Throughout the history of
humankind we find people migrating all over the world. Migration to cities
/towns and other developed areas and the places are rampant nowadays
where employment, education and other facilities are available. Human
migration is one of the most important aspects of society because migration
process has been an important factor in the area of development and changes
in the present day society. It has dominated human activities and it
contributes for the development of both individual and society. Migration is
also stressful and it demands emotional, social, cultural, educational and
economic adjustments. Those who migrate need time to adapt to the new
environment, new people and the culture. The students are not only migrating
to overseas for education these days, they migrate to different states for
education for the good quality of education and for their career development.
The student moves to different places within India for undergraduate
education as the students are unable to get educational institutions of their
choice or they move to different places as their option to go out of their native
place for education. Education empowers them and that urges them to learn
from the best possible sources so the students are craving for the best
opportunities where ever may it be.
Education was given only to Hindus before the advent of the European system
of education in Mysore, and Madrassas provided schooling for Muslims.
Modern education began in Mysore when a free English school was
established in 1833. In 1854 the East India Company promulgated the Halifax
Dispatch, which suggested organizing education based on the western model
in the princely state of Mysore. The Maharajas College, founded in 1864 was
the first College for higher education. The University of Mysore was
established in 1916. This was the sixth university to be established in India and

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

the first in Karnataka. Today Mysore owns large number of schools and
college

Rationale of the study


Karnataka is an educational hub of India. Mysuru is a city of palace and it
attracts many tourists to visit the place. Reputed educational Institutions are
found in Mysuru and many students from other states and countries pursue
their higher education in Mysuru. This study evaluates the problems and
prospects of student migrants. Education enkindles knowledge and it
empowers youth to migrate to different places for undergraduate education.
In Mysore we find students from south to North and North-East pursuing
their under graduation. Most of the students find this place most suitable for
education as it is a clean safe city in India.

Objectives
 To analyze the motivational factor in choosing Mysuru as their place of
destiny for under graduation.
 To study the problems faced as a student migrant.
 To study the academic progress and academic stress
 To analyze their health and well being.

Methodology of the study


A detail regarding the Problems and prospect of student migrants in Mysuru
city- A Sociological study is based on the information collected through
questionnaire. Primary data collected from the respondents with the help of
questionnaire. Few migrant students were observed and interviewed by the
researcher who stayed in the hostels to know about the problems and
prospects of their life in general and their living conditions.

Analysis and interpretation of data


Data was tabulated and analyzed using SPSS. Simple statistical techniques
such as mean, media percentages and std. deviation were used to analyze and
interpret the data.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table 1: Age group of the respondents


age group Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percent
17 9 5 5
18 31 17.2 22.2
19 44 24.4 46.7
20 49 27.2 73.9
21 23 12.8 86.7
22 11 6.1 92.8
23 6 3.3 96.1
24 5 2.8 98.9
28 1 0.6 99.4
30 1 0.6 100
Total 180 100

Graph 1: Age group

The above table reveals the age group of the respondents. Most of the
respondents belongs to age group of 19 (24.4%) and 20 (27.5%) while other
age group varies from 16 to 30 years of age which reveal that education is an
ongoing process and for some reasons few respondents have continued their
studies after certain age.
Table 2: Religious group of the respondents
Religious group Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percent
Hindu 37 20.6 20.6
Muslims 25 13.9 34.4
Christians 94 52.2 86.7
Buddhists 16 8.9 95.6
others 8 4.4 100
Total 180 100

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Education is open to all irrespective of all the religious groups. The above table
reveals that 52.2% of the students belong to Christians and 20.6% Hindus and
13.9% of them Muslims and 8.9% of them are Buddhists while others 4.4% of
them are Sikhs and Jains respectively. The study reveals that the students’ of
different religious group from different states study in Mysore.
Sources of information
Education is profit making organization and the Institutions attract the
students from various states by providing information all the facilities to make
the right choice. The top educational institutions keep up their standards and
thus for students to choose a College is becoming very difficult. The
educational institutions promote information about their courses through
College website, advertisement, friends, neighbors and lectures of the
previous institutions.

Table 3: most influential persons in decision making process


persons in decision Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Self 45 25 25
Lectures 4 2.2 27.2
Friends 16 8.9 36.1
Relatives 13 7.2 43.3
parents 102 56.7 100
Total 180 100

Migration is decided based on the financial conditions and the students


intellectual capacity to pursue the under graduation. The above table reveals
that it was the parents (56%) who were the most influential persons in their life
to choose Mysore as their study destination. 25% of them indicated that it was
their own decision to migrate to Mysuru city for education.
Problems faced as a student migrant
The life in a place different from their native place can be of emotional stress
and feelings of alienation from societal and cultural difference. Problems are
part of life. The most important aspect of life is how these problems can be
taken positively for achieving higher status in the society. The migrant
students in general miss hometown and home environments. Some of the
problems are the following

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Change of climate: Due seasonal changes in the climate some students get
sick, while others who come from different places also fall ill due to change of
climate. Few students are able to adjust with the climatic conditions of the
place while others take time to adjust to the weather conditions. The study
revealed that 64% of them revealed that seasonal change in their climate was
occasionally difficult for them in the beginning and only 6.1% of them
indicated that climate was always difficult .while others 22.2% and 7.2% of
them revealed that sometimes difficult and frequently difficult respectively.
Food and accommodation: Food and Accommodation is the main issues that
the students face as they move to different places for study .Adjusting to food
and accommodation is tough job for the students from outstation. The
preparation and taste for food are different in different state and each state has
separate cuisine. Craving for home food is part of student’s life as they are
away from home.
The result showed that the students get easily adjusted to food and
accommodation. Only 16.7% of the respondents revealed that it was always
difficult and 27.8%, 13.9% and 22.8 % of them indicated that sometimes
difficult, frequently difficult and occasionally difficult respectively and 18.3%
of the respondents indicated that it was not at all difficult as they could adjust
due to the availability of food of their choice in Mysore.
Loneliness: Loneliness is a negative feeling that makes one depressed. It is a
feeling that no one is there to care and understand, it is lack of connectedness.
Loneliness is experienced by most of the people especially when loved ones
are not there with and when the person is alone. It can be experienced even if
we are in the crowds. The students who come from other states may
experience tremendous loneliness if they don’t socialize with their roommates
or friends easily. The study found that about 40% of them never felt lonely
and while others 23.3%, 9.4%, 17.8% and 9.4% of them indicated that loneliness
was occasionally difficult, frequently difficult, sometimes difficult and always
difficult respectively.
Homesickness
The students who are away from their parents feel homesickness. Some
students may discontinue their students as they are unable to stay away from
their parents. 37.8% of the respondents revealed that homesickness was not at
all difficult for them as they could feel at home with the place. While others
23.3%, 7.8%, 20% and 11.1% of them revealed that it is occasionally difficult,

67
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

frequently difficult and always difficult as the parents come to see them or
after going home it took time for them to overcome homesickness.
Communication: Communication is an important key to mingle with the
people of the locality. Kannada is spoken by majority of the local people.
27.8% of them indicated that occasionally the respondents find it difficult to
communicate as the respondents could not communicate the local language. In
the College all speak English and it was not a problem only going out was
issue.Some of them understands the language but was not able to converse
fluently.
Finance: The student’s education depends mostly on parent’s education and
their financial conditions. Educational expenses such as College fees, food and
accommodation expenses are met by their parents. The students too faces
financial problems because they have to manage with the money their parents
gives 7.2% of them indicated that they faced financial problem and it was
always difficult while 29.4% of them revealed it was not at all difficult.
Academic progress: Academic progress of the students includes overall
performance of the students. Academic progress of the students is also
depends on the quality of the faculty, the facilities like good and well
equipped library, internet facility, Laboratory, sports ground and suitable
environment . The study revealed that 51.1% of the respondents indicated that
the academic progress was satisfactory and 12.2% of them very satisfactory
and while others 3.9% and 0.6% of them indicated that their academic progress
was unsatisfactory and very unsatisfactory respectively. The mean value is
3.7056 and the std. deviation is 0.75263 respectively.
Academic stress
Academic stress is frustration that faced by the students in their academic life.
The students feel that they are frustrated once they know that they are not
performing well in their studies. The students are faced with many demands,
they have to perform well in their examinations, class exams, fulfill their
teachers and parents expectations etc. Academic stress were mainly due to
various reasons such as bunking classes, falling ill often, lack of interest in
studies, dislike towards teachers etc.
25.66% of them revealed that the respondents were not able to focus on their
studies as they used to fall ill and it had negative impact on their life academic
life. Language difficult was another problem as they could not cope up with
their studies 25.6% of them indicated that the respondents are not able to

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

perform well as language difficult was the main problem. Too many
assignments made them to focus on the assignment than their studies and
35.6% of them indicated that it has helped them to perform well and only
17.8% of them revealed that the respondents could not concentrate on their
studies.
Table 4: social and Institutional support
Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Don’t know 65 36.1 36.1
No 23 12.8 48.9
yes 92 51.1 100
Total 180 100

Graph:2 social and Institutional support


social and Instituional support

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

26%
48%
26%

Social and Institutional support is very essential for the student’s academic
progress and the majority of the respondents 51.1% of them indicated that the
respondents expressed they received social and institutional support and
12.8% of them expressed did not receive any institutional and social support .
The mean value is 2.1500 and std. deviation is 1.12545 respectively.
Health conditions: The young people in general are very healthy. The quest
for independence and acceptance by peers, increased mobility, and greater
time spent at College and/or work activities, and preoccupation with self-
image, contribute to the erratic and unhealthy eating behaviors. Eating habits
vary widely between individuals and in absence of their parents the
respondents neglected their food and there is also shortage of food availability
and nutritional goals.The graph below shows that 49.4% health in general is
good and 24.4% of them revealed very good and only 3.3% of them indicated
poor 1.1% of them very poor respectively. The respondents are healthy and
happy if they go home to take of nutritious food that is prepared by their
parents. The mean value is 3.9278 and Std. Deviation is 0.83251 respectively.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Graph 3: health conditions


health coniditons
150
100
50
0
very poor fair good very
poor good

Frequency Percent

The health status is a multi- dimensional state of physical health, mental


health and everyday functioning in social and role activities
(Christopher.B.Forrest, 1997) . The health care facility varies between rich and
the poor. The students who are healthy are able to do well academically.
Healthy students are able to adjust and take precautions not to fall ill. The
measures taken by the respondents were that they avoided junk food, eating
outside and regular health check up.22.8%, 31.7%, 13.9% and 13.3% of the
respondents revealed that the respondents have avoided junk food and eating
outside most of the time, sometimes, always and once in a while respectively.
30.6% of them indicated that they sometimes went for regular check up and
31.7% of them indicated that they never consulted the doctor as they were
healthy.
Findings and suggestions
 The students from South to North and North east students are studying
in Mysuru in various Institutions. Most of the time the migrants in
general settled down as their life has become comfortable.
 Education is open to all irrespective of any religious groups.52.2% of the
students belong to Christians and 20.6% Hindus and 13.9% of them
Muslims and 8.9% of them are Buddhists while others 4.4% of them are
Sikhs and Jains respectively.
 The parents (56%) were the most influential persons in the respondents’
life to choose Mysuru as their study destination and the parents
supported them financially.
 Social and Institutional support is very essential for the student’s
academic progress and the study revealed that majority of the
respondents 51.1% indicated social and institutional support.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 The students who stayed more years are more comfortable than the
students, who are just joined for the course, felt home sick more and
gradually they got adjusted to the place.
 49.4% of the respondents revealed that health in general is good.
 Though Food and accommodation was problem only 16.7% of the
respondents revealed that it was always difficult.
 The respondents are happy with the Institutions and Mysuru city it a
safe place for the study.
 The campus placement should be given more importance in the college
especially for arts students. Job placements in most of the companies are
given preference for commerce students.
Conclusions
Education for migration is a common phenomenon. Students move to
different states for better career development. Karnataka is known for its good
and renowned educational institutions which attracts students from various
states. Considerable progress has been made in Karnataka with the
establishment of more than twenty universities and a large number of
undergraduate Colleges. Migration has a considerable impact on both the
individual and the family. The Impact is profound on the social and cultural
aspects of life than on the economic and political. The problems that the
students face here are temporary and they don’t take it very seriously as they
know that their goal is more important than all the other problems in their life.
The student migration has positive outlook on the institutions as they are an
asset to the institutions.
Reference
 Rumberger, Russell W. “The Causes and Consequences of Student Mobility.” The
Journal of Negro Education, vol. 72, no. 1, 2003,
 http://www.dailyvedas.com/student-migration-within-india
 census of India 2011
 "District wise and University wise degree college statistics for 2006-07"
 http://digitallearning.eletsonline.com/2016/08/karnataka-in-focus-as-higher-education-hub/

 http://articlesng.com/problems-prospects-student-hostel-accommodation-
problem
 https://www.studyinternational.com/help-and-advice/why-student-
accommodation-is-more-important-than-you-thought
 http://www.studyabroad.com/student-guide-home-sickness
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_support

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9
Equality of Educational Opportunity in the Present
Context-Issues and Challenges
Sharmista

Introduction
The concept of equality of educational opportunity has passed through
various stages of evolution in history .At present equality of educational
opportunity has been interpreted as the opportunity to start together,to benefit
from staggered starts,to run on the same track and run or progress
together.According to national policy of education( 1986),equality of education
means to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in
success .Equality of educational opportunity has been taken as equalization of
access by a suitable manipulation of educational inputs like physical facilities
and equipment in schools,quality of teachers, curriculum and financial
assistance for the poor.To others,it means an equalization of results of
education ,achievement and benefits accruing from it.The new education
policy(1986) ,proposes to lay emphasis on the removal of disparities and to
equalize educational opportunities by attending to the special needs of those
who have been deprived of equality so far. One of the important social
objectives of education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward or
underprivileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for the
improvement of their condition. Every society that values social justice and is
anxious to improve the lot of the common man and cultivate all available
talent, must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all sections of the
population. This is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarian and
human society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimized.
Inequalities of educational opportunities anise in various ways. In places
where no primary, secondary, or collegiate institutions exist, children do not
have the same opportunity as those who have these facilities in the
neighbourhood. This handicap should be overcome by the widest dispersal of
educational institutions, consistent with economy and efficiency, by
instituting, an adequate scholarship programme, by providing the needed
hostel facilities or 'by making suitable transport arrangements. It is sometimes

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

not fully appreciated that there are at present glaring imbalances of


educational development in different parts of the country: the educational
developments in the States show wide differences, and even wider differences
are found between the districts. To remove such inequalities, deliberate
policies of equalization of educational opportunities and educational
development in the different districts will have to be adopted. Another cause
of inequality of educational opportunity is the poverty of a large section of the
population and the relative affluence of a small minority. Even in the
neighbourhood of an educational institution, children from poor families do
not have the same chance as those who come from richer ones. To overcome
these handicaps, it is desirable to abolish fees progressively, to provide free
books, stationery and even school meals and uniforms. In addition, it is
necessary to develop a large programme of scholarships. Again, differences in
the standards of schools and colleges create an extremely intractable form of
educational inequality. When admission to an institution such as a university
or professional college, is made on the basis of marks obtained at the public
examination Inequalities of educational opportunities arise due to
 Poverty as the poor cannot afford to meet the expenses of education.
 Children studying in the rural schools have to compete with the
children in urban areas where there are well-equipped schools.
 In the places where no primary, secondary or collegiate educational
institutions exist children do not get the same opportunity as those
who have all these in their neighborhood.
 Wide inequalities also arise from differences in home environments.
A child from a rural household or slum does not have the same
opportunity as a child from an upper class home with educated
parents.
 There is wide sex disparity in India. Here girl education is not given
the same encouragement as boys.
 Education of backward classes including SC and ST and
economically backward sections is not at par with that of other
communities or classes.
Overcoming Marginalization and Inclusion in Education
Challenges faced in achieving equality of opportunity in education have been
described in reports submitted by States regarding implementation of the
UNESCO's

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Convention against Discrimination in Education --even in countries where


educational opportunities are in general widely available; inequalities remain
in the ability of all social groups to fully avail themselves of such
opportunities( UNESCO,1960).Social and cultural barriers and unequal
opportunities manifested in access to quality education remain one of the most
serious difficulties of national educational policies. Closing the attainment gap
among children from different ethnic groups and differing socioeconomic
backgrounds appears as a common challenge in these reports.Inequalities in
education have also been a persistent constraint on also the EFA process. In
2009, the EFA Global Monitoring Reports stated that “Progress towards the
EFA goals is being undermined by a failure of governments to tackle
persistent inequalities” based on income, gender, location and ethnicity,
language etc. UNESCO,( 2008, ). In the subsequent year, the report indicated
that "Governments are failing to address the root causes of marginalization in
education" (UNESCO, 2013) and showed how mutually reinforcing layers of
disadvantage create extreme and persistent deprivation that undermine equal
opportunities in education . In all such circumstances, different types of
barriers emerge as central factors for the limited enjoyment of the right to
education of these various population groups. Understanding these different
obstacles and their inter-relations is a permanent challenge for developing
effective education policies to ensure non-discrimination and equal
opportunities in education. A statement of the Joint Expert Group UNESCO
(CR) and ECOSOC (CESCR) on the Monitoring of the Right to Education
(2008) highlights that in overcoming inequalities and eliminating disparities in
education, emphasis should be placed on the inclusive dimensions of the right
to education, which does not admit of any discrimination or exclusion. The
work of human rights treaty bodies over the last years has indicated areas of
action at national and international levels to ensure equality of opportunity in
education. Similarly, recommendations to States undergoing the Universal
Periodic Review process also address aspects such as guaranteeing the right
to education to marginalized and underprivileged groups, combating poverty,
ensuring the right to education for all, removing gender-based imbalances in
education, strengthening efforts .opportunities are in general widely available;
inequalities remain in the ability of all social groups to fully avail themselves
of such opportunities. Social and cultural barriers and unequal opportunities
manifested in access to quality education remain one of the most serious

74
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

difficulties of national educational policies. Closing the attainment gap among


children from different ethnic groups and differing socioeconomic
backgrounds appears as a common challenge in these reports.Inequalities in
education have also been a persistent constraint on also the EFA process. In
2009, the EFA Global Monitoring Reports stated that “Progress towards the
EFA goals is being undermined by a failure of governments to tackle
persistent inequalities” based on income, gender, location and ethnicity,
language etc. UNESCO(2008). In the subsequent year, the report indicated that
"Governments are failing to address the root causes of marginalization in
education" UNESCO,( 2013) and showed how mutually reinforcing layers of
disadvantage create extreme and persistent deprivation that undermine equal
opportunities in education . In all such circumstances, different types of
barriers emerge as central factors for the limited enjoyment of the right to
education of these various population groups. Understanding these different
obstacles and their inter-relations is a permanent challenge for developing
effective education policies to ensure non-discrimination and equal
opportunities in education. A statement of the Joint Expert Group UNESCO
(CR) and ECOSOC (CESCR) on the Monitoring of the Right to Education
(2008) highlights that in overcoming inequalities and eliminating disparities in
education, emphasis should be placed on the inclusive dimensions of the right
to education, which does not admit of any discrimination or exclusion. The
work of human rights treaty bodies over the last years has indicated areas of
action at national and international levels to ensure equality of opportunity in
education. Similarly, recommendations to States undergoing the Universal
Periodic Review process also address aspects such as guaranteeing the right to
education to marginalized and underprivileged groups, combating poverty,
ensuring the right to education for all, removing gender-based imbalances in
education, strengthening efforts to expand opportunities for (basic) education,
etc.(Human Right Council, 2011).
Pattern of inequality of educational opportunity
 Inequality between one state and another
 In a state the prevailing inequality between one district and another
 In a district equal educational opportunity in different areas
 Inequality of educational opportunity between boys and girls

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Causes of Inequality
Inequality of educational opportunities in India prevails between the different
sections of society, advanced castes vs scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
upper and middle classes vs lower classes, economically better off classes vs
poor sections etc. The following causes of inequality maybe listed:
 Some states are economically advanced while others are lagging behind.
Consequently the income per head of population in different states varies
considerably. The same is true of local, block and district level.
 Social and psychological reasons, eg.apathy towards girls’ education,
particularly in socially backward groups of people.
 Varying literacy in states, districts and localities.
 Existence of inaccessible and isolated small habitations particularly in hilly
and forest areas.
 Varying occupational opportunities prevailing in different areas.
 Lack of suitable and adequate accommodation for running schools.
 Dearth of suitably qualified teachers particularly women teachers and
teachers for tribal areas.
The following major problems are seen:
 Uneven spread of education
 Low enrolment of the backward section of society
 Stagnation
 Wastage
 Low enrolment of girls
 Apathy and poverty of parents
 Defective curriculum
 Uninspiring methods of teaching
 Lack of reading and writing material
 Lack of qualified teachers
 Frequent transfer of teachers
 Lack of effective instruction and and academic guidance by the inspecting
staff
 Failure to enforce compulsory attendance
 Lack of suitable admission policy
 Conservation attitude towards co-education
 Inadequate and unattractive school building
 Poor nutrition
 Lack of part-time facilities
 Meagre financial outlay
 Overpopulation

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Need for emphasizing the equality of opportunity in education due to the


following reasons:
1. It is needed for the establishment of an egalitarian society.
2. It is needed because it is through the education to all people in a democracy
that the success of democratic institution is assured.
3. The equality of educational opportunities will ensure a rapid advancement
of a nation. When the people have opportunities to get education, they will
have a chance to develop their natural talent and thus enrich the society.
5. The equality of educational opportunity will extend the search of talent
among all the people of a nation.
6. It will help to develop a close link between the manpower needs of a
society and the availability of skilled personnel.

Measures taken for Equalisation of Educational Opportunity:


Equalisation of educational opportunities has been one of the major objectives
of the successive Five-Year Plans. Considerable works in this respect has been
done through the programme of expansion of educational facilities at the
elementary, secondary and university stages. For achieving the target of
equality of educational opportunity in India our efforts must be directed in
many directions for recognizing the educational system.
Some of these directions are as follows:
1. Constitutional Provisions:
On the basis of the constitutional provisions we must provide compulsory
elementary education to all children of the country. Democracy, socialism,
secularism, justice and equality are to a be cultivated through the provision of
equalizing educational opportunity for establishing an egalitarian society.
2. Debarring restriction on admission in educational institutions:
Admission to educational institutions has been made available to all
irrespective of caste and religion.
3. Wide distribution of Institutions:
Educational institutions have been opened in large numbers in order to
provide opportunity to all for getting education.
4. Provision of Pre-school education:
In order to overcome wastage and stagnation in primary education, Pre-school
education is to be given priority. Pre-school education centres like Balwadi,
Anganwadi etc. have been opened and are to be set up in large scale.
5. Provision of scholarship and other facilities:

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Provision of free ship6 and scholarships are being made for the backward and
disadvantaged groups.
6. Special treatment for S.C., S. T. and Other Backward Communities:
Special treatment as being made for S.C., S.T and Other Backward
Communities in relation to reservation of seats, provision of different types of
scholarships to ensure equality in education.
7. Residential School:
In tribal areas, residential schools or Ashram schools have been set up.
Kanyashram schools have been commissioned in the tribal areas to facilitate
education of girls.
8. Special education of the handicapped:
Steps have been taken for the education and training of blind, deaf,
orthopaedically handicapped and educable sub-normal children by the
government and voluntary organisations.
The New Education Policy, 1986 lays special emphasis on removing disparities
and equalizing educational opportunity. To promote equality, it will be
necessary to provide for opportunity to all not only in access but also in the
conditions for success.
1. Major emphasis will be laid on women’s participation in vocational,
technical and professional education at different levels.
2. Numerous incentives, helps, benefits, facilities will be provided to SC and
ST population to equalize them with other developed communities.
3. People of educational backward areas like rural areas, hill tracks and desert
areas will be given adequate institutional and infrastructural facilities.
4. Minority community will be allowed to set up and administer their own
educational institutions.
5. Education for physically and mentally handicapped children should be
integrated with the general community as equal partner to prepare them for
normal growth and to enable them to face with courage and confidence.
Truly speaking in-spite of all attempts in the direction of the national goal-
quality of opportunity, the result is not satisfactory. Hence in order to
accelerate in the progress of providing equality of opportunity, incentive
measures are to be properly implemented and administrative structure has to
be properly streamlined with a strong will and determination. Various media,
methods and materials are to be utilized to fulfil the special needs of the
deprived children of the country.

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References:
 UNESCO,(1960)Results of the Seventh Consultation of Member States on the
measures taken for implementation
of UNESCO’s Convention and the Recommendation (1960)”, Document 177
EX/36
 UNESCO. (2008). Inclusive Dimensions of the Right to Education: Normative
Bases–concept
paper for the eighth and ninth meetings of the Joint Expert Group UNESCO
(CR)/ECOSOC
(CESCR) on the Monitoring of the Right to Education. Paris.
 UNESCO. (2013). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013-14: Teaching and
Learning: Achieving
Quality for All. UNESCO Publishing
 Human Rights Council. (2011, July 6). Resolution on the Right to Education
(A/HRC/
RES/17/3).

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10
Housing Problems in Slums: A Case Study in Mangalore
City
B M Kumara
Introduction:
The problem of housing does not mean simply the shortage of housing
units. There is another problem of demolished or dilapidated houses.
According to N.S.S report on housing conditions, 18.46 per cent of the
households in urban areas were living in bad and dilapidated and improvised
houses. In general the range of dilapidated houses varies between 10 per cent
to 18 per cent in urban areas, with speedy urbanization, the number of
available pucca residential buildings falls short of requirements. In one of the
city like Bombay alone, according to the expert committee on housing report
there are only 4.6 lakh pucca residential buildings against a requirement of
10.3 lakh buildings. The position in other major cities like Calcutta, Delhi,
Chennai, Kanpur and Ahmadabad is not any different.
Due to lack of space, there is over-crowding in urban tenements.
According to a survey in Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and madras about 76per
cent of the household lived in tenements. Total areas of a tenement did not
exceed 200 sq.ft in which, on an average 4.7 persons lived in slum if 40 sq.ft of
space per person is considered a must about 70 per cent of the households
with 2 to 5 members and more than 75 per cent of the larger households live in
conditions of overcrowdings. The intolerable housing conditions have led to
certain evil consequences. The bustees, ahatas, chawls, cherries, etc, that have
been developed to house the labourers, near the industrial centres, have
become the mainstay of squalor and disease. The working class families
usually remain the victims of epidemics like cholera, small pox, etc. Diarrhoea,
dysentery, influenza are rampant in these bustees. In fact mortality is also
high. The unhealthy state of affairs is due to over crowdedness in the urban
areas.

Objectives And Data Sources:


In this paper, an attempt has been made specific objective. 1) To
examine the nature and livelihood condition of slum people in Mangalore, 2)
To analysis of status and problems of housing condition in slums of

80
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Mangalore city. The paper mainly based on primary and secondary data
sources collected from respondents through structured research schedule in
slums of Mangalore city, Mangalore City Corporation, Karnataka Slum
Development Board, books and journals and so on.

Analysis And Discussion:


Housing it the major problem among the slum dwellers and therefore
several schemes for housing facilities have been planed and financed by the
government and corporation is also making to provide certain basic facilities
like drinking water, toilet, bathroom etc. over the years, even in the study area
it is observed as the major problem among the slum dwellers is the housing
conditions. It is important to note that the government had been able to
improve the housing conditions of slum dwellers. However from people have
improved their housing on the basis of their personal savings these people
were the class four and other government employees. Majority of the people
living in rented house for more than 40 years. They are not putting effort they
so far from the existing place mainly due to occupation and education of their
children. As they are living in rented house they cannot force the owner to
renovate their house. Most of the people are drunkard, so their large
proportion of money income will goes to drinking and smoking.
The coastal city of Mangalore, known for its natural beauty, appears to
be among the cities with the largest numbers of slums in the state. Even the
most modern residential and commercial areas have slums in their midst.
Mangalore City Corporation recently demolished several small houses on a
municipal land at Shakthinagar on the outskirts of the city. The residents of
the area were caught unawares of and rendered homeless. The reason cited by
the authorities was that they had occupied the land illegally. Housing
conditions of the sample slum dwellers are analyzed in terms of the types of
house. Types of the house of the sample household are given in a table 1.
Majority of the respondents have pucca semi-pucca house. Majority of the
people live in rented house and remaining respondent stay in public lands.

Table- 1: Types of House


SI.No Types of Dwelling Number Percentage
1 Kuccha 5 5
2 Pucca 69 69
3 Semi-pucca 26 26

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Total 100 100


Source: Mangalore City Corporation

It is seen that about 37per cent of the houses are having 2 rooms in their
houses 54per cent of the houses having 3 rooms and 7per cent of the houses
having 4 rooms and 2per cent of the house having 5 rooms in their houses.
Rooms in houses shown in table 2.

Table- 2: Rooms in Houses


SI.No Number of rooms Number Percentage
1 2 37 37
2 3 54 54
3 4 7 7
4 5 2 2
Total 100 100
Source: Field Survey

Table- 3: Source of Drinking water


SI.No Ownership Number Percentage
1 Public 45 45
2 Privet 50 50
3 Neighbor 5 5
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2
In the study area the majority source of drinking water to the slum
dwellers is pipe water. 50 percent of the people having separate water facility
for their house, 45 percent of the people having common pipe water facility for
few (3 to 4) households and 5 per cent of the people go for neighbors’ house.
During the summer water becomes scarce in tapes and the wells and their
problems are compounded. Public tapes do not provide water during the
whole day. The women have to wait for long in long queues. Often water is
scarce and they have to be satisfied with what they get.
Toilets and drainage are the most important facilities to be maintained
especially in the high population density areas, which would reflect the
cleanliness of the surroundings. They are correlated with the health conditions
of the people living around. Availability of the toilet facilities are furnished in
the table 4.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table-4: Toilet facilities in the Slum in percentage


SI.No Ownership Number Percentage
1 Common 25 25
2 Separate 68 68
3 Neighbor 5 5
4 No facility 2 2
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2
Toilet facilities are also inadequate as most of the respondents expressed
and is evident from table 4. The only 68 percent of the respondents have toilet
facilities others (2 per cent) of them have no toilets. Among the household
having toilets, about 25 percent are having common toilets and 5 per cent of
the people go for neighbor’s house. It is observed that through some localities
had common toilets, the residents were complaining that most of the time they
have to suffer a lot during morning time they should wait. Due to lack of toilet
facility people have to go for open places. The basic problems faced by the
slum dwellers in Mangalore city are shelter, water, light and lavatories.
The different occupation of the slum dwellers have been categorized
according to skill and sectary /modern (traditional) into four groups modern-
skilled and traditional unskilled petty business and salaried class are the other
two occupations observed among the slum dwellers in the study region
modern unskilled occupation includes mechanical tailoring and traditional
unskilled occupation is mainly coolly work modern unskilled includes house
servant sales man /women and traditional skilled occupation comprise mainly
Manson carpentry work in the building industry. Slum dwellers work for the
upon development in different sectors facing different problems faced by the
slum dwellers in different occupation are also analyzed.

Table-5: Classification of Households Occupations


SI.No Occupation Number Percentage
1 Traditionally skilled 20 20
2 Traditionally unskilled 33 33
3 Modern skilled 5 5
4 Modern unskilled 1O 10
5 Petty business 2 2
6 Salaried 2O 20
7 Unemployed 10 10
Total 100 100

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Source: Same as table 2


Unskilled occupation is sharing a major potion (about 42 per cent) even
in which traditional unskilled like coolly work and Beedi rolling, driver etc,
One dominate skilled occupation is sharing mechanical tailoring technical
work in the industry etc. There are about 24 percent salaried employees
working in the corporation as a scavenger and as a attender and peon in the
company etc, and there are about 2per cent of the people engaged in petty
shop. There are about 10per cent of the people are unemployed.

Table-6: Occupational Classification of the Family Members including


Respondents:
SL.NO Occupation Number Percentage
1 Traditional skilled 15 8.6
2 Traditional unskilled 31 17.7
3 Modern skilled 8 4.6
4 Modern unskilled 10 5.7
5 Petty business 0 0
6 Salaried 60 34.28
7 Unemployed 51 29.17
Total 175 100.00
Source: Same as table 2
Data regarding occupational pattern of the respondents family members
given in table 6 The data shows 29 percent of them were unemployed person,
while 34 percent of them where salaried people, 9 percent of them where
traditionally skilled, 18 percent of them traditionally unskilled, 5 percent of
them were modern skilled, 6 percent of them were modern unskilled. There is
a heavy burden unemployed dependents in these families. They account for 29
percent of the total membership. But this is only part of the problem. Most of
the time traditional unskilled (cooli) and modern skilled face the problem
called underemployment; they even search of elusive jobs. They get is only
two or three days in a week. A few of them state “we are all unemployed,
because there is no guarantee of job if we get, we will go for work otherwise
we should sit at home and have to depend on the earning members”.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table-7: Number of Households in the Slum:


No. of
Name of the
SI.No households Total Percent
slum
Male Female
1 Pandeshwara 10 8 18 18
2 Bhavanthishreet 2 4 6 6
3 Kudukorigudda 5 7 12 12
4 Dongarakeri 2 3 5 5
5 Hoige bazaar 1 4 5 5
6 Jyothinagara 5 16 21 21
7 Shakthinagara 3 10 13 13
8 Urva market 8 12 20 20
Total 36 64 100 100
Source: Same as table 2

The data represented in table 7 provides details regarding the number of


house holds in the slum. In the present study I selected 100 households from 8
slum areas as shown in the table. They are as follows in Pandeshwara 18,
Bhavanthishreet 6, Kudukorigudda 12, Dongarakeri 5, Hoige bazaar 5,
Jyothinagara 21, Shakthinagara 13, Urva market 20.
The data represented in table 8 provides details regarding the
distribution of house holds on age. In the households which I visited,
members are divided into 5 categories according to their age. First category 18
members are grouped under the age limit of 25, second category 29 members
are grouped under the age limit of 25-35, third category 27 members are
grouped under the age limit of 35-45, fourth category 17 members are grouped
under the age limit of 45-55, fifth category 9 members are grouped under the
age limit of above 55.

Table-8: Distribution of the Households on Age Range:


SL.No Age range Number Percent
1 Upto25 18 18
2 25-35 29 29
3 35-45 27 27
4 45-55 17 17
5 Above 55 9 9
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table-9: Household Assets Possessed by the Slum Dwellers:


SL.No Value Range Number Percentage
1 Less than 50000 45 45
2 5000-1 lakh 40 40
3 Lakh and above 10 10
4 No assets 5 5
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2
Family assets being one of the indicators of economic status, the
possession of assets like ownership of house sites, vehicles, jewels, bank
deposits and consumer durables were examined in the households. The assets
are classified into assets worth less than Rs. 5000; Rs. 5000 to 1.0 lakhs and 1.0
lakhs and above. Household’s distributions on the dwellers are furnished in
the table 9. Among the sample households 85 percent are found to have
assets, the remaining have no assets at all. The major assets are consumer
durables such as television, vehicles, house sites, jewels, phones/mobiles etc.

Table-10: Caste Composition of the Respondents:


SL.No Castes Number Percentage
1 SC/STs 85 85
2 Poojari’s 6 6
3 Devadigas 1 1
4 Lingayaths 1 1
5 Nayaks 1 1
6 Others 6 6
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2

The data represented in table 10 provides details regarding the castes


composition of the respondents. In the present study I selected 100 households
from 8 slum areas. It is significant to note that a large number of slum
inhabitants are SC/STs. Following table also explain percentage of other caste
people living in this slum area. Among them poojar’s 6 per cent, Devadigas 1
per cent, Lingayaths 1 per cent, Nayaks 1 per cent as follows.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table-11: Literacy Rates of the Households:


SI.No Education Number Percentage
1 Primary 20 20
2 Secondary school education 30 30
Pre-university education and
3 20 20
graduation
4 Illiterates 30 30
Total 100 100
Source: Same as table 2
Education is regarded as an important for bringing about social and
economic changes and development. It not only equips a person with requisite
skills to earn a living but also makes him want to lead a more productive life.
Education also makes a person able to adapt to and cope with the change.
Educated and skilled workers find it easier to change jobs as well as the
method of production for example, an educated former would be more willing
to and able to use new technology of equipment, funds, fertilizer and
insecticide. Education also offers certain skill over benefits like opportunity of
jobs in education and so many other sections, both governmental and non
governmental. Children of more educated parent tend to do well which in
turn drives other members of community to imitate them. Higher level of
education in a country invariably leads to higher income and better standard
of living and also brings more tax to government and state.
The data presented in table 11 provides details regarding the literacy
rates of the house holds, 20 per cent of the house holds have primary
education, 30 per cent of the house holds have secondary school education, 20
per cent of the house holds have pre-university and graduation and 30 per
cent of the house holds illiterates. Slums are generally educationally backward
areas. The atmosphere in the family and the nature of the areas exercise as
enormous impact on formal education, resulting in educational backwardness
in slum areas.
Slum Improvement Efforts in Mangalore:
The coastal city of Mangalore, known for its natural beauty, appears to be
among the cities with the largest numbers of slums in the state. Even the most
modern residential and commercial areas have slums in their midst. Table 12
and 13 revealed that Mangalore city has 8 notified slums and 13 un-notified

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

slums within Mangalore city corporation limits. These slums are growing even
as new one sprout in other parts of the city.
Table-12: Notified slums:
Sl Slum Slum BPL
No. Land Area in Populat Populatio
Slum Name Ownership sq.kms. ion n
1 Urva near
Urva Market Government 0.50 175 8
2 Matadakani Government 1.25 125 136
3 Kodiyalaguttu
(viveknagara) Private 2.4 340 8
4 Dongarakeri Private 1.25 25 75
5 Kanduka Private 2.00 445 96
6 Gatti Hittalu
(bavanthi street) Private 2.00 157 33
7 Hoige Bazzar
SC/ST Colony Private 0.75 63 -
8 Jyothinagara(kavoor) Private 0.5 2294 260
Source: Same as table 1
Table-13: Un-notified Slums:
Sl Land Slum Area Slum BPL
No. Slum Name Ownership in sq.kms. Population Population
Pandeshwara
1 Government 1.3 197 -
Sc\St colony
Hampanakatta
2 Private 0.3 58 12
Behind BNS Bar
Kudukorigudda
3 North(SC/ST Private 0.25 65 -
colony)
Kudukorigudda
4 South(SC/ST Private 0.3 35 -
colony)
Kodical
5 Private 0.35 490 140
(SC/ST colony)
Shantha Alva
6 compd(SC/ST Private 0.2 212 40
colony)
Kudkorigudda
7 Private 0.25 280 -
Bypass A block
8 Kudkorigudda Private 0.25 195 50

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Bypass B block
CPC compound
9 Private 0.4 535 45
kudroli
10 Arekerebailu Private 0.2 78 90
11 Urundadigudde Private 0.3 525 370
Boloor (SC\ST
colony ,Near
12 Government - 98 -
Cremation
Ground)
Shakthinagara
13 Government - 376 -
(Neethinagara)
Source: Same as table 1
Corporation officials refer to these slums as “workers camp”, but
according to the Karnataka slum clearance board standards, they are slums.
The board clarifies the any temporary settlement of workers should have basic
amenities such as clean drinking water, adequate number of toilets, a washing
area and proper dwellings. There is also a ceiling on the number of persons
who can occupy a given area, apart from stipulations on the roofing, which
should not be asbestos sheet. However, builders in Mangalore make their
workers live in conditions that do not satisfy the board’s stipulations.

Conclusion:
It may be concluded that the effects of urbanization and urbanism and
problems of cities can never be solved until urban planning is modified and
radical measures are taken. These should not be based on the profit motive
which would benefit a few vested interests. The use of land, technology, and
taxes should be for the benefit of the people and not for the benefit of a few
powerful interest groups. City-dwellers have to become politically active
organize themselves and agitate to change the existing economic and social
systems in the cities. The detailed study is useful to understand problems of
slums of Mangalore city, this study would be used for the development of the
slums of the Mangalore and to understand problems of the slums.
References:
 Report on Karnataka Slum Development Board (2012), Government of Karnataka
 Mangalore City Corporation (2014), Statistical Abstract, Government of Karnataka

89
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

11
Migration and Growth of Urban Population in Karnataka

Nagaraj M Muggur
I. Introduction:
Migration has long been associated with economic development and
growth in the economic literature. In particular, Todaro and Harris-Todaro-
type probabilistic models that examine migration have concentrated on the
expected wage disparities between rural and urban (formal) labour markets as
a driving force behind migration decision. Traditional human society was
divided into two parts it has one rural and another urban, from as urban
centre has had distinct lifestyle in comparison to the rural way of life. In the
modern way of life the urbanization is considered to be associated with the
process of economic development and good quality of life because of the types
of facilities and opportunities it offer to its inhabitants and it is an economic
and geographic necessity of today despite the massive environmental and
ecological problems. Nowadays to looking towards the urbanization and its
growth of population has been rapidly increasing decade to decade in country
as well as Karnataka. In the present situation, urban population has facing so
many problems in day today life and it’s mainly affecting their social life. In
this backdrop the present study has been made an attempt to know the
migration and growth of urban population and its impact on urban social life
were discussed in this paper as per availability of secondary level information
like census data, research papers, books, Government reports, and
documents were used for related to Karnataka state.
II. Urbanization and Population Growth in India 1951-2011:
After independence of India the population growth was rapidly
increased from 1981 to 2011. During the period of 1981-91, the population of
India increased by 23.86 percent and the average annual exponential growth
rate was 2.14 percent per annum.
It was lower than that observed during 1971-81 and it can further noticed that
the lowering of the population growth has continued during 1991-2001, with
the average annual exponential growth rate being 1.93 percent per annum
(Mohanty.2008). It is evident from figure 1 that the population of rural India

90
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

increased around two and half times from 298.7 million in 1951 to 833.1
million in 2011. Whereas the urban population has grown more than fourfold
during the same period, it is from only 62.4 million in 1951 to 377.1 million in
2011.

Figure 1: Trends of Population Growth in India, 1951-2011 (In Millions)


377.1
2011 833.1 1210.1

285.3
2001 741.7 1028.6
215.7 628.7
1991 838.5
159.7
1981 523.9 685.1
109
439.1
1971 547.9
77.8
1961 360.3
436.4
62.4
1951 298.7
361.1

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Population in Urban Population in Rural Population in Total

Source: Census of India, 2011.

The density of population has increased from 117 in 1951 to 382 persons in
2011. Despite the fall in the growth rate, the absolute addition to the
population is quite high over the decades, because of the age structure of the
population, which is still young.

Urbanization in India:
The degree of urbanization in India varied considerably over the
decades and the urban population was 62.4 million in 1951, it number has
increased to 377.1 million in 2011. In other words, its urban population has
increased to almost five times during the last fifty years. In recent years,
approximately 6-7 million persons have added every year to the country’s
total population. The states like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra were the most
urbanized major states in 2011 followed by Gujarat, Karnataka and Punjab. It
is clear that the southern and western states of India are more urbanised.
Levels of urbanization are particularly low in Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and, to a

91
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

lesser extent Uttar Pradesh. During 1991 to 2011 most states experienced only
modest gain in percent urban. States like Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Punjab
and Maharashtra all experienced strong rises due to the comparative socio-
economic advancement of these states (Dyson, 2004). The trends of
urbanisation over period of time 1951 to 2011 considerably increased as
cleared in the following figure 2.

Figure 2: Trend of Urbanization in India, 1951-2011

45.27
46.14
50 41.42

33.99
38.23 36.19
40 31.8

25.72
31.74

23.34
19.91
26.41
30
17.29

17.97

20
10
0
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Percent Urban Growth rate of urban

Source: Census of India, 2001. 2011- 45.27 31.8


III. Urbanization and Population Growth in Karnataka:
In the meanwhile looking urbanization status was differing from
decade to decade in Karnataka. It is evident from figure 3 clear that the urban
population has increased in the state from 1921 to 2011 of 13.8 to 38.6 percent
respectively. In the other hand, the urban population growth rate was also
increased 17.1 to 31.3 in respected decades of 1921 to 2011.

Figure 3.Decadal Growth Rate of Urban Population in Karnataka


70
61.7

50.7

60
50
35.2

38.6
40 30.9 34.0
23.0

28.3
21.7

30
17.7

23.0 22.3
31.3
28.9
29.1

20 24.3
13.8 15.3 16.9
18.3

10
0
1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Percentages of urban Percentagegrowth rate

Sources: GOK (2009) ‘Urban Development Policy for Karnataka’ Pp.79

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

District wise Urban Population:


According to the Karnataka development report 2005 and census report
by district wise percentages of urban population in the state has been
presented in the figure 4. It is evident from figure that the urban population as
on respect to district total population in percentages wise the highest
percentages has recorded Bangalore urban as 90.9 percent and the very next
position secured Dharwad 56.8 percent and third and fourth position
Dhakshina Kannada and Mysore were recorded 46.7 and 41.4 percentages
respectively in 2011.

Figure 4: District wise Percentage of Urban Population and 2001-2011


90.9

100.0

80.0
56.8
47.6

60.0

41.4
36.3

35.7

35.5
32.5
32.3
31.7

31.4

29.1
28.4
27.1
25.3

25.3
24.9

40.0
23.0

22.5
22.3
21.2
21.1
19.8
17.2

17.1
16.8
14.6

9.8
9.2

20.0

6.6
5.4

5.4

4.4
3.5
2.7

2.9
2.8

1.2
1.4

2.0

0.7
2.0

1.8
1.8

1.6
1.6

1.5
1.1

1.1
0.8
0.5

0.4
0.2
0.0

-0.1
Belgaum

Davangere

Gulburga

Kodagu

Koppal
Mandya
Dharwad

Raichur
Bellary

Hassan
Bidar

Mysore

Udupi
Bagalkot

Gadag
Chitradurga

Kolar
Bijapur

Shimoga
Chamarajnagar

Tumkur
Haveri
Bangalore (U)
Bangalore ®

Chikkamagalur

Dhakshina Kannada

Uttara Kannada
-20.0

2011 urban population Urban growth 2001-2011

growth in Karnataka
Source: GOK (2007) ‘KDR’ Pp. 173, Census of India 2011(Karnataka)
The very lowest urban population percentages recorded in Kodagu, Koppala
and Mandya district were 14.6, 16.8 and 17.1 percent respectively. Other than,
these districts were recorded in-between from 17.2 up to 36.3 percent in the
state.
In the other hand decade wise growth rate from 2001 to 2011 urban
population is also clear from figure 4 that the highest growth rate is 9.8 percent
recorded Udupi district, very next position Dhakshina Kannada and Kolar is
9.2, 6.6 percent respectively. In addition, very lowest growth rate constituted -
0.1 percent Raichur district. Koppal, Uttara Kannada, Gadag, Shimog and
Kodagu district were not crossed even 1 percent urban population growth in
the same period.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

IV. Trends of Migration:


Migration is an old and ancient problem. Since, time immemorial people
have migrated from one place to other in search of better employment, better
wages and livelihood.
Migration in Karnataka:
During the last few decades, India has undergone a dramatic
demographic shift; its predominantly rural population has been rapidly
urbanizing, and over 300 million Indians now live in cities. Karnataka has
followed this national trajectory closely, led in particular by the spectacular
growth of its capital city, Bangalore. During 1991- 2001, urban Karnataka grew
more than 2.5 times as fast as the rural areas. The future of Karnataka will
increasingly be determined by the economic and social well-being of its cities
GOK (2009).

Figure 5: Migration Rates by Sex and Place of Residence, NSS, 1983-08

45.62
47.3
41.8
42.6
50
39.6

40.1
39.8

38.2
36.6
35.1

40
26.8

25.9
25.8
27

23.9

30

20
7.4
7.2

5.42
6.9
6.5

10

0
38th (1983) 43th (1987/88) 49th (1993) 55th (1999/00) 64 th (2007/08

Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female

Sources: Mahapatro Sandhya Rani (2011)


As per the NSS, survey held on 1983 to 2007/08 of 38 th to 64th rounds in
India found significantly highlighted the migration rates by sex and place of
residence. It is evident from the figure 5 reveals that the migration male and
female, rural and urban has increased over a period. The rural male has
increased migration rate from 38th to 43th of 7.2 percent to 7.4 percent, it has
come down after NSS rounds in 49, 55 and 64th rounds is 6.5, 5.9, 5.42
respectively. However, in case of female migration rate was tremendously
increased during the period of 38th (1983) 35.1 to 64th (2007/08) 47.3 percent.

94
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

In the other hand, the urban male migration rate has been in stating
round of 38th (1983) 27 and it is drastically decreased 26.8, 23.9, 25.8 and 25.9
after rounds from 43th to 64th period respectively. However, in case of female
migration rates by place of residence, on NSS rounds from 1983-2008
increased. It shows that over period of NSS rounds male migration has been
decreased both rural and urban side, it is simultaneously increased both rural
and urban female in the country. Further we it may conclude that the respect
of migration more significant favour of female side it because of more
migrating for marriage.

Figure 6: Decade wise Percentages of Karnataka share in Rural-Urban


Migrants on the Population of across India states, 1981-2001
20
14.4
15
9.6
10
6.5
5.8
4.3 3.4
5

0
1981 1991 2001
Share of Urban Population Share of Rural Population

Sources: Calì Massimiliano (2009), Pp-12

The decade wise percentages of share in rural – urban migrants on the


population of across Indian states are Karnataka present in the figure 6. The
figure that in 1981 urban population share of migrants is 14.4 percent after the
years it has declined significantly 1991 to 2001 is 9.6, 6.5 respectively. Fatherly
the shares of rural population as also, come down 1981 to 2001 as 5.8 to 3.4 in
respected decades. It shows that both rural as well as urban population total
share of across Indian state in migrants has declined significantly in the state.

Reasons for Rural Urban Migration:


According to 2001 and 2011 census, the population rural and urban
migration in the state as well as the country is very interesting. It is evident
from the table 1 that the percentages of rural and urban migration of the
population in the state have been mainly cause’s lack of employment

95
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

opportunity in the native origin. It shows that the total 28.3 percent population
has migrating for due to employment, 23 percent moved with household, 19.7
percent were migrating for marriage, 11.9 percent were migrated for education
purpose, 9.7 percent were migrated in other reason and other than these were
migrated moved after birth, Business as 5.8, 1.6 percent respectively in the
state. In employment concerned, more percent of male were migrated and
female more are migrated in marriage concern and household shift except
these reason male are dominated all other concern affects in the state.

Table 1: Percentages Causes of Rural and Urban Migration in India and


Karnataka (Duration of Residence: 1 to 4 years)
Karnataka India
Causes of Rural and Femal Femal
Male total Male total
Urban Migration e e
Work/ Employment 46.9 8.8 28.3 49 5.3 27.5
Business 2.8 0.4 1.6 3.3 0.4 1.9
Education 16.3 7.2 11.9 10.2 4.3 7.3
Marriage 0.9 39.2 19.7 0.8 41.3 20.7
Moved after Birth 5.9 5.7 5.8 4.5 4.2 4.4
Moved with Household 16.6 29.7 23 22 36.6 29.1
Others 10.4 9 9.7 10.2 7.9 9.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Sources: Census of India 2001& Khan Jabir Hasan, Tarique Shamshad (2011),
Pp.151-154
In the other hand, the country level migration is also similar status like
state. It is evident from the above table migration has been dominated
household move, work/employment and marriage as percentages of 29.1, 27.5
and 20.7 respectively. Based on this we it may conclude that both state and
country has proved highest migration recorded for employment and
marriages. Males are migrated for getting good employment position rather
than female for marriage etc in the country.

V. Problems of the Urban Population:


Today the situation has made worse by overcrowding, by the exposure
of population to diseases to expose due to environmental behaviour and
ecological changes. Environmental conditions favouring the spread of
communicable diseases include insufficient and unsafe water supplies, poor

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sanitation, inadequate disposal of solid wastes, and inadequate drainage of


surface water, poor personal and domestic hygiene, inadequate housing and
overcrowding were disturbing to normal life of urban population day by day
(WHO 1993).
According to Karnataka Development Report 2005 the number of
registered Vehicles in the major cities of Karnataka by type of two and three
wheeler, small and big passenger vehicles and goods and other vehicles data
were clear in the table 2. It is evident from the table that in Karnataka we
mainly find nine big cities viz Bangalore, Mysore, Dharwad, Mangalore,
Belgaum, Gulburga, Bijapur, Bellary and Bidar. To taking to account of these
big cities the registered number of vehicles has highest in Bangalore (covered
63 percent) and it has coming under the first position among the major cities of
the state. Very next position was secured Mysore 10 percent and Dharwad,
Mangalore and Belgaum were constituted 6, 5.6 and 5.5 percent respectively.
And the very lowest has been recorded Bidar only 1.1 percent and other than
these cities were not crossed more than 3.7 percent and less than 2.5 percent of
vehicle registered in the state.

Table 2: Number of Registered Vehicles by Type as major Cities in


Karnataka: 2004
Two Three Small Big Goods Others
City Total %
Wheeler Wheeler Passenger Passenger Vehicle Vehicle
Bangalore 1433539 75328 309648 19683 83722 12841 1934761 63
Mysore 246721 13087 31216 1949 7632 5813 306418 10
Dharwad 128152 9233 20117 2284 17843 7267 184896 6
Mangalore 107809 12210 37624 3415 10345 537 171940 5.6
Belgaum 131961 5213 14450 1993 11561 3214 168392 5.5
Gulbarga 84525 5189 7566 1243 5003 8951 112477 3.7
Bijapur 55624 2447 5062 2083 9676 7026 81918 2.7
Bellary 61082 1891 4993 467 2790 6978 78201 2.5
Bidar 25198 1365 3091 414 1693 1849 33610 1.1
Total 2274611 125963 433767 33531 150265 54476 3072613 100
Percent 74 4.1 14.1 1.1 4.9 1.8 100
Source: GOK (2007) ‘KDR’ Pp.508
In the type of registered vehicles two-wheeler recorded highest
percentages other vehicles, very next position small passenger vehicles is 14.1
percent and other than this is very less percentages. In the meanwhile this

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crowd of vehicles has been disturbing urban environment as well as the over
air and noise pollution.
In the other side the urbanization over crowd has created major problem of
solid waste. According to 2004 government report of Karnataka has declared
that the Municipal solid waste generation per day in the six city corporation is
clear on table 5. It is reveals that the major cities like Bangalore city has highest
solid waste generated comparing to other cities in the state and other cities city
were recorded very next position is details in following table.

Table 3: Municipal Solid Waste Generation per Day in Karnataka for 2002
Per capita
Waste Waste
Population Waste*
City Generated collected
(2002) Generated
(tonnes/day) (tonnes/day)
(Grams/Day**)
Bangalore 5882162 2500 1400 425.0
Mangalore 551701 250 200 453.1
Hubli/Dharwad 801442 250 200 311.9
Mysore 794677 230 183 289.4
Belgaum 516155 120 100 232.5
Gulbarga 452944 120 100 264.9
Total 8999081 3470 2183 386
Source: Government of Karnataka, 2004.

In the meanwhile slum dwellers are also increasing in urban areas.


The housing condition of urban slums worst and scarcity of water supply are
transmission of disease of most chronic and it would be communicable to
urban areas. Similar to environmental and social factors, economic factors also
exert a strong pressure on the health status of urban community (Denis.2012).
VI. Conclusion:
Urbanizations growth patterns are characteristic of spatial temporal
structures of the traditional city is undergoing rapid changes and development of the
society in the modern way of life style and urbanization were created so many
problems health concerned as well as the pollution and ecological imbalance. In the
other side the government provision for safe drinking water facilities, good housing
and sanitation, proper drainage, disposal of solid waste management, electricity,
efficient health care services, etc were not sufficient for poor. The improvement of
above all economic status is also very urgent and government should take the action

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against to provide good employment opportunity as well as the infrastructure


facilities in the rural economy then only we can avoid overcrowd, rural to urban
migration and imbalance of urban ecological condition.

Reference:
 Census of India (1991): Series-1, India, Paper 2 of 1991, ‘Provisional Population
Totals: Rural-Urban Distribution’, Registrar General and Census Commissioner,
India.
 Census of India (2001): ‘Final Population Totals, Series 1: India’, Registrar General
and Census Commissioner, India.
 Denis Eric, Partha Mukhopadhyay, Marie-Helene Zerah (2012) “Subaltern
Urbanization In India” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol, XLVII No 30 July
28.2012, Pp.53
 Dyson, T. (2004): “India's Population – The Future”, in Twenty First Century India
Population, Economy,Human Development, and the Environment, (eds.) Tim Dyson,
Robert Cassen and Leela Visaria, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India.
 GOK (2007) - ‘Karnataka Development Report’, Planning Commission, Government
of India, Published by Academic Foundation, New Delhi, Pp: 173, 508
 GOK (2009) ‘Urban Development Policy for Karnataka’ Urban Development
Department, Bangalore (Draft) (Nov 2009), Pp.79
 Mohanty, Soumya (2008) “Population Growth, Changes in Land Use and
Environmental Degradation in India”
 WHO (1993) “The Urban Health Crisis: Strategies for health for all in the face of rapid
urbanization”, Report of the technical discussions at 44Ih World Health Assembly,
World Health Organization, Geneva.
 Mahapatro Sandhya Rani (2011) ‘The Changing Pattern of Internal Migration in
India Issues and Challenges’ Working paper, Institute for Social and Economic
Change (ISEC), Bangalore. Pp-3, http://epc2012.princeton.edu/papers/121017
 Calì Massimiliano (2009) ‘Urbanisation, inequality and economic growth:
Evidence from Indian states’ world Development report, Reshaping Economic
geography, Background paper, Overseas Development Institute, November
2007,Pp-12
 GOI (2003) ‘Urban Planning’ State of the Environment Report, 2003, Pp-206
 Khan Jabir Hasan, Tarique Shamshad (2011) ‘Socio- Economic Census of Rural
Urban Migration in India’ Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. III (2), July
– Dec 2011, Pp.151-154

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12
Public-Private Partnership in Karnataka

J. L. Banashankari
Introduction:
In a competitive global environment, governments around the
world are focusing on new ways to finance projects, building infrastructure
and deliver services. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are becoming a
common tool to bring together the strengths of both sectors. Many advanced
economies and fiscal constrained developing countries have developed their
physical infrastructure successfully through private participation or through
public-private partnership model.

Meaning of public-private partnership:


Agreement between government and the private sector regarding
the provision of public services or infrastructure. The social priorities with the
managerial skills of the private sector, relieving government from the burden
of large capital expenditure and transferring the risk to the private sector. The
public assets are transferred to the private sector as privatization so the
government decided to work together with the private sector to provide
services. Public-private partnership is alternative service delivery model to
achieve efficiency and address shortages, although unlikely to replace fully
traditional service deliver by governments. Public-private partnerships
represent a new way of doing business to improve the quality and efficiency of
public services. Public-private partnership with ‘private’ sector include
interalia corporate bodies, consulting firm, contractors, maintenance
companies, private investors and so on. The public-private also include:
service contracts, operation and management contracts, leasing-Buy Build-
Operate (BBO), Lease-Develop-Operate (LDO), Wrap-Around Addition
(WAA), Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT), Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT)
etc. Most contracts cover the finance, design, management and maintenance
obligations. These contracts are usually financed by user fees or tariffs or by
government subsidies. The argument is private participation results in better
efficiency. The public-private partnership helps to raise resources (fund,

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techno-managerial skill and expertise), innovation, cost saving and improve


services simultaneously.

Public-private partnership in India:


The concept of joint sector is not new to India. Even before
independence, some of such undertakings were setup in the states like Mysuru
and Hyderabad. But in a real sense, true impetus to this sector began only
after Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956. The concept of the joint sector
received greater attention after the Dutt Committee. The Dutt committee
recommended that public financial institutions should have the option to
convert their financial assistance to private enterprises in to equity so as to
bring such enterprises in the joint sector. The concept on a larger scale took
place only post liberalization period. The Eleventh plan very enthusiastically
recommends public and private partnerships. In India, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the leading states in
terms of number and value of PPP projects.
In initial days we could see maximum public-private partnership in
construction of roads and highways. Later on they focus on power, telecom
and airports sectors gradually. But, in recent years they are moving in to
education and health sectors and there are more opportunities in this sector. In
terms of number of projects, roads and highways are emerging as the favored
destination for public-private partnership, while telecom and electricity lead in
terms of private investments. Nevertheless, the government is focusing on
public-private partnership across railways, water supply and sewage and
health and education sectors.

Public-private partnership in Karnataka:


Government of Karnataka recognizes that a partnership approach
under public-private partnership should be one of the tools to deliver public
services to improve the quality of life of its people. Considering Karnataka’s
infrastructure needs, PPPs are not just an option but a necessity. It has been
seen that PPP has many merits such as large investment in public (both urban
and rural) infrastructure, efficient service delivery, cost effectiveness, contracts
that are performance based, sharing of risks, effective use of assets and
opportunities of long-term investment. The state has started its own public
sector units and also gave impetus to private sector growth simultaneously.

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Government of Karnataka provides a fair and transparent policy frame work


to enable the process of economic growth and encourages PPP in upgrading,
expanding and developing infrastructure in the state. The mode of
implementation of projects in Karnataka is gradually shifting from
government sponsored to public-private partnership. The Government of
Karnataka has setup a PPP cell, which will co-ordinate and facilitates the
identification, development and implementation of infrastructure projects,
including facilitation for obtaining clearances and approval on a PPP route. It
will act as a single Nodal Agency for PPP projects in the state. The Karnataka
government is keen to partner private sector for infrastructure development
including rail, roads, energy, airports, and ports under public-private
partnership model.

Objectives of the paper:


 To know the need for PPP in Karnataka.
 To study the concept of PPP cell in Karnataka.
 To discuss the various opportunities and challenges for PPP in
Karnataka.
Methodology:
This paper is based on secondary data collected from various
sources. The relevant books and documents of various department and
organizations, articles, papers and web-sites are used in this paper.
Need for PPP model in Karnataka:
In the face of fiscal and other constraints, governments of most
emerging economies have been turning towards the private sector as a means
of financing infrastructure development. A closer alliance between various
parties involved in the infrastructure development will, however, provide the
opportunity to share their views on the risk perspectives. Legislative and
regulatory environments, which support private investment, project funding
packages, project formulation and the means of reducing project preparation
and gestation period.
 Public private partnership provides a way to increase the volume of
investment throughout the state as a whole and increasing the
operational efficiency as well as rendering quality public services.
 PPP initiates the implementation of infrastructure and urban
development projects.

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 PPP is in particular need due to in efficiency, over staffing and low


productivity in government services.
 In case of infrastructure sector, government may often face not only a
challenge but a difficulty in fulfilling infrastructure demand and its
services. PPP comes here to play the infrastructure facilities. Thus PPP
can promise a better design, technology, construction, operation and
service delivery.
 PPP plays a major tool for creating employment opportunities by
developing the services sector.
 PPP helps to transfer the risk to private sector which can reduce the
potential for government cost overruns from unforeseen circumstances
during project development or service delivery. As per the contractors
the services are provided at a foreseeable cost.

PPP cell in Karnataka:


The Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India has advised the state
governments to set up a public private partnership (PPP) cell and designate a
secretary level officer as PPP nodal officer for the state. In response to this, a
meeting was convened on 21st March 2007 under the chairmanship of the chief
secretary, Govt. of Karnataka and it was decided to set up a PPP cell in the
Infrastructure Development Department (IDD) as the nodal officer. This cell
would be staffed with appropriate professional/technical experts to assist the
Govt. in formulating processing, evaluating and monitoring the PPP projects.
The scope of work of PPP cell was discussed and finalized in this meeting. It
was also decided to constitute a state level Single Window Agency under the
chairmanship of the chief secretary to approve the PPP projects up to Rs. 50
crore and to recommend the projects above Rs. 50 crore to the state high level
committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister constituted under
section 3 of the Karnataka Industries (Facilitation) Act 2002.
The Govt. of Karnataka accords approval for setting up of PPP cell
in the Infrastructure Development Department. The principle secretary,
Infrastructure Development Department and the Director, IDD and
professional experts will head the cell. The Infrastructure Development
Corporation (Karnataka) Limited (IDECK) will provide technical advice and
support to the PPP cell which will have other supporting staff from the
secretariat. This cell may also engage consultants as and when necessary.

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The Functions of the PPP Cell:


 To identify, conceptualize and create a shelf of projects in consultation
with the line departments and recommend approval of suitable projects
for implementation on PPP route.
 To assist different Govt. Departments in preparing the pre-feasibility
reports through consultants.
 To assist the respective departments in preparing the detailed project
reports.
 To appoint/select consultants to develop the projects in consultation
with the concerned department.
 To help respective departments to conduct the bidding process for
selection of developers.
 To interact with the Govt. of India and other funding agencies for
obtaining their support.
 To act as the nodal agency for capacity building for PPP in the state,
conduct/recommend exposure visits and training programs on PPP.
 To develop internal evaluation guidelines in consultation with the
respective departments to evaluate and assess the projects whether the
projects are to be funded by the state government or implemented with
private sector participation.
 To recommend projects to Govt. of India for grants under viability gap
funding scheme.
 To inspect, visit, review and monitor any PPP project under
implementation in the state.
Major Karnataka’s Infrastructural Projects under PPPs (completed projects):
 Bangaluru International Airport.
 Mechanized Iron Ore Handling Facilities at New Mangalore Port.
 Four Laning of Bangaluru Nelamangala on NH-4 with NH-48.
 Development of International Convention Centre at Devanahalli.
 1000-1320mw Coal based power plant.
 Hassan- Mangalore gauge conversion.
 Four laning of Bangaluru-Mysuru road (Bangaluru-Maddur).
 Luxury tourist train project.
 Sanitary landfills in Bangaluru.
 Madivala commercial plaza.
 Inertisation and landfill facility shivamogga.
 Integrated municipal solid waste treatment kannahalli.
PPP projects under implementation:
 Development of minor airport at Bijapur.
 Gulbarga minor airport.

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 Shivamogga minor airport.


 Construction of Hassan airport.
 Development of ring road in Bellary city.
 Development of SH 132 connecting Bellary to Andhra Pradesh.
 Construction of new Greenfield airport at Bellary.
Public private partnerships projects schedule (under process/procurement):
 Monorail project in Bangaluru (40 km).
 Monorail project in Bangaluru (14).
 Development of modern sea port at Haldipur in the coast line of
Karnataka.
 Development of port at Tadadi-34mmt-phase-1.
 Devanahalli business park (DBP).
 Development of VADA in Bellary.
 Development of food park at Harohalli, Bangaluru rural district.
 Development of food park at Vasanthanarasapura in Tumkur district.
 Establishment of Agri-Biotech park at Dharwad.
 Development of textile SEZ at Doddaballapur, Bangaluru.
 700 mw gas based power project-1:Davanagere.
 Development of tourism infrastructure projects at Badami, Pattdakal,
Aihole and Gokarna.
 Hubli-Ankola railway line.
 Development of spice park at Byadagi in Haveri District.

Opportunities of PPPs in Karnataka:


There are more opportunities for public and private both sectors to
help in infrastructure and social service development by PPP. These
opportunities are as follows:
 Fast service delivery. Allowing of both sectors to do what is the best
one, is followed by both parties. Public sectors core and important
business is to set policy and serve the public.
 Reducing risk for public sector. By transferring of work to the private
partner, risk is transferred to private sector that can be better managed
by the private partner.
 Cost-effectiveness. Advantage of private sector innovation, experience
and flexibility, PPPs can often deliver services more cost-effectively.
 Utilization of private technology and management. Utilization of
private technology and mechanism is most favourable thing for PPPs.
Private institution magnify and justify everything which is cost
effective, time-effective, project-effective, public-effective. etc.

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Challenges of PPPs in Karnataka:


There are various types of challenges that PPP models are facing
in Karnataka.
 There has been rivalry between centre-state relationships. If the govt. at
the centre is of one political party and of another political party at the
state level, the projects are always delayed due to non release of funds
on time.
 Some projects of PPP model fails due to project costing of the project.
Delaying of the projects due to lack of sufficient finance which were not
provided by govt. bodies in time to meet project completion in
estimated timeline.
 The process of executing the projects in Karnataka involves various
stages and each stage is to pass through complicated policies and
programs. While passing the process of bidding and awarding the
contract is stated to be much transparent. PPP projects sometimes run
into controversy because of various transparency issues generated by
private as well as public sector.
 Infrastructural projects sometimes carried out some risk related to
construction risk, financial risk, market risk, performance risk, demand
risk etc. huge investment involves greater risk.
 Most of the roadway project delays due to acquisition of land because of
various policies. Temple, mosques, residential houses, farming land etc.
are challenging due to some law makers sided with protestors for
political gain.

Conclusion:
The future of PPP in Karnataka looks bright as the state aims for a
higher growth trajectory through strong infrastructure investments. In order
to drive economic growth it is essential to welcome PPP with right set of
policies that would create economic prosperity and expansion.

References:
 Gourav Datt and Ashwini Mahajan Datt and Sundharam, (2011), Indian
Economy, sixty third edition, S. chand and company ltd.,New Delhi.
 Ramesh singh, (2015), Indian Economy for civil services examination, seventh
edition, Mc Graw Hill Education (India) private limited, New Delhi.
 Puri, V. K. and Misra, S. K. (2013), Indian Economy, 31st revised edition, Himalaya
publishing house, Mumbai.
 www.business-standard.com
 Om parkash, (2008), Public Economics, Theory and Practice, vishal publishing co.
Delhi.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 R. K. Lakhi, (2012), Public finance, kalyani publishers, New Delhi.


 www. Idd Karnataka.gov.in
 www. iaeme.com, wendrila biswas, ppp and economic growth with special
reference to India-an overview.
 Ppp in India kpmg.
 Tharun shastry L., a study on ppps with reference to Indian infrastructure
projects, www.ijbmi.org, volume 3, issue 10/October, 2014, international journal
of business and management invention, pp. 56-82.
 M. R. Murthy, joint sector enterprises in India.
 Jscfn/.com
 Industrial development in karnataka-an overview, chapter-ll.
 M. sathana priya and p. jesintha, public-private partnership in India, journal of
management and science vol.1, no. 1 (sep-2011).
 Gourav singh, M. S. khan, a study of ppp in tourism.
 www.livemint.com
 Ppp profiles, infrastructure project profiles, infrastructure development
department, invest Karnataka 2016, (global investors meet) govt. of Karnataka.
 www. ey.com/in/en/industries/government, accelerating public-private
partnerships in India.
 www.invest Karnataka.co.in
 https://www.world wide journals.com, Dr. M. S. Khan, neeraj kumar ojha.

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13
NGO and Its Impact on Poverty Reduction in Karnataka:
An Analysis
Ramesha H. C. and K.C. Basavaraju

I. Introduction: The role of NGOs in reducing poverty is not a new issue.


Especially since the post World War II, NGO involvement in poverty
reduction has become a mainstream. They have been engaged in relief,
emergency or longer-term development work or the mixture of all three.
Although the evidence on NGO performance in poverty alleviation is mixed,
up to now, it is generally assumed that NGOs have the institutional capacity to
reduce poverty. It is also frequently argued that compared to the government,
NGOs have comparative advantages. As stated by van der Heijden, their
comparative advantages are: “their ability to deliver emergency relief or
development services at low cost, to many people, in remote areas; their rapid,
innovative and flexible responses to emerging financial and technical
assistance needs at the grass roots level; their long-standing familiarity with
social sector development and poverty alleviation; their experience with small-
scale development projects as well as with those requiring a high degree of
involvement by, and familiarity with, the concerned target groups”.
As part of their commitment to realize the targets of MDGs in 2015, the
NGOs have greater opportunity to increase their roles in reducing poverty
especially in the developing countries. The purpose of this article is to describe
and to analyze the roles of NGOs in alleviating poverty in rural areas in two
developing countries like India. In the country, since their independence,
NGOs have important contributions in increasing the welfare of the poor
people. Many NGOs have various activities to empower the poor people.
Poverty has been a firm and importunate problem in India, all the way
through the independence to decades after that. Role of NGO, especially in a
country like India, is very crucial. In fact, according to current statistics, a huge
chunk of the Indian population is still below the poverty level. Not to mention,
the focus of elections and all other political agendas have been around the
concern. Various government subsidies and poverty amelioration mechanisms
have been incorporated in the country. However, most of them failed to offer a

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

commendable result. Throughout the last few decades, role of NGO’s


is extremely significant in poverty amelioration mechanism. They have
brought about some of the best employment opportunities, livelihood
programs, self help groups and also empowerment programs. Many families
both in rural and urban areas have enjoyed some of the most viable and
consistent benefits from these NGO’s.
II. Review of Literature: The enormous studies have been made on Non
Government organizations working in urban as well as rural areas in India
and abroad. Some of the literatures are mentioned as following which may
have supported to identify some objectives for the study:
M. Gurulingaiah (2002) observed that the NGO has been organizing the
women to form SHGs to meet their felt needs and enable them to participate in
planning and implementation of their own developmental programmes.
Besides, it has been conducting social and health awareness campaigns to
eliminate superstitious customs, attitude and thinking related to poverty and
child birth which are blocking the progress of tribal women. M. Ramesh Singh
(2004) concluded that NGOs are playing active role in development activities
in the fields of education, health and sanitation, women and children to
improve the quality of life. Pradeep Kumar (2005) noticed that there is an
urgent need that Government Organizations and NGOs act in collaboration
for rural development. According to Sachs (2005), a poverty trap‟ must first be
solved in combating poverty. Although the poor have willingness to overcome
their ill-being, they are not able to do it by using their own resources. There
are so many factors that trap the poor until they are in powerless conditions,
such as diseases, climate stress, environmental degradation, physical isolation,
and also extreme poverty itself. Essentially, the poor must be helped to exit
from the poverty trap. If it can be reached, there will be an opportunity to get a
first foothold on the ladder of development. In helping the poor to climb out of
poverty, NGOs use two approaches: supply- side and demand-side (Clark,
1995). NGOs or Voluntary Organizations are not a new phenomenon and the
concept of voluntary action is very ancient. According to Inamdar (1987),
“During ancient and medieval times, voluntarism operated freely and
exclusively in the fields of education, medicine, cultural promotion and even
acted as succour in crises like droughts, floods, epidemics and foreign
invasions”. Michael Banton’s essay (1957) viewed that “Voluntary
Associations become more common and significant as societies advance in

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technology, complexity and scale and these associations function as a means of


organizing people in order to achieve new ends, such as the raising of capital,
the regulation of prices and the provision of extra labour”. Desai (2005) has
mentioned that NGOs have an important role to play in supporting women,
men and households, community groups, civil society groups and expected
that they can meet the welfare. F.A Kuponiyi and A. A. Ladele (2007)
explored that NGOs are very reliable in effective adaptation and transfer of
technology to farmers, delivery of agricultural support services and effective
vehicles for alleviating rural poverty. He concluded that the NGOs need more
donor assistance to enable them expand the scope of their operations.
III. Objectives:
 To study the role of NGOs in economic development and sustainability
with respect to poverty eradication
 To analyze the functioning of NGOs in reduction of poverty in
Karnataka
 To identify the problems of NGOs

IV. NGO Activities to Reduce Poverty:


The NGO have taken some significant initiatives to handle the poverty
situation considering certain aspects stated below:
a) Speedier economic growth achievement process
b) Human Resource development
c) Specific target setting for poor
Hence, a combined strategy considering all three stated aspects is necessary to
undertake. As a part of these combined strategies, NGOs have undertaken
some key activities which are as follows:
Humanitarian and Structural Development of Organizations for Poor: NGOs
are playing essential role for humanitarian development through joint analysis
and seeking solution through different seminars and workshop, joint social
activities, and application of socio-economic projects. Besides, they have
introduced certain essential concepts like developing small groups, credit
based cooperatives, mother welfare society and cooperatives etc. for
homeless/ landless etc. and thus have strengthened the root of organizational
structure for rural poverty.
Employment Generation: In order to encourage the rural poor to participate
in different economic activities and to increase their income through

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employment generation, several policies, methods and strategies of the NGOs


have attracted the attention of some foreign development experts. NGOs
usually create employment in two ways. First of all, they provide employment
in their own organization and secondly, they provide loans and management
assistance to individuals, which create new employment opportunity. Besides
they are providing inputs, technical and skill training and development
facilities to poor men and women in order to get self-employment. Thus they
are significantly contributing in eradication of poverty by providing the
above-mentioned essentials.
Organizing Groups and Participation of the Beneficiaries: One very
important and effective innovation by NGOs is the strategy of organizing
group wise meeting. As a result, participation of the true beneficiaries and
direct objective setup is possible to achieve economic target. Besides, It is an
effective element in making the loan scheme (to economically empower the
poor) successful. This type of meeting keeps up for the poor the trend of
empowerment and awareness along with raise in their entitlement.
Micro Credit: Overall economic development is essential for poverty
eradication at both urban and rural levels. Besides employment generation,
per head income and scheme to increase savings is required so that a
sustainable development and poverty reduction can be seen for the poor.
Microfinance is another important sector that NGO‟s have fully utilized in
reaching out to the poor. Their roles in this sector, has immensely contributed
to alleviating poverty among the poor. The purpose of using microfinance to
alleviate poverty is as a result of what role microfinance can play and what
impact it created on the beneficiaries. Microfinance has a very important role
to play in development according to proponents of microfinance.
Lending methodologies of different NGOs: Different NGOs have adopted
different lending methods for their micro-credit schemes such as:
 Group-based lending or Grameen Approach (lending to groups of 5-15
members)
 Individual lending or financial intermediation (lending to individuals)
Initiating Capacity Building: Capacity building is another NGO‟s strategy
and role that helps to bridge a gap between the haves and have not in society.
Capacity building is an approach to development that builds independence.
Self Reliance and Sustainable Community Development: Self-reliance is
another strategy that affects sustainable community development. Effective

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community development sits on the foundation of self-reliance. The concept of


self-reliance is strategically situated within the essence of community
development and is related to other concepts like mutual-help, self-help,
participation of the indigenous people and rural progress. Self-reliance
encourages the necessity for people to use local initiatives, their abilities and
their own possessions to improve their condition.
Relief Services: The provision of food and non-food items during emergency
periods and war time and other disasters periods, often see NGOs functions as
important one. The provision of these items is short run but very significance
in alleviating poverty.
Peace Building Projects: NGO‟s roles are extended to peace building in India.
The crucial role played by NGO‟s in the restoration of peace in war affected
zones is worth noticeable. The presence of NGO‟s led to the restoration of fair
peace as their propagation of the human rights law, and their involvement in
the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programmes, is fostering
cooperation among the warlords.
Through the functions of providing microfinance, initiating capacity building
and self -reliance, peace building projects, relief services during emergencies,
NGOs could bridge the gap of poverty in India.
V. Role of NGO in Karnataka:
The absence of synergy among the GOs and CSOs in Karnataka can be
attributed to the absence of political will, conservative bureaucracy and weak
civil society. Although Karnataka has adopted the Andhra Pradesh model of
development, forestry has not received the attentions of the state leadership.
Second, the conservative bureaucratic culture, absence of dynamic NGO
leadership, and weak NGO network were also a major hurdle to the expansion
of the programme.
Karnataka Non Profit Organizations/ Non Government Organizations are
part of social development and welfare of the state people. NGOs in Karnataka
have been actively working for genuine social development programmes and
welfare activities of urban and rural communities. Karnataka NGOs are
participating in social development and charitable issues organized by
government and welfare for the upliftment and betterment of the children,
women development education al awareness and other objectives.

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NGOs in Karnataka are functioning for child education, child welfare, child
rights, women development, women empowerment, old age homes for old
age persons, physically and mentally handicap persons, and upliftment of
slum children women. NGOs are well organizing education, health, social
justice, disaster management, natural resource management, agriculture
development, social awareness, betterment of backward and deprived
communities, poverty and distress relief programmes. NGO has been
implementing the programmes related to employment, female feticides, rain
water harvesting, animal welfare, ect.
Sl. No. Name of the State NGOs
1 Uttar Pradesh 13204
2 Maharashtra 9567
3 Andhra Pradesh 5048
4 Tamil Nadu 5048
5 Karnataka 3861
6 Kerala 1804
7 Sikkim 101
8 Goa 98
9 Lakshadweep 13
Source: Government of India
The above table shows that, the functioning of NGOs in different states in
India. As identified by the Government of India, there are 84,200 NGOs are
working across the India to create awareness about social, economic, physical,
cultural and other issues. These NGOs are focusing on reduction of poverty
ration through creation of employment opportunities to the people in urban as
well as in rural area as it explained in the previous part of that role of NGOs.
Few states are mentioned in the table which are functioning NGOs in across
the country. Karnataka NGOs are playing very significant role in these
activities.
 NGO’s play a significant role in offering relief and other basic amenities
to individuals who are suffering from extreme poverty.
 These non-governmental organizations have initiated some
empowerment programs. These programs empower both men and
women, thereby offering some commendable benefits in their lifestyle.
 NGO’s have brought about some viable and effective, skill based
livelihood programs.

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 Various public services are provided by the NGO’s both at Macro and
Micro levels.
 NGO’s have also implemented some viable development programs
which are extremely handy for the poverty stricken individuals.
VI. Problems of NGOs: It is found that while NGO projects reach the poor
people, they tend not to reach down to the very poorest. NGO projects also
tend to be small scale. The total numbers assisted are also small. Furthermore,
it is also rare for NGO projects to be financially self sufficient. Finally,
although NGOs execute a number of very imaginative projects, many of them
appear to be unwilling to innovate in certain areas or activities.
 Lack of funds
 Lack of Dedicated Leadership
 Misuse of Funds
 Inadequate trained personnel
 Monopolization of leadership
 Lack of Public Participation
 Centralization in Urban Areas
 Lack of Coordination
 Lack of Volunteerism/Social work among Youth
 Modernization
 Target orientated and time-bound Programmes
 Area of Interest
Therefore, because of these limitations, the roles of NGOs in alleviating
poverty cannot be exaggerated.
VII. Conclusion: On the basis of these explanations, NGOs are developed the
capacities of community such as skills, abilities, knowledge, assets and
motivates the community to participate in the project to improve the quality of
their lives. The literature established the important roles played by of NGOs in
the fight against poverty through micro- finance, capacity building, self-
reliance, peace building, sustainable community development, and
empowerment especially women’s empowerment all aiming at poverty
alleviation. NGOs through the micro- finance help members of community to
access jobs, income-generation and improve economic situation there by
alleviating poverty from the poor. And then they would become empowered
economically. NGOs act as capacity builders that help the community to
achieve the empowerment particularly individual empowerment.

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References:
 Baruah, B. (2007). Assessment of public–private–NGO partnerships: water and
sanitation services in slums. Natural Resources Forum 31, pp. 226–237.
 Davis, M. (2002) How can we Explain the Formulation of Northern NGOs
Approaches to Poverty. Informed No. 7, September. Oxford: INTRAC.
 Gurulingaiah, M. (2002). Role of NGO in Empowerment of Tribal Women in
Karnataka, Kurukshetra, Vol.51, No.2, Dec.Pp.30-33.
 Kakumani Lavanyalatha & Prabhakar (2011). Non Government Organisations:
Problems and Remedies in India. Serbian Journal of Management, Vol. 6(11),
pp.109-121.
 Mehta, D.,Sharma, J. K., Mehta, N. K., and Jain A. (2010). An empirical study
on young executives' response towards pop-up and banner advertisements,
Serbian Journal of Management, Vol. 5, No. 1., pp 1-188.
 Rukhsana & Taseer (2011). Micro-financing of NGOs & Government:
Collaborative impact on poverty eradication. Information Management &
Business Review, Vol.2 (2), pp.81-91.
 Stefanovic,I.,Damnjanovic, P. & Jasko, O. (2010). The analysis of the
contemporary environment impact upon organizational operations, Serbian
Journal of Management 5 (1): 97 - 109.
 Suharko (2007). The Roles of NGOs play in rural poverty reduction: the case of
Indonesia and India. GSID, Discussion Paper 160, October.

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14
Meeting Urban Environmental Challenges: A Case
with Solid Waste Management
Abhay M. Patil, Prasanna B. Joshi, M.S.Kurani
Introduction:
Rapid urbanization, increasing industrialization rising incomes and a
more sophisticated form of consumerism in developing countries are leading
to an increase in the amount and toxicity of waste in middle-income Asian
countries, especially in the cities. According to the World Bank, urban areas in
Asia generate about 760,000 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW), or
approximately 2.7 million cubic meters, per day. In 2025, this figure will
increase to 1.8 million tons of waste per day, or 5.2 million cubic meters of
waste. Municipal solid waste generation shows a positive correlation with the
economic growth of people in terms if kg/capita/day as a consequence of
improved life style and social status (Pradeep Kumar and Rajender Kumar
Kaushal, 2015). Being the world’s second most populous county the level of
urbanization in India, has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011.
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is one of the most overlooked
basic services provided by the Government of India. MSW generation rates
range between 0.3 and 0.6 kg/capita/day in Indian cities and annual increase
in MSW generation (volume) is estimated as 1.33 % per capita (Pattnaik and
Reddy 2010). Municipalities, usually responsible for managing MSW in
developing countries like India are facing a challenge in providing an effective
and dynamic system to the society. They usually fail to attain this due to lack
of appropriate collection system, lack of technical expertise and insufficient
financial resources (Sujauddin et al. 2008; Guerrero et al. 2013). In developing
countries, the cities barely spend 0.5 % of their per capita gross national
productivity (GNP) on services for managing MSW (What a waste 1999).
Research Problem and Objective:
Belagavi City is situated in the northwest part of Karnataka state (150 51’ North
Latitudes and 740 51’ East Longitude), which is well known for industries,
commerce, medical, hospital, education, administration, and pleasant climate,
it has attracted a huge number of the people from its hinterland and
surrounding regions. The population of Belagavi city has increased sharply

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from 83,483 in 1951 to 4,88,292 in 2011 with this the solid waste in the city has
also greatly increased. It is projected that waste to be handled in 2020 would
be 250 tons per day and which will continue to only increase in the days to
come, which has become a great threat to the City Corporation and
Cantonment board as well as to the city dwellers. Thus, the focus of this
research paper is to analyze the present situation of solid waste and to
evaluate the existing solid waste management in the City and to understand
the level of success in these initiatives, it is necessary to carry out an audit or
study.
Data Base
The present work has been carried out for Belagavi city through the
collection of data (i.e. both primary and secondary data), which has been
collected mainly from two departments, the City Municipal Corporation (MC)
and Public Works Department (PWD) and interviewing stake holders and by
field surveys. In addition, the researcher undertakes review of published
materials and reports that also includes literature study of some examples for
waste management in Indian situations, key informant interviews, applicable
policies, laws (if any) pertaining to the research purpose.

Solid Waste Situation In Belagavi City:


Along with the population solid waste in the city has also increased greatly
from 109 tons in 2001 to 180 tons per day in 2015. Per capita generation of solid
waste has increased from 260 grams/day in 1995 to 369 grams/day in 2015
and shows an increasing trend in the years to come. Following are some of the
important dimensions of solid waste in the city.
a. Growth and Pattern of Solid Waste in Belagavi City
According to the data collected, the per capita solid waste generation in
Belagavi city ranges between 340 gm and 370 gm per day. The generation of
solid waste in Belagavi city and Cantonment is around 1,80,000 kg per day.
The city corporation and Cantonment lift about 1,40,000 kg every day
approximately and leave about 40,000 kg behind which creates an unhealthy
condition in the city.
b. Composition of Urban Solid Waste:
The municipal solid waste in Belagavi comprises of organic food and
vegetable wastes, paper and cardboard products, plastic waste, rubber, rags
and textile materials, broken glass and crockery, dead animals, bones, stones

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etc. The following Table No. 6 shows the specific data on physical and
chemical composition of municipal solid waste in Belagavi City.
The Growth Of Population And Solid Waste Generation (1995-2015)
Table No. 01
Year Population Solid Per Year Population Solid Per
In Lakh waste Capita In Lakh waste Capita
(in waste (in waste
Kgs.) generate Kgs.) generate
(Kg/day) (Kg/day)
1995 3.20 83456 0.260 2006 4.16 117210 0.281
1996 3.23 84686 0.262 2007 4.18 124091 0.296
1997 3.33 87866 0.263 2008 4.25 130575 0.307
1998 3.43 91047 0.265 2009 4.31 137289 0.318
1999 3.54 93227 0.263 2010 4.43 143985 0.325
2000 3.65 95407 0.261 2011 4.51 149987 0.332
2001 3.70 97568 0.263 2012 4.63 155954 0.336
2002 3.87 99898 0.258 2013 4.71 162154 0.344
2003 3.90 101948 0.261 2014 4.82 175458 0.364
2004 3.95 104129 0.263 2015 4.88 180454 0.369
2005 4.06 109841 0.270
* Source: Belagavi City Corporation
Average Waste Generation From Sample Ward - 2015 (Table No. 02)

Ward no. 6 Average MSW of 25 houses


Day 1 995.97 gms
Day 2 779.86 gms
Day 3 824.11 gms
Total average value 866.64 gms
Total no of residential houses 2313
Total waste generated 2004.6 kg
* Source: Data collected by researcher
Major Sources Of Solid Waste Generation – 2015 Table No. 3
Sl.No. Sources of Waste Generation Average Quantity of
Waste Collected
(Tons per day)
1 Households (Non Slum). 65.50
2 Slum Households 06.10
3 Shops, schools, temples etc 24.20
4 Hotels ,Choultries, etc. 30.60

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5 Market ,Vegetable shops and meat shops 38.60


6 Hospitals and Clinics 04.60
7 Industries 03.40
8 Others 07.00
Total Solid Waste Generation 180.00
* Source: CCB
Details Of Non-Infectious Waste Generated At K.L.E’s Hospital - 2015
Table No. 4
Sl. No. Non –infectious waste Appro. Kgs/day
1 Card Board Boxes 30
2 Paper/office, General Waste 320
3 Kitchen Waste 1600
Total 1950
* Source: City Corporation Belgaum

Details Of Bio-Medical Waste Generated At K.L.E’s Hospital - 2015


Table No. 5
Sl. No Bio- Medical Waste App. Color Percent
kgs/day coding
1 Solid waste (cotton, pad etc) 180
2 Blood and Anatomical Waste 25 Yellow 57
3 Other infected (Rubber, Plastic 90 Red 30
Tubes)
4 Saline Bottles Shredded 8
5 All other plastics 10
6 Empty glass Bottles 40 Blue 13
7 Needles 5
Total 358 100%
* Source: City Corporation Belgaum

Average Physical And Chemical Composition Of Solid Waste - 2015


Table No: 6
Physical Characteristics Chemical Characteristics
of Solid Waste of solid waste
Item Percentage Item Percentage
Paper 4.76% Moisture Content 25.05%
Plastics 0.59% Organic Matter 22.21%
Metals 0.39% Carbon 12.55%

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Glass 0.34% Nitrogen 0.61%


Ash and fine dust 39.97% Phosphorus 0.71%
Total Compostable Matter 39.76% Potassium 0.73%
Other 14.19% C/N 20.73%
-- -- Others 17.41%
Total 100% Total 100%
* Source: City Corporation Action Plan Report * Note : Percentage is
computed by Author
As far as the C/N ratio is concerned, it is 0.73 per cent. It means that C/N
ratio is less, which indicates that there is least scope for recycling of organic
waste in Belagavi Municipal Corporation.
c. Other Problems:
Other problems of solid waste like spread of waste around the bins, which is
not collected in paper or polythene bags but instead directly thrown out of the
domestic dustbins into the roadside containers, sometimes the waste is also
discarded just outside the bin as the area around the bin is unhygienic due to
garbage spread by the animals like cows, dogs, cats etc. The situation only
worsens in the rainy season. As the waste is directly disposed into the open
bins, at times of heavy rains the bins get flooded and leads to seeping of the
waste out of the bins

Msw Management Practices And Challenges Ahead:


The study of the existing situation will make the picture clearer for problem
analysis and design considerations for future proposals. Solid waste
management in the city can be divided into two parts namely: Solid waste
management in formal sector and informal sector. The formal solid waste
management is managed by Belagavi Municipal Corporation and the informal
solid waste management is managed by rag pickers, waste pickers, buyers and
waste recycling industries. Belagavi has been operating on a conventional
system of solid waste management. The waste generators put the waste into
primary collection receptacles consisting of round RCC bins and masonry
bins. Sweeping is done on a day-to-day basis and the sweepings are also
transferred to the bins. They are manually emptied into the trucks, these
trucks are then directed to the Turmuri disposal site where the waste is
dumped. The cantonment board has its own collection and transport facility,
which is outside the purview of the city corporation. The following section
gives the details of various components of SWM, its working pattern and

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distribution of the work amongst the different levels of employees concerned


with the management of solid waste.
Components and Working Pattern Of Swm In The City
A. Staffing Pattern of SWM : The following table shows the staffing patter of
SWM.
Deployment Of Staff In Solid Waste Management Department (2015) -
Table No. 7
Sl. No. Staff Deployed
1 Health Officer 1
2 Environmental Engineer 1
3 Deputy Health officer 1
4 Senior Health Inspector 4
5 Junior Health Inspector 9
6 Supervisors 22
7 Pourakarmikas (Sweeping) 309
8 Helpers as loaders 66
9 Drivers 15
Total 428
* Source: City Corporation Belagavi

B. Privatisation of solid waste management


In Belagavi city, there are 59 wards out of which solid waste management of
30 wards has been outsourced to a Hyderabad based company, Ramky
Environ Engineers. The terms of the contract include providing full service,
which includes sweeping, collection, transport and maintaining the area clean.
C. Collection and transportation of Solid Waste
I. Primary collection
 Primary collection and coverage:
The total number of households with door-to-door (D2D) collection in CCB
area is 57,376 (49%). Manually driven tricycles are used for door-to-door
collection. All the household wastes, bulk generator wastes and street
sweeping wastes is disposed of in community bins. Municipal solid waste is
not mixed with hospital and industrial waste.
 Primary collection by Street Sweeping :
The road sweeping is undertaken by sweepers. The sweeping waste is
collected in small heaps and gets disposed of to community bins. The city
corporation collects the waste using tippers, tractors and dumper placers. The

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following table shows the length of the roads for the street sweeping and the
waste collected from it.
II. Secondary Collection.
The waste from primary collection is transferred to secondary collection i.e.
metal containers. The collection of waste from D2D and corporation has given
11 auto tipper, 30 tricycles and 128 push carts for various SHG’s & RWA’s. At
present Belagavi City Corporation has 309 pourakarmikas for sanitation work.
For regular monitoring of secondary transportation corporation also has
installed GPRS system in all CCB vehicles.
III. Waste Transported Per Trip
It is estimated that Belagavi generates about 180 tons of wastes per day. Out of
this about 77 per cent is collected and transported out daily. A weighing of
the waste carried per trip is made for each of the vehicles, the approximate
weight carried by each vehicle is about 4.15 to 4.25 tons. The waste
transported per day is estimated to be 140 - 160 tons. The entire garbage of the
city is transported to the landfill site with the help of 10 twin dumper placer, 2
compactors, 12 trippers and 8 tractors.
D. Waste bin description
There are about 1237 bins and 87 containers in Belagavi city. The average
quantity of waste generated in a bin comes to be around 145 kg/bin, and the
waste carrying capacity of a bin is 375 kg. So the waste generated is nearly half
of the waste carrying capacity of the bin, but as there is an uneven waste
generation in the city the collection of waste in the bins may vary from one bin
to another. There might be some bins which get filled on a daily basis whereas
some bins may take even less time. To avoid open dumping of garbage on the
street corners and other places as per the MSW rules, the City Corporation of
Belagavi has procured closed metal containers of size 4.5 cum and 3.00 cum.
The Bin-Population Ratio for Belagavi city is 1 : 318. This shows that only 1
bin serves 318 people in Belagavi city. It is a clear indication that the Bin-
Population ratio is very low, the people have been demanding more bins to be
installed for effective disposal of waste into the bins.

E. Multiple handling of the waste and Segregation:


The waste is not properly segregated at the pickup points and leads to
multiple handling. This non-segregated waste is filled into open trucks and
transported for disposal. It is to be noted that in Belagavi City there is no

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

provision for these waste segregation plants. However, a lot of recyclable dry
waste is not segregated and is thrown on the streets by the people along with
domestic, trade or other wastes. Such waste is usually picked up by the poor
waste pickers for their livelihood.
F. Manual handling of the waste
The waste is collected from the municipal bins manually with the help of
shovel, basket and handcart. The workers use these equipments to collect and
throw the waste from the municipal waste bins into the trucks manually. The
workers are also required to collect the waste that is littered round the bins.
G. Support of NGO’s
City Corporation Board also takes help of NGOs to educate people on
cleanliness and hygiene. These NGOs go door to door distributing pamphlets
and explaining about the importance of keeping the city clean.
H. Sewer cleaning machines
The Corporation has also procured two sweepers from Kam-Avida for
cleaning the main roads and highways. For cleaning the sewer, the corporation
has JCB’s gutter/sewer cleaning machine.
SATISFACTION WITH SWM SYSTEM
a. Service Level Benchmarking Indicators
Primary surveys indicate that majority of both slum and non-slum households
rate the collection system as bad. This clearly indicates the inefficient methods
of SWM practices. About 23 per cent of the slum HHs and 50 per cent of the
non-slum HHs rate the system as “Average”, only a very minor percentage of
the remaining HHs rate the system as “Good”.
Service Level Indicators And Benchmarks (2015) Table No.8
Sl.No. Indicators Benchmarks Status
1 Household level coverage of Solid Waste 100 % 90 %
Management Services
2 Efficiency of Collection of Municipal Solid 100 % 80 %
Waste
3 Extent of Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste 0 % 0%
4 Extent of Municipal Solid Waste 60 % 60 %
recovered/recycled
5 Extent of Scientific Disposal of Municipal Solid 100 % 100 %
Waste
6 Extent of Cost Recovery in Solid Waste 100 % 0%
Management Services

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

7 Efficiency in Redressal of customer complaints 80 % 59 %


8 Efficiency in Collection of user charges 90 % 70 %
* Source : SLB Notification of Karnataka ULB’s 2011
b. Advantage from the Recyclable waste
The recyclable waste situation is a bit tolerable as compared to the organic
waste. But as there is no segregation of the recyclable waste there is no idea
about its quantity and generation details. There was some idea about the
waste generation trends and the citizen’s attitude in dealing with the
recyclable waste from the questionnaires answered by the citizens in the
survey. The observations made from the questionnaire survey shows that
there is a positive contribution of the recyclable waste buying businessmen.
Every resalable waste which has even the smallest resale value in the market is
bought by them. They collect most of the recyclable waste form the houses and
sell it to the recycling industry. It is a good contribution from private
businessmen who help to reduce the workload by means of collecting the
recyclable waste and earn a profit by selling it to the recycling industry.
Conclusion:
Since India is developing country and have large resources of techniques and
facilities but due to lack of awareness, political issues, lack of attention toward
the duties which assign to the govt. officers, etc are some of the hurdles due to
which India is not able to cope up in waste management as compared to other
countries. The present system of MSWM in Belgaum city is satisfactory based
on MSW (M & H) Rule 2000 in spite of that more emphasis needs to be laid on
segregation and collection of waste at door step. Segregation of recyclable
material from mixed waste not only is tedious but also wasteful, therefore the
residents should be sensitized towards the importance of segregation of
wastes at source. Rather than considering the municipal solid waste simply as
residue to be thrown away, it should be recognized as resource materials for
the production of energy, compost and fuel depending upon the techno-
economical viability, local condition and sustainability of the project on long
term basis. In order to encourage the citizens, municipal authority shall
organise awareness programmes for segregation of wastes and shall promote
recycling or reuse of segregated materials. The municipal authority shall
undertake phased programme to ensure community participation in waste
segregation for this purpose, regular meetings at quarterly intervals shall be
arrange by the municipal authorities with representatives of local resident

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welfare associations and non-governmental organisations. In this way some


effective measure can taken lots of things should be done for the growth and
development of the society such as proper recycling of waste, making goods
from solid waste by proper treatment, which rises employment for
unemployed peoples. A part from these stringent laws should be passed in
this regard for proper disposal and treatment of waste.

REFERENCES:
 Ahsan, N., 1999. Solid Waste Management Plan For Indian Megacities. Indian
Journal Of Environmental Protection 19 (2), 90–95).
 Akolkar, A. B., (2005). Status Of Solid Waste Management In India,
Implementation Status Of Municipal Solid Wastes, Management And Handling
Rules 2000, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi.
 CPCB. 2001. State Of The Environment Report. India
 CPCB. 2002. Management Of Municipal Solid Wastes. New Delhi. India. CPCB.
2006. Project On Monitoring And Inventory Of Emissions Of Volatile
Compounds.
 CPCB. 2009. National Summary Report.
 6. CPHEEO (2000) Manual On Municipal Solid Waste Management, Pp.219 -
227. Central Public Health And Environmental Engineering, New Delhi, India.

 CSP Karnataka Draft Report Belagavi, Directorate Of Municipal Administration


Govt. Of Karnataka 2001.
 Census Of India (2011) Ministry Of Home Affairs. Http://Censusindia.Gov.In.
Collivignarelli C, Sorlini S, Vaccari M (2004) Solid Wastes Management In
Developing Countries. CD-ROM Of ISWA World Congress, Rome.
 Hoornweg D And Bhada-Tada P (2012) What A Waste: A Global Review Of
Solid Waste Management. No. 15, World Bank.
 Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P, Kennedy C (2013) Waste Production Must Peak This
Century. Nature 502:615–617.
 Kumar, S., Bhattacharyya, J. K., Vaidya, A. N., Chakrabarti, T. Devotta, S., &
Akolkar, A. B. (2009). Assessment Of The Status Of Municipal Solid Waste
Management In Metrocities, State Capitals, Class I Cities, And Class II Towns In
India: An Insight. Waste Management, 29, 883–895.

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15
Civil Society and Urban Governance Problems In India
Ishwarya.R and Ramya.S
Introduction:
In 2011, about 357 millions persons were living in urban areas of India
and it was the second largest urban population in the world. The 74th
Constitution Amendment Act came into force in June, 1993 which sought to
improve strengthen urban governance and management of services. The
urban population is expected to rise to around 38 percent by 2026 In urban
areas, people are differentiated on the basis of occupations, religion, class,
living standards and social beliefs. Architects and town planners have tried to
control disorganization so that cities today are properly planned. The basic
needs of the people with regard to safe drinking water, housing, maintenance
of public places, toilets, transport etc. Town planning has become an
important aspects of urban governance.
Urban local governments are governed by the provisions of the State
municipal Acts. Every State has its own municipal Act. The State legislature is
stronger by the central government to decide on the structure, functions and
powers to be entrusted to the local governments. Although the content and
format of various State municipal Acts is more or less uniform, there are
important differences in the provisions for devolution of powers, functions
and funds to local governments since this is determined by the condition of
both the State and the local government. The 74th Constitutional Amendment
Act 1993 facilitated state-civil society partnership in provisioning of services
(Subha and Bhargava 1999; Sekhar, 2005). This arrangement has given
legitimacy to the civic groups and improved the credibility urban areas. This
has facilitated efficient delivery of services and empowered the urban local
bodies. Civic groups like ‘Jaanagraha’, ‘Civic’ and ‘Proof’ are involved in
participatory budgeting practices at grassroots level.
The term urban government in India signifies the governance of an area
by the people Though their elected representatives. There are eight types of
urban governments in India, municipal Corporation, Municipality, notified
area committee, town area committee, cantonment board, township, port trust

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and special purpose agency at the central level of urban government is deals
with three ministries of urban, there are Ministry of urban development ,
Ministry of defense , Ministry of home affairs.

Historical Perspective of Urban Local Government


Urban local government originated and developed in modern India
during the period of british rule, in 1687 the first municipal corporation in
India was set up at Madras, after 1726 the municipal corporation were set up
in Mumbai and Kolkata. Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882 has been hailed as the
‘Magna Carta’ of local self government. He is called as the father of local self
government in India. In 1907 the royal commission on decentralization was
appointed and it submitted its report in 1909. Under the dyarchical scheme
introduced in provisions by the government of India act of 1919. In 1924 the
Cantonments act was passed by Central legislature. Under the provincial
autonomy scheme introduced by central government in 1935. Then the local
self government was declared provincial sides. After the committees were
appointed by the central government in between 1949 to 1988. Because to
improve the functioning of urban local governments. A number of steps were
taken from time to time in an attempt to reform local governments –
decentralisation of authority, powers, functions and funds to lower levels of
government; democratisation of local governments; providing greater
autonomy granting constitutional status; amendments in municipal Acts. A
major achievement of the Indian Government in their endeavour to strengthen
urban local governments is the enactment of the Constitution (seventy-fourth
amendment) Act during the year 1993.

Functions of Urban Local Governments


S.No. Category Description
1 Public Health Water supply, public vaccination, control of diseases,
and prevention of pollution, collection & disposal of rubbish,
Sanitation maintenance of sewers, etc.
2 Public Works Construction & maintenance of streets, bridges, etc.,
control & regulation of building activity, street lighting,
tree plantations, etc.
3 Development Construction & maintenance of markets, shopping centres,
drinking water standposts, wells, parks, gardens, etc.;
preparation of comprehensive plans for development &
growth of town, etc.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

4 Medical Establishment & maintenance of health institutions, etc.


Relief
5 Administrativ Preparation of annual reports, maintenance &
e development of municipal
property, regulation of traffic, registration of births &
deaths, etc.
6 Education Establishment & maintenance of educational institutions,
etc.
Source: Government of India (1966: 20-23); Municipal Acts of various States.

Objectives of the paper:


 To identify the problems of civil society and urban governance
problems in India.
 2.To accumulated the Constitutional provisions to solve the constraints
of civil society and urban Governance
Methodology:
This paper is mainly based on secondary data and information which is
collected from the concerned sources as per need of the paper. The relevant
books and documents of various department and organizations, articles,
papers and web-sites are used in this paper.

Civil Society And Urban Governance Problems In India


Urbanization is the process where an increasing percentage of
population lives in cities and suburbs. This process is often linked to urban
governance. Every family could be considered a part of civic society because
they voluntarily contribute to your well-being and generally ask for nothing in
return. This, in-turn, might allow you to go out and contribute elsewhere in
the broader civil sector. Large scale of urban governance results with many
problems. Economic problems increasing population in the urban centres
causes unemployment. Socio-Cultural Problems increasing population results
in lacking of social services as they cannot reach to everyone. Insufficient
financial resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure creating to the
basic needs of the huge population. The available educational and health
facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor. Male selective migration
leads to distorted sex-ratio. The urban growth leads to vertical expansion. It
also leads to many diseases. Environmental problems-Urbanization also
causes deterioration of environmental quality by pollution and disposal of

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waste. Problems of slums- Slums are the most important and severe problem
of urban settlements. At the same time these are universal found in every
urban center both in the development as well as developing countries.
Most municipalities in India do not have sufficient resources and
technology to collect desegregated town-level data and maintain a database.
Hence, data on various municipal aspects and performance parameters is
difficult to collect. For example, reliable data on the proportion of population
served by water supply, maintenance of public places, houses connected
with underground sewer facility; proportion of solid waste collected and
disposed daily; etc., are generally not maintained.

Constitutional Provisions To Solve The Constraints Of Civil Society And


Urban Governance In India
In India, numerous initiatives have been undertaken to strengthen
urban local governments and to improve service levels in urban areas.
Important among these are the enactment of a set of constitutional provisions,
implementation of numerous urban development programs and adoption of
various innovative practices. In august 1989, Rajeev Gandhi’s Government
introduced the constitutional amendment of Nagarpalika bill in the Loka
Sabha. The bill aimed at strengthening the municipal bodies by conferring a
constitutional status on them. Although the bill was passed in Loksabha but
unfortunately it was passed in Rajya Sabha in1989. P.V Narashimha Rao’s
Government was introduced the modified municipalities’ bill and it was
passed in both, the Loksabha and the Rajyasabha in 1992. After that the bill
was approved by State legislatures. It was assented by the President of India in
April 1993. Through this amendment local self-governance was introduced in
urban India. The Acts came into force as the Constitution (74th Amendment)
Act, on June 1, 1993. These amendments added new parts to the Constitution,
namely 74th Amendment added Part IXA titled “The Municipalities”. The
Local body ‘Municipalities’ consists of provisions from articles 243-P to 243-
ZG.
Directive Principles of State Policy denotes the ideals that the state
should keep in mind while formulating policies and enacting laws. These are
the constitutional instructions or recommendations to the state in legislative,
executive and administrative matters.The directive Principles of State Policy
are enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution from Articles 36 to 51.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Constitutional Provisions Related to Urban Local Government


Sl No Article Subject Matter
No
1 243P Definitions of Urban local government
2 243Q Constitution of municipalities
3 243R Composition of municipalities
4 243S Constitution and composition of wards committees, and so on
5 243T Reservation of seats
6 243U Duration of municipalities, and so on
7 243V Disqualifications for membership
8 243W Powers, authority and responsibilities of municipalities, and so on
9 243X Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, the municipalities
10 243Y Finance commission
11 233Z Audit of accounts of municipalities
12 243ZA Elections to the municipalities
13 243ZB Applications to union territories
14 243ZC Part not to apply to certain areas
15 243ZD Committee for district planning
16 243ZE Committee for metropolitan planning
17 243ZF Continuance of existing laws and municipalities
18 243ZG Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters
Source:- M.Laxmikanth (2011), Public Administration, New Delhi, McGraw-
Hill Publication(Page No.539-540).
The Directive Principles constitute a very comprehensive economic,
social and political programmes for a modern democratic State.. To Promote
equal justice and to provide free legal and to the poor (Article 39A). To secure
the right to work, to cases of un employment, old age sickness and
disablement (Article 41). To make provisions for work and maternity relief
(Article 42). To secure a living wage, a decent standard of life and social and
cultural opportunities for all workers (Article 43). To take steps to secure the
participation of workers in the management of industries (Article 43 A). To
raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of people and to improve
public health (Article 47). To secure for all citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the country (Article 44).To provide early childhood care and
education for all children until they complete the age of six years (Article 45)
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added new Directive Principles to the
original list they require the State, to secure opportunities for healthy
development of children(Article 39),to promote equal justice and to provide

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free legal aid to the poor (Article 39A), to take steps to secure the participation
of workers in the management of industries (Article 43A). The challenges of
growing urbanization and to enable Indian cities to develop to the level of
global standards, a comprehensive programme the Government was launched
a JNNURM in December, 2005.
JNNURM Projects – Sector wise sanction (Urban Infrastructure and
Governance)
S. Sector Number of Projects Cost of Projects
No. Sanctioned Sanctioned (Million)
1 Water Supply 140 1,82,346
2 Sewerage 99 1,21,167
3 Drainage/ Storm Water 59 72,888
Drainage
4 Solid Waste Management 40 40 21,861
5 Roads/ Flyovers 75 33,822
6 Public Transport System 19 47,709
7 Other Urban Transport 13 6,860
8 Urban Renewal 9 4,451
9 Development of Heritage 2 492
Areas
10 Preservation of Water Bodies 4 1,167
11 Parking 1 560
Total 461 4,94,224
Source: JNNURM, Progress Review, April 24, 2009.
Municipal institutions in India have a history of over 300 years. These
refer to ULBs comprising municipal corporations, municipalities and nagar
panchayats. Study of implementation of 74th CAA in various states showed
that some states have performed better than others. An important observation
is that while there has been full compliance in respect of provisions, such as
constitution of three types of Urban Local Bodies, reservation of seats, and the
same cannot be said for other provisions, namely constitution of Wards
Committees, District Planning Committees and Metropolitan Planning
Committees.
Suggestions:
Some measures have to be adopted if we want to remedy of civil society and
urban governance problems.
 Municipalities to find own financial resources.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 One proposal by innovative planners and some radicals envision a


structural decentralisation of urban local self government.
 Adopting pragmatic housing policy.
 Urban planning is almost city centred. But at present we want Regional
planning along with city planning.
 Encouraging Public Private Partnership.
 Systematic development of Urban centres.
Conclusion:
Urban governance problems are endless. Supreme Court judge, Justice D Y
Chandrachud said that, "The growth of urbanisation has posed very grave challenges
to the enforcement of law and justice in our country. The law is but one important
facet of societal governance under the regime of law, however, there is a great deal to
be achieved in terms of the involvement of civil society in the enforcement of law and
the realisation of rights," Justice Chandrachud was quoted as saying in a statement
issued by O P Jindal Global University (JGU). For strengthening Urban Local Bodies,
the Government may consider the adoption of a common categorization of urban
bodies across the India to improve clarity in their functions so as to assist a
systematic planning process.
References:-
 M.Lakshmikanth (2012) Indian Polity, New Delhi, Tata Mc-Graw Hill Education
Pvt.Ltd, (Page No 30-46)
 Vigoda, Eran (2002), From Responsiveness to Collaboration: Governance, Citizens,
and the Next Generation of Public Administration, Public Administration Review,
62 (5): 527-540.
 Ram Ahuja (2012), Social Problems in India, Jaipur, Rawat Publications. (Page No
302-307)
 K.Sidhartha and S Mukherjee(2009), Cities Urbanization and Social System, New
Delhi, Kisalaya Publication Pvt.ltd, (Page No200-211)
 Spence, M., Aneez, P.C., Buckley, R. M., “Urbanization and Growth” Commission
onUrban Growth, 2009.
 “Local Governance: Sixth Report” by Second Administrative Reforms
Commission,Government of India, 2007.
 Mathur, O.P. and Thakur, S., “India Municipal Sector- A Study for Twelth Finance
Commission, NIPFP, New Delhi, 2004.
 Mehta, D. (2006) “Urban Governance: Lessons from Best Pratices in Asia” in Shah
P.J.and Bakore, M. Handbook on New Public Governance, CCS, New Delhi.
 Sivaramkrishnan, K. C. (2006), “People’s Participation in Urban Goverance” I.S.S,
New Delhi.
 The Hindu (Civil Society Members Condemn use of FCRA as tool of repression),
December-16,2016.
 The Economic Times(Impact of Crime Muliplies in networked era:S C
Judge)December-16,2016.

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16
Socio-Legal Issues of Female Migrants in India
Sridevi Krishna
“Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future. It
is a part of social fabric, part of our very make-up as a human family”
**Ban Ki Moon
Introduction
Work is one of the few experiences common to most of humanity. It not
only plays an obvious and crucial role in the well-being of workers and their
families but paves the way to broader and social- economic development of
individuals, their communities and societies. Availability of work with quality
is the key for progress of any country. Work that traps people in bondage or
poverty or expose them hazards, insecurity or any kind of discrimination, does
not allow individuals or the economies of which they are part to advance and
fulfill their potential. Decent work covers all aspirations of people for their
working lives; for work that is productive, delivers a fair income with security
and social protection, safeguard basic rights, offers equality of opportunity
and treatment. Prospects for personal development and the chance for
recognition and to have their voice heard. It underpins peace and security in
communities and societies.
With the growth of labour migration in India, the concept of decent
work has changed its form in ensuring full protection and support social-
economic development of the migrants. Migration help to improve income,
skill development and provide greater access to service like health care and
education. In a country like India internal migration is more whether it is intra
district, inter district or interstate migration. It can also be rural -urban, urban -
rural, rural - rural and urban -urban. Nearly one-third of India’s population is
migrant population. Almost half of this population has migrated from rural
areas to cities in search of work. Lack of alternative livelihoods and skill
development in source areas, locations from where migration originate are the
primary causes of migration from rural areas. Workers migrate seasonally,
temporarily, or for a longer period, either within a state or across states. More
often than not, they are vulnerable, exploited and work in conditions where
their rights are not protected. Female workers face different issues in respect of

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maintenance of their family especially when they migrate from rural region to
urban region.

Impact of Gendered Migration


Among the migrants, women constitute an overwhelming majority, who
are less represented in regular jobs and are more likely to be self-employed
than non-migrant women. Domestic work has emerged as an important
occupation for migrant women and girls. Among them adolescent girls have
significantly different migration motives, patterns and options. Quest for
education, employment and personal development; family obligations and
change in family structure; escape from traditional practices and need to
escape difficult circumstances make them to migrate. Many girls especially in
the rural region also migrate for marriage with different conditions. Child
marriage is often considered to be a social problem in a country like India
where half of the girls are married off at the age of 18. Girls whose rights are
violated by child marriage are disadvantaged in many ways. Typically they
have lower levels of education and civic participation, less mass media access,
restricted mobility, higher risk of maternal mortality and subject to domestic
violence. Given their social, economic and legal disadvantage, it is likely that
girls migrate to marry have fundamentally different migration experiences
from those who migrate for work and education. A majority of urban migrant
girls move before marriage where they can find a better access to education
and job opportunity.
A migrant woman yet has different reasons for migration than that of
men. In a country like India, agriculture is the main occupation on which rural
occupation depends as a main source of livelihood and which in turn
dependent on the precipitation and distribution of rainfall; failure of rain and
consequent failure if agriculture greatly reduces the purchasing power of this
segment of population; recurrence of such situation is called as drought. In
such circumstance farmers face huge income loss and migrate to urban region
in search of jobs suitable for their livelihood. It is often seen that women in
such family are often support their male counterpart in earning a living in
urban region by doing minor jobs in inhumane conditions. Apart from these
women are also attracted towards city life for education, health, development
of backward community, job opportunities, training facilities and so on.
Status of Female Migrant Worker in India

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It is obvious the main reason for migration of females happens in search


for a job. In such situations the social and legal issues they face requires a
concern. The National Commission on Rural Labour in India constituted to
study the labour problems and to make recommendations on their
improvements, estimates that there are more than 10million circular migrants
in the rural areas alone. These include an estimated 4.5 million inter- state
migrants and 6 million intra-state migrants. The Commission pointed out that
there are large number of seasonally migrant workers in the agriculture and
plantations, brick kilns, quarries, construction sites and fish processing. There
are about 70 percent of women who migrate internally and marriage is the
primary reason for female migration, accounting for 91 percent of rural female
migrations and 61 percent of urban female migrations. The challenge is that
migrants usually form a class of invisible workers. They work in poor
conditions, with no access to government services and schemes, which are
usually available to other workers. There are different risks in source and
destination areas. Needs of family members, including infants, children,
adolescents and elderly who accompany female migrant workers or are left
behind in source areas also need to be addressed. The greater risks for female
migrant workers that need to be mitigated include:
 Lack of awareness among migrants about their rights as workers and
migrant workers.
 Young girls and women are deceived and trafficked.
 Seasonal workers are trapped in a situation of debt and bondage.
 Poor, unsafe working and living conditions and lack of occupational
health and safety
 Possibility of violence at workplace and sexual harassment of women.
 Greater threat of nutritional diseases, occupational illnesses,
communicable diseases, HIV and AIDS among female migrants.
 Exclusion or lack of access to public services and social protection for
migrants due to regulatory and/or administrative procedures in
destination states
 Lack of inclusion of migrants in the socio-political dynamics of the city,
lack of participation in the political process at the local level and poor
integration into social structures such as self-help groups

Social Security for Female Migrant Worker in India.


The ILO is constitutionally bound to promote social security
programmes and measures providing basic income to all in need of protection.

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Social security systems provide nine types of benefits as defined in the in the
Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952(102) namely, medical
care, sickness and maternity, medical care, sickness and maternity benefits,
family, benefits, unemployment benefits, employment injury, invalidity and
survivor’s benefits, old age benefits. Therefore, social security is the very
foundation of a decent society and it is the primary source of social legitimacy.
Migrant workers as such do not enjoy the benefits of social security
schemes in the countries to which they have migrated. The ILO estimates
suggest that 150 million people are fully unemployed. Many more are forced
to eke out a living in casual or occasional jobs, low productivity self, self
employment or other forms of unemployment. Unemployment has growing
millions as a result of the financial crisis in Asia and other parts of the world;
more than 50 percent of the world’s population is excluded today from any
form of social security. The employers are only interested in maximizing their
material profits, which they do by paying low and piece- rated wages without
accepting any responsibility for the basic security. Most of the migrant
workers do not have adequate shelter, drinking water or toilet facilities.
It has been observed that seasonal migrant workers in sugar factories in
the Maharashtra and other states, they have to stay in make shift shacks, huts
or in the open and have no access to safe drinking water. The Factories Act
of1948 makes it obligatory on the employers to provide drinking water,
washing, bathing facilities for workers and latrines and urinals for workers
etc. It was found from the surveyed sugar factories that drinking water,
washing and bathing facilities, other facilities were totally absent for contract
basis seasonal migrant workers in the premises of the sugar factories. Health
hazards are a serious problem for the migrant workers in various sectors.
Construction and brick kiln migrant workers suffer from a number of diseases
which are a result of their occupation or working conditions. Accidents and
lung diseases are common among construction workers. The ILO estimates
suggest that only 10 percent of the world’s workers have truly adequate social
protection.
More than 90 percent of the total workforce of the country is
engaged in the unorganized sector. Of the total employment of women, they
comprise only 4 percent of the organized sector, and 96 percent women are
employed in the so called unorganized or informal sector, which is
unorganized, non-unionized, low waged and with unhealthy almost inhuman

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working conditions. It is true that women labour is predominant in the


unorganized sector. In 1997, the ILO introduced convention about sexual
harassment of women workers at the work places. The definition of sexual
harassment adopted by ILO has been accepted by the government of India.
But the growing informalisation or casualisation or marginalization of women
at work places serious threats regarding the ILO convention. Women workers
in unorganized sectors are, generally, sexually exploited. Migrant women
workers are exposed to the risk of sexual harassment and exploitation. So far
as women migrant workers are concerned, women workers work in various
factories, like sugar factories, handlooms and power looms and cotton ginning
mills for the nature of temporary, seasonal, part time work.. However, migrant
women workers in India, who are often in low skilled occupations in sectors
not efficiently covered by national labour laws and standards, and vulnerable
to various forms of exploitation including sexual harassment at the places of
work
In terms of bondage labour system, bondage and servitude has
been reported in the brick kilns, store quarries, building and road
constructions, agriculture and plantations, and other unorganized sectors in
different forms The proportion of bonded labour is more among migrant
workers, who belong to backward community i.e. Scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes. The new forms of labour bondage can also be found in rural
or urban based industries like rice mills, small-scale carpet workshop, gem
processing ateliers etc. In all these cases, labour bondage is a feature of the
employment modalities of vulnerable segments of the workforce in the
informal sector of the economy. So far, action taken by the state to end labour
bondage has remained ineffective. The enactments like The Child labour
Prohibition and Abolition Act 1986,Bonded labour system (Abolition ) Act
1976,Maternity Benefits Act,1967,Equal Remuneration Act, and other labour
laws have not been implemented effectively in order to improve working
conditions of migrant workers ,these labour laws have not also covered
workers in the unorganized sectors in the country. Besides, the maternity
benefits are not available for contract based migrant women workers and
employed in agriculture, construction, brick kilns and other temporary,
seasonal, part time work, because they come under the unorganized sector.
There are also various other problems of migrant workers like the abolition of
contract labour system, implementation of the provisions of the labour laws,

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

an eight hours working day, payment of minimum of wages, social security


schemes, insurance, labour welfare amenities etc.
A way forward for protection
Since internal migration in India is very large, it needs to be given high
priority with specific policy interventions. Governments and policy makers
can play a vital role in ensuring that migrant workers undertake safe
migration, have decent working and living conditions in destination areas, are
aware of their rights and have access to social security and welfare
schemes. Keeping the concern of female migrants it is better to promote
Decent Work which include developing a policy framework that gives priority
to migrants, creates linkages between state and central policies on healthcare,
education and social security, and facilitating convergence of state and central
resources. Apart from these it is necessary to-
 Establishing institutional mechanisms for inter-state coordination
 Improving enforcement of labour laws
 Adopting a four-pronged approach for better protection of rights of
workers that defines the roles and responsibilities of the state,
employers, workers/trade unions/civil society organizations and
emphasizes the use of social dialogue and collective bargaining for
promoting the rights of migrant workers
 Ensuring access and portability of social security schemes, for example,
access to public distribution network/ subsidized ration in destination
areas
 Accessing housing, water and sanitation
 Providing identity documents to migrants, which enables them to open
bank accounts and enroll for welfare schemes
 Universal registration of workers on a national platform and developing
comprehensive databases
 Strengthening and/or setting up district facilitation centers, migrant
information centers and gender resource centers
 Registering workers by organizing enrolment camps
 Providing education and health services at the worksites
 Providing skills training, in particular for adolescents and young
women workers
 Establishing a universal helpline for female migrant workers.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Conclusion
Thus decent work is central to the efforts to reduce poverty and is a path to
achieving equitable, inclusive and sustainable development. Ultimately decent
work underpins peace and security in communities and societies. It sums up
the aspirations all people have for their working lives; for work that is
productive, delivers a fair income with security and social protection,
safeguards basic rights, offers equality of opportunity and treatment,
prospects for personal development and the chance for recognition and to
have your voice heard. The primary goal of ILO i.e. to promote opportunities
for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of
freedom, equity, security and human dignity, should also be concerned with
migrant workers generally and female migrant workers specifically.

References:
 Das Gupta, “Migration from Rural Areas”, (OUP Pub), Delhi. (1979)
 Dr. W.N. Salve , “Labour Rights and Labour Standards for Migrant Labour in
India”, available @ (www.rdwpaper22.in)
 Miriam Temin, Mark.R, “Girls on the Move”, Girls Count Report,The
Population council, 2013 (available @ www.popcouncil.org)
 Rameez Abbas and Divya Varma, “Internal Labor Migration in India Raises
Integration Challenges for Migrants”, (Available@www.migrationpolicy.org)
 Vipul Kant Singh, Alok Kumar, “Changing pattern of Internal Migration in
India”, (International Journal of Current Research), Vol 3, April 2011.

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17
An Analysis of Socio Economic Condition of Women In
Slum Area – With Special Reference to Hebbal Extension
Area of Mysore City
R.H.Pavithra
Introduction
Presently, Indian Population is 1/6th of the world population.
Accelerating urbanization is forcefully effecting the transformation of Indian
society. Slightly more than 28 percent of the country's population is urbanized,
but unfortunately 21.68 percent (61.8 million) of the urban population live in
slum area. As per Last NBO report total housing shortage was 19.4 million
units. In urban are the shortage is 6.6 million unit and 90% of these shortage
hits poor and LIG people. It’s become a very common urban scenario that
thousands of dwellings made of straw, mud, tin, and cardboard are squeezed
into areas of a small city block. In these cramped dwellings, often only an arm-
span in width, entire families live without running water, electricity. Few have
beds; they sleep on scraps of cloth padding on the dirty floor. Rapid growth of
industrialization creates enormous employment opportunity. It attracts the
lower income peoples and the unskilled labours from the rural area. The high
rate of migration from rural area to the urban sector formulated slum area,
because these men are unskilled labours to industries.
More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas and by 2030 it is
projected that over half of residents in low- and middle-income countries
(LMICs) will reside in cities). As rural residents move to urban areas in search
of jobs and villages are overtaken by expanding urban agglomerations, many
low- and middle-income countries are increasingly concerned with the
urbanization of poverty. The rapid and large scale of urban growth has raced
far ahead of the provision of services and has precipitated a proliferation of
informal settlements – and the development of new, smaller cities – without
access to water and sanitation, garbage collection or security of tenure.
Definition of Slum
The UN operationally defines a slum as “one or a group of individuals living
under the same roof in an urban area, lacking in one or more of the following

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five amenities”: 1) Durable housing (a permanent structure providing


protection from extreme climatic conditions); 2) Sufficient living area (no more
than three people sharing a room); 3) Access to improved water (water that is
sufficient, affordable, and can be obtained without extreme effort); 4) Access to
improved sanitation facilities (a private toilet, or a public one shared with a
reasonable number of people); and 5) Secure tenure (de facto or de juresecure
tenure status and protection against forced eviction).

Literature Review
Slums are usually located near railway tracks, factories and busy roadsides
thus rendering their inhabitants vulnerable to high burden of diseases. They
are exposed to vehicular and industrial pollution. The environment of such
areas is not good for health; it causes a number of diseases among which
respiratory diseases are very common(Gulis, Mulumba et al. 2004).
One of the most important characteristics of slums is lack of ownership of
land where they are living. Usually they make their houses on vacant
government or public land, or marginal land parcels like railway setbacks or
undesirable marshy land. When the land is not in productive use they get it as
an opportunity and settle there. They are vulnerable to landslide, flood prone
areas and unsafe environment (Unger and Riley 2007).
Education is basic right of every human being. Unfortunately very few slum
dwellers can get this right. Literacy rate in slums is very low, especially;
women have to suffer more than men. This condition is not similar in all the
slums of the world but developing counties explore this phenomenon more.
Generally authorities are reluctant to provide this opportunity to dwellers
(ROBERTS 2000).
Living conditions in slum are very poor. People have to live in adverse
conditions in slum areas. Slums are generally dirty and unclean; there is not a
proper way of cleanliness. Shortage of water supply and inadequate sanitation
creates issues for households (Bandyopadhyay and Agrawal 2013).
Generally slum dwellers do not have access to safe water it is a major cause of
diseases in slums. They face difficult to obtain water, the water which they get
is not of good quality; it makes them vulnerable to diseases. About 2 million
people die every year due to diarrheal diseases; most of them are children less
than 5 years of age. The main cause of children death is diarrhea (Graf,
Meierhofer et al. 2008).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The people of slums do not adopt precautionary measurements to get safety


from diseases. These people can avoid this disease by using soap because
decreases chances of disease up to 47 percent (Curtis, Cairncross et al. 2000).

Objectives
1. To examine the socio economic condition of women dwellers of slum in
case study area
2. To suggest suitable measures to improve the living condition of women
of slum in case study area.
Methodology
The present study is on empirical investigation based on sample interview of
women dwellers of slum in Mysore city..Mysore is a mid sized south Indian
city with a population of about 7.8 lakh and spanning an area of 128 sq kms.
This is second largest city in Karnataka after Bangalore, the capital city of
Karnataka. This City is 140 kms away from state capital Bengaluru. The
present study is based on both primary and secondary data and a systematic
random sampling method has been adopted for survey. The primary data has
collected from slum situated in Hebbal extension area which is near to the
Industrial area and is approximately 7 kms away from central bus stand and
railway station of the city and this slum is near to the posh locality of mysore
city such as Brindavan extension, Vijayanagar and Metagally. The survey has
been conducted by taking 50 women dwellers of slum of case study on
random basis. Simple table percentage method used to analyse the results and
the results have been depicted by simple bar graph and pie chart.

Results And Discussion


Table 1 : Socio-Economic. Profile Of Women In Slum Area
Sl NO Age No of Respondents Percentage
1 18-30 15 30
2 31-50 25 50
3 Above 50 10 20
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 1 depicts that out of 50 respondents majority of 25 (50 percent) belong to
the age group of 31 – 50, and it is followed by the age of18-30 30 percent ) and
only 10 respondents(20 percent) belong to the age group of above 50 years.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table 2: Educational Status Of The Respondents


Sl No Educational Status No of Respondents Percentage
1 Illiterate 2 4
2 1 - 7
st th 30 60
3 7 - 10th
th 14 28
4 Above 10th 4 8
Total 50 100
Source : Field Survey

Table 2 reveals that out of 50 respondents only 2 were illetretrate because of


compulsory free education of government majority of them are making use of
such facalities and majority of them around 30 respondents (60 percent) have
educational status between 1st to 7th standard of education and followed by 14
respondents (28 percent) processing upto 10th standard of education and
around 4 of them have entered even college upto P.U.C.

Table 3: Access to Safe Drinking Water


Sl No Access to Water No of Respondents percentage
1 Within dwelling Locality 20 40
2 Outside dwelling locality 30 60
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 3 explains that out of 50 respondents 20 of them (40 percent) have access
to drinking water within their locality but large majority around 30 of the
respondents(60 percent) donot have access to safe drinking water within their
dwelling locality.

Table 4: Access To Sanitation Facalities


Sl No Access to Sanitation No of Respondents Percentage
1 Within house premises 20 40
2 Outside house premises 30 60
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 4 explains that only 20 respondents (40 percent) have access to sanitation
within their house premises but 30 respondents (60 percent) of them donot
have access to sanitation within their house premises.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table 5: Respondents Prone To Frequent Diseases


Sl No Frequent Diseases yes No
1 Tuberculosis 2 48
2 Common cold/cough 25 25
3 UTI 20 30
4 Dehydration 30 20
Source: Field Survey
Table 5 explains that only 2 of them are prone to tuberculosis, but 50 percent
that means 25 respondents suffer from common cold and cough, around 20 of
them are subjected to Frequent Urinary Track Infections(UTI), and more than
half of them undergo with the problem of dehydration frequently.

Table 6 : Nature Of Houses


Sl Nature of Houses No of Respondents Percentage
No
1 Kuchha 15 30
2 Semi Pakka 25 50
3 Pakka 10 20
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 6 reveals that half of them live in semi pakka houses and 30 percent of
them live in kachha and followed by 20 percent living in pakka houses.

Table 7: Access To Radio And Television


Sl No Access to radio/TV No of Respondents Percentage
1 YES 35 70
2 NO 15 30
50 100
Source: Field Survey

Table 7 shows that 70 percent of the respondents have access to either Radio or
T.V. But hardly 30 percent don’t have access to these entertainment or the
media sources.
Table 8: Nature Of Occupation
Sl No Nature of Occupation No of Respondents Percentage
1 Waste Pickers 4 8
2 Cobblers 5 10
3 Drainage cleaners 5 10

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

4 Street Sweepers 6 12
5 Working in 10 20
Hotels/Institution
6 Industies/ factories 13 26
7 Designing coconut 7 14
leaves for ceromonies
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey

Table 8 reveals that majority of 13 respondents (26 percent) work for industries
and factories, around 10 respondents work for hotels and educational
institutions in house keeping departments. Around 7 respondents engage in
thaching of roofs and designing it for some auspicious occasions, 6
respondents work as sweepers, 5 each respondents work as drainage cleaners
and cobblers and 4 respondents roam around as waste pickers.

Table 9 : Monthly Income Of The Respondents


Sl No Income Level No of Respondents Percentage
1 Upto 1000 5 10
2 1000 to 5000 30 60
3 5000 to 10000 12 24
4 Above 10000 3 6
Total 50 100
Sorce: Field Survey

Table 9 explains that only 6 percent of them have above 10000 rupees income
as their monthly income and 24 percent have monthly income between 5000 to
10000 and majority of them around 60 percent have income ranging between
1000 to 5000 rupees and hardly of 10 percent lies in the montly income group
of 1000 rupees.

Table 10 : Monthly Savings Of The Respondents


Sl No Savings Level No of Respondents Percentage
1 No savings 10 20
2 Upto 1000 17 34
3 1000 to 5000 20 40
4 Above 5000 3 6
5 Total 50 100
Sorce: Field Survey

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table 10 depicts that only 6 percent of the respondents have their monthly
savings above 5000 rupees and 40 percent of them have their savings between
1000 to 5000 rupees around 34 percent have savings upto 1000 rupees and 20
percent have no savings at all.

Research Findings
 Case Study Slum area has listed some facility needs urgent attention.
For instance, water supply and drainage access in the area. All most all
households reported lack of drainage, Potable water and toilet facilities.
 Most of the residents of slums do not constitute a skilled working class.
They engage themselves in housekeeping department in hotels,
factories, drainage cleaning etc., These jobs are low income generating
activities.
 The housing condition in the slum presents a grim scenario.About 20
percent of houses are pucca and 50 percent were semi pucca. The largest
household had a semi puccahouse.Most of the household have only one
room.The most crowded household had seven person to a room. As
regard other amenities, it has been observed that 60 percent of
household have no latrines. Thus the slum dwellers suffer from
tremendous deprivation of sanitation, , cooking bathing ,defecating and
washing space.
 60 percent of women in study area have education up to 7th standard
due to compulsory and free education of the government.
 It was observed that TV sets were commonly found in slum household,
no one was subscribing any news paper.
 30 respondents suffer from dehydration due to lack of potable drinking
water facalities and 20 respondents were prone to Urinary Track
Infections since there is lacking separate latrines and proper drainage
facilities. And due to bad environmental contaminated condition 25
respondents are subjected to suffer from frequent common cold and
cough.
 60 percent have their monthly income between 1000 to 5000 rupees
because majority of women in case study slum area are engaged in jobs
like working as house keepers in some posh shoping complex, factories,
who quiet obviously get 6000 to 8000 rupees as their monthly salary.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 40 percent of them have savings between 1000 to 5000 rupees because of


their voluntary attitude to save for future unforeseen and for their
children. They save in post office and through some bank account.
Majority of women slum dwellers save in their SWASAHAYA
SANGHA or the Self Help Groups.
Major Suggestions
 The slum area identified for the study area is low lying area and
inundated during rainy seasons thus measures should be taken to raise
their level in order to avoid problems of flooding and sledging in such
slums.
 The open drains alongside the road should either be provided with
removable covers or appropriate arrangements should be made for their
regular cleaning so as to avoid accumulation of sewage.
 Local government should undertake measures to improve the physical
environment of the dwelling places proper drainage, sewerage system
and adequate water supply.
 Health camps and mobile clinic van should be arranged for treatment of
common diseases and health promotional activities.
  Local Government should not allow new slums to come into existence.
 Non Governmental Organisations has to create awareness among people
of slum area in general and women in particular to increase their
educational status ,and also their job opportunities and reservations
according to their educational status in governmental level.which in turn
helps to increase their income conditions .

Conclusion
Generally the social status of the women slum dwellers is very poor. They
belong to poor build-up households, lack of basic amenities like drinking
water, lighting, electricity, latrine facility, sewerage facility. The social profile
of the slums is not good. They are poor and marginalized section of the
society. The economic conditions of the women slum dwellers are very low.
Generally, women slum dwellers are engaged in low level of economic
activities like rag keeping, cleaning of houses, labourers in factories, malls
etc.Women Slum dwellers are basically illiterate and they do not read and
write. Due to lack of the literacy they are unable to do good job. Thus the
economic conditions of the women slum dwellers are not good and they earn

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

less amount of money. Due to less income slum dwellers are unable to
purchase the basic needs of daily lives. Socio-economic status of women slum
dwellers can be characterized as mainly low income group with inadequate
education. Realizing the gravity of the situation governments have
implemented a number of schemes and programmes to improve the living
conditions of people living in slums. In short, multiprolonged strategy
required not only to address the needs of women slum dwellers for shelter
but also the problems of urban poverty, unemployment, low incomes and
lack of access to basic urban services.

References
 Alamgir et al. (2009). "Assessing the livelihood of slum ewellers in Dhaka
city." J. Bangladesh Agril. University
 Ameratunga et al. (2006). "Road-traffic injuries: confronting disparities to
address a global-health problem. The LANCET
 Awadall, H. I. (2013). "Health effect of slums: A consequence of urbanization."
Scholarly Journal of Medicine.
 Awasthi, S., & S. Agarwal (2003). "Determinants of childhood mortality and
morbidity in urban slums in India." Journal Article - Indian pediatrics,
 Charles J. Stokes, A Theory of Slum, Land Economics ,Vol. 38, No. 3 , PP. 187-
197
 Das. B, (1997), Slum Dwellers in Surat City: A Socio Demographic Profile,
Indian Journal of Social Work, New Delhi, Sage Publications
 Gangadharan K (2005), Utilization of Health Services in Urban Kerala: A Socio
Economic Study Serials publications, New Delhi
 Gurumukhi K.T (2000), slum Related Policies and Programmes, shelter, Vol 3
No.3, pp 57.
 HatekarNeeraj and Rode Sanjay (2003),Truth about Hunger and Disease in
Mumbai, Malnourishment among slum children Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol 38, No 43, PP 4604-4610..
 Joshi Seema (2005),Marriage, Migration and Labour market in slum areas ,
Nagarlok, vol 37,No 3,PP 34-49.

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18
Urbanization and Rising Urban Poverty With Reference
To Kodagu District
Girish.H.R.
1.0 Introduction:-
Kodagu is an administrative district in Karnataka, India. It occupies an
area of 4,102 square kilometers (1,584 sq mi) in the Western Ghats of
southwestern Karnataka. Agriculture is the most important factor that
upholds the economy of the district and rich in natural resources.
Urbanisation brings with it unique opportunities like increased avenues for
economic growth, diversified livelihood options, access to better infrastructure
services and hence, better chances for overall human development. However,
Erratic urbanization may also lead to erosion of safety nets, unsafe living
conditions leading to poor quality of life, environmental pollution, health
hazards, inequality and exclusion;. Thus, the impact of urbanization on human
development cannot be conclusive unless issues related to health, education;
livelihoods and standard of living in the urban context are understood. The
study has projected that the district’s urban population may increase by an
astounding 1.7 percent compared to a relatively moderate growth of rural
population. The rapid growth of urbanization may pose a great threat to the
increase of urban poverty, inequality and exclusion.

2.0 Statement:-
“A study on the extent of changing life styles with respect to
Urbanization, leading to urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in Kodagu
district.”

3.0 Need for the study: -


The third main component of Human Development after attaining
better health and education is to lead an improved ‘standard of living’.
Kodagu is consists of five major cities, in these cities number of concrete
houses are increasing day by day. Basically Kodagu is a hilly region, due to
scarcity of land for dwelling man has moved upon to these hills which has
directly affected the mountain eco system. Wet lands are also been converted

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

to house sites. It symbolises the movement of people from rural to urban areas.
Today in Kodagu, due to uncontrolled urbanisation, leads too many problems
like, worsening water quality, excessive air pollution, noise and the problems
of waste disposal, unsafe living conditions leading to poor quality of life,
inequality and exclusion.
“Development can be seen… as a process of expanding the real
freedoms that people enjoy.” -Amartya Sen.

4.0 Objectives of the study:-


1. To find out the impact of Urbanization, on urban poverty, inequality
and exclusion in Kodagu district.
2. Analysis of urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in Kodagu district.

5.0 Methodology: -
A case study research method was used for blending qualitative data-
collection methods to obtain a detailed and reliable picture of the Kodagu
district. I recognized members of the experts capable of analyzing their own
experiences. I involved them in exploring and analyzing their experiences of
impact of Urbanization on urban poverty, inequality and exclusion. 10 key-
informant interviews were conducted. Key-informants included Journalists,
Assistant director, Dept. of statistics-Kodagu district. Extensive field
observations were conducted to understand the impact of Urbanization on
urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in the district; I ensured active
involvement of the Key-informants in all phases of the study.

6.0 Variables of the study: -


The present study consists of the single variable, which is the ‘Extent of
Factors contributing to urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in Kodagu
district”

7.0 Tools used for the study: - The following tools were used for the study,
1. A data sheet prepared by the investigator to collect information in different
variables of the objectives.
2. Interview schedule for key-informants to collect the information about
impact of Urbanization, on urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in
Kodagu district.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

7.1 Analysis of the data: - Statistical techniques used, the data was analyzed in
terms of percentage.

8.0 Urbanisation:-
Urbanization refers to general increase in population and it includes
increase in the number and extent of cities. Urbanization happens because of
the increase in the extent and density of urban areas. It symbolizes the
movement of people from rural to urban areas. While natural population
growth has been the major contributor to urbanisation, rural-urban migration
continues to be an important factor. For the first time in history, the world is
now more urban than rural (UN-DESA, 2014). Urbanisation is happening
much faster in developing countries than elsewhere – population growth rates
are higher and widespread internal migration is occurring. Urbanisation is an
inevitable end product of economic growth and modernization. It results from
three simultaneous processes: population growth in urban areas, migration of
population from rural to urban areas and the conversion of rural to urban
areas. The world has been witnessing increasing rates of Urbanisation With
this increase, the number of poor in urban areas is also likely to rise and
according to United Nations, since 2008, more people are living in urban than
rural areas.

8.1 The impact of Urbanisation in Kodagu: -


Urbanisation and urban growth have accelerated in Kodagu. Kodagu is
consists of five major cities in these cities number of concrete houses are
increasing and populations are growing day by day. Basically Kodagu is a
hilly region, due to scarcity of land for dwelling man has moved upon to these
hills which has directly affected the mountain eco system. Wet lands are also
been converted to house sites. Conversion of pastures and reserved areas near
villages for housing sites is a controversial issue in Kodagu. The influx of
migrants – labourers, petty businessmen, agents and middlemen has created
population pressures on the available non-agricultural land in Kodagu.
Together with this, the stringent law on forest lands puts additional pressures.
Some planters mentioned that even Devara Kadus (used as biodiversity
hotspots and in some cases, pastures) were converted into housing colonies.
Due to uncontrolled urbanization, environmental degradation has been
occurring very rapidly and causing many problems like land insecurity,

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

worsening water quality, excessive air pollution, noise and the problems of
waste disposal.
Table showing the Population of cities / towns of Kodagu district in the six
decades (As per population census )
Sl.no Urban area 1961 census 1981 census 2001 census 2011 census
1 Madikeri 14,453 24,724 32,496 33,381
3 Somvarpet 08,039 13,872 20,406 22,055
5 Virajpet 10,887 17,067 22,480 25,552
6 Total 33,379 55,663 75,382 80,988
7 District total 3,22,829 4,61,888 5,48,561 5,54,519

The above data is presenting in graphically below


600000

500000
urban
400000 popln
300000

200000 dist
popln
100000

0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

8.2 Analysis:-
The pattern and trend of urban population in Kodagu during 1961 to
2011, shows that total urban population has been increased 2.5 times from
33,379 to 80,988. Whereas urban population may increase by an astounding
1.7 percent compared to a relatively moderate growth of rural population
since 1961 to 2011.

9.0 Urban poverty: definitions, concepts and measurement


Poverty is multidimensional, thus measuring it presents a number of
challenges. Beyond low income, there is low human, social and financial
capital. The most common approach to measuring poverty is quantitative,
money-metric measures which use income or consumption to assess whether a
household can afford to purchase a basic basket of goods at a given point in
time.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

For Urban poverty, two broad complementary approaches are


prevalent: anthropological and economic interpretations. Anthropological
studies of poverty have shown that people’s own conceptions of disadvantage
often differ from those of professional experts. Great value is attached to
qualitative dimensions such as independence, security, self-respect, identity,
close and non-exploitative social relationships, decision-making freedom and
legal and political rights. Conventional economic definitions use income or
consumption complemented by a range of other social indicators such as life
expectancy, infant mortality, nutrition, the proportion of the household budget
spent on food, literacy, school enrolment rates, access to health clinics or
drinking water, to classify poor groups against a common index of material
welfare.
More generally, there has been a widening of the debates on poverty to
include more subjective definitions such as vulnerability, entitlement and
social exclusion. These concepts have been useful for analyzing what
increases the risk of poverty and the underlying reasons why people remain in
poverty. Vulnerability is not synonymous with poverty, but refers to
defencelessness, insecurity and exposure to risk, shocks and stress.
Vulnerability is reduced by assets, such as: human investment in health and
education; productive assets including houses and domestic equipment; access
to community infrastructure; stores of money, Jewellary and gold; and claims
on other households, patrons, the government and international community
for resources at times of need (Chambers 1995, cited by Wratten 1995).
Entitlement refers to the complex ways in which individuals or households
command resources which vary between people over time in response to
shocks and long-term trends. Social exclusion is seen as a state of ill-being
and disablement or disempowerment, inability which individuals and groups
experience. It is manifest in ‘patterns of social relationships in which
individuals and groups are denied access to goods, services, activities and
resources which are associated with citizenship’ (ILO 1996).

9.1 Approaches for measuring urban poverty:-


 Income or Consumption Measures:
Both are based on data that assess whether an individual or household
can afford a basic basket of goods (typically food, clothing, housing water,
transport, etc.).Consumption is generally considered to be a better measure

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

than income because incomes tend to fluctuate over time; there are problems
of under-reporting (particularly income derived from the private and informal
sectors). Money metric measures can be adjusted to account for the higher cost
of living in urban areas when measuring poverty.
 Unsatisfied Basic Needs Index:
This approach defines a minimum threshold for several dimensions of
poverty classifying those households who do not have access to these basic
needs. They include characteristics such as literacy, school attendance, piped
water, sewage, overcrowding, adequate housing, and some kind of caloric and
protein requirement. If a household is deficient in one of the categories, they
are classified as having unsatisfied basic needs.
 Asset Indicators:
This has been used increasingly with the Demographic and Health
Surveys (DHS), A range of variables on the ownership of household assets are
used to construct an indicator of household’s socio-economic status. These
assets include: a car, refrigerator, television, dwelling characteristics (flooring,
type of roof, toilet), and access to basic services including clean water and
electricity.
 Vulnerability:
This approach defines vulnerability as a dynamic concept referring to
the risk that a house hold or individual will experience an episode of income
or health poverty over time, and the probability of being exposed to a number
of other risks (crime, violence, natural disasters, being pulled out of school).
Vulnerability is measured by indicators that make it possible to assess a
household’s risk exposure over time through panel data. These indicators
include measures of: human capital, physical assets, income diversification,
links to networks, participation in the formal safety net, and access to credit
markets. This kind of analysis can be quite complex, requiring a specially
designed survey.
 Participatory methods:
This typically relies on qualitative approaches to capture aspects of
urban poverty that may not be identified through pre-coded surveys. Through
tools such as focus group discussions, case studies, and individual open-ended
interviews, it is possible to determine the perceptions of poverty, identify
priority needs and concerns, and gain insight on the effectiveness of programs
and policies from the perspective of the beneficiaries.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Urban Poverty in Kodagu district:


Table showing the - Population, BPL card holders and APL card holders of
cities / towns of Kodagu district. (As per population census 2011)

Cities ULB Urban BPL card APL card total card


population holders holders holders
Madikeri CMC 33,381 3263 (61.32%) 2058 5321
(38.68%)
Virajpet TP 25,552 2818 (85.78%) 0467 3285
(14.22%)
Somvarpet TP 22,055 3460 (76%) 1091 (24%) 4551
Total 80,988 9,541(72.50%) 3,616 (27.50) 13,157

The above data is presenting in graphically below


40000
35000
30000
25000
poln
20000
BPL
15000
APL
10000
5000
0
mdkri vrjpt sompt

8.2 Analysis:-
The pattern and trend of urban BPL & APL card holders shows that, in
Madikeri 61.32 %, Virajpet 85.78% and in Somvarpet 76 % are holding BPL
cards out of total card holders. Only 38.68 % in Madikeri, 14.22% in Virajpet
and 24% in Somvarpet are holding APL cards out of total card holders.
Maximum of the population are not holding any type of ration cards are
migrants and labourers,
Specific issues to urban poverty are: -
While the dimensions of poverty are many, there is a subset of
characteristics that are more pronounced for the poor in urban areas and may
require specific analysis.
 Commoditization (reliance on the cash economy);

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Social fragmentation (lack of community and inter-household


mechanisms for social security, relative to those in rural areas);
 Overcrowded living conditions (slums);
 Environmental hazard (stemming from density and hazardous location
of settlements, and exposure to multiple pollutants);
 Crime and violence;
 Traffic accidents; and
 Natural disasters.

9.2 Analysis of Urban Poverty in Kodagu district: - Data used for Urban
Poverty Analysis are,
 Population census: - The population census contains basic information
about all citizens in a country. The census may provide valuable
information about housing and basic service access, education levels,
and employment. While the data do not include indicators of income or
consumption,
 Administrative data:- Such data are, 1. Information on location of
facilities such as schools, hospitals, public standpipes, etc. 2. Costs and
expenditures by sector and function,
 Household surveys: - Household surveys offer a more in-depth
understanding of living conditions by expanding the amount of
information gathered from households
 Participatory assessments: - Participatory assessments go beyond
household surveys to gather more qualitative data on individual and
community perceptions.
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS): - GIS data are very powerful
within cities for identifying spatial growth patterns, slum locations,
access to public infrastructure, and land use patterns. This information
can be combined with census and other data to determine the spatial
dimensions of poverty and access within a city.

9.4 Interpretation: -
The cities of the district has got considerable population of migrants,
labourers, petty businessmen and marginalized communities, such as SC and
ST communities, who lack access to basic necessities like education, health,
nutrition, proper housing and sustainable livelihoods. This resource poor
population should be considered in the vision while framing the policy and

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

target overall upliftment of them. Although urban poverty analysis is


implicitly spatial, it cannot be assumed that all studies focus on the geographic
disaggregation of poverty. Urban poverty analysis may also disaggregate data
to examine households, social risk, violence and other characteristics of
poverty. The district of Kodagu is better placed than many other districts in
the state, in terms of overall existence of urban poverty. Though the district
has a higher per capita income and lower incidence of poverty in the state,
there are many areas of concern, which require immediate policy intervention.
10.0 Findings: -
 Conversion of green belt areas for domestic purposes. Construction of
cement structures concrete jungles etc.,
 Conversion of villages into towns and cities. Migration of people from
villages to urban and unhealthy settlements.
 Industrial establishments. Development of unhygienic and unhealthy
environment,
 Excessive demand on public transport and traffic congestion.
 Problems of industrial waste disposal and its impact.
 Excessive competition between societies leading to destructions.
 There is a vast difference between the posh, middle class and the low-
income neighborhoods.
 Their lifestyle is distinctly different from the lifestyle of the low-income
and middle-income groups.
 By income comparison alone, the urban poor are generally better off
than the rural poor. Poverty in urban areas has been decreasing but
inequality and exclusion has been increasing. Migrants from the villages
are attracted by high wages in the cities and join the informal sector.
 Spatial inequality and exclusion is caused by various reasons, such as
religion, culture or race
 Many of the city's poor do not even possess a ration card.
 While most of the vulnerability of the targeted respondents can be
attributed to insecure employment—conceptions of poverty were shown
to vary by category of interviewees. (I.e. being out of school is the main
indicator for street children; homelessness is the most important
indicator for piece job workers, and lack of basic household needs as the
primary indicator identified by household heads.)
11.0 Conclusion:-
The urbanisation trends of Kodagu are definitely unique in comparison
to other districts of Karnataka. It contrasts with other districts that have high
per-capita incomes like Bangalore, wherein incomes are majorly driven by

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

urban economic activities. In Kodagu, coffee production, which is necessarily a


rural activity, drives the economy. Analogously, it can be argued that Kodagu
doesn’t face urbanisation pressures visible in other districts, because of its
uniquely rural economy. But, in Kodagu There is a vast difference between the
posh, middle class and the low-income neighborhoods. Their lifestyle is
distinctly different from the lifestyle of the low-income and middle-income
groups. The incidence of urban poverty in Kodagu is considered as one of the
lowest in the state. There are a total of 9535 families who are below poverty
line in urban area it is largely concentrated among migrants, labourers, petty
businessmen and marginalized communities, such as SC and ST communities.

12.0 References:-
 Baharaoglu and Kessides, 2002, “Urban Poverty” in World Bank, 2002, A
Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, Chapter 16.
 Census of India 2001&2011, Population Projections for India and States 2001&
2011, Report of the Technical Group on Population Projections Constituted by
the National Commission on Population.
 Coudel, Hentschel, and Wodon, 2002, “Poverty Measurement and Analysis”
in World Bank,
 2002, A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, Chapter 1.
 District Human Development Report, Kodagu Draft Reports-
2009,2010,2012,2013,2014
 John W. Best, James V. Kahn: research in education, Prentice- Hall of India
New Delhi, 1989.
 Mahadevan. K. ecology, developmental and population problems; B.R
publishing corporation, New Delhi 1992.
 Mohan R.: Urbanisation in India: Patterns and Emerging Policy Issues in the
Urban Transformation of the Developing World. Josef Gugler (Ed.). Oxford
University Press, Oxford (1996).
 Morth, 2000. Motor Transport Statistics of India. Transport Research Wing,
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi.
 Sunil Kumar, J.K. Bhattacharyya, A.N. Vaidya, Tapan Chakrabarti,
Sukumar Devotta, A.B. Akolkar , Assessment of the status of municipal
solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class
II towns in India: An insight , Waste Management 29 (2009) 883–895.
 Trivedi.PR, India’s environment, APH Publishing Corporation, new delhi-
2004.
 World Resources, A guide to the global environment, the urban environment,
1996-97.

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19
A Study of Economic Condition of Slum Dwellers
- With Special Reference to Slum of South of
Kumbarkoppal
Prakasha.N
Introduction
Slums are an unhappy reality for our country and many others across
the world. Over one billion world inhabitants live in slums today and the
numbers are climbing. The UN estimates that 1.4 billion people will be
occupying slums by the year 2020. In India the total number of slum dweller
totals about 65 million, of which Maharashtra alone account for 11 million.
The lanes are narrow and the houses are nothing but a single room
treatment without the facilities of an open courtyard or an enclosure, thus
depriving the people of natural gifts like sunshine and air. In such areas,
people use common latrines and water taps. Some of slum areas do not even
have singe rooms, they are thick clusters of small, dilapidated mud huts, the
roofs and ceilings of which are made of scraps of wood, gunny sacks, metal or
some sort of waste material. The streets are narrow and the sewage water
stagnates in open surface drains, which emit bad smell. There is no regular
supply of water, electricity or proper sanitation facility. Slums are generally
built on government land that is lying unclaimed or vacant.
Objectives of this paper
This paper has developed on the basis of some objectives:
1. To know the living condition of slum dwellers in general.
2. To analyse the economic condition of slum dwellers in particular.
Methodology
This paper has developed by both primary and secondary data. The
primary data has been collected through questionnaire. 50 slum dwellers
are selected for case study. Similarly, the secondary data has derived by
reports, research journals, reference books, thesis, news papers and internet
sources. The paper is in descriptive in nature and table data has analysed
by percentage method. In this study only economic variables relating to
slum dwellers are considered. Economic variables like occupation, income

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

level, savings, loan, bank facility, and expenditure pattern are considered
for study.
Concept of Slum area
A slum can be defined as a “compact settlement with a collection of
poorly built tenements, mostly temporary nature, crowded together unusually
with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic
conditions.
A Case study
South of Kumbarkoppal is one of the places of Mysore city of Karnataka State
in South India. More than 800 people are situated in this area. Out of total
population 450 are male and 350 are female. Lack of basic infrastructure is min
problem in this area.
Gender-wise Respondents
Gender Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Male 15 60
Female 10 40
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

Gender-wise Respondents

Male
Female
Total

This table and pie chart shows that the gender of selected respondents. Out of
total 15 respondents, 60 percent are male respondents and 40 percent are
female respondents. More male people are indulging in different occupation.
Occupation leads to economic condition of people.
Age-wise Respondents
Age ( in years) Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
18-25 06 24
25-40 14 56
40-60 04 16
Above 60 01 04

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Total 25 100
Source: Field data

100
Age-wise Respondents
Number of
50 Respondents
Age-wise Respondents
0 Percentage (%)
18-25 25-40 40-60 Above
60 Total

The table and bar diagram shows that the age level of respondents. Out of
total respondents 56 percent of respondents are belongs to age group of 25
years to 40 years. Similarly, 24 percent of respondents are from age group of 18
years to 25 years. The 16 percent and 4 percent of respondents are belongs to
age level of 40 years and above 60 years respectively.
Nature of Occupation
Occupation Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Sweepers 12 48
Sanitation work 06 24
Small Retail Shop 02 08
Leather work 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

Nature of Occupation
Sweepers
Sanitation work
Small Retail Shop
Leather work
Total

From above table and pie chart states that the different occupation of
respondents. Out of total respondents 48 percent of respondents are engaging
in sweeping work. The 24 percent of respondents are involving in sanitation
and drainage work. The 20 percent of respondents are working in leather work
in open areas. Only 8 percent of respondents are established a small retail shop
in their living area.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Income Level of Respondents


Income Level Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
(Monthly in Rs.)
500 to 1500 05 20
1500 to 3000 11 44
3000 to 6000 07 28
6000 to 10,000 02 08
Above 10,000 00 00
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

50
40 Income Level of
30
20 Respondents Number of
10 Respondents
0
Income Level of
Respondents
Percentage (%)

From above table and multiple bar diagram, we can understand the income
status of respondents. Out of total respondents 44 percent of respondents are
obtaining income between Rs 1500 to Rs 3000 per month. The 28 percent of
respondents are receiving income Rs 3000 to Rs 6000 monthly. The 20 percent
of respondents are earning of income between Rs 500 to Rs 1500 every month.
Only 8 percent of respondents are obtaining income Rs 6000 to Rs 10,000
monthly. Nobody not reached to income of above Rs 10,000 monthly.

Savings Level of Respondents


Saving level Number of Percentage (%)
(Monthly in Rs.) Respondents
Below 500 22 88
500 to 1000 03 12
Above 1000 00 00
25 100
Total
Source: Field data

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Savings Level of Respondents


(Monthly in Rs.)

Below 500

500 to 1000

This table and pie chart are shows that the saving level of respondents. Out of
total respondents 88 percent of respondents are save their amount of below Rs
500 every month. The remaining respondents are like 12 percent of them are
saving amount of between Rs 500 to Rs 100 monthly. No one respondent is
failure to save amount more than Rs 1000 per month.
Sources of Loan Borrowings of Respondents
Sources of Loan Number of Percentage
Respondents (%)
Loan from friends, relatives and neighbors 21 84
Loan from Banks ( formal institutions) 04 16
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

Sources of Loan Borrowings of Respondents

Loan from friends,


relatives and neighbors
Loan from Banks (
formal institutions)
Total

The table and pie chart has states that the sources of loan of respondents. The
84 percent of respondents are obtaining loan from informal sources like
friends, relatives and neighbors. The remaining respondents of 16 per cent are
getting loan from formal financial institutions like Nationalized banks, private
bankers.

Loan Borrowings of Respondents


Loan Amount Number of Percentage (%)
(in Rs.) Respondents

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Up to 5000 00 00
5000 to 10,000 08 32
10,000 to 30,000 12 48
Above 30,000 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

100
50
0 Number of
Number of… Respondents
Percentage (%)

The table and bar diagram has explained that the loan amount of respondents.
Out of total respondents 48 percent of respondents are obtaining loan Rs
10,000 to 30,000 from different sources. Similarly, the 32 percent of
respondents are getting loan of between Rs 5000 to Rs 10,000. Only 20 percent
of respondents are having loan more than Rs 30,000 from different sources.
Bank Facilities
Do you have bank facilities? Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Yes 20 80
No 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data

Bank Facilities
Yes
80 %
Total
100%

No
20 %

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The table and Pie chart shows that availability of bank facilities. Out of 80
percent of respondents are having bank facilities. But 20 percent of
respondents are not keeping even a single pace to bank branches.

Expenditure Pattern of All Respondents


Expenditure Nature Percentage (%)
Food 55
Transportation 05
Entertainment 30
Religious activities 02
Others 08
Total 100
Source: Field data

Expenditure Pattern
Food
Transportation
Entertainment
Religious activities
Others

The above table and diagram have described that the expenditure
pattern of respondents in daily life. Out of total, 55 percent of respondent’s
income going to food expenditure. This is the major expenditure among other
expenditure. The 30 percent of income has spending on daily entertainment.
The 5 percent on transportation cost, 2 percent on religious activities and the
remaining 8 percent of income spending on other activities like health, shelter,
cloth, etc.

Major Findings and Suggestions


The important findings are derived from case study.
1. The 48 percent of respondents (slum dwellers) are involved in
sweep/cleaning work. Similarly, 24 percent respondents are also working
in sanitation work. These work are very unhygienic and dangerous to
health. Government should take initiative regarding health of these people.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

2. Out of total respondents 44 percent of respondents are obtaining income


between Rs 1500 to Rs 3000 per month. This income is very much less
which is not sufficient to sustain the daily life. Government should
implement minimum wage policy for these workers. Introducing new
programmes for income generation.
3. Out of total respondents 88 percent of respondents are save their amount of
below Rs 500 every month. Low level of income leads to low level of
savings.
4. The 84 percent of respondents are obtaining loan from informal sources like
friends, relatives and neighbors. Out of total respondents 48 percent of
respondents are obtaining loan Rs 10,000 to 30,000 from different sources.
These dwellers are not interested to get loans from banks, but 80 percent of
respondents are having bank account. These people are not going to bank
branches regularly due to lack of knowledge of bank transaction. The
scheme of central government like Jhan Dhan are very much influenced on
these people. Making credit and finance available as per requirement.
5. Out of total, 55 percent of respondent’s income going to food expenditure.
This is the major expenditure among other expenditure. The 30 percent of
income has spending on daily entertainment. Daily entertainment means
consuming alcohol and tobacco. Non-Governmental Organisations and
Government also taking more awareness programmes relating to create
good standard of living. Because the income of these people has spent on
these dangerous habits. The another important is that no discrimination
between male and female to involving in these dangerous habits.
Conclusion
Slum rehabilitation and upgrading are vital, but each city has certain
distinctive political, cultural, environmental and economic factors which
determine the extent to which such rehabilitation is feasible. Slum dwellers
need to made aware of the need for improvement in living conditions, and
they must readily involve themselves with every phase of the
References
1. Eckstein, Susan(1990), “Urbanization Revisited: Inter City Slum of Hope and
Squatter Settlement of Despair”, World development.
2. Philpott, Thomas Lee (1978), “The Slum and the Ghetto”, New York: Oxford
University Press.
3. Ruddar Datt(2005),” Indian economy”, Chand Publication, New Delhi.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

20
Corporate Social Responsibility and Urban Development
– A Conceptual Framework

Mahesha, V,Siraj Basha, R,Naveen.G.V


Introduction
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has developed
long back for the purpose of contribution some portion of the profit earned by
corporate enterprises for the benefit and welfare of the society. Initially the
concept of CSR was not mandatory on the part business enterprises but now
the Government of India has made it compulsory on the part of every
corporate enterprise to spent minimum of 2% on their average profit.
The origin of the CSR concept has been traced back to the works of
Bowen, particularly his book Social Responsibilities of Businessmen published
in 1953 (Valor, 2005). Another book by Davis and Blomstrom (1966) defined
social responsibility as “Social responsibility, therefore, refers to a person’s
obligation to consider the effects of his decisions and actions on the whole
social system. Businessmen apply social responsibility when they consider the
needs and interest of others who may be affected by business actions. In so
doing, they look beyond their firm’s narrow economic and technical interests.
The concept of CSR is not simple to define; various concepts and themes
overlap this term. The concepts of corporate citizenship, sustainable business,
environmental responsibility, the triple bottom line,3 social and environmental
accountability, business ethics and corporate accountability are all very much
linked with CSR. The term CSR itself came into common use in the early
1970s. the last decade of the twentieth century witnessed a shift in focus from
charity and traditional philanthropy towards a more direct engagement of
business in mainstream development, and concern for disadvantaged groups
in society. In India, there is a growing realization that business cannot succeed
in isolation and social progress is necessary for sustainable growth. An ideal
CSR practice has both ethical and philosophical dimensions, particularly in
India where there is a wide gap between sections of people in terms of income
and standards as well as socio-economic status (Bajpai, 2001).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Evolution of CSR
The evolution of CSR By the late 1960s, CSR had begun to move beyond
Bowen’s and others focus on the responsibilities of the individual business
owner/manager towards the social and environmental accountability of the
company as an entity (Davis, 1967; Falck and Heblich, 2007). Growing public
environmental awareness and the emergence of environmental movements in
many Western countries were key drivers that prompted various companies
and industries to begin to respond to environmental challenges (Murphy and
Bendell, 1997). The Royal Dutch Shell Group was one of the first major
companies to introduce formal CSR policies and procedures. Internal Shell
management information brief dated September 1969 demonstrates that the
company recognized early on the growing significance of the environment as a
social responsibility issue for large corporations.
India has the world’s richest tradition of corporate social responsibility.
Though the term CSR is comparatively new, the concept itself dates back to
over a hundred years. CSR in India has evolved through different phases, like
community engagement, socially responsible production and socially
responsible employee relations. Its history and evolution can be divided into
four major phases.
Figure 1: Phases of Evolution of CSR

(Fourth Phase
1980)
CSR in globalised
world is in a
confused State
(Third Phase 1950-1990)
CSR under the Mixed
economy paradigm

(Second Phase 1910-1960) CSR as


social development during the
Independence struggle

(First phase 1850-1914)


Purely philontropy and charity during
industrialisation

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

CSR and Urban Development


Recently the Ministry of Corporate affairs issued a public clarification in
response to queries from various stakeholder stating that slum-
redevelopment, road safety awareness and consumer protection services,
installation of electricity , providing water connection, sanitation, construction
of schools and improve the healthcare services will be treated as CSR
activities.
Activities relating to road safety promotion, which is a dire need in
India, are also likely to get a major fillip as the ministry has clarified these
would also be treated as eligible CSR activities. Promoting road safety
awareness through print, audio and visual media would qualify as a CSR
activity under the broad head of promoting education; providing trainers to
drivers would fall under promoting vocational skills and social projects like
giving medical and legal aid, treatment to road accident victims would fall
under the eligible category of promoting health care.
Any project meant for development of rural India will be treated as a
rural development project and will be an eligible CSR activity. Likewise,
supplementing government schemes like mid-day meals would also qualify as
CSR for alleviation of poverty and malnutrition. Renewable energy projects
would be eligible for promoting environmental sustainability. The impact of
social responsibility programs in the rural poor are categorized in to five
broad areas those are livelihood, Health, Education, Environment and
Infrastructure.
Livelihood: the Grameen-Labs is a program implemented by Dr. Reddy
Foundation in collaboration with rural development department. Government
of India is to provide livelihood to around 35,000 youths in the rural India
between the age of 18-25 year in 7 state of India. Outcomes of livelihood
support programmes by Bharath Petroleum shows that SHG members are
stable income group with INR 2,000 per month.
Health: Many business enterprises were very keen on public health issues in
the rural and urban poor. Normally health issues covers kidney
transplantation, eye operation, free blood check up and blood donation camps,
free medical camps on Aids prevention and awareness programmes etc.
Education: Aditya Birla group provided education to 62,000 children living
near the plants by running 26 formal schools. In the present competitive era
getting a job is very difficult unless the they have the knowledge of computer

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

education. While keeping this issue the Infosys foundation has provided
computer labs to various education institutions to create awareness about
computer in the rural children’s.
Environment: Towards sustainable development and management of natural
resources, many companies have been working on tree plantation,
construction water shed and waste management and wind firms etc., MPM in
Badravathi has created many acres of plantation, this show the concern of
MPM towards environment protection and conservation.
Infrastructure: Most of the companies come forward to provide and create
basic infrastructure amenities to the rural and urban poor by providing
following facilities like construction of dams for irrigation and drinking water,
construction of roads to help the agricultural marketing, construction school
and providing healthcare facilities.

Conclusion
From the above study it is very clear that, CSR as an important activity
issue of Indian companies, regardless of their size, sector, objective of the
company and the location of the company. Indian corporate is realizing that
without CSR, the stability and sustainability of the company cannot be
compete with global market. Many studies have proved that CSR has become
an integral part of every corporate enterprise. However, most of the
companies design and implement CSR initiatives in the area of rural and
urban development. CSR initiatives undertaken by the Indian companies for
the rural and urban poor development have a positive effect and impact on
overall development of society and business.

Reference
 Choudhri and Wang, 2007. Communicating CSR on the Internet A case study
of Top 100 information technology companies in India, Management
Communication quarterly, 21(2)-232-247.
 Responsibility - DR-CAFTA, Responsibility Competitiveness. N. P. August
2009 web.
 Maon, F. Lindgreen and e.Swaen, 2009- designing and implementing CSR.
 www.developmentinpractice.org/.../corporate-social-responsibility-and-
urban-develop...
 https://www.nttud.co.jp/english/csr/

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

21
Regional Disparities, And Social Development In Urban
India A Study

G.H.Nagaraju

Introduction
Human progress is conditioned by the conception of development. Until
the end of 1980's, development is often viewed as growth in income. The rapid
growth of the economy has resulted in massive industrialization. In most
nations this was unplanned and unsystematic. Consequently, migration to
towns and cities, unplanned urbanization with unhygienic and slum
conditions of living, pollution, overpopulation, poverty and unemployment
were the common features characterizing the lives of the masses, resulting in a
deterioration in the quality of life.
As such in the last few decades, there has been a shift in development
paradigm from economic growth approach to human development approach.
Now it is realized that the purpose of development is to create an atmosphere
to develop people's capabilities and opportunities for both present and future
generations. Sen (1997) argues that, "Economic growth cannot be sensibly
treated as an end in itself. Development has to be more concerned with
enhancing the life we need and the freedoms we enjoy. In this sense, economic
growth is considered as a means to .achieve human development. The purpose
of development is human development and enhancing the freedoms of the
people."
According to Dr. Mahbub-UI-Haq, "defining difference between the
economic growth and the human .development is that of the first focuses
exclusively on the expansion of only one choice - income, while the second
embraces the enlargement of all human choices -whether economic, social,
cultural or political." Paul Streeten (1996), says that human development is a
means to higher productivity. A well-nourished, healthy, educated, skilled,
alert labour force is the most important productive asset, it helps in lowering
the family size by slowing human reproduction. It is the experience of all
developed countries that improvement in education levels (particularly of

171
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

girls), better health facilities and reduction in infant mortality rates leads to a
lowering of the birth rates,
The Human Development Report (HDR) was first launched in 1990
with the single goal of putting people back at the center of the development
process in terms of economic debate, policy and advocacy." It states, "Human
development is a process of enlarging people's choices. In principle, these
choices can be infinite and change overtime. But at all levels of development,
the essential ones are for people to lead a long and healthy life, to acquire
knowledge and to have access to resources needed for decent standard of
living. If these choices are not available, many more opportunities remain
inaccessible."
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a tool used to measure the non-
income dimensions of the quality of life. It is a composite index of three basic
components of development:'
 Longevity - Longevity was always measured in terms of life
expectancy at birth, and it is taken to reflect total health conditions of
people.
 Educational attainment -Knowledge was measured by adult literacy
rate and mean years of schooling with 2/3 and 1/3rd. weights. Still
later, mean years of schooling was replaced by combined enrolment
ratio.
 A decent standard of living -level of living was represented by a
transformation of per capita income. As the exercise was international
in nature and exchange rate was found to be a poor indicator of
comparative purchasing power, the UNDP measured per capita
income in purchasing power parity dollars, which was
transformed.
India has been characterized as a country with a low level of human
development with the country's rank in the human- development v index
calculated by the UNDP being 135 among 174 countries in 1996. India ranks
115th rank out of 162 countries in terms of the UNDP's Human Development
Index (HDI) and is classified in the group-medium with a human
development index of 0.571 in 2001. The 2002 Human Development Report
presents a disappointing picture of India's position in the global arena, that
India ranks 124th in the World with a human development index of 0.577. The
low human .development index-of India is due to low per capita income, low

172
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

life expectancy and low literacy achievement. current study attempts to


analyse Regional disparities in human development in India keeping in view
the following objectives:
1. To analyze the different indicators of human development in various
stages and;
2. To estimate human development index for different states.
Methodology
The study was related to 15 major Indian States each having a population of 5
million or more. The study was based on the data relating to life expectancy at
birth, .infant mortality rate, literacy rate and net state domestic product for
different states of India. The study was related to the period 2010 and
required information was compiled from various issues of Economic Survey
and State profile of India.
Following the definition and formulation of human development index
by the United Nations Development Programme (1990), the study tried to
estimate human development index for the selected states. Human
development index is a composite index of four basic indicators of human
development. Educational attainment is measured by literacy rate. Health is
measured by life expectancy at birth and infant mortality rate and standard of
living is measured by per capita net State domestic product. Human develop-
ment index is a simple average of health index, educational attainment index
and standard of living index. The study used a modified human development
index based on the well known Borda Rule for inter-state comparisons. The
Borda Rule was a rank order method of ordinal aggregation. The study
awarded each State a point equal to its rank in each of the four indices and
then added up these points for each State to obtain its aggregate Borda Score.
Finally, the study ranked each State on the basis of their Borda Score. Ranking
goes up from the best (1) to the worst (15).

Findings of the Study


Indian economy is grouped into developed States and backward States. In the
former category, we have Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and in the later, we
have Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
ii)Estimation of human development index through Borda Score

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The study estimated human development index through Borda Score,


following the methodology adopted by Debabrata Mandal (2002). For each of
the component of human development, rank and points were assigned for
each State. Borda Score is obtained through the aggregation of total scores.
Table-4 presents the estimated Borda Score for various States of India for 2001.
The Borda rank brings out the remarkable difference in human
development among the northern and southern States. From the so-called
BiMARU States - Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are the
worst States in terms of human development. Though they accounted for 40
percent of total population of India, more than 50 percent of India's poor
people live in these States. In these States, the literacy rate ranged from 47
percent to 57 percent, while in southern States the literacy rate was more than
60 percent. Similarly, the life expectancy in these States ranged from 59 years
to 62 years, while in southern States life expectancy was exceeding 62 years.
Uttar Pradesh mainly suffers from human deprivation.
The top ranking States in human development were Kerala, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and West Bengal. Kerala's human
development and Maharashtra's human development outstrips all other States
in India. Kerala's performance in universal literacy improved its standards
and contributes a great deal for the satisfactory performance of Kerala. In
Maharashtra, the literacy was more than 75 percent, life expectancy was 68
years and these contributed for placing Maharashtra in top position with
regard to human development.
The present study tried to classify the States on the basis of Borda score.
The States having the Borda Score of below 25 were called as low human
development States, the States having Borda Score in the range of 25 to 40
were known as medium human development States and the States with the
Borda Score of above 40 were known as high human development States.
Table-5 represents the classification of States on the basis of Borda Score. The
study tried to quantitatively assess the relationship between the Borda rank
and other indices. Table-6 represents the Spearman's rank correlation matrix
for 2001.
It is evident that the correlation of Borda Score with infant mortality was
substantially high (0.942). The degree of association of Borda Score with life
expectancy was 0.886 and that of literacy was 0.873. All the estimated
correlation coefficient was statistically significant either at 1 percent level or 5

174
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

percent level. Hence, it can be inferred that the human development in India is
determined by educational attainment, health attainment and economic
attainment.

Measures recommended
The study recommended the same measures to improve human development.
First of all development models have to be people centered. It should be
effective and sustainable, new partnerships are to be made between the state
and the market, which should take into account be the market efficiency and
social sensitivity. Further there is need for rapid flow of information and equal
access of education to all irrespective of income and wealth endowment.
The entire resource structure must be assessed so that human capital is
strengthened by the role of education, health and nutrition.
Plan targets would first be expressed in terms of basic human needs and
only later translated into physical targets for production and consumption.
Thus there would have to be a clear exposition of the targets for average
nutrition, education, health, housing, etc. It should be seen that human beings
are to be declared as ultimate of economic planning, then adequate steps are
required to ensure their full participation in planning. Thus, a human
development strategy must be decentralized. The beneficiaries need to be
involved fully in planning for themselves and then in implementing the plan
'that is finally drawn up. If Finally a comprehensive set of social and human
development indicators needs to be evolved to monitor plan progress. In
addition to Gross National Product growth rates, annual assessments on the
performance on human development front, changes in relative and absolute
poverty levels etc. need to be carried out.

References
 Abdul Shaban and Bhole (1999): "Measuring development distance
between regions in india - A combined corporate approach", Men and
development, Vol. XXI, No. I, March, Pp. 82-96.
 Arul Chellakumar and Jayakumar (2007)-"Economic growth and human
development", Peninsular Economist, Vol. XiX. No. 1. Pp. 299.
 Bindu. P.Verghese and Damayanthi.V.T. (2006): "Disparities in and channels
to Human Development -The case of Indian States", Men and development,
Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, September, Pp. 11-22
 Census of India, 1991, 2001, Government of India.
 Centre for Development Studies (2009): "Challenges inhuman development in
India", Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, January 24-25, 2009.

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22
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India
An Analysis
M.D.Umesha
Introduction
The growth of cities and the consequent acceleration in the process of
urbanization in the world is one of the most striking developments of modern
times. In the 21st century urbanization is the main indicator of economic
development. Urban growth is an undeniable fact across the world, so is in
India. In economic point view, urbanization is a process whereby the primary
productive functions are replaced by complex secondary and tertiary
functions. Urban migration and industrialization account much for the large
share of this rapid growth. Urbanization in India had begun about 2500 BC.
Urban centers like Harappa and Mahanjodaro are the initial examples of olden
times. In India, during the times of Rajaputs and Mughals administration in
AD 1200, several urban centers and pilgrim centers were found. In this period
Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkatta, Bombay, Goa, Cochin etc
were a few urban regions in India. With the British rule, Indian economy was
transformed into a colonial market for the supply of new materials to the
British industries. This hit adversely, on natural growth of number of cities in
the country. British Administration had its Empire Capital, Provincial.
In India, in 1991, of the total population 25.70 per cent of people lived in
urban areas, which is currently about 31.16 per cent (311 million) as per the
2011 Census. India's urban population has grown more than 11 times over the
last century, from 254 Lakh in 1901 to 2850 lakh in 2001. The last one decade
urban population has increased from 28.53% according to 2001 census to
above 30.10 (2011 Census). According to a survey by UN State of the World
Population report in 2007, by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected
to reside in urban areas in India. The number of million cities in the world in
1950 was 78 which increased to 433 in the year 2000. By the year 2025 the
number of million cities would touch the mark of 622 where 43 per cent of the
population is accepted to live in urban areas. Hong Kong and Singapore
(eachlOO %) are highly urbanized areas in the world, against Trinidad,
Tobago and Uganda, (each 12%).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Among the Million plus Urban Agglomerations /Cities, there are three
very large UAs with more than 10 million persons in the country such as
Greater Mumbai (18.4 million), Delhi (16.3 million) and Kolkata (14.1 million).
Added to this, Bangalore occupies the fifth place among the top 10 Urban
Agglomerations and accommodated 8.5 million people in 2011. Maharashtra
(43.86%) is highly urbanized in the country where Bihar (10.47%) is the least
urbanized. Karnataka finds sixth place in the country in respect of
urbanization.It is in this context the present paper attempts to analyse if the
issues related with urbanization and also deal with the remedies to combat the
aggravating situation in India. This is based on secondary information.

Urbanization Problems
Urbanization is not only indicator of economic development but also
creates problems of different nature such as urban poverty, unemployment,
growth of slums, housing shortages, congestion, overcrowd as linked with
transport and land inadequacies, environmental pollution, road accidents etc.
Also, insufficient open space, rapid development of illegal residential layouts
are identified and recognized as urban problems in developed as well as
developing countries with increased urbanization. The increased urbanization
results in the following:
1. Urban Poverty, 2. Urban Unemployment, 3. Emerging New Slums,4.
Environmental Impacts, 5. Housing Crisis
Urban Poverty
Urban Poverty is a major problem of urban development and manage-
ment in developed as well as developing countries. It is the direct and
inevitable consequence of modern capitalism. It is widespread and more
alarming in developing countries like India on account of their
underdevelopment on the one hand and the pseudo urbanization or over-
urbanization on the other. Urban poverty is both relative and absolute,
particularly in over-populated developing countries like India.
Urban Unemployment
Urban unemployment is one of the most disturbed factors in the context
of economic development, particularly in India. Position of unemployment in
urban areas is open and disguised ones. In 1999-2000 urban employment in
India was 7.65 per cent as against 7.19 per cent in 1993-94. In urban India, 57
males and 90 females were unemployed per 1000 persons in 2004 according to

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the 60* round of NSS Survey, as against 52 males and 84 females in 1993-94
{50Lhl round NSS Survey). As per the 66lh round NSS Survey, 51 male and 91
females were unemployed per 1000 persons in 2007-08. Thus urban
unemployment has been a matter of concern for the administration and the
academics alike.
Environmental Impacts
Urbanization and environment have close inter-linkages. Urbanization
has an impact on the environment, and in turn the environment also impacts
on urbanization. The growth of urbanization has put severe pressure on urban
facilities and resulted in environmental degradation in the form of land, water,
air, and noise pollution. The process of industrialization, urbanization,
migration etc., certainly changes the environment. Air quality deterioration in
urban areas with urban transportation, industrial activity, biomass burning
and biomedical burning has been severe. The pollutants being emitted by the
urban transport, industrialization, drainage, solid wastes, and biomass
burning suspended SO2 (sulpher dioxide), NOx (Oxides of nitrogen), HC
(Hydro carbon), and CO (Carbon monaxide) are matter of concern. The
industries in urban areas contribute to green house gas into the atmosphere,
leading to a rise in global temperature. All these, if not controlled will pose
severe threat to both resources and environment which are scarce in nature.
Because of environmental degradation, most of the urban people suffer from
Diabetic, Blood Pressure, Respiratory problems, Cardiatic, Cancer, etc apart
from increasing HIV+ve cases.
Housing Crisis
Housing, besides being a basic requirement for the urban settlers, also
holds the key to accelerate the pace of development. It is estimated that the
overall employment generation in the economy due to additional investment
in the housing / construction sector has increased by eight times of the direct
employment. Housing is consumption good in the sense that it provides
security, and a minimum decent living. Rapid urbanization results in housing
shortages in urban areas. In 1951 the shortage of urban housing was estimated
at 2.8 million units, it has increased to 9.3 million on 1961, and to 12 million in
1971. During 1991 it has decreased to the level of 8.23 million' and then
continuously decreased to 7.71 million in 1996 and 6.64 million in 2001. Even
then, the problem of housing still persists more severely in urban India.

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Measures to Combat Urbanization


Here few measures to combat urbanization are suggested, though the process
of urbanization cannot be stopped. Several policy measures have been
proposed to reduce the rural-urban migration flow and to achieve
decongestion of the cities in India. It can be suggested that increasing
urbanization may well be checked with measures like: 1. Return of Migrants,
2. Decentralization of Industries, 3. Rural Development, 4. Development of
Growth Poles, 5- Construction of New Towns and 6. PURA.
Return of Migrants
Rural to urban migration may be reduced, at least to some extent, by
encouraging Return of Migrants to villages and small towns. Though this may
be achieved to large extent in centrally planned countries, over populated
countries like India may also encourage this by providing more employment
opportunities in villages and towns. Such a measure may be difficult and
complex in Indian situations. Despite the difficulties this would help in a long
way in combating the increasing problem of rural-urban migration in India.
Decentralization of Industries
Decentralization of Industries would be another measure which will be an
effective strategy for the attainment of Balanced Regional Development in
countries like India. Also, this measure would help check the undue
concentration of people and activities and the resultant problems in large
cities. Countries like Hungary, Poland, Soviet Union and China have made
efforts in this direction.
Conclusion: Increasing urbanization has been posing severe threats on the
economy. Though urbanization cannot be fully stopped, attempts must be
made to check the same in the Indian context. Our resources are scarce which
must be used carefully and efficiently to build a strong and powerful India.
Problems encountering should be effectively resolved, by implementing
policies, as and when they crop in.
References
 Karnataka Development Report-2007, Planning Commission, Govt. of India, New
Delhi.
 Govt. of India, Planning Commission, Five Year Plans.
 Lakshmi Narayana M. Urbanization and Human Rights, Discovery Publishing
House, New Delhi
 Misra and Puri, Indian Economy (25th Edition), Himalaya Publishing House, New
Delhi,2007

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

23
Economic Development and Urban Poverty
T. Ramesh

Introduction:
Poverty is an unacceptable human condition that does not have to
inevitable. The main goal of development is to eliminate poverty and reduce
social imbalances. Sustainable economic growth and appropriate social
policies are keys to fighting poverty. At the same time, reducing poverty helps
growth by enabling the poor to participate productivity in the economy. Yet
economic growth by itself does not guarantee success in eradicating poverty.
Other important dimensions of poverty, such as quality of life and
participation in decision- making, need to be addressed.
Urban poverty is not a spillover of rural poverty as generally perceived
and the manufacturing sector in India has not been able to provide necessary
pull to rural workers. Migrants in cities are economically better off and are
placed at higher economic stratum than the natives of cities on poverty
indices. Rural migrants into urban areas have been found to have a lower
probability of being poor than the local population.
Poverty goes beyond lack of income. It is multidimensional,
encompassing economic, social and governance perspectives. Economically,
the poor are not only deprived of income and resources, but of opportunities.
Markets and jobs are often difficult to access, because of low capabilities and
geographical and social exclusion. Limited education affects their ability to get
jobs and to access information that could improve the quality of their lives.
Poor health, due to inadequate nutrition and health services, further limits
their prospects for work and hampers them from realizing their mental and
physical potential. This fragile position is exacerbated by insecurity. Living in
marginal conditions with no resources to fall back on, shocks become hard or
impossible to offset. The situation is made worse by the structure of societies
and institutions that tend to exclude the poor from participating in decision-
making that affects social and economic development.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

It is a point of concern that over a quarter of the world’s poor are concentrated
in India. An estimate by the Planning Commission shows that more than 260
million people continue to live Below the Poverty Line (BPL), which is about
26 percent of the country’s population. There is still a high concentration of the
poor in the rural areas. Out of the total, 193 million poor – about 75 percent of
the total poor – live in rural areas. The poor are also concentrated mostly in
backward regions like dry land, rainfed and drought prone, tribal, hill and
desert areas. The concentration to the poor continues to be more among
weaker sections of society particularly among SCs, STs, and backward classes.
The relationship between economic development and urban poverty is
complex. Though large cities have lower levels of poverty the backwash effect
of new development may become even harsher on the urban poor. Cities do
need blue collar workers and in the interest of an orderly and inclusive
development, cities need to integrate the poor and informal sector workers
into main city system.
Such a vast size of the rural population below the poverty line does
have a telling effect on the country and its economy. It amounts to great
wastage and underutilization of the human resources. There is also a great
burden on the economy in terms of recurring relief investment at the time of
drought, floods, cyclone, etc., since the poor are the most vulnerable to natural
calamities. It also affects greatly the potential for saving of the economy for
productive investment. Poverty also breeds many socio-cultural problems,
which are to be tackled separately. It also affects the image of the nation
globally.
“Growth with social Justice” has been the basic objective of the
development planning in India since independence, which have led to
significant changes. Some of these changes are distinctly visible – especially in
the economic sphere with the adoption of new technologies, diversified
production and sophisticated management. Changes have also taken for
disadvantaged communities, with the weakening of untouchability and caste
discrimination and with women enjoying by and large more freedoms than
ever before. On the political front, India has remained a vibrant democracy
with increased participation by women and men in political decision-making.

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In terms of achievements, however, India’s performance during the last


50 years has been decidedly mixed. India today remains a country of stark
contrasts and striking disparities. Some states and districts of India report
levels of social advancement similar to leading industrialized countries. Other
parts of the country report achievement level that are worse than the average
of the poorest countries in the world. Women fare worse than men on most
social indicators.
The economic motive remains the main reason for migration among
main male interstate migrants. Economically backward states keep losing
people to developed states. The relationship between poverty and migration is
not clearly established and it was observed that middle and higher income
groups show higher propensity to move. Poverty incidence was found less
among migrants as compared to non-migrants but it was higher among rural
to urban migrants.
India has always had the intention to eradicate poverty. It is one of the
few issues on which there exists a strong political consensus. The real issue is
not the intent but the nature of public action. Much of it has been guided by
displaced concerns and misplaced priorities. Despite the strong articulation of
a multidimensional view of human poverty. India has been overwhelmingly
concerned with income poverty.
This paper seeks to focus on the nature of poverty in India and
Government efforts to tackle the poverty situation. There has been an attempt
to trace Government poverty alleviation measures since Independence as
reflected in the Five-Year Plans and the various poverty alleviation
programmes. Through a discussion of the evaluations of the public
interventions against poverty and public spending on anti-poverty
programmes, the performance of the Government over the years has been
assessed. The contribution of the voluntary sector in poverty alleviation has
also been looked into. The current focus of the Government with regard to
poverty alleviation and its commitment to the Millennium Development Goals
can be seen in the Tenth Five-Year Plan. The impact of globalization and
liberalization on poverty has also been analyzed. Having looked into the
achievement and shortcomings of the poverty alleviation efforts of the
Government and the challenges ahead, there has been an attempt to indicate
the trajectory of future priorities and course of action.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Urban poverty will become a major challenge for policymakers in our


country as the urban population in the country is growing, so is urban
poverty. Therefore, a need has arisen to develop new poverty reduction tools
and approaches to attack the multi-dimensional issues of urban poverty. For
this, policymakers as the national and local levels should have a good
understanding of the nature of urban poverty as well as accurate data on
various issues relating to it, in order to develop programme/policies to
manage urban poverty in a systematic manner.

References:
 K. Shiva Kumar, Poverty and Human Development in India: Getting
Priorities Right, Human Development Resource Centre.
 Rajashekar, Poverty Alleviation Strategies of NGOs, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi 2004
 Global Poverty Report, G-8, Okinawa summit, July 2000.
 G.S. Aurora (ed.), Poverty and Economic Reforms: The Social Concerns,
Academic Foundation, 2004.
 India-Sustaining reform, Reducing Poverty, A World Bank Development
Policy Review. OUP, New Delhi, 2003.
 India: Poverty, Employment and Social Services, A World Bank Country
Study, 1989.
 K.S. Krishnamurthy (ed.), Poverty and Income Distribution, Sameeksha Trust
& OUP, 1990
 8.Poverty in an Age of Globalisation, The World Bank, October 2000
 9. Review of The Asian Development Bank’s Poverty Reduction Strategy,
Asian Development Bank, June 2004.

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24
Analyses of Urban Issues in Karnataka: A Study

Huchhe Gowda
Introduction
According to 2011 census, the urban population in India increased to
31.2 per cent as compared to 28.8 per cent in 2001. Thus it is seen that the
proportion of people living in urban areas and depending on non-agricultural
activities is increasing rather rapidly. This trend is mainly because of the fact
that land used for agricultural and related activities being a limited resource,
could not support the increasing labour force in rural areas. Thus employment
seekers started migrating to urban areas in general. Both the push and pull
factors are responsible for the increasing pace of urbanization in India.
Thus, the problems of urbanization are not only increasing in number
but also in size and enormity. Meanwhile the forecast is that half the country’s
population will be living in urban areas in another two or three decades. This
trend needs to be reversed urgently by providing the urban facilities in rural
areas by locating several industries and generating non-farm employment
opportunities on a very large scale.
Urban Issues in Belgaum District
There is only one City Corporation i.e. Belgaum city, there are two
CMCs, seven TMCs, sex TPs and only One NAC in the district. Belgaum city
is the district head quarters and out fo the two CMCs, Gokak city is the taluka
head quarters whereas Nippani is a town situated on the border of Karnataka-
Maharashtra. Out of the seven TMCs in the district, Athani, Bailhongal,
Chikodi, Ramdurg, Savadatti are taluka head quarters, whereas the other two
i.e. Mudalagi and Sankeshwar are small towns. Out of the total six TPs, three
i.e. Hukkeri, Khanapur and Raibag are the taluka head quarters and the
remaining (Konnur, Kudachi, and Sadalaga) are again small towns. Gokak
falls is the only NAC in the district.
Percentage of Urban Population
Out of the total population in the Belgaum taluk, more than half i.e.
51.25 per cent reside in Belgaum city. According to the census 2011, Belgaum

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city is classified as the III tier city, and fifth largest city in the state in terms of
population. Very recently Belgaum city has witnessed enormous growth due
to political, industrial, educational and health related facilities. Almost all the
educational institutions are established here with three universities, two each
medical and dental colleges and seven engineering colleges. Very recently, due
to holding of winter session of the Karnataka State Assembly in the city and
also due to construction of Suvarna Soudha, Belgaum has been identified as
second capital of Karnataka State. Belgaum city is also the divisional head
quarters of the Belgaum administrative division, therefore many government
offices are located here.
During the last few years in Belgaum city small-scale industries,
particularly engineering works like foundries and metal casting, machinery of
automobile parts etc. are not only growing but also expanding on a large scale.
This is the reason why Belgaum is known as the ‘Foundry Hub of Karnataka’.
Some of the small-scale industrial units are exporting to international market.
Both the CMCs in the district, i.e. Gokak and Nipani record more than
10 per cent of taluk population. Both are business centers. Particularly Nipani
is the last urban agglomeration of Karnataka towards the Maharashtra state
border on NH-4. It is very famous for growing good quality of tobacco.
Tobacco and beedi rolling business is very unique in this town and hence
mainly responsible for the emergence of the town as a commercial center.
Among the TMCs, Ramdurg, Bailhongal and Savadatti have more than
10 per cent urban population as per 2011 census (13.45, 12.8 and 11.67 per
cent respectively). Devotees from all over India gather here in Savadatti
during certain season and days to offer their prayers to Goddess ‘Yallamma
Devi’ and this is mainly contributing to higher population in the town. Besides
being the taluka head quarters, Ramdurg and Bailhongal are also developing
as commercial centers. The rest of ULBs are small towns with less than 10 per
cent population.
Households without own houses
The maximum Percentage of households without their own houses may
be found in Nippani (29.29 per cent) and Gokak (28.03 per cent). Both these
towns are business centers. Large number of landless labourers from the
mofussil areas migrate here in search of employment. Some of them do get the
employment and few others start their own small business on a meager scale.

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Hence, these households find it difficult to have the houses of their own and
Percentage of such households is noteworthy in these two towns.
Belgaum city is having the next highest Percentage of houseless
households which is around 17 per cent, closely followed by Raibag town with
almost the same Percentage points. Belgaum city is growing very fast and due
to the various push and pull factors large number of people are coming and
settling here. With escalating cost of real estate, it is a dream-cum-true for such
households to own a house in Belgaum city. As far as Raibag is concerned, it
being a taluka head quarter, few government officials stay there. The standard
of living of people is very low and landless labourers have migrated here in
search of employment. Due to wide spread poverty, the Percentage of
households without their own houses is also comparatively little higher. In
rest of the ULBs, this Percentage is less than 10 per cent which may be due to
the immigration. In these small towns, traditional families residing for long
time have their own houses and migrated population is very negligible.
Urban Water Supply
Despite the fact that, the district receives good rainfall, three important
rivers flowing and two major dams being constructed, more than half of the
population in the ULBs of the district are not covered by tap water connection.
More than 50 per cent of the households with water tap connectively can be
found in Athani, Bailhongal, Gokak, Sankeshwar and Kudachi ULBs.
Including Belgaum city, in all the other ULBs, tap water connectivity is for less
than 50 per cent of the total households. In Mudalagi TMC, the same is only
20 per cent. Particularly during summer, the eastern part of the district
experience huge water shortage resulting in lot of hardship to the people. The
Drinking water supply in these ULBs and its frequency is provided in the
following Table 2
In eight wards of Belgaum city, 24/7 water supply project is
implemented and hence throughout the day water is supplied to all the
households. In two wards daily water is supplied but only for few hours. In
the remaining 48 wards, water is supplied once in 3 days. There is a need to
improve the frequency of water supply in these wards. In nine out of
seventeen ULBs, water is provided once in two days. In Savadattti, Chikodi
and Hukkeri water is supplied only once in five days.
In Bailhongal and some parts of Ramdurg, water is supplied once in 10
days. Thus, it is evident from the above analysis that the five ULBs in the

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district namely Bailhongal, Savadatti, Ramdurg Chikodi and Hukkeri


experience severe water problem particularly during summer.
One important feature of the water supply system in these ULBs is that
except Belgaum city, in all other ULBs the main source of water is rivers.
During summer, water shortage is bound to happen in all these ULBs as the
water in these rivers dry up. Even in Belgaum city, during summer water
shortage is a common problem for the people.
Sewerage and Drainage Facilities
In the entire district, 75 per cent of the households in ULBs are covered
by the sewerage and drainage facilities. This means, every one out of four
households does not have the sewerage and drainage connectivity. Nearly 90
per cent coverage is found in Belgaum city and Gokak CMC. Particularly in
Kudachi TP, more than half of the households resort to open defecation. Even
in Athani TMC 40 per cent of the households do not have toilets. In all the
ULBs, 20 to 30 per cent of the households do not have the sewerage and
drainage facility. This is the most important failure in the provision of public
services by the concerned authorities.
Solid Waste Management in the District
In all the ULBs of the district, for the year 2014, the information
pertaining to the total waste generated, households covered, amount
sanctioned and utilized is presented in Table 4. The largest quantity is
generated in Belgaum city itself with 180 tonnes per day. Next is Gokak town
with 25 tonnes per day. In all the other ULBs, it is less and the least is
generated in Gokak falls. The Segregation of waste at source is done only in
five wards of Belgaum city, four wards of Chikodi, three wards in Athani and
6 wards in Raibag. In all other wards no segregation is made. Further there is
no effective mechanism for liquid waste management in the district. The
number of households covered is a maximum in Nipani town with 91 per
cent. However in Hukkeri and Sadalaga TMCs 100 per cent of households are
covered with the system of waste management. In Belgaum city 81 per cent of
households are covered. On the whole, 66 per cent of the households in ULBs
are covered by the waste management mechanism and one-third of the
households are not covered yet.
Number of Hospital Beds
The data in the table reveals that the number of hospital bed per 1000
population in Bailhongal, Chikodi, Ramdurg, Soundatti, Khanapur and Raibag

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ULBs is more than 2, which is due to the fact that all these taluka level
hospitals have been upgraded as 50 bed hospitals by the government. This is a
very good and welcome step which is to be appreciated; however, other
medical and supportive staff along with the health infrastructure also needs to
be enhanced accordingly. The same bed-population ratio in Belgaum city is
less than 2 in spite of the fact that there is facility in the city such that at one
time more than 5000 patients may be accommodated in one or the other
hospital. This situation is largely due to the huge population that the city has.
In all other ULBs health facilities are not adequate, hence the above ratio is
around 1 and even less than that as well.
Mobilization of Own Resource
With respect to the Percentage of own resource mobilization to the total
receipts, Gokak’s performance is the best in the district with 32 per cent
followed by Soundatti, Nipani etc. The lowest Percentage of resource
mobilization other than Belgaum City Corporation is in Bailhongal TMC with
only 9 per cent. This indicator reveals the efficiency of the governance in these
ULBs and also the dependency of these ULBs on the State government grants
and funds. Moreover, it is necessary to note that in this third tier of
governance, the ULBs are not empowered to raise their own revenue through
taxes except the Gram Panchayats, which are empowered to do so. Hence,
Belgaum city corporation Percentage of revenue mobilization is only 1.4 per
cent. In case of ULBs like Hukkeri, Sankeshwar, Athani, are performing better
with respect to own revenue mobilization.
Expenditure on Development Works
Various development works are undertaken by these ULBs like
providing clean drinking water, construction of community toilets and
provision of drainage facilities, minor roads, community halls etc. Per capita
expenditure on development works is the highest in Nipani (Rs. 4896) and
Gokak (Rs. 3400). It may be noted here that in these two CMCs Percentage of
own resource mobilization is also the highest in the district. This reveals the
fact that in both these CMCs, good governance is practiced and the
development work is very progressive. The performance of Bailhongal and
Ramdurg TMCs are also comparatively better. The same is at medium level in
Belgaum city. However, the minimum per capita expenditure on development
work may be observed in Chikodi in the entire district which is rather strange.
In rest of the ULBs the same is around Rs. 1000, which again is hardly

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satisfactory. Efforts need to be made to enhance the own resource mobilizing


capacity of these various ULBs.
Road Length
Nipani CMC is having the maximum road length per square kilometer
of geographical area with 9.18 kilometers, closely followed by Raibag and
Belgaum with 8.75 and 8.54 respectively. The minimum road length can be
found in Sadalaga TP. Road connectivity is the basic infrastructure necessary
for the overall development of any city or town. Good roads facilitate and
accelerate the pace of development. In rest of the ULBs, this indicator ranges
between 6 to 8 Kilometers, which requires to be increased.
Crime Rate
As the process of urbanization intensifies, the crime rates in the urban
areas also show an increasing trend. Maximum crime rate in the district is
registered at Savadatti in the year 2011-12. This may be during the annual fairs
which are organized in the temple of Yallamma Devi. Devotees from all parts
of the state and neighboring states as well gather here to offer their prayers. It
is estimated that several thousands of people assemble here on each of such
occasions annually. They stay here for two to three days and perform all the
religious rites. During these days, it is difficult to ensure complete safety and
security for the population gathered here. Hence, the crime rates may be more
in Savadatti TMC.
It is surprising to observe higher crime rates in Athani TMC. In Belgaum
and Gokak as well the crime rates are quite high with 25 and 26 per thousand
population followed by Nipani and Ramdurg with 21 and 24. In rest of the
ULBs the crime rates are very low i.e. less than even 5 which is negligible.
Percentage of Slum Population
Along with urbanization, the number of slums and the slum population
are also increasing. The detailed information about the number of slums, area
covered and slum population etc. is provided in the Table 5. There are a total
of 119 slums in all the ULBs of Belgaum District in 2013. The area covered by
the entire slums in the district is 536.09 acres. A total of 17,473 households
resided in these slums consisting of 88,225 persons which are approximately
12 per cent of the ULBs population in the district. The composition of this
population shows that 48.72 per cent is the population other than SC/ST,
whereas nearly 45 per cent is SC population followed by 7 per cent ST

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population. This means SC/ST population alone constitute half of the slum
population in various ULBs in the district.
In all other urban areas, the number of slums is less than 10 and the
population covered is also less than 5000 except Athani, where nearly 10 slums
cover about 100 acres of land accommodating nearly 12000 dwellers. In Athani
as well the SC/ST population constitutes about 70 per cent of the total slum
population.
Table 1 Details of the notified slums in the district (2013)

Households

Population

Population

Population

Population
Number of
Slums

Other
Total

Total
Area

SC

ST
Sl.
No. ULBs
1 Belgaum city 39 158.31 5488 28460 7286 656 20518
2 Gokak 7 19.01 856 4563 3642 229 692
3 Nipani 4 8.39 298 1394 378 70 946
4 Athani 10 97.05 2267 11925 8139 188 3598
5 Bailhongal 6 20.25 1019 4453 1554 317 2582
6 Chikodi 6 26.07 661 3300 2887 19 394
7 Mudalagi 8 40.13 887 5528 1873 1213 2442
8 Ramdurg 6 24.08 699 2422 1047 4 1371
9 Soundatti 5 12.27 554 2580 456 194 1930
10 Sankeshwar 6 10.32 648 2923 2581 33 309
11 Hukkeri 2 26.25 420 1491 672 9 810
12 Khanapur 3 7015 354 1539 696 683 160
13 Konnur 3 19.35 833 4222 1081 1536 1605
14 Kudachi 5 31.08 715 4581 2194 - 2389
15 Raibag 4 12.38 792 3934 2050 659 1225
16 Sadalaga 5 24.00 982 4910 2460 520 1930
17 Gokak Falls - - - - - - -
Total 119 536.09 1747 88225 39005 6330 42899
3 (44.2%) (7.10%) (48.62%)
Source: Assistant Executive Engineer, Slum Development Board, Belgaum
People migrate here from the surrounding areas of Bijapur and few
districts of Maharashtra which are economically very backward, in search of
employment. Hence, the number of slums and their population is

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comparatively on a higher side in Athani town. All other ULBs are small
towns which are not truly urban in nature and in almost all of them
agriculture is the primary occupation and apart from few governmental and
educational institutions there is no mention worthy industrial or commercial
development at all.
So far, in Belgaum district 531 houses are built under HUDCO Scheme,
2559 houses under the Valmiki-Ambedkar Vasati Yojane (VAMBE Scheme)
and 286 houses under the Integrated Slum development Programme. These all
houses are distributed to the households in the slum areas. This is quite
insufficient because at present only one household out of five is allotted a
house and still four households continue to stay in the slum with minimum of
the basic facilities. So far 66 community toilets (Ten Seated) and 15
Community halls have been constructed in these slums.
Concluding Remarks
The urban population in Belgaum district is approximately 25 per cent
which is lower than the state average of nearly 35 per cent as per the census
data of 2011. There are 17 ULBs in Belgaum district consisting of 1 City
Corporation, 2 CMCs, 7 TMCs, 6 TPs and 1 NAC. Except Belgaum city, all are
small towns. Apart from few government offices and educational institutions,
hardly one can find any other industries whether big or small or even the
growth of service sector in these ULBs is not much. Belgaum is the only city in
the district which is truly urban in nature and accommodates more than half
of the taluk’s population. In rest of the ULBs the urban population is nearly 10
to 12 per cent only.
In the entire Belgaum district ULBs, during the year 2011-12, more than
half of the households do not have the tap water connection. In this backdrop,
it is to be noted that, access to drinking water has implication not only for
health status and human development parameters but also for opportunities
depending upon the opportunity cost of time. This has special implications for
women and children. Mostly the responsibility for fetching water, sometimes
from over long distances and waiting for long periods, for household needs is
invariably assigned to women or girls, who drop out of school to attend to
these chores. Hence, the ready availability of clean drinking water is the pre-
condition for improvement in literacy and health indicators in the society.
Further, most of the ULBs receive water only for a few hours on alternate days
or two or three times in a week. The reasons include limitations in source

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availability, inefficient distribution networks, erratic power supply and poor


management practices. Losses through retail distribution, illegal connections
and pubic fountains contribute to a high level of ‘unaccounted for water’
(UFW). Though accurate data is not available on UFW, the estimates vary
between 30 to 70 per cent. Hence, the formidable challenge to the policy maker
is to reduce the wastage of water and improve the efficiency of water
distribution system. Regarding, sewerage and drainage facilities, the ULBs in
Belgaum district are performing better in the sense that more than 80 per cent
of the households in these ULBs are having the sewerage and drainage
connectivity. But there is an urgent need to improve the underground
drainage facilities in these ULBs.
There is a need to improve the performance of the ULBs with regard to
own resource mobilization and also per capita development expenditure. With
regard to the solid waste management also, there is an urgent need to improve
the efficiency of the system by covering all the households and better
utilization of funds. There is the most important aspect of liquid waste for
which action plan needs to be prepared on top priority in the district.
References:
 Belgaum District Gazetteer (1987), Government of Karnataka.
 High Power Committee for Redressal of Regional Imbalances (Nanjundappa
Committee) Report, June (2002) Government of Karnataka.
 Sen, Amartya (1985), “Commodities and Capabilities” North Holland,
Amsterdam.
 Todaro, Michael and Smith, Stephen C. (2005) “Economic Development” Pearson
Education Publication, Singapore.
 Karnataka Human Development Report (2005) Government of Karnataka,
Bengaluru
 District At a Glance – all the years from 1990-91 to 2012-13, District Statistical
Office, Belgaum.
 India Human Development Report 2011- Towards Social Inclusion, Planning
Commission, Government of India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) various Human Development
Report from 1991 to 2013, Oxford University Press, New York.
 Lewis, Arthur W. (1963) The Theory of Economic Growth, Allen and Unwin,
London.
 Sen, Amartya (1989), “Development as Capability Expansion”, Journal of
Development Planning.
 Census Reports of 1991, 2001 and 2011, Government of India, New Delhi.
 Various Websites of Research Institutions, Universities, Government Departments
(India and Karnataka).

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25
The Role of Public Private Partnership in Infrastructure
Development in India

Veena K.P, Ms. Shilpa D.

Introduction
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is an agreement between government
and the private sector regarding the provision of public services or
infrastructure. The social priorities with the managerial skills of the private
sector, relieving government from the burden of large capital expenditure, and
transferring the risk to the private sector. The public assets are transferred to
the private sector as privatization, so the Government decided to work
together with the private sector to provide services and public-private
partnership describes a government service or private business venture which
is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more
private sector companies. Thus PPP refers to a long-term contractual
partnership between the public and private sector agencies, specifically
targeted towards financing, designing, implementing and operating
infrastructure facilities and services in the State. These PPPs aim to achieve the
twin objectives of high growth and equity on a sustainable basis.
India has systematically rolled out a PPP program for the delivery of
high-priority public utilities and infrastructure and, over the last decade or so,
developed what is perhaps one of the largest PPP Programs in the world. With
close to 1300 PPP projects in various stages of implementation, according to
the World Bank, India is one of the leading countries in terms of readiness for
PPPs. As per the 2015 Infrascope Report of the Economist Intelligence Unit,
"Evaluating the environment for PPPs in Asia-Pacific 2014", India ranks first in
the world in "Operational Maturity" for PPP projects, third for sub-national
PPP activity and fifth overall in terms of having an ideal environment for PPP
projects. The government of India has been developed by the Department of
Economic Affairs (DEA) to provide key information related to PPP initiatives
in India and to share PPP best practices to enhance the ability of the public
officials as well as private developers to implement PPP projects. The

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repository of information on PPP initiatives in India contains related policy


documents, Government guidelines issued for mainstreaming PPPs. These
include information on the institutional mechanisms for speedy appraisal of
PPP infrastructure projects, schemes for financial support to PPP projects and
guidance material and reference documents developed by the PPP Cell which
provides information on infrastructure projects implemented in India.

Review of Literature:
The lot of research has been conducted on public and private
partnership from last few decades. The review includes studies pertaining role
of PPP in development of infrastructure sector in India.
Vutsova (2012), this study was conducted on the role of public-private
partnership for effective technology transfer. This article aims to analyze the
different levels of development of public-private partnership and highlight its
role in the implementation of technology transfer through introduction and
implementation of new and / or more - custom models. This paper also
analyzed to determined by the relationship between public and private sectors
that ensures different degrees of competitiveness in vast areas of knowledge.
In order to address global challenges that affect strongly social-economic
development, different models of collaboration from the traditional ones are
needed on the basis of PPP.
Nuwagaba (2013), this study was emphasized on public private
partnerships (PPPs) and their Effect on Services Delivery in Rwanda. It was
carried out at Rwanda development board (RDB). The researcher explored the
state of PPP in Rwanda and went ahead to explore whether or not PPP can
improve service delivery in a country. The findings revealed that, there are no
PPPs in the country just yet and what exists are just concessions given to some
investors in the key areas. PPPs can function well if there is no political
interference and there is need for transparence at all times during contacts
negotiations and execution in the government.
Singh (2014), this study was conducted on a study of public private
partnership (PPP) in tourism sector India. This paper highlights the concept of
PPP and growth of PPP projects in tourism sector in India. And analyze its
benefits & challenges issues in India. Public Private Partnerships (PPP) have
become a globally utilized term for the establishment and execution of
infrastructure projects and deliver services to society, with cooperation

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between public and private sectors. Public Private Partnerships (PPP) have
become a globally utilized term for the establishment and execution of
infrastructure projects and deliver services to society, with cooperation
between public and private sectors. This sector is a significant vehicle for
economic progress that generates employment, foreign exchange, tax revenues
and contributes to poverty alleviation of a country.
Kumar (2015), this study was undertaken on role of public private
partnership in tourism sector of Indian economy. These paper aims to focus on
the areas where it has been used as a strategy and to the extent it serves as a
successful tool to leverage the available natural and manmade resources for
Tourism. The paper discusses cases of agreements between government and
the private sector for provisions for public services or infrastructure in
Tourism Sector. The policy framework and intense and ventures are failure
where both government and private bodies share proprietary right. Thus the
paper summaries areas, for both parties to work together with set objectives to
give value addition for tourism sector in Indian economy.
Oluwasanmi (2016), this study was conducted on Public Private
Partnership and Nigerian Economic Growth: Problems and Prospects. This
paper is therefore designed to provide answers to the soaring demand for
infrastructure which is increasing geometrically and its satisfaction not duly
met by existing contracting methods in Nigeria. The paper also analyzed the
challenges militating against the implementation of Public Private Partnership
(PPP) agreements in the country. It is recommended that stakeholders in the
areas of PPP should be adequately trained and enabling laws be domesticated
in each state of the federation in order to take advantage of the sensitive
nature of public properties.
Objectives of the Study:
The major objectives of the study are as follows:
1) To highlight the theoretical background of public and private partnership
in infrastructure sectors in India;
2) To examine the status of the Infrastructure Projects under public and
private partnership in India.
3) To analysis the sector-wise distribution of infrastructure projects of PPP;
and
4) To offer findings, suggestions and conclusion in the light of the study.
Research Methodology:

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The data required for the present research is considered as journey from
unknown to the known. The present study is purely based on data gathered
from secondary sources. The required secondary data constitutes the main
source of information, suitable for the purpose of the study. The sources of
secondary data were ledgers, annual reports, brochures and other reports of
PPP. In addition to these books, articles, published journals, thesis submitted
to the universities were also referred. Internet or website has also been
extensively made use for the purpose of the study. The data has been collected
from infrastructure projects under public private partnership. The analysis
and interpretation of data Spearman Correlation Co-efficient and Rank
correlations is used.

Analysis And Interpretation:


1. Status of the Infrastructure Projects on the basis of PPP:
Table No.1 depicts that status of the infrastructure project on the basis of
PPP. Presently there are five stages of infrastructure projects such as, pre-
construction stage, not available, completed, operation and maintenance stage
and under construction stage etc. The overall number of infrastructure projects
was 6,862 and the amounts incurred to overall infrastructure project cost of
44,62,870.42 crores. The projects under construction was found to 6826 projects
and the amount was 27, 41,462.50 crores. The lowest number of
infrastructure projects is 73 and the amounts incurred infrastructure project
cost 29,963.47 crores are belongs the status of not available category under
public and private partnership (PPP).

Table No.1: Status of the Infrastructure Projects


Total Project Cost
Status No of Projects
( in crores)
Pre-construction Stage 334 4,52,489.73
Not Available 73 29,963.47
Completed 1765 9,51,988.56
Operation and Maintenance 666 2,86,966.16
Stage
Under Construction 3988 27,41,462.50
Total 6826 44,62,870.42
Spearman Correlation r =0.912
Source: www.pppindiadatabase.com

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2. Energy Sector wise distribution of projects on the basis of PPP:


Table No.2 indicates that energy sector and sub sector wise distribution
of projects on the basis of PPP. The overall number of projects in energy
sector was 2339 and the amounts stood at 2250726.79 crores. The highest
number of energy sector projects sanctioned was 1196 and the amounts was
632,709.60 crores are belongs the subsector of renewable

Table No. 2: Energy Sector


Sub Sectors No of Projects Total Project Cost ( in crores)
Energy 87 54,432.00
City gas distribution 306 11,91,9.52
Electricity transmission 697 2,56,619.85
Gas pipelines 55 1,04,251.27
Oil pipelines 42 21,936.34
Oil/ Gas/ LNG Storage 40 42,824.82
Renewable energy (grid) 1196 632,709.60
Total 2339 2250726.79
Spearman Correlation r =0.857
Source: www.pppindiadatabase.com

energy (grid) status of under the basis of PPP as against the lowest number of
energy sector projects is 40 and the amounts incurred project cost 42,824.82,
crores are belongs the subsector of oil/gas/LNG storage under the basis of
public and private partnership (PPP) in India.

3. Transport and communication Sector:


Table No.3 represents that transport and communication sector and sub
sector wise distribution of projects on the basis of PPP. The overall number of
transport and communication sector wise projects is 3021 and the amounts
incurred to overall transport and communication sector project cost of
1,558,152.93 crores. The highest number of transport and communication
sector projects was found to be 2094 and the amounts incurred to project cost
was 778,533.01crores. The lowest number of transport and communication
sector projects 07 and the amounts incurred project cost 4,650.00, crores are
belongs the subsector of inland waterways under the basis of public and
private partnership (PPP) in India.

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Table No.3: Transport & Communication Sector


No of Total Project Cost
Transport & Communication
Projects ( in crores)
Tele communication towers 12 26,182.00
Airports 78 58,356.25
Inland waterways 07 4,650.00
Ports (excluding captive 157 155,460.45
Railway track, tunnel, viaducts, bridges 585 345,718.87
Roads and bridges 2094 778,533.01
Urban public transport (except rolling 100 215,433.45
stock)
Total 3021 1,558,152.93
Spearman Correlation r =0.179
Source: www.pppindiadatabase.com.

4. Social and Commercial Sector:


Table No.4 indicates that social and commercial sector and sub sector
wise distribution of projects on the basis of PPP. The overall numbers of social
and commercial sector wise projects are 266 and the amounts incurred to
overall social and commercial sector project cost was found to be 94,967.83
crores. The highest number of social and commercial projects are 152 and the
amounts incurred to project cost was found to be 83,302.88 crores are belongs
the subsector of common infrastructure for industrial parks, SEZ under the
basis of PPP as against the lowest number of social and commercial sector
projects is 11 and the amounts incurred project cost 964.99 crores are belongs
the subsector of health care under the basis of public and private partnership
(PPP) in India.
Table No. 4: Social and Commercial Sector
Social & Commercial No of Projects Total Project Cost
Infrastructure (Rs.In crores)
Cold Chain 24 4,128.20
Common infrastructure
152 83,302.88
for industrial parks, SEZ
Education 35 1522.94
Health Care 11 964.99
Tourism 44 6,048.82
Total 266 94,967.83
Spearman Correlation r =0.486
Source: www.pppindiadatabase.com.

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5. Water and sanitation Sector:


Table No.5 shows that water and sanitation sector and sub sector wise
distribution of projects on the basis of PPP. The overall number of water and
sanitation sector wise projects was 1195 and the amounts incurred to water
and sanitation sector project cost of 4,365,934.86 crores. The highest number
of water and sanitation sector projects are 436 and the amounts incurred to
project cost of 363,943.14 crores are belongs the subsector of irrigation (dams,
channels, embankments, etc.) under the basis of PPP as against the lowest
number of water and sanitation sector projects was 38 and the amounts
incurred towards project cost was 6,223.85 crores.

Table No. 5: Water and Sanitation Sector


Water Sanitation No of Total Project
Projects Cost
( in crores)
Irrigation (dams, channels, 436 363,943.14
embankments, etc.)
Sewage collection, treatment and 199 29,811.05
disposal system
Solid waste management 58 8,089.02
Storm water drainage system 58 8,378.86
Water supply pipeline 406 114,944.96
Water treatment plants 38 6,223.85
Total 1195 4,365,934.86
Spearman Correlation r =0.986
Sources: www.pppindiadatabase.com.

6. Spearman Rank Correlation(r):


Table No.6 depicts that Spearman rank correlation coefficient among
various infrastructure and sub structure such as energy, transport and
communication, social and commercial and water and sanitation sectors on the
basis of PPP. It is observed that there was highest correlation was found to be
0.986 under the water and sanitation sector indicating (Rank 1) , similarly the
energy sector and social and commercial sector was moderately correlated
with the value of 0.857 and 0.486 indicating (Rank 2) and (Rank 3) respectively.
The lowest correlation with the value of 0.179 indicating in transport and
communication sector (Rank 4) on the basis of PPP.

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Table No.6: Spearman Rank Correlation (r)


SI. Variables Spearman Rank Rank
No. Correlation(r)
1. Energy Sector r=0.857 2
2. Transport and communication sector r =0.179 4
3. Social and commercial sector r =0.486 3
4. Water and sanitation sector r =0.986 1

Findings Of The Study:


The following are the major findings of the study:
 The overall number of infrastructure projects are 6,862 and the amounts
incurred to overall infrastructure project cost of 44, 62,870.42 crores.
 The highest number of infrastructure projects was 3,988 and the amounts
incurred to infrastructure project cost of 27,41,462.50 crores are belongs
the status of under construction projects on the basis of PPP.
 The overall number of energy sector wise projects is 2339 and the amounts
incurred to overall energy sector project cost of 2250726.79 crores.
 The highest number of energy sector projects are 1196 and the amounts
incurred to project cost of 632,709.60 crores are belongs the subsector of
renewable energy (grid) status of under the basis of PPP.
 The overall number of transport and communication sector wise projects is
3021 and the amounts incurred to overall transport and communication
sector project cost of 1,558,152.93 crores.
 The highest number of transport and communication sector projects are
2094 and the amounts incurred to project cost of 778,533.01crores are
belongs the subsector of roads and bridges of under the basis of PPP
 The overall numbers of social and commercial sector wise projects are 266
and the amounts incurred to overall social and commercial sector project
cost of 94,967.83 crores.

Suggestions For The Study:


The following are the suggestions of the study:
 The public sector can be able to realize its objective of infrastructure
development and the private sector to make her profit (that is the symbiosis
relation not at the expense of the citizens after role) through
complementing the government’s effort with finance, maintenance and so
on.

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 To realize this therefore, the research recommends that PPP as a concept


should be properly defined by government as it is not defined in the
Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission Act (2005)
 Tackling insecurity in the country will go a long way to improve
infrastructural development. As during crisis properties are destroy and as
such no investor will like to invest his money in a place that it will not be
save.
 The possession of political will by the agents and leadership of government
to deal with corruption without any fear or respect for the position of the
individual or body.
 The establishment of the required regulatory framework for proper
implementation of PPP projects to complete the all the sectoral growth in
India.
 The Government should also take necessary steps to implement the PPP
project in other states also in order to develop the infrastructure in the
country.

Conclusion:
This research paper discuses the present status of PPP projects in
infrastructure and sub structure wise distribution on the basis of PPP in India.
The public-private partnership come with the aim of contributing to a better
understanding of its implications for governance and development by
examining the different definitions, modalities, and institutional frameworks
at the national and state levels. public private partnership (PPP) projects in
India, involving nearly six major infrastructure ventures. out of that our study
constructed on four major sectors namely, energy, transport and
communication, social and commercial, water and sanitation sectors, the PPP
regulatory bodies handled and invest more projects in transport and
communication, water and sanitation sectors compared to other sectors. To
conclude the government and PPP policy maker and regulatory bodies are
helps the growth and development of infrastrute sectors to achieve sustainable
growth with the supportive approach of private and public sector in India.

References:
 M.Sathana Priya (2011), “public and private sector partnership in
India”,Journal of Management and Science, ISSN: 2249-1260,Vol.1, No.1

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 Albena Vutsova (2012),”Role of public-private partnership for effective


technology transfer”. Technology Transfer and Innovations, 2nd Annual
Conference & Networking Center for Promoting Ideas (USA), Vol. 5, No. 11.
 Alfred Nuwagaba (2013), “Public private partnerships (PPPs) and their Effect
on Services Delivery in Rwanda”. International Journal of Economics, Finance
and Management, University-Kigali campus, ISSN 2307-2466, VOL. 2, NO..5
 Gaurav Singh (2014), “Astudy of public private partnership (PPP) in tourism
sector India”. Integral Review- A Journal of Management, Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, (A Central University), Lucknow Vol.7 No. 2.
 Prem Kumar (2015), “The role of public private partnership in tourism sector
of Indian economy. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management
Studies, ISSN 2249- 8834, Vol.5 (8).
 Oluwasanmi (2016), “Public Private Partnership and Nigerian Economic
Growth: Problems and Prospects. International Journal of Business and Social
Science, PRADEC Conference Proceedings, Volume 2 | Issue 2,|pp.11-18.
 Teker S. & Teker D. (2012), Tourism Projects Financing: A Public-Private-
Partnership Model, Business Management Dynamics Vol.2, No.5, Nov 2012,
pp.05-11.
 . http://www.pppinindia.com/pppacprojects-next.php retrieved 16 July,
2011. The projects database was last updated on 6 May, 2011.

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26
Impact of Global Urbanization on India
Ramesh.M.N and Sneha D.R
Introduction:
India’s current urbanization process reproduces inequalities that exist in
the larger society through exclusionary settings, inclusionary barriers in urban
spaces also disproportionally affect the urban poor. Muslims, Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) constitute large
percentages of India’s urban are poor, they are at the receiving end of an
urbanization process which is deeply exclusionary and unequal. Without
working governance protections, these social groups routinely are deprived
basic services such water, health, education, sanitation, and legal protection.
India’s current urbanization process is producing urban ‘winners and losers’
and the excluded often express their frustrations and impotence through
violence.
In early 1990’s the Indian economy had witnessed dramatic policy
changes. The idea behind the new economic model known as Liberalization,
Privatization and Globalization in India (LPG), was to make the Indian
economy one of the fastest growing economies in the world. An array of
reforms was initiated with regard to industrial, trade and social sector to make
the economy more competitive. Education is an important investment in
building human capital that is driver for technological innovation and
economic growth. It is only through improving the educational status of a
society that the multi-faceted development of its people can be ensured. In the
post-industrialized world, the advanced countries used to derive the major
proportion of their national income not from agriculture and industry but
from the service sector.
Urbanization refers to the process by which rural areas become
urbanized as a result of economic development and industrialization.
Demographically, the term urbanization denotes the redistribution of
populations from rural to urban settlements over time. However, it is
important to acknowledge that the criteria for defining what is urban may
vary from country to country, which cautions us against a strict comparison of

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urbanization cross-nationally. The fundamental difference between urban and


rural is that urban populations live in larger, denser, and more heterogeneous
cities as opposed to small, more sparse, and less differentiated rural places.
To locate the origin of urbanization today, we go back in time to identity the
earliest form of urban life as beginning in the middle and near East near what
is today Iraq around 3,500 BC. In other words, the oldest urban communities
known in history began approximately 6,000 years ago and later emerged with
the Maya culture in Mexico and in the river basins of China and India. By as
early as the 13th century, the largest cities in the world were the Chinese cities
of Chang’an (Xi’an today) and Hangzhou, which had over one million people.
And London didn’t reach one million people until the 1700s. However, until
the nineteenth century, constrained by the limits of food supply and the nature
of transportation, both the size and share of the world’s urban population
remained very low, with less than three percent of the world’s population
living in urban places around 1800.

Urbanization in India:
The urbanization of the developing world began to accelerate in late 20 th
century, although there was no clear trend in overall urban growth in less
developed countries due to inconsistent definition of urban and lack of quality
in their census data. The transition from the 20th to present century marked a
new and more striking era of global urbanization. In 2008 the world crossed
that long-awaited demographic watershed of half of the people on earth living
urban areas. Further acceleration of urbanization going forward is likely to
raise the share of the world’s urban population to 75 percent by 2050.
Urbanization is one of the most important demographic shifts
worldwide during the past century and represents a substantial change from
how most of the world’s population has lived for the post several thousand
years. A majority of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2007.
Urban environments have been linked to a range of human health issues, and
as the pace of urbanization accelerates, new challenges arise to characterize
these environments, and to understand their positive and negative
implications for health. The most rapidly urbanizing cities are in less-wealthy
nations, and the pace of growth varies among regions. Nearly half the world’s
population now lives in urban settlements. Cities offer the lure of better
employment, education, health care, and culture; and they contribute

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disproportionately to national economies. However, rapid and often


unplanned urban growth is often associated with poverty, environmental
degradation and population demands that outstrip service capacity. These
conditions place human health at risk. Reliable urban health statistics are
largely unavailable throughout the world. Disaggregated intra-urban health
date i.e.,for different areas within a city, are even more rare. Data that are
available indicate a range of urban health hazards and associated health risks:
substandard housing, crowding, air pollution, insufficient or contaminated
drinking water, inadequate sanitation and solid waste disposal services,
vector-borne diseases, industrial waste, increased motor vehicle traffic, stress
associated with poverty and unemployment, among others. Local and
national governments and multilateral organizations are all grappling with the
challenges of urbanization. Urban health risks and concerns involve many
different sectors, including health, environment, housing energy,
transportation, urban planning, and others.
Globalization is expected to be a process through which an increasingly
free flow of ideas, people, goods, services and capital would lead to the
integration of economies and societies. It is characterized by an accelerated
flow of trade, capital, and information, as well as mobility of individuals,
across geographical borders. It reflects comprehensive level of interaction
than that has occurred in the past, suggesting something beyond the word
“international”. It implies a diminishing importance of worldwide social
relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are
shaped by events occurring at any distant place and vice versa. It is this
construction of time-space compression that has given rise to popular notion
of “One-World”, “Global Village” etc.
Globalization though has contributed for rise in living standards,
improvement in health and education and technology advancement,
especially in the area of communication and computers during this period, yet
in the recent past, there have been apprehensions expressed in terms of its
impact, especially on the people who still live below the poverty line.
Factors lead to urbanization:
There are several aspects that lead to urbanization. According to
Gooden , the factors can be categorized into three categories that include,

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economic opportunities, proper infrastructure and utilities and availability of


public facilities.
i. Economic opportunities: It is general perception that living standard of
urban area is superior as compared to village areas. People consider that more
job opportunities and more jobs are offered in the city instead of rural area.
Besides, the income also will be higher.
ii. Proper infrastructure and utilities: In today's economy driven society,
majority of nations in the world are focusing on the development of major
cities as the centre of government and business. As such, the cities will be
certainly equipped with a better infrastructure and utilities such as roads and
transportation, water, electricity and others. Apart from that, the
communication and internet coverage also are good in the cities which are
believed as one of the pulling factors of migration.
iii. Availability of public facilities: To make smart city, metropolitan cities
also offered better public facilities which are not there in rural areas. Since a
variety of public facilities such as health and education are provided in the
cities, people have more choices either to use public or private. Additionally,
the provision of leisure area, postal services as well as police station and others
are also provided to meet the needs of the urban community. In urban area, a
greater variety of entertainment such as restaurants, movie theatres and theme
parks attract more people to live in cities.
iv. Positive Impacts of Globalization: India and China are among the
developing countries that have rapidly expanded in industrial and economic
growth within the last three decades. Regardless of the economic global
meltdown, the deplorable economic standard that India was in 3 years ago is
quite insignificant when compared to the present economic growth as a result
of globalization. According to KrishnGoyal, globalization in India has opened
up international creation of employment opportunities through export and
import of products and services. India has experienced global integration of
economies in the following economic sectors; manufacturing, pharmaceutical,
communication, information technology and international investment
markets. Technology advancement has enhanced better lifestyle in India
whereby Multinational companies have invested in the global strategic land in
the government established export zones.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

v. Globalization, as a process no doubt has given importance to


decentralized educational governance and control. The centre has viewed
decentralization as a way to increase efficiency by giving more responsibility
to local level functionaries, which in turn is expected to increase motivation
and accountability. Further it is trying to involve the local community in the
very planning and decision making process of education and making them
responsible for “the state of the art”.
As a result of Globalization the opportunities in India in the field of
Higher Education now, appears to be immense, and areas are diverse. The
remarkable development in information technology has promoted learner’s
method of learning in both the formal and distance modes. Globalization is
simply putting ‘the space – time compression’ which brings together nations,
cultures, economies and at the same time increasing Inter dependency.
Interaction is expected to improve the quality of education. Changes in Indian
education system that pervasive the core appears to remain the same only the
notion of change and the rate at which it takes place varies virtually and
spatially and in field operations. Distance education and virtual Institutions,
that is commonly regarded to be an industrialized form of education, is now
taking place in India, which is proving to be more cost effective.

Conclusion:
Education is the most vital input for the growth and prosperity of a
nation. It provides strength and resilience to enable people to respond to the
changing needs of the hour. Education is the backbone of all national
endeavors. It has the power to transform human beings into human resources.
We cannot build a sustainable and prosperous nation without human resource
development which mainly depends on the health and vitality of higher
education. Higher education has the omnipotent role of preparing leaders for
different walks of life – social, political, economic, cultural, scientific and
technological. Higher education has special value in the contemporary
knowledge society which contributes both directly and indirectly to the wealth
of a nation. Higher education today, Globalization or no Globalization, is no
more constrained by geographical boundaries. Innovative forms of
translocation and transnational education have become a possibility. Multi
campus institutions, “franchised institutions learning centers providing
university degree, off campus education, distance learning, internet based
distance education, virtual universities merging of part studies to combine

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into a whole for obtaining national as well as international degrees are only
few models as examples. As far as higher education is concerned, an enthused
and well-informed student has umpteen choices, for the first time in the
history of education, to access for a “global market place”.
India has benefited as well has lost from globalization changes and
reforms that are affecting the economic, political and social life of Indians.
Skilled labour employment opportunities have increase over time with the
services sector providing over 50 percent of the job opportunities. The Indian
economy has expanded together with the GDP whereby the annual Indian
economy rate increased because of general trade and commerce liberalization
of trends such as foreign direct investment. India faces a terrible economic
depression in 1991 as a result of weakening agriculture and low annual
growth in the industries sector. Education needs to respond to the additional
demands of a rapidly globalizing world by raising awareness of environment,
peace, cultural and social diversity, increased competitiveness, and the
concept of a global village. Education prepares the individual to connect and
live in harmony with the environment. The challenge for higher education,
therefore, is to reform, create and develop systems that prepare the individual
to work in a borderless economy and live in a global society. In other words,
our educational institutions need to produce global citizens.
Reference:
 Amnesty international, Human Rights and Privatization, Retrieved December 25,
2008.
 Rai, jaimal, The Rural - Urban Economy and Social Changes in Ancient India,
 BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,Bombay 1974.
 B.Bhattacharya, “Urban Development in India”, Shree Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1979.
 Ashish Bose, “India’s Urbanization 1901-2001”, Published by Tata McGraw-Hill
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1980.
 S.B.Mukherjee, “Population Growth and Urbanization in South and South-East
Asia”, Published by Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1988.
 P.Jagadish Gandhi, “Globalized Indian Economy”, Published by Deep and Deep
Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
 Robert Cowen, “Last Past the Post: Comparative Education, Modernity, and
perhaps Post-Modernity, Comparative Education Review 32, no 2 (1996) : 151-70.
 Philip G Altbach, Higher Education and WTO: Globalization Run Amok,
Chronicle of Higher Education.
 Open Doors 2004, Report on international Educational Exchange, Institute of
International Education.

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27
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India

Ohila MP
Preamble
A significant barrier to understanding and intervening in the locations
discussed in this paper is that of inadequate measurement. We have analyzed
the extent of urban poverty itself in detail here. Poverty lines in India have
been criticized on various fronts. The first is the inadequacy and the
redundancy of using a food calorie norm to measure poverty. Calories are not
wholly representative of consumption patterns, in fact it has been observed
that the number of calories being consumed has fallen in spite of the increase
in consumption expenditure (World Bank, 2011 ). This is because of a change
in eating habits that is not reflected in the poverty line. The poverty line does
not take into account the increased monetisation of various goods and
transactions. The main reason for this is the under-reporting of consumption
levels to a large extent by wealthier classes of people and to a small extent by
the poorer classes. Ray points out one of the biggest drawbacks of the poverty
line-"Poverty lines are always approximations to a threshold that id truly
fuzzy, more because the effects of sustained deprivation are often felt at a later
point in time(Poverty lines) are pointers to a deeper, less quantifiable concept."
The consumption surveys do not capture services provided through the huge
amounts of public expenditure, the poverty lines derived from these surveys
do not take into account these services that are consumed by citizens
(Planning Commission, 2014 ). A measurement frame is required to monitor,
track, and better understand the movements of these variables in cities. For
instance, not enough is known about whether people move in and out of
poverty frequently, the nature of work for cyclical migrants as well as people
that split work across rural and urban areas. In addition, there is not enough
data on the identification of the urban poor, even though there has been much
work on measuring poverty. The Hashim Committee(2012) was the first one to
carry out identification of the urban poor and to understand the characteristics
of urban poverty at the

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national level. Most identification procedures are carried out at the state level
for different schemes. There are no in depth surveys of urban amenities,
behaviour patterns, nutrition levels, related to the identification of the poor
and actual delivery of benefits or services. Metrics need to be informed by the
multiple ways in which urban poverty is particular and shaped by its location.
Finally, while gender disaggregation of data has improved in the recent past,
significantly more needs to be done to see intra-household distributions in
resource allocation and the pathways that influence this allocation. Restricting
gender data to 'female-headed households,' as is often done in large public
datasets, does not adequately address the gender dimensions of urban
poverty. The growth and development of between rural and urban in India are
presented in this article on the basis of an extensive review of literature.

Linkage between Rural and Urban Development


There is a linkage between the rural and urban development. These
linkages matter because rural and urban livelihoods are interconnected
economically, financially, and socially. From a rural perspective, most farmers
depend on urban markets to secure their livelihoods. Rural households also
depend on urban centers or small towns for various services (e.g., hospitals,
banks, and government offices, education, and agriculture equipment) and for
the provision of various private and public goods. Moreover, the rural sector
benefits from remittances sent by urban based family members.11 Likewise,
urban areas are linked to the rural sector through several channels. For
example, various urban businesses and enterprises depend on rural demand
for their goods and services. They also rely on rural areas for the supply of raw
materials. Urban consumers, on the other hand, benefit from cheap and
sustained food supply from rural areas. Furthermore, many poor urban
households partly depend on rural activities (e.g., farming) for their
livelihoods. The rural sector can also act as a buffer from the impact of
macroeconomic shocks on the urban economy. Links between the rural and
urban sectors also include flows of information, such as markets and
employment opportunities, as well as flows of people moving between rural
and urban centers on a temporary or permanent basis.
Development policies that facilitate these rural-urban linkages- can
promote economic growth and poverty reduction. But how does this
balancing and synergistic relationship work, Economic theory suggests that

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resources should move freely so that marginal returns are equalized between
sectors and regions. An increase in agricultural productivity may precede the
growth of urban settlements. But as new innovations take place in the urban
sector, urban labor productivity and wages rise, making migration from the
rural to urban sector attractive. In the meantime, urban development may also
improve access to capital, inducing further mechanization or other innovations
relevant to agricultural production. As a result, agricultural productivity
grows, narrowing the productivity and income gaps between rural and urban
areas. When innovations take place again in the urban sector, the gap in
productivity and income widens between the two sectors. Rural labor begins
to migrate to the urban sector, and capital moves to rural areas. A new
equilibrium emerges.
This process of moving from disequilibrium to equilibrium due to
technological innovations in both sectors is the major source of economic
growth and development. But many developing countries disrupt this natural
economic development process. Very often governments interfere in favor of
the urban sector, distorting capital and labor markets to favor urban over rural
areas, in an attempt to jumpstart development or leapfrog this process. As a
result, overall efficiency is lost, as resources do not flow to their "free-market"
locations where they would naturally earn the highest rate of return. As a
consequence, the rural-urban gap increases, and the natural growth that
would occur in rural areas, as well as in urban areas, is circumvented. In fact,
in developing countries, we typically observe the coexistence of a modern
urban sector and a traditional rural sector. In these countries, the urban
population is often better off than their rural counterparts. This rural-urban
divide evolves when governments in developing countries give preference to
the urban sector in their public policies. Such preferential practices may
include, for example, price policies, public investment, and welfare transfers
that favor the urban over the rural population. In part this urban bias may also
occur because urban centers in developing countries may be better organized
politically and thus have greater influence on policy makers than the rural
population.

Urban Deprivation and Inequality


Poverty is becoming increasingly concentrated in urban areas and is
qualitatively different from rural poverty. The urban poor suffer from both

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absolute and relative deprivation; the former referring to a standard of living


common to all, and the latter referring to an unfair discrepancy between one
individual is situation and that of another. Exclusion, which is related to and
often an outcome of relative deprivation, is an important aspect of urban
poverty. This can take the form of economic, political, natural resource, basic
services and/or social exclusion (restrictions on participation "on fair terms" in
local and national social life). All forms of exclusion reduce access to
opportunities and thus perpetuate poverty~ Opportunity, .which is obtained
by the accumulation of education, wealth and social connections has indeed
been associated with health across a wide variety of contexts and cultures,
including that of urban India. Although the urban-rural dichotomy is
simplistic due to its definition being based on administrative, political and/or
geographical needs, it is a widely used metric by which to categorize
populations. Wratten argues that there are five interrelated and core
characteristics of urban poverty, all of which are directly related to health:
environmental risk; commercial exchange; social diversity, fragmentation and
crime; intervention from the state and police. Environmental risk refers to
exposure to overcrowded housing in hazardous locations such as flood-prone
areas, toxic waste sites, garbage dumps and/or proximity to busy roads,
railroad tracks or other sources of particulate and noise pollution.
Environmental conditions also include poor access to improved water and
sanitation services, which is associated with exposure to diarrheal diseases
and cholera, intestinal worms, dengue and malaria. "Commercial exchange"
relates to the commoditization of daily living in urban areas, described as
urban residentsreliance on "market exchange to buy basic goods and services
and to earn money". Financial hardship reduces diet diversity and increases
stress, among its many other ills, and is associated with high blood pressure,
use of alcohol and tobacco, and higher simple carbohydrate and lower Fiber
intake, all of which increase risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and
cardiovascular disease. Subsistence production and unpaid productive or
domestic work does not feed families in urban areas where households require
money to pay for rent and food.
The definition used in the 2011 Census of India is slightly different: A
contiguous area with 60-70 households having all of the following slum-like
characteristics: Predominant roof material made of something other than
concrete

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• No drinking water source available inside the house


• No latrine available inside the house
• No drainage or open drainage
There are many ways in which poverty combines and interacts with
slum dwelling; the following empirical analyses will unpack their implications
for health. In brief, results indicate significant intra-urban variation in child
morbidity and mortality, and some evidence to suggest an "urban penalty" in
the case of child morbidity. Urban poor and slum dwelling children under age
five have higher levels of stunting and mortality than their non-poor and non-
slum dwelling urban counterparts, respectively; urban poor children are more
stunted but not more likely to die than their rural counterparts, and rural
children are more likely to be stunted than their slum dwelling counterparts.
These findings indicate that the characterization of urban deprivation matters
and supports previous findings that not all poor are slum dwellers and not all
slum dwellers are poor.

Re-framing Urban Residence


One of the key arguments of this report has been to argue that spatial
illegality that defines urban residence for a significant set of urban residents
presents a key barrier to addressing urban poverty. We briefly summarize this
approach here as a key element in an integrated and effective approach to
addressing multi-dimensional urban poverty. The Intent to Reside approach
argues for embracing universal entitlements through evidence of an intention
to reside in the city that includes residents at an early stage of this residence. It
attempts' at being more mindful of errors of exclusion within a context of
universalization and in real situations where operationalization and
implementation of services are themselves premised on conditions and modes
of residence.

Universal access to basic services


The universalization of access to basic services for all urban residents.
Slow but steady progress has been made in this direction. Improvements in
access to and the quality of basic environmental services are both critical ends
to introducing poverty, reducing vulnerability in housing, and significantly
improving human development outcomes. How can we build an entitlement
framework that not just enables but mandates and requires the universal
provision of access to environmental services in urban areas There are two

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considerations within this. The first is to establish priority of resource


allocation to expand existing infrastructure to areas with greater need. The
second is to remove de facto barriers to accessing infrastructure, in particular,
spatial illegality. Housing illegality marks a majority of urban residents in
Indian cities and that one of the critical implications of this illegality is in the
role it plays in preventing access to basic environmental services.

Employment centered growth


It may be argued that neither of the two dominant approaches of
poverty reduction trickle-down effects of economic growth accompanied by
trickle-down or redistributive transfers-sufficient to achieve a paradigm that
genuinely improves lives for the urban poor while simultaneously
maintaining economic growth. What could bridge the gaps within these two
approaches is a focus on work and livelihoods as an explicit strategy for
poverty reduction in urban areas. Such an approach implies specific policies
and schemes that are targeted towards generating growth and improving
productivity in the labour intensive sectors of the Indian urban economy.
While the most rapid growth in the past two decades has been in the services
sector, a focus on manufacturing is important for expanding employment for a
large number of workers with low education or skill levels.

Imagining Urban Citizens


Citizens are made not only at the national level through constitutions
and elections. Recently, theorists have argued for a new scale for the
determination of citizenship: the city. Arguing that, 'formal membership in the
nation-state is increasingly neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for
substantive citizenship,' Holston and Appadurai suggest instead that it is cities
that are "especially privileged sites for considering the current renegotiations
of citizenship" (Holston &Appadurai, 1999). If anything has changed, it is the
perception of the roles played by this 'different' citizen and the extent to which
their rights or claims are recognised as legitimate. As the spaces of the poor are
themselves re-imagined, the poor can be erased as citizens within them.

Discussion
These descriptive statistics demonstrate significant intra-urban variation
in child morbidity and mortality and some evidence to suggest an "urban
penalty" in the case of child morbidity.

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Specifically, the descriptive statistics presented in Part 1 indicate that


both child morbidity and mortality are higher among slum dwellers and the
poor in urban areas than their richer and/or non-slum dwelling counterparts.
While socioeconomic gradients in health have been found in a wide variety of
contexts, these data indicate that India is no exception when it comes to
significant heterogeneity in levels of poor health within urban areas. Indian
cities compete in the global economy, urban areas house the engines key to its
economic growth. Unhealthy and unequal urban residents will weigh
increasingly heavily in both financial and human terms if action is not taken to
address these significant intra-urban health inequalities. In Part 2, we find that
stunting is higher among urban poor children as compared to their rural
counterparts. This may reflect the poor environmental, epidemiological and
nutritional conditions associated with urban deprivation, which include but
are not limited to poor ventilation, heightened contact with human excreta,
limited access to potable water, crowded living and working quarters that
increase risk of infectious disease spread, environmental hazards such as
garbage, toxic waste and pollution from cooking fuel, traffic and industry
pollutants.

Conclusions and Recommendations


Integrating Urban Development and Basic Services Planning and
investment in public infrastructure and services in urban areas has followed a
path that is distinct from those in rural areas. Urban development has lagged
rural investments for public infrastructure-a chapter on 'urban development'
appeared in only the Fifth Five-Year Plan. Basic services in urban areas have
been a more regular part of planning documents URBAN POVERTY IIHS-RF
Policy Paper Series Draft for Review. Do not Cite. since the 1980s, yet progress
towards them have been slow and arguably shaped by assumptions of what
urban poverty looks like. Despite evidence of significant intra-urban and
urban-rural disparities in health in India, urban health has historically been
given low priority. But public policy is one of the most important tools to
address and remedy the determinants of poor health. Operationalized through
laws, regulations and guidelines, public policy can significantly improve
population health. Poor health is expensive, both for individuals and for the
Indian Government. Private, out of pocket expenditure on health in India is
some of the highest in the world. Poor health in early life is associated with

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increased risk of chronic conditions later on, care for which the government
ultimately pays for directly with the provision of health services that are too
expensive for individuals to privately access, and indirectly in the loss of
investment of human capital and productivity associated with chronic poor
health. Finally, the limited financial protection available for health-related
expenditures both impoverishes and keeps poor families from escaping
poverty, limiting the scope of India’s development trajectory.
References:
 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2012. World
Urbanization Prospects The 2011 Revision. United Nations, New York
 Sankhe S, Vittal I, Dobbs R, Mohan A, Gulati A, Ablett J, et al. 2010. India's
Urban Awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth.
McKinsey Global Institute
 Montgomery MR. 2009.Urban poverty and health in developing countries.
Population Bulletin, a publication of the Population Reference Bureau. 64(2).
 Rice J and Rice JS. 2009. The Concentration of Disadvantage and the Rise of an
Urban Penalty: Urban slum prevalence and the social production of child health
inequalities in the developing countries. International Journal of Health Services.
39(4):749-770
 Baker J and Schuler N. 2004.Analyzing Urban Poverty: A summary of methods
and approaches. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3399
 Jayachandran S and Lleras-Muney A. Life expectancy and human capital
investments: Evidence from maternal mortality declines. Quarterly Journal of
Economics. 142( 1 ):349- 97
 Tilak JB.Household expenditure on education and implications for redefining the
poverty line in India. Background paper, prepared for the Expert Group on the
Review of the Methodology for Estimation of poverty (Planning Commission,
May 2009)
 Suryanarayana MH. Nutritional norms for poverty: Issues and implications.
Concept paper prepared for the Expert Group to Review the Methodology for
Estimation of Poverty.
 Baharoglu D and Kessides C. Chapter 16: Urban Poverty. In: Sourcebook for
Poverty Reduction Strategies. World Bank
 World Bank. 1994. Poverty reduction in South Asia. Washington, DC
 Yardley J. 2013. Ahead of elections, India"s cabinet approves food security
program. New York Times, available at
http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07 /04/indias-cabinet-passes-food
security-law/ Accessed on July 9, 2013

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28
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India

Wajeeda Bano
Introduction
Urbanization is a part and parcel of the development process.
Urbanization refers to the proportionate increase of the urban population in
relation to the total population. In India, the percentage increase in the urban
population has been consistently greater than the percentage increase in rural
population urbanization trends in India over the last 50 years (1961-2011) are
given in Table 1
Table 1 Trends in India’s population
Year Urban population % of urban population Decadal growth rate
(million) to total population of urban population
1961 78.9 17.97 -
1971 109.1 19.91 38.3
1981 159.5 23.31 46.2
1991 217.6 25.71 36.4
2001 286.1 27.82 31.5
2011 377.1 31.15 31.8
Source: Compiled from various Census Reports, Registrar General of India

In 1961, India’s urban population was 78.9 million which 18.0 % of total
population. By 2011 it had increased to 377.1 million which is 31.15% of the
total population. Thus little less than one out of three persons in India lives in
urban areas. The decadal growth rate of urban population has been higher
than rural population. Urban growth rate at 46.2 % was fastest during the
decade 1971-81. It declined to 36.4% during 1980s, 31.5% during 1990s and
31.15 during last decade 2001-2011.
The urbanization data of the latest census 2011 has attracted a lot of
attention mainly because of the decadal increase in the size of urban
population i.e. 91.0 million people over the decade 2001-2011. The reasons for
this growth in urban population are natural increase in population within

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urban areas, rural urban migration and reclassification of settlements from


rural to urban.
Urbanization is result of industrial development and considered as index of
economic growth because urbanization encourages integration of people from
different social-economic background and encourages co existence but in India
urbanization could bring economic growth but does not bring desired social
change as disparities can be seen in all sphere of life.
Objectives:
1. To examines the different forms of exclusion and deprivation experienced
by different social groups in urban India.
2. In the wider concept of inclusive growth policies in urban India, an
attempt is made here to make suggestion to reduce these inequalities in
urban areas so as to achieve inclusive and sustainable development goal
Methodology:
The paper is descriptive in nature and based on Secondary data, and data is
extracted from various sources such as books, journals, reports published by
the government of India, articles, dailies and internet publications.

Discussion:
Inclusive growth is the modern day’s mantra of development. Inclusive
growth is defined as a concept that advances equitable opportunities to every
section of the society. The concept is becoming increasingly important against
a background of widening inequalities in the society, which are associated
with globalization and related economic reform policies. Urbanization is one
of the important realities of recent decades in India. Its urban system consists
of 7933 cities and towns of different population sizes, and a population of
377.16 million (Census 2011) which is the second largest in the world. The
urban system has registered an extraordinary expansion in its base over the
2001–11 decade, and this trend is expected to continue. Urbanization has made
significant contributions to India’s economic growth and poverty reduction.
Urbanization is central to India’s economy, contributing close to 60 per cent to
its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The process of urbanization is a necessary
condition for India’s structural transformation and inclusive growth.
However, it is not free from inequalities.

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Gender disparities in urban areas


The gender disparities exist even in urban areas in terms of literacy and sex
ratio. The sex ratio is the proportion of female to males in a given population,
usually expressed as the number female per 1000 males. In India the sex ratio
as per census is 940 female per 1000 males.
Table 2 Sex ratio and urban literacy rate in India
Urban Rural India
Sex ratio 926 947 940
Literacy rate 85.0% 68.9% 74.0
Source: 2011 census
The above table shows that the urbanization process in India does not
bring desired social changes and positive attitudinal change towards women.
In fact advanced technology helped the urban masses to terminate the girl
child in the foetus itself. High mortality of women during pregnancy is also
one of reasons for low sex ratio.

Residential inequalities
With the country’s agriculture sector having a limited absorption
capacity, majority of the growth in urbanization is expected to be a
consequence of rural-to-urban migration. Post economic liberalization, India’s
manufacturing and services sector has seen an influx in employment from the
rural youth. With the country expected to witness rapid industrialization, the
trend of migration from rural to urban areas is likely to continue. Growing
concentration of people in urban areas has resulted in an increase in the
number of people living in slums and squatter settlements. Skyrocketing
prices of land and real estate in urban areas have induced the poor and the
economically weaker sections of the society to occupy the marginal lands
typified by poor housing stock, congestion and obsolescence. It is apparent
that substantial housing shortage looms in Urban India and a wide gap exists
between the demand and supply of housing, both in terms of quantity and
quality.
Table 3 Urban housing shortage 2012
Households in homeless condition 0.53 million 3.0%
House holdings living in non serviceable 0.99 million 5.0%
(Kaccha house)
Households living in obsolescent house 2.27 million 12%

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Households living in congested houses 14.99 million 80%


requiring new houses

In 2001, about 23.5 per cent of the urban households were living in slums,
which significantly reduced to 17 per cent in 2011. However, the absolute
number of households living in slums has increased from 10.15 million in 2001
to 13.75 million in 2011.

Incidence of Poverty across Social Groups


Studies undertaken by various scholars based on NSS 68 round and
planning commission shows disparity in poverty and exclusion of social
groups even in urban areas. Most of the studies found that major portion of
urban poor consist of SC/ST and minorities particularly Muslims. Poverty
rates among Jains and Sikhs are significantly lower in rural and urban areas
than in the general population. Christians also exhibit very low poverty rates
in urban areas.

Table 4 Poverty by Religious Groups in urban India


Religion Share in Percent population below the Percentage point
the Tendulkar line Reduction in
population poverty
2011-12 1993-94 2004- 2009- 2011- 1993-94to2004-05
05 10 12
Christianity 2.7 22.9 14.1 12.9 5.5 8.9 8.6
Hinduism 77.3 29.7 23.1 18.7 12.1 6.6 10.9
Islam 16.8 46.6 41.8 33.9 22.7 4.7 19.1
Jainism 0.7 6.0 2.7 1.7 3.9 3.3 -1.2
Sikhism 1.4 18.6 9.5 14.5 5.0 9.1 4.5
Total 100.0 31.9 25.7 20.9 13.7 6.2 12.0

Urban segregation
Research on Indian cities has also found high degrees of residential
segregation by socio-economic status, religion and caste. In popular
imagination, the city is often viewed as a liberating space where rigid social
structures make way for secular transformations. Particularly in the global
South, the city is synonymous with social mobility and emancipation. Taking
into account the transformative potentials of cities and towns, Babasaheb

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Ambedkar, Dalit icon and key architect of the Indian Constitution, exhorted
the oppressed communities to leave the “narrow-minded” villages for city life.
The Dalits and other marginalised sections have not disappointed Ambedkar.
The last decade saw an approximately 40% jump in Dalits opting for urban
living. Cities have historically remained prime locations for India’s religious
minorities, especially Muslims and Christians; compared to 29% of Hindus, an
impressive 40% of Muslims and Christians live in urban areas. In short, the
socially oppressed and spatially disadvantaged continue to flock to cities and
towns to escape degrading social practices of segregation and discrimination,
and also, importantly, to move up social mobility ladders. The findings of
many recent studies on Indian cities indicate that while cities still remain
the best hope for social mobility for millions of oppressed and marginalised
communities, they increasingly mirror India’s rural social and cultural
realities, its entrenched caste system and social customs. Residential
segregation and identity-based discrimination are on a steady rise in urban
spaces. Dalits and Adivasi are still heavily concentrated within certain
geographical areas of cities, mostly in unauthorized settlements and poor
neighbourhoods. Even cities such as Pune, Delhi and Bangalore that are more
efficiently planned than other cities are not immune to this disturbing trend of
residential segregation. Informal settlements located on city peripheries do not
receive basic services such as drinking water, sanitation, healthcare and food
stamps.
In short, India’s current mechanisms of urbanization offer few
opportunities for its disadvantaged citizens, especially for its religious
minorities, new migrants and poor. Cities are not only mimicking rural social
and cultural structures of inequality and exclusion, but they are also creating
reasons for future conflicts. This current form of urbanization that is
producing “urban winners” and “urban losers” should alert urban planners
and key policy makers to the necessary reforms. It is well known in
development literature that such unequal access to resources – which are, in
India, basic services – can curb human development potentials, lower the
quality of life, create conditions for communal political rhetoric and exacerbate
development cleavages along religious and ethnic lines. It must be reiterated
that caste and religious differences greatly coincide with social and political
mobilisation and can unleash civil strife and social unrest. Now Indian cities

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are on slow but sure paths towards crises of various kinds, and it is vital to
reverse the current trends of segregation and inequality.

Urban health inequalities


Poverty is becoming increasingly concentrated in urban areas and is
qualitatively different from rural poverty. Exclusion, which is related to and
often an outcome of relative deprivation, is an important aspect of urban
poverty. It is generally assumed that urban residents have better health than
rural residents; this is called the “urban health advantage” and is thought to be
associated with increased access to health services, a more diverse diet, and
higher levels of educational attainment, among other purported benefits of
living in an urban. A belief that the health of rural populations is poorer than
that of their urban counterparts has resulted in a predominantly rural focus of
health policy and planning in India and other low- and middle-income
countries. But empirical work has shown, for example, that adult mortality
rates (ages 15-45) are actually higher in urban than in rural areas. Indeed,
urban residents experience increased risk of diarrheal and parasitic diseases,
dengue and other mosquito-born diseases, contact with disease vectors and
rodents due to crowded living conditions, proximity to garbage and other
hazardous materials and lack of appropriate water and sanitation. Urban
dwellers are also at risk of non-communicable diseases like overweight and
diabetes. Finally, traffic accidents, natural disasters, indoor and outdoor air
pollution and stress of living with minimal privacy and not enough money,
are some additional public health threats that are concentrated in urban areas.

Regional disparities
The results of 2011 census reveals that the biggest trend towards urbanization
is in southern India, where all states except Andhra Pradesh have more than
35% of population living in urban areas. These states also saw the fastest
economic growth in the last decade, drawing in associated migration from
other states, this brings out the pressure of population on large urban areas
i.e. cities, UAs ( Urban Agglomerations) and mega cities. In fact , the disparity
in growth rates between large and small and medium sized towns has
increased significantly as urbanization process has got concentrated over the
time in large cities and developed regions. As result the big towns located in
developed states have experienced high economic and demographic growth

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due to their stronger economic base, whereas towns located away the
emerging global centers of growth have failed in attracting investment due to
a high infrastructural deficiency.

Measures needed for reduction of inequalities in income, poverty and


exclusion
India’s urban population has grown at a CAGR of 2.8 per cent over
2001-2011, resulting in an increase in the urbanization rate from 27.8 % to
31.2%. out of India’s 1.21 billion population, 377 million people are urban
dwellers. The federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce (FICCI) estimates
that by 2050, the country cities would witness a net increase of 900 million
people. Furthermore over 2012 -2050 the pace of urbanization is likely to
increase at a CAGR of 2.i% double than that of china.

Table 5 Urbanization Growth in India


Years Urban growth
1960-61 18.0
1970-71 18.2
1980-81 23.3
1990-91 25.7
2000-01 27.8
2010-11 31.2
Source: Census of India 2011

Health services are particularly expensive in urban areas and their


quality is extremely variable. There are large numbers of informal and
untrained healthcare providers as well as highly trained specialists, but
preventive and primary care delivered by a qualified general practitioner is
not sufficiently available. Lack of access to quality and appropriate services
contributes to poor health across the life course. The government of India
spends significantly less on health than other countries in the region, and the
budget allocation for urban health is especially low. Increasing spending to
address the quality, type, expense and management of urban health care
services can be done in conjunction with cost-saving actions including the
promotion of generic drugs to reduce unnecessary expenditure. We talk about
prosperity, equality and sustainability is very important to look at who is

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being behind and to devise ways of pulling these people back in also to
analyse the processes that create and aggravate poverty.
Much of India’s future urbanisation will be the result of migration from
rural areas and small cities and towns. These urban migrants are often
invisible, voiceless and powerless. Without official recognition or support,
urban migrants are increasingly living and working in extremely poor and
precarious conditions in the informal sector. Therefore one of the major public
policy issues will be to devise ways and means to reduce inequalities while
expanding the system.
The strategies to ameliorate the situation may focus on regulating the
growth of the system and targeting of public investments towards basic needs
of the deprived groups. The social conditions of India demands now also
greater role from government both directly and indirectly. To bring parity and
inclusive growth government should assume greater responsibility of
regulating and monitoring urban development.

Conclusion
Meaningful progress towards sustainable human development, inclusion and
stability can be better achieved through measures that promote and protect
human rights and ensure effective participation of lower caste in such efforts.
Discrimination and exclusion of ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities
undermines the efforts to achieve poverty reduction, democratic governance,
and over all development. In contrast, their effective participation enriches
decision making, and helps plan, implement and monitor sustainable and
effective solutions to development challenges. Urbanization should empower
all and development to benefit all section of the society. It is imperative for
India to emerge as a modern, developed nation. Urban poors and excluded
groups need to be fully mainstreamed in social, political and economic spheres
to ensure their upliftment. Thus, it becomes must that inclusion efforts have to
be taken up in large scale to prop up and upgrade socio-economic status of
urban poor.

References
 Arvind Sharma, Secular Politicking,(2008), India Today, January 7, 2008, New
Delhi, India.

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 Kannan, K.P. (2014), “Interrogating Inclusive Growth: Poverty and Inequality


in India” Routledge India.
 Radhakrishna, R. (2015), “Well-being, inequality, Poverty and Pathways out of
 poverty in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.50, No.41
 Rangarajan, C. and S.Mahendra Dev (2015a), “Counting the Poor”, Economic
and Political weekly, Vol.50, No.2.
 Rangarajan, C. and S. Mahendra Dev (2015 b), “ The Measure of Poverty:
Estimates
 based on SECC and NSS have different purposes”, Indian Express, July 20.
 Rangarajan, C. and S. Mahendra Dev (2015 c), “How Deep is India’s Poverty”,
Indian
 Express, December 15, 2015.
 Rao, C.H.H (2009), “Inclusive Growth: Recent Experiences and Challenges
Ahead”,
 Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 44, No.13
 Meenakshi, J.V., Ray, R., & Gupta, S. (2000) Estimates of poverty for SC, ST
and Female-Headed Households. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(31), pp.
2748-2754
 Mukim, Megha and Arvind Panagariya. (2012). Growth, Openness and the
Socially Disadvantaged. In Bhagwati, J. and Arvind Panagariya, eds., India’s
Reform:How they Produced inclusive Growth, New York: Oxford University
Press, pp.186-246.
 Panagariya, Arvind and Vishal More. (2013). “Decline in Poverty in India:
Real or an Artifact of a Low Poverty Line?” In process.
 Shukla, Rajesh, Sunil Jain and Preeti Kakkar. (2010). Caste in a Different
Mould, New Delhi: Business Standard.
 Sundaram, K. and S. Tendulkar (2003). “Poverty among social and economic
groups in India in 1990s,” Economic and Political Weekly 38(50), pp. 5263-
5276.
 UN-Habitat (2016). Zero Draft of the New Urban Agenda.
https://www.habitat3.org/zerodraft
 United Nations (2014), World Urbanization Prospects, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs.
https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Report.

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29
Urban Poverty: A Threat to Economic Development – A
Critical Review

Lija Merin John and Tejashree R.


Introduction:
Man is a social animal, there is no society without man and there is no
man without society, both are mutually dependent and inseparable from each
other. Due to evolution, which later led to development people started
migrating from villages to cities or urban areas there by resulting in
Urbanization. At this point of time rural migration increased in count. On one
hand there was an increase in the urban population, while on the other hand
even urban poverty was also established and was slowly increasing. Due to
rural migration population increased in urban areas which made a bad impact
on the society giving rise to Urban Poverty. Today Urban Poverty is a matter
which has to be addressed. Various factors have contributed to the urban
poverty. Urbanization is a serious threat to a developing nation.
This paper draws contrast of poverty and urbanisation. Later it lays emphasis
on the impact of urban poverty on India and also discusses the various
challenges put forth by it with special reference to slum population. It even
advances various solutions to overcome this issue by suggesting few remedies.
Causes Of Poverty:
 Increase in the rate of illiteracy
 Population explosion
 Practice of untouchability and caste discrimination
 Inequalities of income and other factors
 In efficient exploitation of resources
Causes Of Urbanization:
 Industrial revolution
 Employment opportunities
 Privatization
 Industrialization
 Rural Migration
 Advancement of facilities

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Rural Migration:
Rural migration to cities is usually caused by economic or personal problems.
According to an article published by the University of Michigan in 2002,
titled “Urbanization and Global Change,” developing countries, in an attempt to
pay off foreign debt and bolster their financial standings, encourage
exportation of natural resources. Rural migration is one of the main grounds
for urbanization. People are getting attracted towards the lifestyle and way of
living of city life. Though rural migration is a positive step towards
advancement it has impacted the society both in positively as well as
negatively. As more and more nations begin to industrialize and modernize,
we must watch out for the problems caused by these expansions. Urbanization
should be encouraged and should not have to come with slum formation and
environmental pollution. By regulating the pace at which a nation urbanizes,
we can encourage development while limiting its negative side effects. This
evil of rural migration is one of the main causes of urban poverty and leads to
increase in slum areas which are the main pillar of urban poverty.

Urban Poverty And Its Challenges


Urban poverty, though is still emerging in very rapid pace, it has proved to be
far more dangerous than rural poverty. In urban areas, poor have to live in
outskirts or slum areas. They are not having good houses to live in. The areas
in which they live are not having well sanitation facilities. In rural areas, the
sanitation is not well-maintained but then too, vast space help to dispose
waste properly.
In matters of houses – habitation, the rural poor have large space to live in,
while the urban poor have to live only in small houses and roadsides with full
on exposure of pollution. This pollution later takes a toll on their health. In
urban areas, no proper light and air is available in houses. Density is more in
urban areas in comparison to rural areas. So, urban poor have to face problems
of unhealthy house-facilities.
Rural poor are having access to clean atmosphere in their natural
environment. But their urban counterparts have to face pollution problems.
Air, water and soil are polluted in urban areas. The noise pollution is another
problem for urban poor.
Health of urban poor is always at risk. While rural poor, not having more
money to spend, but they are not facing much health problems. Urban poor

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are more prone to epidemics like dengue, malaria, cholera etc.


Social problems in rural poor are less grave than their urban counterpart.
Urban poor are not having as good social cohesion as that of the rural poor.
They are more exposed to ill-habits like drinking, drugs, gambling etc. Other
social evils also easily crept in the lives of urban poor. Mental health is always
at risk for urban poor as their life is tenser than that of the rural poor. More
work and less rest, no social atmosphere, feeling of being backward etc. can
make them mentally disturbed, in most cases. Thus, it seems that rural poor
are having better life than urban poor.
The people who migrate from rural areas to developed cities fall in a trap of
economic pressure wherein the wages they receive are sufficient enough to
meet their day to day high expenses in the expensive society they live in. The
motive of rural migration is to financially support the families in villages.
However low wages and less opportunities of employment lead to a huge gap
between income and fulfilment of needs. Their lifestyle is much lower than the
remaining urban population.
Hence, to have affordable housing, food, work and health facilities, they
create their own settlement called, invisible cities, informal cities, slums etc.
Along with economic growth and its consequent impact on urbanisation, the
nature of poverty in developing countries also follows a gradual shift from
being predominantly concentrated in rural areas to shifting gradually to urban
areas. “According to a report by UN-Habitat, the UN’s human settlement
programme; it is a myth that urban populations are healthier, more literate or
more prosperous than people living in the countryside. The report provides
data that shows that the world’s one billion slum dwellers are more likely to
die earlier, experience more hunger and disease, attain less education and
have fewer chances of employment than those urban residents that do not
reside in a slum. But the report also cites examples of how good housing and
employment policies can prevent slums from growing. Of the 3.2 billion urban
dwellers today, it is estimated that 1 billion population live in ‘slums’, and
remain socially, politically and economically excluded. Slums in poor cities are
growing by 100,000 people per day – one person every second.”
Challenges of urban poverty in India are intimately tied with challenges
of the country’s fast development. Indian cities have come to dominate the
charts as the world’s biggest cities for the first time in modern history. The

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unexpected urbanisation though a boon to developing countries like India,


could turn into a bane if not handled properly.
“Cities have become the best place to foster poverty and destitution at a scale
and extent unseen before. Urban poverty in India has added a whole new
branch of problems in economic growth of the nation such as diseases,
violence, social inequality and a degrading GDP.
“As cities grew, so did the slums, "welcoming" more rural migrants and
creating more urban poverty in India. Even though people keep on flowing
from the countryside, the government has persisted in not creating enough
housing for everyone. Let's not even speak about affordable housing for the
poor.”
Slum: Pillar of Urban Poverty In India
“India’s growth over the last two decades has resulted in one of the
largest human migrations in history – from the Indian countryside to its
growing metros. The country’s on-going industrialisation, riddled with
missteps, has driven, and will continue to drive, the transformation and
relocation of it’s pre-dominantly (rural) agricultural labour force into urban
areas as they become industrial and service workers. The massive influx of
people has strained India’s urban systems to the point of breaking, creating
massive slums with inadequate housing, sanitation, basic services and
security.”
Thus it is quite evident that the greatest threat to economic development
in India is urban poverty, in which the increasing slums play a vital role. India
is one the most potential developing countries of the world. It’s high time that
the status of a developing country needs to be over turned as developed
country. Crushing the walls of slums is required for the same. Managing
slums and the social inequality would bring down the count of urban poor.
India’s leaders need to recognise three important facts about slums unique to
India:
“In 2017, India is expected to have over 100 million people living in
slums and another 10 million migrants moving to the cities each year. India
cannot afford to pause or be complacent on urban development given the scale
of this migration and in fact needs to play some ‘catch-up’ in scaling the
infrastructure of its cities to match their populations.”

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Slum population of India is not unnoticed. All the politicians though for
their own benefit try to gain votes from the slum population as India’s slum-
dwellers are fully enfranchised and actively vote for national and local leaders
who they feel will protect their interests.
India lacks tools to curb rural migration and on top of it Constitution of
India ensures free movement of people throughout the country. “While slums
may be born organically, they will not disappear automatically just because
cities build more houses.” If the slum is a fact of modern urbanisation of
India, India’s choice is to decide what is its vision for the slum of the future,
the role of the slum, its design and purpose, how it will transform slums to
make them assets and thereby put them on the path to transforming into being
the waiting room to enter a better life. If this is to happen, the real challenge is
to support of the organic process of mutating slums into dynamic city sub-
centres in an ever-expanding city boundary.

Suggestions & Remedies


“The new governmental plan - the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission - from 2005 has been trying to break up with the traditional top-down
approach that overlooks long term goals, the value of community-building
and social harmony in reducing poverty. As it’s endeavoured to restore the
provision of basic services”
 The sole reason for increasing slums was the unexpected and rapid
industrial revolution which led to urbanisation in India. Thus the tit for
tat solution of this crisis would be to press forward this industrial
revolution much more aggressively so that more employment
opportunities can be brought up in country to provide jobs to slum-
dwellers and pay them a proper wages.
 There is a need in India to formally set up anti poverty policies. It is not
only the responsibility of the government but also of each citizen to fight
this evil of urban poverty. This requires scaled charities and NGOs that
can apply global best-practices to tackling India’s urban issues and also
raise the necessary financing.
 “Lesson from other cities indicate that slums are best solved when
housing is horizontal not vertical. In order to assimilate slum-dwellers
into urban life instead of further ostracizing them, India cannot just
bulldoze the slums and pile up the people into apartment blocks. A real

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solution would involve building high-quality, low-cost, multi-storey,


diverse formats in the current areas such that these become integrated
with the rest of the city This needs the best brains in India and the world
to come in and design the solutions. The slum is merely the platform for
an urban re-invention.”
 The government needs to create a framework for gradual and
continuous upgrading of slum infrastructure through innovative public-
private models and by leveraging the many dynamic charities and
NGOs in India. Such a model would see the slum-dwellers become the
driving force of, rather than bystanders to, the improvement of their
living conditions by empowering them to identify the solution and then
finance and implement it.
 To solve any problem it’s necessary to go till the roots of the problem.
Rural migration leads to slum population and increase in urban poverty.
Thus to solve entire problem, rural migration needs to be dealt with.
India cannot solve its slum problem by focusing on the cities alone. Any
city which develops the systems to accommodate more people and
create economic opportunities will attract a disproportionate number of
migrants putting it under further strain unless opportunities in rural
areas are sufficiently attractive relative to those in the city. Therefore a
comprehensive solution would necessarily have to involve improved
infrastructure, schools, employment opportunities and the overall
quality of life in India’s small towns and rural centres.
 The one thing that local governments lack to solve urban poverty in
India is ground research. Finding out who needs what, finding out the
right people to target and try to represent and seek a consensus on
everybody’s interests and not only those who can afford to gang up and
promote their interests.

A problem cannot be addressed completely in blink of an eye. Little


drops of water makes the mighty ocean is so rightly said and thus if all the
solutions mentioned above can be implemented together, they could
represent a sea change in the way that India’s mass migration and resulting
urbanisation is managed. This requires a recognition that the reason why
slums in India persist and continue to expand is because of the failure to
address fundamental issues of economic opportunity across the country,

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population growth, urban and rural development and education and skills
development.

Conclusion
For the first time in history of the world, more people live in cities than
in rural areas, thus making urban poverty one of the most important, yet most
overlooked issues of the 21st century The huge numbers of people living in
towns and cities and the increasing proportion living in slums will present the
21st century with its most important health challenge. Given India is already
in the midst of a rocky economic cycle at the same time as slums are growing
at the edge of every major city, the investment in urban infrastructure can
create a highly positive multiplier effect for the economy while addressing a
major issue. “Addressing this issue of urban poverty is one of the key steps in the
regeneration of the India story and will have a highly positive impact on the success of
the next government. Indeed, solving the issue is about as difficult as putting a man
on the moon, but would have massive collateral benefits for the nation as a whole and
would be a true indicator that India is truly ready to play its role on the global stage.”

Reference
 “Transforming India’s Slums: A Critical Step in Creating the New India”,
October 2013 @ http://greaterpacificcapital.com/transforming-indias-slums-
a-critical-step-in-creating-the-new-india/
 “Urban Poverty in India, Slamming the Slums”, March 24, 2016 @
http://www.poverties.org/blog/urban-poverty-in-india
 “Urban Poor, Slums and UN” July 14, 2013 by Rashid Faridi @
https://rashidfaridi.com/2013/07/14/urban-poorslums-and-un/
 “Problems of Urbanization: Holding Back Development?” @
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/problems-of-urbanisation/
 “Dynamics of Urban Poverty, Strengthening Civil Society Voices on Urban
Poverty” April 9, 2013 By Nidhi Batra.

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30
Bridging Law and Society with Urban Poor

Vaishnavi Vasanth and Shilpashree L

Introduction
"Some people think luxury is the opposite of poverty. It is not. It is the
opposite of vulgarity." — Coco Chanel, French fashion designer

As Coco Chanel says a person does not need to lead a luxurious life to
be lifted out of poverty, all he needs are the basic necessities of a decent life.
There are two kinds of poverty - (a) absolute poverty and (b) relative. While
the latter lacks decent standard of living, the former lacks basic necessities of
life itself. This means the latter is not bad as the former. But it still stunts the
growth. We have such a sad state of affairs that despite so many policies in
place. This is not due the lack of amenities or policies but for the incompetency
or the disinterest shown in their implementation. Social exclusion is another
effect of poverty. While social exclusion includes living in poverty and a
violation of Human Rights, it is far deep rooted than that.
Poverty has always been prevalent in India for a very long time, but of late,
with growth in the economy, poverty also seems to be steadily increasing.
There was a time when India was a very rich country, its citizens also rich, this
was before it was plundered and left a bare skeleton. After independence,
India completely opened herself up to globalization which has had an adverse
effect on her. Although poverty has seen a steady rise, according to a 2011
Poverty Development Goals Report, Poverty in India is expected to drop by
22% in 2015.

Objectives
 It is necessary for people to understand that poverty is a deep rooted
evil that is very tricky to weed out.
 When you go through the statistics in the course of this paper we see a
huge decrease in the number of poor people, so, eradication of poverty
is an achievable goal with effective implementation.

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 We hope to influence the readers of this paper to help in bringing about


a change by alleviating people from poverty and also eradicating social
exclusion.
 It is very important to do more and more research on the problem of
poverty which is precisely what this paper is doing and not just stop
there, it is important to involve poor people directly because we have to
single out the root cause and tackle it head on. By involving poor people
we can get first-hand information and figure out appropriate solutions.
This paper points all those inherent problems that we can correct with a
little effort.

RURAL AND URBAN POVERTY

It is clear from the above statistics that the number of poor people reduced
from 407.1 million in 2004-05 to 269.3 million in 2011-12.When we compare the
difference between the years 1993-94 and 2004-05 with 2004-05 and 2011-12
there is a significant change in trend. We have the potential to completely
eradicate poverty if we see the statistics, granted it will be difficult, but if we
succeed in achieving it, India will be restored to its former glory.
In 2011-2012, there were still 13.7% people below poverty line in urban areas
and 25.1% in rural areas as per the Planning Commission which might have
increased in the past four years. Data from the Socio Economic and Caste
Census (SECC), as per the guidelines of the Hashim Committee, shows that
around 35% of Indian households live below the poverty line.

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Causes of Urban Poverty


 Agricultural sector not given its ‘dues’- The Government should have
invested and focused more on increasing the agricultural productivity of
our country and instead it disproportionately allocated its resources to
other sectors and failed to give this sector its dues.
 Liberalization and globalization – It has resulted in concentration of
wealth in few hands. The rich will get richer and the poor will remain poor.
 Local Corruption and Embezzlement - There is rampant corruption in local
governmental bodies. People influence the local governments to obtain
access to social services in exchange for some value. Embezzlement is also
widely practiced by the local bodies successfully fooling both the public
and their superiors.
 Economic Causes - Immobility of Labor and Lack of Employment are two
important economic causes of urban poverty.
 Social Causes - Education, caste system, joint family system, etc. have
certain drawbacks that are causing poverty and it needs to be rectified as
quickly as possible before it is too late.
The above mentioned are a few of the causes of Urban Poverty.

Social Exclusion – Meaning


The failure of society to provide certain individuals and groups with those rig
hts and benefits
normally available to its members, such as employment, adequate housing, he
alth care, education and training, etc.
It is evident from the above definition that social exclusion is a gross violation
of human rights and no one should live like that. It is understandable when
people don’t have access to luxuries but to not have access to even basic things
like health care and education is regressive. Every individual should have
access to basic amenities like the above mentioned.
Social Exclusion while being an evil in itself has far reaching consequences
that are undesirable for development in both senses, as an individual and a
community. Socially excluded usually don’t have access to equal opportunities
because, people on the higher strata of society keep it all to themselves. It is
even more difficult to eradicate social exclusion now due to the prevalence of
high levels of corruption.
Test For Social Exclusion

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The indicators for social exclusion, which are inaccessibility or limited


accessibility to nutrition, health, education, employment, basic amenities,
income inequality, legal services, political decision making and denial of rights
are the test for social exclusion. Using these indicators we can test for social
exclusion and find solutions.
When social exclusion crops up, it leads to all kinds of exclusion. Social
exclusion can be regarded as a result of urban poverty. The evil that it is, it
stops people from having access to basic amenities like health care, education,
housing, etc. India already has the practice of caste system which stratifies the
society. In an already stratified society, social exclusion has come like a whirl
wind in a storm. Social exclusion is the kind of evil that cannot be alleviated
unless we bring about a change in the individual sense. This change has to
come from within a person and no one can be coerced in to it. So, it is up to
individuals to eradicate the evil of social exclusion.

Society’s Involvement in Eradication of Poverty and Social Exclusion


According to Ulrich Beck,” Risks, much like wealth, is distributed unevenly in
a population and will influence quality of life.” While the rich have the ability
to mitigate the impact of the risk through the wealth they have accumulated,
the poor are left in the lurch to fend for themselves. Public participation in
issues like poverty and social exclusion has increased in the recent years but
the effectiveness of that is yet to be seen. There is many NGO’s working hand
in hand with the government to provide employment and amenities to these
people. If their plans are implemented effectively then in a few years we’ll see
the difference.

Legislations in India:
 Directive Principles Of State Policy
In legal terms, urban poverty can be explained as the negation of social justice
and economic democracy (also termed as economic justice). Article 38 and 39
of the Constitution of India enunciates social justice and economic democracy
respectively. The two concepts embody the doctrine of ‘distributive justice’.
This doctrine helps in mitigating the problem of social exclusion.
In Air India Statutory Corporation v. United Labor Union, the Supreme Court
has held that, “Social justice is a dynamic devise to mitigate the sufferings of
the poor, weak, dalits, tribals and deprived sections of the society, and so

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elevate them to the level of equality to live a life with dignity of person”. The
expression “the level of equality to live a life” also includes economic
democracy. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar has rightly stated that, “We do not want
merely to lay down a mechanism to enable people to come and capture power.
The Constitution also wishes to lay down an ideal before those who would be
forming the Government. That ideal is economic democracy”.
Though the Directive Principles of State Policy lays down principles to achieve
‘Welfare State’, India has failed to eradicate urban poverty. A Ministry of
Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation was set up in the wake of this failure.
The ministry concerns itself with the issues of urban poverty, employment and
housing in the country.

 Acts//Rules:
The ministry has enacted few Acts to address the serious and complex
problems of urban poverty. They are as follows:
 The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street
Vending) Act, 2014-The street vendors are present since ancient times.
But in the contemporary world, they are not given the same dignity and
tolerance as it was given during ancient times. There are nearly a million
of street vendors in India who are the constituents of urban poverty.
This Act protects the livelihood of the street vendors. It is not conferring,
but confirming their rights. The street vending activities can be
regulated to minimize the exploitation of street vendors by police and
municipal authorities. The social security provided in this Act helps in
extenuating urban poverty.
 Draft Model Tenancy Act, 2015 – It is not incorrect to presume that
people under relative poverty live in rented house. This Act aims at
regulating the relationship of tenant and landlord in rental contracts. It
states the rights and liabilities of the parties. This Act renders judicial
help by guaranteeing speedy adjudication of disputes. Judicial help acts
as a pillar in the process of bridging law with urban poor. The main
objective of the Act is to bestow social security to poor people and
balancing the two extreme ends of the society.
 The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry
Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993- Manual Scavenging is a role
traditionally determined for urban people of absolute poverty.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

According to Socio Economic Caste Census 2011 report, 794,000 manual


scavenging cases were found across India. Restoring dignity of poor
people is one of the ways in which poor people can be rescued from the
clutches of social exclusion. This Act tries to furnish dignity to poor
people by prohibiting the employment of manual scavengers.

 Schemes/Policies:
The Urban Poverty Alleviation Programmes (UPAPs) target the urban poor
and aims at eradicating urban poverty by facilitating them with resources to
run a decent life. Many policies are formulated with regards to the
programme, namely:
 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for all (Urban) – There has been
a decadal growth rate of slums by 34%, the slum households are projected
to go upto 18 million. The mission has a goal of construction 20 million
houses for urban poor. Rehabilitation of slum dwellers is done through
credit linked subsidy. This mission covers non slum urban poor also who
are approximated to be 2 million.
 National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) – This scheme replaced
Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY). It is based on the principle
of self-employment. It creates opportunities for skill development. This
helps urban poor to establish a market-based employment. The Act also
aims at obtaining help from community and inculcates the idea of ‘mutual
help’.
 Rajiv Rinn Yojana (RRY) – This is another instrument addressing the
housing needs of economically weaker sectors (EWS) and low income
groups (LIG) in urban areas. It propounds to channelize institutional credit
to the poorer sections of the society.
Law is an instrument to expunge poverty. The rights guaranteed in law helps
the poor people to rise up to higher class. But it cannot be achieved to the
fullest, if people are unaware of their rights. So the Government has to bring
legal awareness among poor people to make them understand their legal
status.

International Conferences:
Urban poverty is no more a local issue. The intensity of the problem has been
recognized globally. Countries have come together to fathom out the remedy

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

to eradicate urban poverty. India too has joined hands with them to increase
its international activities regarding housing and urban development. The
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation is a member of
Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF), Asia Pacific Ministerial
Conference on Housing and Urban Development (APMCHUD), UN-
HABITAT and UN Bodies, India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) Dialogue Forum,
India Africa Forum (IAF) and World Urban Forum (WUF).Conferences held in
these forums or organizations have suggested few propositions for urban
development which directly helps in reducing poverty. Those suggestions are
listed below:
1. Strengthening local government – An accountable, effective and
responsive local government helps in triggering the issue from the root.
India has given a constitutional position for local governments. But
weak local governance will not suffice the demands of the urban
poverty alleviation. The forum believes in putting local government at
the heart of development.
2. Delivery of Basic Services – Poor people lack basic necessities in life.
The government is expected to provide those basic amenities to them in
an organized form. It is possible through law which is backed sanctions.
Basic necessities also include pollution free environment. So the
government has to take measures to reduce air, water and land
pollution.
3. Urban and Rural Planning and management – An integrated planning
and management are required to improve governance for sustainable
development. It promotes coordination among various sectors. It needs
to be supported by strong financial, legal and implementation
mechanisms.
India has taken active participation in these forums, discussions and
conferences. These suggestions have enlightened and supported India to take
bold steps to reduce urban poverty.
Suggestions:
Bridging law and society with urban poor is a gradual process. The bridge
constructed needs to be well built to withhold all the pressures of the
stakeholders and rich class people in the future. It has to be made strong by
raising pillars with good foundation and construction. There are mundane
solutions. This paper tries to bring out a few of those suggestions, namely:

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

1. Proper implementation of law – We have legislations to support urban


poor. Implementation of law becomes successful when law has reached
out to all the poor people and bestowed them with facilities. But in
India, law has not been effective enough to bring all the urban poor
under its umbrella. This is because of few evil factors of urbanization
like corruption, political instability, etc. So the Legislature has to make
effective rules and regulations to cut down corruption.
2. Reducing brain-drain – The youth of today has the power to curb the
evils of the nation. The minds and strength of the youth can be
employed to eradicate poverty. But the youth of the nation are not
willing to work for their nation. This issue needs to be addressed to
make our young minds stay in our nation and help the Government to
obliterate poverty.
3. Judicial use of resources - The resources are helpful in alleviating poor
people. Since resources are scarce, it has to be used judiciously. This also
calls for equitable distribution of resources.
4. Controlling privatization – The Government has to control private
sectors either by direct supervision or joining hands with them to reduce
the problem of poverty. The financial help from private institutions
serve as a boon to both government and poor people.
5. Help from the urban society – The urban society gives room for poor
people to accommodate. But they are not provided with basic necessities
and social security. The personalities of society like actors, politicians,
writers, singers, etc can urge their followers to spend money on poor
people rather than wasting it on the celebration. This way society can
help poor people by giving them charity.

Conclusion:
India is facing the problem of poverty from many decades. It has taken many
steps and measures to mitigate it. It has also realized that it is a gradual
process. Nelson Mandela has rightly pointed out that, “As long as poverty,
injustice, and gross inequality exist, none of us can truly rest”. It is the
responsibility of not only the Government but also the society and other
sectors of it. Every sector has got a duty to work towards objectives of the
nation and help India in building a developed nation. And this is possible only
after alleviating poor people.

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References
 “Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011-12”, published by the
Government of India Planning Commission, July 2013, available at
http://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf (Last
visited- 23/12/2016)
 Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition
2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007,
2009, 2011, 2014
 Air India Statutory Corporation v. United Labour Union, AIR 1997 SC
645
 Dr. J.N. Pandey, Constitutional law of India, Central Law Agency,
Allahabad, (52nd ed. 2015).
 “Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for all (Urban)”, published by
Ministry of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1434, (Last
visited- 24/12/2016)
 “National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM)”, published by Ministry
of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1494, (Last
visited- 24/12/2016)
 “Rajiv Rinn Yojana (RRY)”,published by Ministry of Housing and
Urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1283, (Last
visited - 24/12/2016)
 “Strengthening local government in delivering development”,
published by Commonwealth Local Government Forum, available at
http://www.clgf.org.uk/what-we-do/programmes/, (Last visited -
24/12/2016)

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

31
Exclusion Poverty and Inequality in Urban Area

Tanya and Shubham C H


1. Introduction
The fundamental aim of economic growth must be the betterment of the
living conditions of the poor. Economic growth that does not lead to sharp and
sustained reductions in poverty may create more problems than it solves.
Similarly, if rapid growth is achieved at the cost of a worsening in the
distribution of resources, it ultimately becomes unsustainable, since it cause
social tensions. Hence, it is possible to imagine a situation in which economic
growth leads to such exacerbation of inequality that actually raises poverty. In
India, the perception is that the trend rate of economic growth was low and
fixed for a considerable period. A break was achieved through the exercise of
trade and investment liberalization and economic reforms begun in 1991. This
led to a sharp rise in the trend rate of economic growth. An important
question that arises here is: How has this economic growth affected poverty in
India with different levels of inequality and? This study is designed to arrive
at some tentative conclusions on this major issue. The approach to
liberalization in India (the Delhi consensus) has some clear differences with
the excellence approach (the Washington consensus). Of particular importance
are differences in the basic philosophy of liberalization. India has taken for
gradual and controlled liberalization and downplayed the stress on the speed
of reforms emphasized by the Washington consensus. In addition, there are
distinct in detail. Thus, apart from the IMF funds received in 1991, reliance on
foreign bilateral or multilateral public capital inflows has been very limited.
Accordingly, after the reforms, policy-makers have been facing a rigid
government budget constraint, but not a threatening external payments
situation. The Delhi agreement has emphasized the slow liberalization of trade
, avoided capital account liberalization and gradual privatization and. This
prudent approach has avoided major shocks, and the changes in inequality
consequent upon these reforms have been modest by the standards of, say, the
transition economies. Rural inequality has arisen at a slower pace than have
urban and overall inequality. The rise in inequality has been the result of three
factors: (i) a transfer in earnings from labour to capital income, (ii) the quick

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growth of the services sector – particularly the FIRE sector – with a consequent
explosion in demand for skilled workers and (iii) a drop in the rate of labour
involvement during the reform period. There has also been an increase in
regional inequality, especially in the incidence of rural poverty. This rise in
inequality has implied that, despite better growth, poverty reduction has been
sluggish. The plan of this paper is as follows. Aspects of economic growth and
inequality, inequality pattern, urban rural labour markets and the impact of
migration on poverty, inequality pattern, Poverty and Inequality at the State
Level, Tentative Conclusions.

2. Aspects of economic growth and inequality in India


Since Independence in 1947 India has gone through a phase of a very
modest average growth and high annual fluctuations of macro trends in
economic parameters. The annual GDP growth rate was well under 3% in real
terms throughout the fifties, sixties and seventies, which barely kept pace with
the population growth. This nonetheless marked a departure from near
stagnation or very low growth scenario during preceding decades of the
colonial rule. Since the early eighties the economy has started breaking away
from the institutional and technological shackles. Nineties saw the Indian
economy growing at a rapid pace, which subsequently seemed in 2003-04
reaches a new height of over 8%. The rate has happily stayed at that level for
quite some time now, only to register a marginal decline in the current year of
global crisis, as mentioned above. As a result of this GDP growth performance,
per capita income has become fourfold between 1950 and 2006, accelerating its
path of growth since 1990 (Figure 1). 7 Figure 1. Index of per capita income at
constant prices (1950-51=100) 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 1950 1960 1970 1980
1990 2000 Source: Economic Survey, 2007-2008, Government of India. A few
researchers have questioned this “high growth scenario” by pointing out that
methodological discrepancies in data generation, could explain at least part of
it. The system of national income accounting tapping new sources of data,
shifting the base year from 1980-81 to 1993-94 without ensuring temporal
comparability in the series and computation of non-agricultural income in
rural areas based on unverified assumptions, have been identified as “possible
noise factors”, resulting in divergence between the new series and the old .
Others have argued that the growth discourse on India needlessly separates
out the nineties from the earlier decades as the decade of globalization and

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thereby fails in taking a long term view of the process. Notwithstanding the
above criticisms, there seems to be a general agreement that growth rate in the
nineties, was slightly higher than that in the previous decade and that the rate
has accelerated during the present decade. This is confirmed by the trend in
per capita private final consumption expenditure obtained from National
Income Accounts. It shows modest growth during 1950-90 but subsequently,
the rate has been rising sharply to attain a level of Rs. 18,000 in 2007-08, three
times the figure of 1950-51. Similarly, the gross domestic saving rate which
was around 20% in the eighties, jumped to 25% during the nineties, the rate
being 36% in 2007-08. The measures of economic liberalization attracted
foreign capital as never before. From the modest figure of about Rs. 2500
million in 1986-87, the foreign investment rose to Rs. 1.2 billion (Economic
Survey 2007-08, Government of India). That the economy grew at an average
of 8.8% over the five years (2003-04 to 2007-08) has been noted to make a clear
break from the previous spurts in growth by the Economic Advisory Council
to the Prime Minister (2008). Taking all these into consideration one may argue
that nineties and subsequent years make a departure even from the eighties
and that one needs to analyze the growth performance during the last two
decades with empirical rigour and assess its implications in terms of changes
in labour market and inequality. Questioning the thesis that the recent
acceleration in growth is due to the policies and programmes of globalization
and structural adjustment, Nayyar (2006) argues that colonial rule is more
significant than the first break associated with Independence than the
structural break in the early eighties.

3. Inequality patterns
In a country as vast and regionally and socially differentiated as India, a
discussion on growth scenario will be incomplete without bringing in the
regional dimension as also issues of sharing of benefits across social categories.
The very positive macro economic trends notwithstanding, there is a concern
that the country has not been very successful in transforming “its growth into
development” manifest, most observable in growth of unemployment, of
informal sector and low productive jobs. Understandably, the major issue
challenging the policy makers is to tackle the problem of sharpening socio-
spatial inequalities and labour market exclusion that have manifested in the
development scene in an ominous manner. Regional (inter-state) inequality in

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per capita Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) is noted to have gone up
significantly during the past couple of decades. It must, however, be pointed
out that it is not for the first time in the post Independence history of India that
this has happened. It had gone up during sixties which was attributed to
Green Revolution and its regional concentration in north-west India. Similarly,
the latter half of the seventies saw an increase in inequality which was
attributed to industrial stagnation in backward states. The period since the
early nineties has come under closer scrutiny as the country has entered a new
policy regime of „economic efficiency and accountability opening up the
economy to global forces and bringing down subsidies and bureaucratic
controls. Several studies analyzing the trend in inequality in per capita
income, based on standard statistical measures of relative deviation like
coefficient of variation and Gini-coefficient generally confirm the thesis of
accentuation of regional imbalance. The weighted measures of inequality in
per capita income register a clear rising trend. What compounds the problems
of backward states is that there is marginal or no decline in their population
growth and these are much above the national average. The process of
demographic transition seems to be still a couple of decades away for most of
these states while the developed states in general seem to be on the verge of
this transition if not already into the phase. The implications of interstate
inequality become far more serious when one considers labour market
segmentation across states as manifest in decline in the rate of interstate
migration during past few decades. Using the population of the states as
weights. The inequality indices have been computed based on per capita
figures

4 .Urban rural labour markets and the impact of migration on poverty


There is a wide gap between the earnings in rural and urban labour
markets, one can hypothesize that migration would be an instrument of
enhancing economic wellbeing and escaping poverty. A cross classification of
migration data across consumption expenditure categories reveals that at the
macro level, economic deprivation is not the serious factor in migration
decisions of men (women migration being decided largely by socio-cultural
factors), both in rural and urban areas. Both in rural and urban areas the
migration rate tends to be high in the category reporting the highest monthly
per capita expenditure (MPCE), which goes down systematically. Importantly,

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in case of seasonal or short duration migrants; a similar pattern appears those


who have gone in urban areas to any other place during the last six months for
60 days or more from the date of survey and returned back,. When compared
to middle and upper class households it contradicts the proposition that short
duration mobility is very high among the poor. Those who adopt coping
strategies for livelihood and survival by shifting to other places in lean seasons
a segment of the migrants are indeed. However, if this was a major factor,
there would be a negative association between the percentage of seasonal
migrants with the level of consumption expenditure. One would specify that a
large segment of the small duration movement is due to factors like extension
workers, periodic transfer of regular workers and non permanent posting of
marketing etc. All these suggest that even this channel of short term migration
in urban areas is being utilized largely by relatively well off sections. Indeed,
both poor and rich households report migration, although the reasons for
forcing out their family members and the nature of jobs sought by them are
different.

5. Poverty and Inequality at the State Level


To highlight the regional dimensions of inequality and poverty, the Gini
index and H, PG and SPG have been calculated for 14 Indian states: Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Assam, Maharashtra Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, ,
Orissa, Punjab, Bihar Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West
Bengal.32 This analysis reveals a rich variety of experiences at the state level.
For example, the rural Gini went up for India as a whole in 1994-95 (51st
Round), but the rural Gini actually fell at the state level in Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Tamilnadu, and West Bengal. The aggregate
rural Gini fell in 1995-96 (52nd Round), while the rural Gini rose in Assam,
Bihar, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Uttar Pradesh. Some states have
reduced poverty impressively. Thus, the rural head count ratio has been
reduced sharply in Andhra Pradesh. Punjab has, expectedly, performed very
well. In contrast, poverty has worsened in states such as Assam, and its
incidence remains disturbingly high in a populous state such as Bihar. Some
states that have had high rates of economic growth and enjoy high per capita
consumption also show low inequality (and poverty levels) compared to states
that are lagging behind. For example, the rural Gini for Bihar was 31.65 in the
13th Round (1957-58) and had deteriorated to 38.9 by the 52nd Round (1995-

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

96).. Bihar has also had low rates of economic growth and is among the
poorest states in India. On the other hand, in Punjab, the richest state33 in the
country, the rural Gini coefficient dropped from 32.2 to 24.4 over the same
time period, with poverty falling sharply. Thus, too much inequality seems to
be an impediment to economic growth in this case. In specific situations, the
cause and effect could work either way. Not only can more equality and less
poverty be good for growth, but also high growth may lead to more equality
and less poverty.

6. Tentative Conclusions
We go back now to the theme of this paper. Have the economic reforms
reduced inequality and poverty in the Indian economy? An answer to this
vexed question is not easy, since India has, been a late and slow reformer. On
the basis of a study of the data up to 1997, the following general statements
can be made. 32 In both the rural and the urban sectors, at the all-India level
inequality was higher post-reform than it was at the time of the crisis. Since
the Gini coefficient for the urban sector is always higher than that for the rural
sector, and since rapid economic growth implies a shift in the population from
the rural to the urban sectors, the reform process has been accompanied by an
increase in overall inequality. This increment in inequality is the result of the
shifting in the distribution of income from wages to profits, a drop in the rate
of labour absorption and rapid growth of the FIRE sector. This has increased
the demand and, therefore, the remuneration of skilled labour and specialized
factors of production. However, since the reforms have been gradual and
partial and labour still enjoys considerable security of tenure, this
deterioration in inequality as compared to that in the transition economies has
been mild. Poverty rose in the immediate aftermath of the reforms. Growth
picked up, but the level of poverty remained stubborn (partially due to higher
inequality and stagnation in the agricultural real wage), although there was
some decrement in urban poverty. The decline in the crucial area of rural
poverty was lower than that38 during the 1980s and quite unsteady. Rural
poverty actually rose in 1995-96, and urban poverty in 1997. In reality mean
consumption have been higher for the urban sector than they have been for
the rural sector.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

References
1. Poverty and Inequality in India; Recent Trends K.S. Hari & Neelambar Hatti
2. Ahluwalia, M. S. (2000),“Economic Performance of States in Post Reform Era”,
Economic and Political Weekly, May.
3. Ahmad, Ahsan and Narain Ashish (2008), “Towards Understanding
Development in Lagging Regions of India” Paper Presented at the Conference
on Growth and Development in the Lagging Regions of India, Administrative
Staff College of India, Hyderabad.
4. Dubey, A, S. Gangopadhyay and W. Wadhwa (2001), “Occupational Structure
and Incidence of Poverty in Indian Towns of Different Sizes”, Review of
Development Economics, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 49-59.
5. Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (2008), Economic Outlook,
Government of India, New Delhi

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

32
Rural and urban differential in academic achievement
among institutionalized adolescent orphans in Kerala

Jyothy G Vijayan and Santhi S


Introduction
The plight of a solitary deserted child in an institution could arouse
spontaneous responses and bring warm hearted offers to give the child the
love of the real home when there is a group of children in an institution of any
kind their very number anaesthetizes emotion and their problems cease to be
individually human and urgent. Being deprived of parental care and familiar
protection such children get lesser opportunities for their interactions with
physical and social world outside their immediate neighbourhood. The most
delicate part of a baby is his budding Personality and no residential nursery
can provide satisfactory for the needs of the infants (Mangal,2005). Because the
baby does not learn the meaning of the love in his mother's arms he often
grows up enable to give or receive affection. This is the worst and most
destructive effect of Institutionalized infancy. Being away from home during
any one of the most significant stages of development is likely to produce
many adjustment problems in the later years of life.
As Hilgard et.al. observe "from a practical standpoint knowing how
early experiences mould an individual may make us wiser in the way we raise
our children. All children need to be protected, loved, wanted, recognized,
appreciated and adapted as a member of the society. When these basic needs
are not adequately provided with, the result is frustration and maladjustment.
In this context the role of family, faulty parent-child relationship, rejection,
faulty discipline, authoritarian attitude of parents, negligence and undesirable
family interactions are found to effect seriously the normal development of the
Personality of children. Huxley reports that parental rejection results in
discouragement and unpleasant emotional conditions. In some cases it is
shown that this has been an inhibiting affect of the child's cognitive aspects of
development and functioning. Parental rejection leads to indiscipline and
antisocial Personality in children. MC Lord concluded that severe parental

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

rejection and lack of parental affection were the primary causes of antisocial
Personality. The importance of family situation in the formation of Personality
is emphasized today by all the sciences which are participating in the study of
human behaviour(Morgan,1995). The family is the small miniature of the
society, in which the child lives and the most powerful in conditioning the
original nature in to the socialized behaviour.

Need And Significance Of The Study


The standard nutrition as well as physical care in these institutions are
sometimes good and as such their facilities cannot be equated to private
homes for quality or quantity (Mathew, 2006). Therefore Institutionalized
children form one group of child population who are affected by various
forms of deprivation, the most important being the absence of an inmate,
consistent interaction with an adult figure. Their basic needs for individual
care, attention, love, warmth, security etc are not adequately met in
institutional set –ups as a result of which children grow up with poor mental
health and adjustment problem(Mangal,2005). Hence the significance is
relevant.

Hypotheses Of The Study


1. There is no significant relationship between the Infrastructure Facilities
Available for Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale.
2. There is no significant difference in relation between Facility, and
Academic Achievement of Adolescent Orphans.

Objectives Of The Study


1. To find out the relationship between the Infrastructure Facilities
Available for Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale.
2. To find out the relationship between Facility, and Academic
Achievement of Adolescent Orphans.
Methodology
Sample
Normative survey method was found to be most appropriate in the
present investigation to study the orphanage facilities and academic
achievement of the Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans. The present study

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

has been envisaged on a sample of 250 Adolescent Orphans in Kottayam,


Pathanamthitta, Eranakulam, Alppuzha, and Malappuram districts.
Tools Used
The investigator tries to find out the Academic Achievement of Orphans
by measuring their marks in corresponding examinations.

Method Adopted For The Study


Methods that are employed in collecting data are highly important. The
accuracy of the results of any research work depends upon the method by
which the conclusions are arrived at. . Normative survey method was used for
the study. It is a method of investigation which attempts to describe and
interpret what exist at present in the form of conditions, practices, trends,
effects, attitudes, beliefs etc (Sindhu, 1990).
Sample Selected For the Study
The process of sampling makes it possible to draw valid inferences or
generalizations on the basis of careful observation of variables with in a
relatively small proportion of the population (Kaur, 1990). Size of the
sample is governed by the size of the tools to be used. Size of the sample
depends on the population, sampling design, parameters used and estimated
range of unreliability and an estimate of dispersion of the characteristic under
investigation. The sampling method also determines the size of the sample.
The sample for the present study constituted 250 institutionalized adolescent
orphans belonging to different districts. The sample contains 125 boys and 125
girls adolescent orphans form 13 orphanages. The sample also divided 125
orphans from rural orphanages and 125 orphans from urban oranges.

Supports Provided By The Orphanages


Another main objective of the study is to find out the extent of support
provided by the Orphanages to Adolescent Orphans. The investigator
collected the information’s regarding the supports provided to the
Orphanages by providing a check list to the Orphans
Among the 13 Orphanages selected for the study it is clear that the
orphanage providing Building facility is for 77% of the Orphanages,
Educational facility is for 85% of the Orphanages, learning material provided
is 62% of the Orphanages., Medical facility provided is 100% of the
Orphanages, Supporting facility provided by the orphanage is 69%,Boarding

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

facility is 100%,teaching and non teaching staff is 46%, and the recreational
facilities provided by the orphanage is 62%

Table 1
Details Regarding the Facilities used in the Orphanages
Facilities No. of No. of Maximum
Sl. provided by Orphanages % Orphanages % No. of %
No. Orphanages receiving not Orphanages
the facilities receiving
the facilities
1 Building 10 77% 3 23% 13 100%
Facilities
2 Educational 11 85% 2 15% 13 100%
Facilities
3 Learning 8 62% 5 38% 13 100%
Materials
4 Medical 13 100% 0 0 13 100%
Facility
5 Supporting 9 69% 4 31% 13 100%
Facility
6 Boarding 13 100% 0 0 13 100%
Facility
7 Teaching 6 46% 7 54% 13 100%
And Non-
Teaching
Staff
8 Recreational 8 62% 5 38% 13 100%
Facility

Figure 1
Percentage of Orphanages Receiving and not Receiving the Facilities.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Locale
H0: There is no significant relationship between the Infrastructure Facilities
Available for Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale.

Table 2
Data and Result of Test Infrastructure Facilities Available for
Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale

Variables Locale N M SD CR Level of


Significance
Facility Urban 125 111.01 6.88
3.38 P<.05
Rural 125 113.8 6.13
T
able shows that the obtained CR value 3.38 is greater than the table value
(1.65) at .05 level of significance. This means that there is difference between
Rural and Urban Orphans in their facilities in Orphanages.

Figure 2
Mean Scores obtained for Infra structure facilities available for
Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale

The above graph shows that there is significant relationship between


Personality Traits, and Academic Achievement of Adolescent Orphans

Comparison of Facility And Academic Achievement Of Adolescents


Orphans

253
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

H0; There is no significant difference in relation between Facility, and


Academic Achievement of Adolescent Orphans.

Table 3
Data and Result of Test of Significance between Facility and Academic
Achievement of Adolescent Orphans.
Variables N df r tr Level of
Significance
Facility 250 248
.2526 4.11
Academic Achievement. P<.05

The r value 0.2526 indicates the positive correlation between Facility,


and Academic Achievement of Adolescent Orphans. Hence it could be
concluded that there is positive correlation between facility, and Academic
Achievement, of Adolescent Orphans. The obtained tr value (4.11) is greater
than the table value. So it can be inferred that there is significant relationship
between Personality Traits Traits, and Academic Achievement, of Adolescent
Orphans. So the null hypothesis is rejected.

Conclusion
Interview schedule was designed to collect data in the following areas-
financial sources, organizational information’s, number of inmates, staffs
number and their salary ,adjustment problems faced by orphans , their
educational background, orphans dealing with outside community, their
placement in jobs, and their vocational training. Through the interview, the
investigator got a brief description about their financial sources. It is from the
congregation that they get the financial sources .Some Orphanages did not get
any grant from the government .Some Orphanages did not get any grant from
the government. Some Orphanages contain two or more staffs. Some are not
.Orphans face many adjustment problems outside the
community(Pushpakumari, 1985). Through this schedule the investigator got
an idea of the placements of the ex-orphans .Some Orphanages give vocational
training to the Orphans .The interview schedule gives an idea about the
financial support and facilities available in the Orphanages.

Implications

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

1. Effective steps should be taken to improve the Orphans Emotional


Intelligence, Personality Traits and Occupational Aspiration.
2. Better facilities should be arranged in orphanages and steps must be
taken to maintain better Administrator-Orphan relationship. Since it
has a great influence on Academic Achievement.
3. Much attention should be given to Social and Mental Development of
Adolescent Orphans and this will certainly enhance the all round
Development of the Orphans.
4. Better library facilities including reading materials, magazines and
club activities should be provided to all orphanages.
5. Teachers and Administrators should find sufficient time to find out the
ability of the students and to give proper career guidance.
6. Career Guidance should be included in Academic Curriculum.
7. Special attention and guidance should be provided to improve
Orphan's Inter-Personal Awareness and Management and also Intra-
Personal Awareness and Management.
8. Teachers and administrators should take the responsibility to build
Mature Career Aspirations among Adolescent Orphans.
9. Orphanage Administrator should re-organize the existing evaluation
system which can improve Orphan's Personality.
10. Resource teachers with multi category training may be appointed to
Orphanages.

Reference
 M.A. Pushpakumari., A Study on the Personal and Educational Problems
Experienced by Wein Students at the Degree Level in the Collages Affiliated to the
University of Kerala, unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Kottayam : Mahatma Gandhi
University, 1985.
 Umadevi, Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence, Achievement Motivation
and Academic Achievement, Edutracks, , August 2009, Vol.8, No. 12.
 Mangal S.K. (2005) Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India Private Limited.
 Mangal Shubra, Convergence of IQ, EQ and SQ Imperative for Hollistic Growth and
Development, Edutrack, Hyderabad : Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.,
November, 2007, Vol 7, No. 3.
 Mangal, S.K. (2007), Statistics in Psychology and Education (2nd Edn.), New Delhi
: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.

255
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Mathew Julie, Socio-Economic Status on Career Aspiration of Secondary School


Students in Pathanamthitta District, Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Kottayam :
Mahatama Gandhi University, 2006.
 Mbugua, Tata (2004) ., Responding to the Special needs of Children: Educating
HIV/ AIDS orphans in Kenya, (E.J 705756).
 Michell W., (2005)., Emotional Intelligence of School Teachers and High Performing
High Poverty Middle Schools in the State of Virginia, Dissertation Abstract
International.
 Millon, Theodore (1987)., Genesis and Prevalence of the Borderline personality
Disorder, Journal of Personality disorder, Vol. 4.
 Mohanty, Jagannath (1997)., Family Life Education of Adolescents, New Delhi :
Deep and Deep Publications Ltd.
 Morgan, Clifford, T. (1995), Introduction of Psychology, New Delhi: Tata Mc
Graw Hill Educational Publications Ltd.
 Morxis, (2003), Difference in Emotional Intelligence and Related Constructs Among
Academically Non-Resistant African Undergraduate Students, Dissertation
Abstract International.
 Mouly J. George (1963)., The Science of Educational Research, New York :
American Book Compnay.
 Murty S.K., (1970), Essential Foundations of Educational Psychology, Ludhiyana :
Tandon Publications.
 Osborn, Michael (1971)., The Impact of Differing Parental Education Achievement,
Attitudes, Aspirations and Expectation of the Child, The Journal of Educational
Research, Vol. 4.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

33
Inclusive Urban Development - Service Sector
Employment in the Era of Globalization

Margaret Mary

Introduction
One of the most important forces that have shaped India’s economy in
the last two and a half decades is the process of globalization. This has been a
world-wide phenomenon, and India could not have remained insulated.
However, in the case of India, the globalization process was considerably
aided by the far reaching economic policy reforms especially liberalization of
trade and investment that India undertook since 1991. The term ‘globalization’
is used widely, but often in different senses. Used in a broader sense, one may
include under the ambit of globalization, the adoption of supra-national
standards in economic arrangements in a country (Balakrishnan, 2010, p.167).
A narrower definition of globalization, which is the one adopted for this
paper, is to interpret it as a process of unification of world economic order
through reduction of barriers such as tariffs, export fees and import quota (as
given in Wikipedia). Removal of barriers to foreign investment would also be a
part of the above definition. The economic reforms in india since 1991 are
therefore a major contributor to the process of globalization in India insofar as
these reforms enabled the India economy increasingly to get integrated with
the world economy.
The process of globalization was facilitated in India through economic
policy changes. This was done with the belief that globalisation would
contribute to achieving accelerated economic growth in India and help in
creating employment opportunities by favouring labour-intensive growth in
as much as India is believed to have a comparative advantage in unskilled-
labour-intensive production. The favourable effect of globalization on
economic growth probably did take place, though this may have occurred
with a lag and was confined to certain sectors of the economy. But, in terms of
inducing a labour-intensive growth path in India and thus creating a lot of
employment opportunities, globalization did not achieve much success. In the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

first ten years following the large-scale trade and foreign investment
liberalization initiated in 1991, there was no marked increase in the trend rate
of economic growth in India. The trend rate of growth in real GDP (Gross
Domestic Product) was about 5 per cent per annum during 1980-81 to 1990-91,
which increased to about 5.6 per cent per annum during 1990-91 to 2000-2001.
However, there was significant acceleration in economic growth in the 2000s.
The trend rate of growth in real GDP accelerated to about 7.4 per cent per
annum in the period 2000-01 to 2010-11,3 and during the period 2003-04 to
2010-2011, the trend rate of economic growth was about 8.2 per cent per
annum (well above the trend growth rate in the 1980s and 1990s). Indeed,
India is poised to become the fastest growing economy in the world in the near
future, overtaking China in terms of the rate of economic growth.

Objectives
1. To study and understand the impact of globalization on urban
development
2. To study the employement in sevice sectors through globalization

Impact Of Globalization On Urban Development


The implications of globalization for a national economy are many.
Globalization has intensified interdependence and competition between
economies in the world market (Goyal, 2006). The post-1991 period has seen
notable changes in India’s macroeconomic policies, with the result that the
Indian economy today is far more open and far more integrated with the
global system than anytime since the 1960s (Mathur, 2003). Globalization in
India had a favorable impact on the overall growth rate of the economy. The
pick up in GDP growth has helped improve India’s global position.
Consequently India’s position in the global economy has improved from the
8th position in 1991 to 4th place in 2001;when GDP is calculated on a
purchasing power parity basis (Goyal, 2006).Changes have taken place during
the same period in the nature and pattern of urban growth. Economic and
spatial structure of cities, particularly the large cities, has begun to reflect the
changing composition of the global and regional markets. New townships
with high quality infrastructure have sprung up on the periphery of large
cities. Continuing relevance of public provision of city-level infrastructural
services is being increasingly questioned, and has led to, in several instances, a
major restructuring of the institutional and financial systems (Mathur, 2003).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Due to globalization not only the GDP has increased but also the
direction of growth in the sectors has also been changes. Earlier the maximum
part of the GDP in the economy was generated from the primary sector but
now the service industry is devoting the maximum part of the GDP. The
services sector remains the growth driver of the economy with a contribution
of more than 57 per cent of GDP (Goyal, 2006). The alignment of the Indian
economy to the global and regional markets has important implications for the
urban and city level economic structure. Cities are in the process of adapting
new economic realities (Mathur, 2003). City-level economic development is
slowly shifting away from industrial activities to more sophisticated
knowledge base systems.
The post-1991 period is marked by a significantly slower growth of
formal sector employment. In line with the global trends, much of the new
employment generation (73 percent) has taken place in the services sector.
Fifty per cent of new employment has taken place in manufacturing activities,
while the primary sector employment has declined by 23 per cent during this
period (Mathur,2003). The services sector is expected to benefit from the
ongoing liberalization of the foreign investment regime into the sector.
Software and the ITES-BPO sectors have recorded an exponential growth in
recent years (Goyal, 2006). To highlight 0bject Indian Urbanization and
Economic Development Given the present level of urbanization, India is still
predominantly a rural-agricultural country' with three-quarters of its
population living in rural areas and two-thirds of its workforce engaged in
agriculture and allied activities. However, increasing levels of urbanization is
accompanied by significant shifts in the structure of the economy. The share of
the primary sector is declining while the share of the secondary and tertiary
sectors is increasing, both in terms of employment and total output, and their
contribution to the national income. The share of the urban sector in the
national income has been disproportionately higher than the population share.
Urban areas contributed nearly 29 per cent of GDP in 1951. This share was 43
per cent in 1981 and was estimated to be around 47 per cent in 1991- The
urban per capita GDP ratio has correspondingly increased from 1.96 in 1951 to
2.16 in 1991 (Mehta 1993). The share of the manufacturing sector in terms of
Economic Development 59 total urban employment has recorded consistently
increasing levels between 1961 and 1981. This has decreased by about 5 per
cent during 1981-91. A relatively larger proportion of the urban work force is

259
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

now employed in the service sector. The imbalance in the pattern of economic
development and urbanization in India manifests itself both at the regional
level as well as in relation to the high concentration of urban population and
activities in a few large cities. Wide-ranging variations in the level of
urbanization and urban growth rate bear some semblance to the cross national
patterns of economic development and trends in urbanization. The more
developed and industrialized states have higher levels of urbanization and are
now experiencing relatively slower urban growth rate, while less developed,
industrialized states are rapidly urbanizing. The distribution of urban
population of 217 million residing in 3768 urban centres is uneven across
regions and city-size. In 1991, the 23 metropolitan cities accounted for 33 per
cent of the total urban population while 64 per cent of the urban population of
the country resides in the 273 cities above 100,000 population.
It is quite likely that these 300 urban centres contribute over 80 per cent
of income originating in urban areas. Such high levels of concentration of
urban population and economic activities can be explained to some extent by
the linkages of these cities to the external world markets. Locational and
Sectoral Shifts a second pattern observed is that the twin processes of
economic development and urbanization are associated with locational as well
as sectoral shifts of labour. The income elasticity of demand for manufactured
goods being greater than that for food and other agricultural products, this
sector has a higher potential for economic expansion and labour absorption
(Mills and Becker 1986; Oberai 1993). Thus, urbanization generally entails shift
of labour from lower income predominantly agricultural activities, to higher
income industrial and service sectors. Such locational and sectoral shifts of
labour imply a higher average income level which helps in attaining a faster
pace of overall economic growth at the national and regional levels. The
decline in manufacturing employment and increase in service sector
employment are particularly pronounced in the metropolitan and large cities.
A strong association between Indian urbanization and industrialization has
been observed. Nearly 74 per cent of all the registered factories are located in
urban areas.
Employment in Service Sector
Being a diverse country, India is rapidly urbanizing along with the
density of the population. The implications of globalization for a national
economy are many. Globalization in India has intensified interdependence

260
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

and competition between economies in the Indian market. Changes have taken
place in the last two decades especially in the nature and pattern of urban
growth. Economic and spatial structures of cities have begun to reflect the
changing composition of the global regional markets. New townships with
high quality infrastructure have sprung on the periphery of large cities. The
emergence of the software and services outsourcing in India is one of the most
visible outcomes of globalization on land and housing markets. For making
local economies competitive, the cities are in the process of improving city
image and quality of life through infrastructure and other projects. The pattern
of urban life in India is characterized by continuous concentration of
population and activities in large cities. Nearly 30% of the total population
lives in urban areas along with population pressure with the fulfilment of their
needs. Every step of movement towards economic, political and cultural
modernization, taken by the state in India, is responded to by the people with
an enhanced sense of self consciousness and awareness of identity. The
linkages both visible and invisible, defining the cultural interdependence
among communities and regions in India which have existed historically,
reinforce instead of threatening the national identity. These bonds seem to
become stronger as India encounters the forces of modernization and
globalization. Flowing with globalization, India is shining in nearly every
prospect. India is getting a global recognition and slowly moving towards to
become a major economic and political strength.
The emergence of the software and services outsourcing industry in
India is one of the most visible outcomes of globalization, stimulated by the
spread of modern information and communication technologies (ICTs) and
the restructuring of global capitalism since the 1980s (Upadhya, 2006). The
global IT industry has been both facilitator of the new economy as well as one
of its primary industries, and the back office and low-end software services
providers, such as India, have played a central role in the development of this
economy by enabling work to be performed faster, cheaper and around the
clock (Carol Upadhya, 2006). The Indian software services and IT enabled
services (ITES) industries are largely products of these developments in the
global economy, as companies located in the advanced industrial economies
are outsourcing and off shoring an increasingly large proportion and range of
their activities to places where skilled human resources are more easily
available at lower cost (Upadhya, 2006). The internationalization of the

261
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

production, distribution, and management of goods and services accelerated


rapidly in the 1990s (Castells 1996: 116), coinciding with the period when
India’s IT industry took off. The software and services industry in India has
grown rapidly from small beginnings in the 1980s, to generate total earnings of
$ 13.5 billion in 2004-05, of which $ 10 billion were from exports. Together, IT
and ITES generated earnings of $ 28.4 billion, of which about 64 per cent were
from exports. Accurate employment figures are difficult to obtain, but
NASSCOM estimates that the total direct employment generated by the
industry came to 1.3 million in 2005-06 representing a rapid expansion from
the figure of 284,000 for 1999-2000 (Upadhya, 2006).

Challenges
India’s future seem to be paradoxical, on one hand it has to sustain the
pressure of urban population growth and on the other hand it has to optimize
the scarce natural resources in order to compete globally with stable economic
growth. Housing, which constitutes so large a percentage of the built
environment, is a critical element in any sustainable urban growth strategy.
With this background the study calls for an integrated approach that aims at
exploring and understanding the complex phenomenon of urban development
and to evolve an appropriate sustainable growth model.

Conclusion
The impact of globalization on Indian urban life has a tremendous
influence. The impact of globalization on Indian rural economy has given new
face to modern India. There is a rapid and positive progress towards society.
The impact of globalization has changed India as one the global superpowers.
Thus, India is getting global recognition and slowly moving forward to
become a major economic and political strength. Thus, the paper clearly
elucidates that globalization is a complex phenomenon. It has a very profound
impact on India’s urban life. India’s globalization, urbanization and urban
development have shown remarkable growth. The study clearly reveals that
globalization is a complex phenomenon and it has a profound impact on
various urban sectors including housing and land markets. India’s
globalization and urbanization have shown remarkable and selective growth
by city sizes, regions and sectors. Higher growth and larger concentration of

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

urban population in metropolitan areas is an important feature of India’s


urbanization in post globalization period.

References
 Improvement of the situation of women in rural areas”, General
Assembly, United Nations-2005.
 The impact of globalization on families and communities”, International
Anglican Family Networks, London-2008.
 Sandhya Rani, G. “Globalization and Women”, Asia-Pacific Journal of
Social Sciences-2010, pp-144-1
 4.Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 6 - 2, 78-85, April - June 2009
Jayprakash Chadchan and R. Shankar .
 5.Breese, G. (1969) Urbanisation in Newly Developing Countries, Prentice
Hall, New Delhi.
 6.Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 6 - 2, 78-85, April - June 2009
 Jayprakash Chadchan and R. Shankar

263
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

34
Urban Development and Migration in India: An overview

Siddaraju VG
Introduction
Urbanization has been a historical process linked to the level of
economic development and social transformation. Demographically, it is
measured as a proportion of the population living in urban centres that
evolved overtime in varying sizes. Large urban centres are recognized as
engines of economic growth since economic activities, communication
services, educational and health services, scientific and technological
innovations are concentrated in them. Urban centres also provide vital links to
the rural areas and are instrumental in rural development. On the other hand,
sustainable urbanization and equity in the distribution of social and economic
resources remain a great challenge globally, and more so for those countries
which have been urbanizing faster. India could be categorized as a country
with a low level of urbanization as officially 31 per cent of the population lived
in urban areas as per 2011 Census.
The estimated level of urbanization for the year 2014 was 32 per cent of
the population compared to 54 per cent at the global level. The rate of India’s
urbanization, that is the annual per cent change in the proportion of the urban
population, is higher (1.1%) than the global average (0.9%) (UN DESA, 2014).
This shows that India has been urbanizing faster, like most countries in Asia
and Africa, and its urban population is likely to grow from 410 million in 2014
to 814 million in 2050 with 50 per cent living in urban areas. However,
paradoxically, India will also be a country with the largest rural population of
about 805 million by 2050 (ibid.). So, while urbanization will be faster, the
rural segment will continue to be substantial for many more decades beyond
the middle of the twenty first century when India is likely to achieve
population stabilization.
However, it may be noted that the comparison of the level of
urbanization of India, with either global average or with any country, is beset
with definitional heterogeneity as there is no standard definition of urban at
the global level.
Thus, the definition of urban followed in a country matters in order to
understand the relationship between urbanization and migration. The criteria
of urban generally comprise one or more indicators like civic status, size,
density, percentage of non-agricultural workforce, urban characteristics like
presence of paved roads, electricity, piped water, sewers, and availability of

264
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

education and health services. India follows a definition that consists of a


combination of municipal status and demographic criteria. There is a variety
of municipal status in India, such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality,
Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat, Notified Area Committee and
Cantonment Board. If a settlement has a municipal status, it is defined as
urban. For rest of the settlements, criteria such as a population of at least 5,000,
a density of 400 persons per sq. km and 75 per cent male work force in the
non-agricultural sector are applied. A settlement not covered by municipal
status must satisfy all three criteria to be declared as an urban centre. These
prerequisites with some minor changes have been followed since 1961.
Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is
a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in
their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate
to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap
between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards
industrialising areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause
populations to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and
household behaviour to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist
development. Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration
is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be
vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different
locations. The sources of early migration flows were primarily agro-ecological,
related to population expansion to new settlements or to conquests (e.g. Eaton,
1984). There is considerable information on patterns of migration during the
British period. Indian emigration abroad was one consequence of the abolition
of slavery and the demand for replacement labour.
The existing literature on urbanization raises a concern that the
relationship between the rate of urbanization and economic growth has been
weaker in developing countries unlike in the developed world (UN DESA,
2013). This is probably due to the fact that in many developing countries the
definition of urban is not linked to the non-agricultural workforce. In the
context of India also, some researchers have advanced that the link between
urbanization and industrialization has been weak in the past (Bose, 1965), but
the empirical facts do not sustain this argument (Sovani, 1964). Moreover,
since the 1961 Census, the criterion of 75 per cent non-agricultural workforce
has been applied in defining urban that establishes a closer link between
industrialization and urbanization in the Indian context. It is also alleged that
migration is a weak force in urbanization in developing countries as
urbanization has been occurring in the context
of high population growth (Preston, 1982).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

In this above background, the present study has been made an attempt
to study the relationship between urbanization and migration, to study the
contribution of migration to urban growth and to analyze the Reasons and
Characteristics of Urban Migrants. The present study is based on secondary
data and dat was collected from various govt. reports, journals and books.

Evolution of Migration Pattern:


India has a long history of migration which has shaped its social history,
culture and pattern of development. In pre-colonial times, the reasons for the
circulation of populations were mainly for religious and trade purposes
(McNeill, 1984: 9). Migration, on account of military movements, also played
an important role. People also travelled in search of pastures with their cattle.
Nomadic migration, even for short distances, was an important feature
outside the Gangetic valley. This practice is still found in some parts of
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh located in central India and is one of the
earliest forms of circulation in the history of human migration (Hutton, 1986:
61).
Urbanization is not a new phenomenon in India but was an important
feature of India’s ancient and medieval history. In ancient India, there were
many great urban centres. For example, around 300 BC, it is estimated that
Patliputra (the present Patna) had 270 thousand people, Mathura had 60
thousand, 48 thousand people lived in Vidisha, 40 thousand each in Vaishali
and Kaushambi, and 38 thousand lived in Ujjain (Sharma, 2005). At the death of
the Emperor Akbar, India had a population of 100 million in medieval times
and Agra was perhaps one of the largest cities in the world. The Moghul
emperors used to set out with an army and camp in several places during their
military expeditions. This not only included soldiers but also a vast number of
people who were manning the hundreds of accompanying bazaars (markets).
Such military expeditions were themselves forming temporary cities which
were constantly on the march (Nehru, 1965).

Relationship between Urbanization and Migration


Urbanization has been a historical process linked to the level of
economic development and social transformation. Demographically, it is
measured as a proportion of the population living in urban centres that
evolved overtime in varying sizes. Large urban centres are recognized as
engines of economic growth since economic activities, communication
services, educational and health services, scientific and technological
innovations are concentrated in them. Urban centres also provide vital links to
the rural areas and are instrumental in rural development. On the other hand,
sustainable urbanization and equity in the distribution of social and economic

266
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

resources remain a great challenge globally, and more so for those countries
which have been urbanizing faster. India could be categorized as a country
with a low level of urbanization as officially 31 per cent of the population lived
in urban areas as per 2011 Census.
The estimated level of urbanization for the year 2014 was 32 per cent of the
population compared to 54 per cent at the global level. The rate of India’s
urbanization, that is the annual per cent change in the proportion of the urban
population, is higher (1.1%) than the global average (0.9%) (UN DESA, 2014).
This shows that India has been urbanizing faster, like most countries in Asia
and Africa, and its urban population is likely to grow from 410 million in 2014
to 814 million in 2050 with 50 per cent living in urban areas. However,
paradoxically, India will also be a country with the largest rural population of
about 805 million by 2050 (ibid.). So, while urbanization will be faster, the
rural segment will continue to be substantial for many more decades beyond
the middle of the twenty first century when India is likely to achieve
population stabilization. However, it may be noted that the comparison of the
level of urbanization of India, with either global average or with any country,
is beset with definitional heterogeneity as there is no standard definition of
urban at the global level.
The definition of urban followed in a country matters in order to
understand the relationship between urbanization and migration. The criteria
of urban generally comprise one or more indicators like civic status, size,
density, percentage of non-agricultural workforce, urban characteristics like
presence of paved roads, electricity, piped water, sewers, and availability of
education and health services. India follows a definition that consists of a
combination of municipal status and demographic criteria. There is a variety
of municipal status in India, such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality,
Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat, Notified Area Committee and
Cantonment Board. If a settlement has a municipal status, it is defined as
urban. For rest of the settlements, criteria such as a population of at least 5,000,
a density of 400 persons per sq. km and 75 per cent male work force in the
non-agricultural sector are applied. A settlement not covered by municipal
status must satisfy all three criteria to be declared as an urban centre. These
prerequisites with some minor changes have been followed since 1961.

Contribution of Migration to Urban Growth


While rural to urban migration adds to urban population, the counter
stream of urban to rural depletes the urban population. Similarly, in the
reclassification of rural to urban areas, while some villages are reclassified as
towns, some existing towns may be declassified in the absence of fulfilling
urban criteria. The net rural to urban classification is therefore the real

267
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

contributor to urban population growth. Previous studies have made attempts


to estimate the contribution of all three components, namely natural increase
in urban areas, net rural to urban migration and net rural-urban classification
of and boundary changes of urban centres (Bhagat, 2012a).
Graph – 1: Contribution of Migration to Urban Growth
70
62.3
60 57.6

50
43.8
In Percentage

40 35.6 1981-91
1991-01
30 2001-11
20.8 20.6 21.5
18.7 19
20

10

0
Natural Increase Rural to Urban Migration Reclassification and
Boundary Changes
Particulars

Graph 1 shows that the percentage of net rural to urban migration


increased during the 1990s compared to the 1980s. However, it remained at the
same level during the 1990s and 2000s. On the other hand, the proportion of
net rural to urban migration, together with net rural to urban classification and
boundary changes, rose from 38 per cent during the 1980s to 42 per cent in the
1990s and to 56 per cent during the 2000s. This shows significant changes in
the forces of urban transition in association with migration and related spatial
changes. Large cities are expanding largely due to migration, while the cores
of several of them have declined (Sita and Bhagat, 2007: 59–82). The fertility
level of many large cities has significantly declined and some have even
reached the replacement level fertility (IIPS, 2009). The growth rates of large
cities are, therefore, predominantly the result of migration as well as areal
expansion. At the state level, the more urbanized states show a contribution of
net rural to urban migration to urban growth of about one-third, whereas at
the all India level the contribution is about one-fifth (Bhagat and Mohanty,
2009). However, in absolute terms, net rural to urban migration has risen from
about 11 million during 1981–1991 to 14 million during 1991–2001 and to
about 19 million during 2001–2011 at the all-India level. In the past, rural to
urban migration was largely directed to big cities and to a few small cities and
towns where large scale industries had developed. This trend continues but
migrants are now moving to the peripheries of metropolises and large cities

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which are often devoid of basic services and have largely grown in an
unplanned manner.

Reasons for Migration


Migrations are caused by a variety of factors including economic, social
and political factors. They are briefly described as under.
1. Marriage: Marriage is a very important social factor of migration. Every
girl has to migrate to her in-law’s place of residence after marriage.
Thus, the entire female population of India has to migrate over short or
long distance. Among the people who shifted their resistance more than
half (56.1%) moved due to marriage in 1991.
2. Employment: People migrate in large number from rural to urban areas
in search of employment. The agricultural base of rural areas does not
provide employment to all the people living there. Even the small-scale
and cottage industries of the villages fail to provide employment to the
entire rural folk. Contrary to this, urban areas provide vast scope for
employment in industries, trade, transport and services. About 8.8 per
cent of migrants migrated for employment in 1991.
3. Education: Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities,
especially those of higher education and rural people have to migrate to
the urban centres for this purpose. Many of them settle down in the
cities for earning a livelihood after completing their education.
4. Lack of Security: Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts drive
people away from their homes. Large number of people has migrated
out of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam during the last few years due to
disturbed conditions there.

People also migrate on a short-term basis in search of better


opportunities for recreation, health care facilities, and legal advices or for
availing service which the nearby towns provide.

‘Pull’ and ‘Push’ Factors:


Urban centres provide vast scope for employment in industries,
transport, trade and other services. They also offer modem facilities of life.
Thus, they act as ‘magnets’ for the migrant population and attract people from
outside. In other words, cities pull people from other areas. This is known as
“pull factor”. People also migrate due to ‘push factors’ such as unemployment,
hunger and starvation. When they do not find means of livelihood in their
home villages, they are ‘pushed’ out to the nearby or distant towns. Millions of
people who migrated from their far-off villages to the big cities of Kolkata,
Mumbai or Delhi did so because these cities offered them some promise for a

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better living. Their home villages had virtually rejected them as surplus
population which the rural resources of land were not able to sustain any
longer.

Summary and Conclusion:


The study shows that the share of employment-related migration has
increased for males, but for females it is marriage-migration which has been
on the rise. However, migration related to movement with parents and family
members, excluding marriage, has declined. On the whole, family related
migration for females has been increasing during the last two decades. It
would seem that male and female migration to urban areas are related as
males move for employment and for better employment prospects whereas
females follow them as a consequence of marriage or move later as soon as the
male migrants settle down. However, as stated earlier, irrespective of the
reasons for migration, a substantial proportion of female migrants make up
the workforce. In recent years, cities have come to be considered as engines of
economic growth as urban areas contribute about 65 per cent of India’s GDP
(Planning Commission, 2008). Migrants help in growth and capital
accumulation by providing cheap labour and undertaking many risky and
unsafe jobs which natives prefer not to do, although they may face stiff
competition or even conflict with the natives. Migration to urban centres
emerges as a definite instrument of improving economic wellbeing and urban
development, irrespective of the size of the towns.

References:
 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA),
2014 World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights
(ST/ESA/SER.A/352). Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division, New York.
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf
 Bose, A (1965), Six decades of urbanisation in India 1901–61. Indian
Economic and Social History Review, 2 (23): 23–41.
 Sovani, N.V (1964), The analysis of ‘over-urbanization’. Economic
Development and Cultural Change, 12 (2):113–122.
 Preston, S.H, (1982), Urbanization: developing countries. In: International
Encyclopedia of Population (J. A.Ross, ed.). The Free Press, New York, 1982,
pp. 650–655.
 Hutton, J.H (1986), Census of India 1931: With Complete Survey of Tribal
Life and Systems, Vol. 1, GianPublishing House, Delhi.
 Various Census reports of India, Govt. of India.
 Bhagat, R.B. and S. Mohanty (2009), Emerging pattern of urbanization and
the contribution of migration in urban growth in India. Asian Population
Studies, 5 (1): 5–20.

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35
Cooperatives’ For Social Inclusion: Some Thoughts
Nanjunda
“The resolution was a great statement about what peace was about – co-operation is not just
about business economics, but about world peace and behaving in a different way – that gets
forgotten.” Iain (Macdonald, former director general of the International Co-operative
Alliance )
Introduction:
Co-operative movements are the organs of the institutions for inclusive
development which are very influential and most flourishing part of Indian
Developing Process, the institutions were busy in the manufacture,
dispensation, sharing, servicing, banking and marketing processes etc. The Co-
operative proposal for Social Inclusion was initialized beneath the umbrella of
the Centre for Co-operative and Community-Based Economy, University of
Victoria, which Prof Mac Pherson had set up in 2000. Cooperatives have
revealed uniformly ground-breaking flair in customary sectors such as health
education, equal opportunities, social care, where the gaps between what
communities need and what the government can provide are widening.
Driven by global demographic changes, jobs in provision of care services are
projected to be some of the fastest growing segments of the labour market.
Cooperatives in Italy, for example, have prolonged to the point of providing a
wide range of services, from day-care for children to home-care for the elderly.
Cooperatives go on to capturing international notice as the world searches for
ways to attain a lasting global economic revival and to locate a path in the
direction of more sustainable development of the margins
The Cooperative Initiative for Peace and Social Inclusion (CIPSI) is
devoted to the study and promotion of co-operative contributions to peace
and social cohesion and evaluate and display the significance of the
international co-operative movement's commitments to peace; to increase
understanding of how those contributions are undertaken; to learn from the
successes and failures of co-operatives and their function in peace-building;
and to globally improve the possibility of co-operatives to contribute to a more
nonviolent world.

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In the current context, cooperatives are emerging as a influential tool for


gender mainstreaming and integrating women into the inclusive development
process. The role of cooperatives in the empowerment of women is contested
in the Indian context; though, more than a few studies show that it has
provided women the required freedom and hold for promoting economic self-
reliance, mounting self-confidence, overcoming exploitation and taking
successful steps towards reaching better control over their lives(Dash.

Potential of cooperatives was also seen significant for the following propose
 Ensuring food security and good nutrition;
 Providing quality education and lifelong learning;
 Ensuring good governance and effective institutions ;
 Empowering women and achieving gender equality

Cooperative Banks, and Financial Inclusion


According to available data only 40 percent of Indians currently have access
to basic banking facilities. There is a staggering disparity across geographies,
socio-economic categories and the pervasive urban-rural divide. Such
exclusion is a result of a mixture of vital issues such as physical detachment,
cost of access, lack of knowledge and a trust deficit. Cooperative banks, in
general, are better equipped than commercial banks to address these issues,
with their widespread reach, lower operating costs, flexibility, and deep-
rooted connections with the local communities, which, in turn, inspire trust.
With over 95000 rural and 1,600 urban cooperative banks registered in India,
these organizations can play a pivotal role in the “real last mile financial
inclusion”
Today Various Technologies can play an important role in addressing
this subject. With an effectual application of various modernization tools,
techniques and approaches cooperative banks can expand their reach even
further, improve operational efficiency and address customer needs more
effectively. Towards this end, the government has set up two funds: the
Financial Inclusion Fund and the Financial Inclusion knowledge Fund, worth
INR 1,000 crores which are being extended to banks through NABARD for an
effete financial inclusion. However, government initiatives have to be
supported by technology service providers, who need to perceive inclusion as

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an chance. They need to create technology and business platforms that suit the
need of these banks.

Some of the vital issues of Cooperative banks are


 They are performing the unprincipled practices by the bodies of chairman.
 They are mainly depends upon govt. capital than the shareholders
assistance.
 The workers contribution in the working is much lesser than predictable.
 They are facing infrastructural weakness and structural laws. They do not
have potentials in members, deposits and borrowers.

Panchayat Raj institutions and cooperative sector can bring about


optimistic modification in the rural areas for inclusive development.
Cooperatives have extended across the whole country and there are at present
estimated 260 million members nationwide. ‘The cooperative credit system
has the main network in the world and cooperatives have advanced more
credit in the Indian agricultural sector than commercial banks and helps for
financial inclusion too. In fertilizer manufacture and distribution the Indian
Fertilizer Cooperative commands over 35% of the market. In the production of
sugar the cooperative share of the market is over 58% and in cotton they have
share of 60%.The cooperative sector accounts for 55% of the looms in the hand-
weaving sector. All this leads to have inclusive agriculture’ (web based)

Challenges facing Cooperatives today


1. Inadequate enabling environment for cooperative development
2. Cooperatives’ limited engagement in articulating a global vision for various
spectrum of social inclusion
3. Inadequate community participation
Conclusion:
Today, cooperative sector has occupied a pivotal role in the socio-economic
development, especially in rural parts of the country. It is predictable that
Cooperatives will play a essential role in the social inclusion predominantly in
gender and caste based stratified rural society like India. As we know Poverty,
marginalization and unemployment are still key issues in the degradation of
the ecological excellence of life in most Indian rural parts .Govt. and
community has to take strong initiatives in the success of co-operatives.

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References
 Anca Voinea, The Co-operative Initiative for Peace and Social Inclusion 13
August 2014 Co-operative News
 Bishnu Mohan Dash Repositioning Women through Cooperatives and
Dynamics of Social Inclusion An Indian Perspective, SAARC Journal of Human
Resource Development 2011
 Irchall, J. (2003). Rediscovering the Cooperative Advantage: Poverty
Reduction through Self Help. Geneva: ILO Cooperative Branch.
 Williams, Richard C. (2007). The Cooperative Movement: Globalization from
Below. England: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

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36
The Problems of Rural- Urban Women Entrepreneurs in
Mysore District: A Feministic Study

Bhaskara.D

Introduction:
The biggest problem or difficulty of a woman entrepreneur is that she is
a woman. The attitude of men has not changed in spite of constitutional and
legal equality. Women need to play multiple roles at a time, such as, taking
care of their after children, other members of family, house work and
entrepreneurship. Married women entrepreneurs are in need to balance
between firm and home. Her success depends on supports of all members of
family due to less self-confidence as compared to others in undertaking
entrepreneurial activity. Further, women entrepreneurs are seen with
suspicious eyes in society and attitudes of society are against her
entrepreneurship. Society discriminates women despite of constitutional
equality.
Many women entrepreneurs are complaining harassment from male
officials to get the work done. Many women though educated and got
theoretical knowledge but lacked practical expertise. The problems of women
entrepreneurs are classified into financial, marketing, human resource. The
finance is the scarcest resource in any part of the world and it is very
important requirements of an enterprise. Banks and financial institutions
hesitate in lending credit to women entrepreneurs due to lack of collateral
security in their name and non-availability of right guarantee.
The complicated bank loan procedure and delay in sanctioning of loans
deters many women from venturing. Bankers are also discouraging women
borrowers believing that they will go back as house wives again. Further,
timely non-availability of right skilled labour and their continuous new
demands affect adversely to the growth and development of firm. It is also not
possible for women entrepreneurs to adopt appropriate sales promotions and
pricing policies in marketing of their products due to their small size. In

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addition, women entrepreneurs are suffering from inability to use suitable


technology and social problems.

Concept of Rural and Urban Women Entrepreneurs


Rural and urban woman constitutes the family that leads to society and
Nation. Overall development of women is necessary for the development of
society and nation. The emergence of women entrepreneurs and their
contribution to the national economy is quite visible in India. Women
entrepreneurship has been recognized during the last decade as an important
untapped source of economic growth. According to of statistics women in
India , proportion of female main workers to total population in percentage is
in rural areas and in urban areas this shows overall less contribution of
women in work but more percentage of women workers in rural areas.
Women in entrepreneurship has been largely neglected both in society in
general and in the social sciences. Not only have women lower participation
rates in entrepreneurship than men but they also generally choose to start and
manage firms in different industries than men tend to do.

Challenges for Rural Women Entrepreneurs


The main challenges that women face, in Karnataka can also be applicable to
mysore district, in business are educational and work background, Balancing
their time share between work and family, Problems of raising start-up capital,
Difficulty in borrowing fund, Thought-cut completions endangered existence
of small companies, Problems of availing raw-materials access to export
market without intermediaries, as well as an overall psychological barrier on
the part of banks, suppliers, and clients alike, are a few of these challenges.

In addition to this some of the challenges faced by rural and urban


entrepreneurs are in Mysore district as follows:
Family ties - Women in our country are very emotionally attached to their
families. They are being very less practical. They are supposed to do all the
household work, to look after the children and other members of the family.
They are overburdened with family responsibilities like care of children extra
attention to husband, and in laws which take away a lots of their time and
energy. In such conditions, it will be very difficult for women to concentrate
and run the enterprise successfully.

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Lack of education even in 21st century, rural women in India is lagging far
behind in the field of education. Most of the rural women are illiterate.
Women in rural areas of various taluks like H D Kote and Piriyapatna are far
behind in literacy levels compared to other taluks like Nanjangud,T
Narasipura and Mysore urban areas. early marriage, low socio-economic
status, partly due to son's higher education. Lack of education is one of the
biggest obstacles for rural women who want to start an enterprise. Due to lack
of proper education, women entrepreneurs remain in dark about the
development of new technology, new methods of production, marketing and
other governmental support which will encourage them to flourish. Licensed
under Creative Commons Attribution, Lack of Raw Materials Due to poor
road connectivity and poor transportation, it is quite difficult to make
availability of raw materials all the time in rural areas. Availability of raw
materials is an essential component of entrepreneurship. Women
entrepreneurs in rural areas really face a tough task in getting the required
raw material and other necessary inputs for the enterprises when the prices
are very high.
Male Dominated Society - In our constitution there are equal rights for men
and women but in real sense equality does not exist in rural areas. Women are
being neglected in many spheres of life. Women are not treated equal to men.
As far as rural areas are concerned, people have a set attitude that women are
only for household work. Their entry to business needs the approval of the
head of the family. Entrepreneurship has traditionally been seen as a male
preserve and male dominated. All these put a break in the growth of women
entrepreneurs. Thus male entrepreneurs become hurdle in the success of
women entrepreneurs.
Problem of finance Women entrepreneurs have to suffer a lot in raising and
meeting the financial needs of the business, bankers, creditors and financial
institutes are not coming forward to provide financial assistance to women
borrowers on the ground of their less credit worthiness and more chances of
business failure. They also face financial problem due to blockage of funds in
raw materials, work-in-progress finished goods and non-receipt of payment
from customers in time.
Tough competitions- In the age of technology, women entrepreneurs of
Mysore rural areas face a lot of problems and challenges. Usually women
entrepreneurs do not employ high technology in the process of production. In

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a market where the competition is too high, they have to fight hard to survive
in the market against the organized sector and their male counterpart who
have vast experience and capacity to adopt advanced technology in managing
enterprises 5.7 High cost of production Several factors including inefficient
management contribute to the high cost of production which stands as a
stumbling block before women entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs face
technology obsolescence due to non-adoption or slow adoption to changing
technology which is a major factor of high cost of production.
Low risk-bearing ability: In our country, generally women are delicate and
emotional by nature. An entrepreneur must have risk bearing capacity for
being successful entrepreneur. But women, sometimes fail to bear the amount
risk which is essential for running an enterprise. Lack of proper education,
training and financial support from outsides also reduce their ability to bear
the risk involved in an enterprises.
Limited Mobility: In our country, mainly in rural area, women mobility is
very limited and has become a problem due to traditional values and inability
to drive vehicles. Moving alone and asking for a room to stay out in the night
for business purposes are still looked upon with suspicious eyes. Sometimes,
younger women feel uncomfortable in dealing with men who show extra
interest in them than work related aspects. Thus security of rural women
entrepreneurs is a major challenge.
Social Barriers: The traditions and customs prevalent in Indian societies
towards women sometimes stand as an obstacle before them to grow and
prosper. Castes and religions dominate with one another and hinder women
entrepreneurs too. In rural areas, they face more social barriers as they are
always seen with suspicious eyes.
Lack of entrepreneurial: aptitude Lack of entrepreneurial aptitude is a major
concern for rural women entrepreneurs. They have no entrepreneurial bent of
mind. Sometimes even after attending various training programmes on
entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurs fail to tide over the risks and troubles
that may come up in an organizational working.
Limited managerial ability: Management has become a specialized job which
only efficient managers perform. Due to lack of proper education women
entrepreneurs are not efficient in managerial functions like planning,
organizing, controlling, coordinating, staffing, directing, motivating etc. of an

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enterprise. Therefore, less and limited managerial ability of women has


become a problem for them to run the enterprise successfully.
Legal formalities to fulfil the legal formalities required for running an
enterprise becomes an upheaval task on the part of a women entrepreneur
because of the prevalence of corrupt practices in government offices and
procedural delays for various licenses, electricity, water and shed allotments.
In such situations women entrepreneurs find it hard to concentrate on the
smooth working of the enterprise.
Exploitation by middle men Women are biologically very delicate, since
women cannot run around for marketing, distribution and money collection;
they have to depend on middle men for the above activities. Middle men tend
to exploit them in the guise of helping. They add their own profit margin
which results in less sales and lesser profit.
Lack of motivation - Motivation plays an important role for running an
enterprise. Women entrepreneurs because of their inherent nature, sometimes
feel less confident which is essentially a motivating factor in running an
enterprise successfully. They have to strive hard to strike a balance between
managing a family and managing an enterprise.
Entrepreneurship development among rural women helps to enhance their
personal capabilities and increase decision making status in the family and
society as a whole.
Finds of study
Main findings of the study are;
 32.08 percent women entrepreneurs in Mysore district not used machinery in
their enterprises.
 Out of women entrepreneurs who used machinery in their entrepreneurship
are from urban educated one in Mysore taluks, 98.94 percent have knowledge
of operating machinery.
 49.68 percent women entrepreneurs in H D Kote taluk and Hunsur have not
employed labours in enterprises.
 Out of women entrepreneurs who employed labours in their
entrepreneurship, 60.41 percent have not provided any type of training to
them.
 32.48 per cent women entrepreneurs of rural Mysore have not packed their
products.

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 Out of those women entrepreneurs who packed their products, 93.96 per
cent packed themselves who are from upper class educated –high income
groups in Mysore.
 32.72 percent women entrepreneurs have not used any promotional
techniques to promote their products.
 70.08 percent women entrepreneurs have faced stiff competition from other
industries.
 Out of those women entrepreneurs who faced stiff competition, 88.81 per
cent practiced healthy competition and 97.26 per cent have taken steps to
overcome from them.
 86.48 percent women entrepreneurs of Mysore rural areas have estimated
funds requirement before starting entrepreneurial activities.
 55.01 percent women entrepreneurs have brought additional loan for their
enterprises.
 77.98 percent women entrepreneurs of low income rural areas of all taluks
have faced problems while taking loans.
 51.89 percent women entrepreneurs have stated not necessary is the reason
for not planning.
 There have financial, marketing, labour and production problems with more
number of women entrepreneurs.
 Women entrepreneurs have less family related problems to undertake
entrepreneurship.

Suggestions: Some Major on the light of findings are as below Suggestions


Related to Women Entrepreneurship in Mysore District.
Create Awareness: The Government of India and Karnataka State have
introduced schemes like SGSY, Udyogini, PMEGP, RastriyaMahilaKosh,
MahilaVikasNidhi, MahilaUdyamNidhi, MAHIMA, ARWINDA, TREAD and
etc. to bring more entrepreneurs into light and to solve problems of
unemployment and underemployment. Further, it also empowered training
institutions like CEDOK, GITSERD. In addition, financial institutions like
KSFC, SIDBI, CBs and RRB have been playing key role in financing
entrepreneurship development.
Providing Practical Oriented Training: The Mysore Zilla Panchayat in
association with Karnataka state Department of RDPR have been providing

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training to both rural and urban entrepreneurs of all Mysore taluks. However,
more numbers of trainings are class room and theoretical oriented. These
types of training are not sufficient to undertake entrepreneurship profitably.
Therefore, it is essential to give practical oriented training to make
entrepreneurs more and more competitive and confident in undertaking
entrepreneurship.
Extension of Incentives to Small and Seasonal Entrepreneurs: The Karnataka
Government has been providing incentives to the registered entrepreneurs
under entrepreneurial memorandum in Mysore District. However, there are
many small and seasonal entrepreneurs who have undertaken
entrepreneurship without registration. Therefore, the governments may
extend incentives of to these small and seasonal entrepreneurs irrespective of
their size, nature, caste and creed in the interest of development of
entrepreneurship among women.
Establishing Women Entrepreneurs Co-operative Societies: Mysore District
is in foremost in establishment of women entrepreneurs co-operative societies
which solve problems like credit, raw material, packing, pricing, branding, etc.
In addition, it assists in protecting rights of women entrepreneurs. Further,
there has no women entrepreneurs’ cooperative society in study area.
Simplified Procedure and Documentation for Availing Benefits of Schemes:
To ensure maximum women could avail the benefits of schemes of the
governments, the procedures and documentations required to be submitted
should be simplified and accessible, a single window clearing facility can be
installed for the same and enough awareness should be provided, making it a
nationwide campaign, like polio promotion and HIV awareness activity.
Quick Release of Subsidy and Incentives: Women entrepreneurs are need to
wait for long period to get subsidy or incentives, which hindered the progress
of entrepreneurial activities and banks are reluctant to advance loans till they
receive subsidy. Therefore, there has a need of realizing subsidy and other
incentives on time to expedite the process of credit sanction and disbursement
on one side and development of women entrepreneurship on other side.
Setting up of Women Entrepreneurs Banks: The progress of women
entrepreneurship in India has been much lower as compared to some
advanced countries of the world. This may be due to lack of financial and
infrastructural support to potential women entrepreneurs. Further, it is very
difficult for women entrepreneurs to borrow from banks for investments in

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productive activities without collateral security and surety. However, they can
borrow only through self-help groups and the amount of lending under SHG
has been too less than actual requirements for investments.
Special Scheme for Financial Assistance: In case if it is not possible to set up
separate bank for women entrepreneurs, the RBI shall consider designing a
special scheme for granting comprehensive short and long term financial
assistance to women entrepreneurs without insisting on collateral security and
surety. The financial assistance shall be granted purely on the basis of merits
of the project proposals and on hypothecation of enterprise assets.
Strengthening Quality of Infrastructures: Mysore has the best infrastructure
compared to the other districts of Karnataka. However, low quality
infrastructure hinders the growth and development of their entrepreneurship.
Basic infrastructures like water supply, electricity, technology, buildings,
transportations, markets, insurance and banks are need to be strengthened for
development of entrepreneurship and smooth movement of entrepreneurial
activities.
Conclusion
Women entrepreneurship is very crucial for the economic development of the
country. It is really a matter of pride that Karnataka state is leading position in
providing encouragement to women of rural and urban enterpreuners.
Mysore district occupies the prominent position in providing incentives ,basic
infrastructure, loans and primary and secondary taining and skill
development schemes. Though some taluks like H D Kote and Piriyapatna lag
behind in literacy levels and skill development, the Zilla Panchayat has
adopted various programmes to empower both urban and rural women by
providing suitable skills and marketing management to avoid any untoward
exploitation by middlemen.
References:
 S.K Dhameja (2002), Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, Performence,
Problems Jaico Publishers, New Delhi.
 S.Shanta,Vasantha Gopal;Women Enterpreunership in India, Atlantic
publishers, New Delhi.
 Odeyar D Heggede, Women and Economic Development, Ramya Roopa
Prakasana Mysore
 Mysore District Industrial and Commercial Department Yearly Journals
 Kandaveitappa, Women in Rural Areas, Mohit Publications Jaipur

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37
Dynamics of Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion in Urban
India: Debates And Discussions

Dilip.S.Chavan
Introduction
A public–private partnership (PPP) is a government service or private
business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of
government and one or more private sector companies. These schemes are
sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or P3. Thus PPP refers to a long-term
contractual partnership between the public and private sector agencies,
specifically targeted towards financing, designing, implementing and
operating infrastructure facilities and services in the State. These PPPs aim to
achieve the twin objectives of high growth and equity on a sustainable basis.
Origin of PPP: Pressure to change the standard model of public procurement
arose initially from concerns about the level of public debt, which grew
rapidly during the macroeconomic dislocation of the 1970s and 1980s. In a
competitive global environment, governments around the world were
focusing on new ways to finance projects, build infrastructure and deliver
services. Initially, most public–private partnerships were negotiated
individually, as one-off deals, and much of this activity began in the early
1990s. In 1992, the Conservative government of John Major in the UK
introduced the private finance initiative (PFI), the first systematic programme
aimed at encouraging public–private partnerships.
Development of public works assets can be seen as a barometer of a countries’
economic, political, and populace well-being. Infrastructure development is
critical for sustainable growth for countries such as India, Indonesia, China,
and the Philippines to name a few. Development of infrastructure projects
with private capital through Public Private Partnership (PPP) route has
become one of the commonly adopted procurement strategies in developed
and developing countries. All over the world where PPP procurement has
been used in one form or another, the way in which it is carried out has
become an important issue. There is no standard method of PPP
implementation as each country adapts the process as appropriate for its own

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culture, economy, political climate and legal system. It is therefore essential


that all parties likely to be involved have a common understanding of the
principles underlying PPP structures and an appreciation of the key issues
from the standpoints of the private as well as the public sectors.
Among all, Build- Operate-Transfer (BOT) model is the most commonly
adopted approach for privatized infrastructure procurement. Private
infrastructure projects under BOT arrangement have a complex risk profile
due to several factors like lumpiness of huge investment, long payback period,
high developmental efforts and upfront cost, length of term of the loan,
susceptibility to political and economic risk, low market value of the security
packages, non-recourse/off balance financing, complex contract mechanism
involving many participants with diverging interests and limitations on
enforcing security. To a considerable extent, the success of a BOT project is
influenced by the degree to which various project risks are identified, assessed
and allocated and services that it needs to achieve its objectives of buying,
storage and movement of materials.

Projected Investment in Infrastructure—Twelfth Five years Plan


(Rs. Crore at Current Prices)
Total 11th Plan 12th Plan Projections
Total 12th
Sectors 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 Plan
Grand
Total 24,24,277 7,51,012 8,87,454 10,61,316 12,85,573 15,89,308 55,74,663
Centre 8,56,717 2,50,758 2,80,662 3,15,217 3,54,296 4,00,129 16,01,061
States 6,80,056 2,06,944 2,30,045 2,55,645 2,83,201 3,13,928 12,89,762
Private 8,87,504 2,93,310 3,76,747 4,90,455 6,48,077 8,75,251 26,83,840
Grand
Total 24,24,277 7,51,012 8,87,454 10,61,316 12,85,573 15,89,308 55,74,663
Public 15,36,773 4,57,702 5,10,707 5,70,862 6,37,497 7,14,057 28,90,823
Private 8,87,504 2,93,310 3,76,747 4,90,455 6,48,077 8,75,251 26,83,840
GDP
mp 1,01,50,6 1,16,45,9 6,81,63,20
3,36,04,450 18 87 1,33,58,028 1,53,47,089 1,76,61,485 8
Invest
ment
as%
of 7.21 7.4 7.62 7.95 8.38 9.00 8.18
GDP
mp

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Source: (Volume I, Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012– 2017) Planning Commission 2013.
The total public sector investment in infrastructure envisaged in the Twelfth
Plan is Rs.16, 01,061 crore from the Centre and Rs.12, 89,762 crore by the
States. Investment by the private sector, which includes PPP projects, makes
up the balance of Rs.26,83,840 crore, which is 48.14 per cent of the required
investment during the twelfth Plan, a much higher share than the anticipated
36.61 per cent during the eleventh Plan.

Need For Study


Under existing approaches, infrastructure project financing is structured in a
way which creates flaws: inefficiencies and added costs, greater political
(policy) risk, and a lack of diverse ownership needed for transparent
incentives. With India ready to further embark in public-private partnerships
for infrastructure projects, getting the formulas right is imperative. This can
make the difference between further regional divergences and politicization
which deters reforms and development, and the opportunity for more
balanced growth for those who will need it most.

Objectives
 To understand the concept and current status of Public Private
Partnership (PPP) Projects in India.
 To analyze effectiveness of various assistance schemes and emerging
areas of PPP projects.
 To focus on the scope of PPP projects in Indian Infrastructure.
 To point out the challenges and barriers of PPP projects in India.

Research Methodology
This research paper is purely based on secondary data collected from various
sources. All the data generated from Government of India official website and
the official website of the committee on infrastructure, Planning Commission,
ministry of finance and Investment Commission of India. The other major
tools for the collection of the information has been from available literature as,
journals, books, and news of Govt. of India and states Govt. related to the PPP.
Result & Discussion
1. PPP and Privatization:
PPP and Privatization are seen by many people as the same entity. However,
both the words are not at all similar and cannot be used as synonyms. There

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

lies a vast difference between these two terms which best can be explained on
the basis of responsibility, In the case of funding projects and its
implementation, the entire responsibility for its success or failure lies with the
private entrepreneurs. It is the private entrepreneur who has to be made
responsible if the projects or services didn’t click. But in case of PPP, the full
responsibility lies with the government and in case of failure the government
has to own responsibility. And on the basis of ownership, the rig ht of
ownership under privatization is transferable and can be transferred to private
entrepreneurs with both the gains (Profits) and Risks associated with projects.
But in case of PPP, the legal ownership of assets is retained by the public
sector. It is non-transferable. In case of risk & reward, under privatization, the
private partner enjoys full profits, but at the same time is responsible for the
losses an entrepreneur suffers. But in PPP this is advantage of private sector
that, risks and rewards are shared between both sectors.
2. Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee (PPPAC):
PPPAC has been approved on 27th October 2005 at a meeting of the Cabinet
Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). In the below figure we select last five
years different sectors PPP projects which are approved by PPPAC. (Rs in
Crores)
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
No
No. No.
of No. of of No.
Pro Total of Total Pr Total Pr Total of Total
ject Project Proj Project oje Project oje Project Proj Project
Sectors s Cost ect Cost cts Cost cts Cost ects Cost
Highwa 86336.2 17
y 90 9 123 123691.5 168 168190 9 175013.6 224 235437.5
Railway 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00
Ports 7 3683.25 10 11346.90 10 11346.9 18 18383.00 26 22477.70
Civil
Aviation n 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00
Tourism 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87
Housing 0 0 0 0.00 17 8342.05 17 7299.00 17 7299.00
Sports 0 0 0 0.00 5 2475.00 5 2475.00 5 2475.00
99668.4
Total 101 1 137 144687 204 200003 223 2128195 276 277338
Source – Annual Report, Ministry of Finance (Budget Division, 2008-13), GOI

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

The above figure shows that PPPAC has approved projects during the 2008-
09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12, and 2012-13 financial years. In 2008-09 PPPAC
has approved total 101 no. of projects, total amount of Rs.99668.41 crore
between them highway was the top most sectors for which Rs.86336.29 crore
allotted for the 90 projects. Till now 2012-2013 (up to December 2012) PPPAC
Rs. 235437.56 crore allotted for 224 approved of highway projects. So the
highway sector has been minting top position. Along with other sectors like In
Railway approved one project an amount of Rs.85000.00 crore, In Port sectors
26 projects approved an amount of Rs. 22477.70 crore, In civil Aviation sector
02 Project approved an amount of Rs. 1000.00 crore, In Tourism sector 01
approved an amount of Rs. 148.87 crore, In housing sector 17 projects
approved an amount of Rs.7299.00 crore and in sports stadia sectors 15
projects approved an amount of Rs. 2475.00 crore. On the basis of the figures,
we conclude that the PPPAC has been doing a substantial job in the field of
PPP and is transforming Indian economy. The huge amount spent on projects
under PPP seldom speaks volume its success.
3. Viability Gap Funding (V.G.F.):
The GOI announced Viability Gap Funding (VGF) scheme in budget 2005-06.
This major scheme promotes PPP in various infrastructure sectors include
roads, seaports, airports, railways, convention centers. Keeping in mind the
success of the projects many more new sectors like storage, internal
infrastructure in national investment and manufacturing zones. This scheme
aims to support infrastructure projects which are economically justified, but
short of financial viability. The total VGF provided under the scheme is up to
20% of the total capital cost of the project. Empower institution (Under the
finance ministry) sanctioned Viability Gap Funding up to Rs.100 crore for
each project. The Empowered Committee sanctioned proposals up to Rs.200
crore, And the Empowered Committee with the approval of the Finance
Minister sanctioned proposal amounts exceeding Rs.200 crore.

Si. No.of Total Project Cost VGF (Rupees


No. Sector Projects (Rupees in Crore) in crore)
1 Road 131 57449.79 1130.40
2 Education 10 207.40 41.48
3 Power 2 664.70 132.90
4 Metro 2 19474.00 3894.08
5 Airport 1 354.65 70.93

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Total 146 78150.54 15448.79


Annual Report, Ministry of Finance (Budget Division) GOI
It is evident from the above table shows that under the scheme since its
constitution, 146 projects have been granted approval with Total project cost
of Rs. 78150.54 crore and VGF amount support of Rs.15448.79 crore under the
Scheme and Viability Gap Funding (VGF) Rs.902.96 crore has been disbursed.
In case of sector wise road sector projects (131) have highest benefited from
VGF Scheme and education sector projects (10) have second highest. And
power, education and airport sector also have 2, 2 and 1 VGF Scheme project.
But in terms of VGF amount metro sector have top benefited Rs. 3894.08 crore
and second topper road sector Rs. 1130.40 crore. After that power, airport and
education sector also have Rs. 132.90, 70.93 and Rs. 41.48 crore amount VGF
scheme. The Government has provision of Rs. 10,000.00 crore for the 12th Five
Year Plan (20 12-17).

4. India Infrastructure Project Development Funds (IIPDF):


The ministry of finance in 2007 establishment of a mechanism to support the
project development expenditure on PPP projects to accelerate the process of
project preparation. This IIPDF assist up to 75% of the project development
expenses as ordinarily. The IIPDF assists the PPP projects in stage of
identification and preparation.

Year Amount allotted (Rs. in Crore)


2008-2009 1.32
2009-2010 7.55
2010-2011 7.00
2011-2012 (December 2011) 2.56
Source – Annual Report, Ministry of Finance (Budget Division) GOI
The above table shows that year wise IIPDF amount allotted for PPP projects.
IIPDF assistance amount Rs.60.06 crore. Rs.1.32 crore, Rs.7.55 crore and
Rs.7.00 crore respectively has been disbursed under the scheme in 2008-2009,
2009-2010 and 2010-2011. Around Rs.2.56 crore has been disbursed during
2011-2012, up to December 2011. These entire amounts have been allotted on
49 projects approved. An amount of Rs.4.00 crore has been provisioned for
the FY 20 13-14.

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Findings and Recommendations


[1] In order to make PPP projects successful in India, risk should only be
transferred to those parties who are best in managing it, because
transferring risk will result in a huge impact.
[2] Over-specification and miss-specification of project result can cause huge
damage. Hence, the government will have to define its goals, desires,
principles and requirements as clearly as possible.
[3] The total number of bidders should be enough to have effective
competition, but should be limited in order to have control over transaction
cost, quality of bids and probability of success.
[4] It is always better to have standardized contracts in order to avoid
transaction cost, delays and uncertainties.
[5] In terms of contract award method, the international competitive bidding
yielded 35% of total investment in India followed by domestic competitive
bidding of 26%.
[6] There is a need for effective distribution of responsibility, costs and risks
between the public and private sector to fulfill their responsibilities
successfully such as land acquisition, environmental clearance, state
support, etc.
[7] There are a good number of projects under Transportation, Airports, and
Ports sectors, but there is a huge under-explored market in sectors like
Energy, Urban Development and Railways.
[8] There is an acute need for PPP projects in India to grow at a pace of 8-9% to
match countries like Japan and China in terms of infrastructural
development.

VIII. Conclusion
Considering India’s infrastructural needs, PPPs are not just an option,
but a necessity. It has been seen that PPP has many merits such as large
investment in public (both urban and rural) infrastructure, efficient service
delivery, cost-effectiveness, contracts that are performance-based, sharing of
risks, effective use of assets and opportunities of long-term investment.
Though a mixed economic approach is followed by India, which is reliant on
public private involvement in economic activities, Public Private Partnership
in infrastructure is now more than a decade old.

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It seems to create considerable value to the Indian Government and its


citizens with respect to enhancement in time efficiency, greater convenience,
increased reliability and saving costs along with easy availability of
information. However, there are many issues which need to be identified,
addressed and resolved in order to facilitate a better understanding on making
use of PPP in a better way to develop Indian infrastructure effectively. Our
President Mr.Pranab Mukherjee has rightly said that “with effective use of
PPP, we can achieve the desired level of growth”. Considering the above
statement, we can conclude that mere PPP is not sufficient for India, but an
effective PPP is required.
References
 A.M. Abdel Aziz, (2007) “Successful Delivery of Public-Private Partnerships
for Infrastructure Development,” Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, 133/12, 918 -931.
 ADB (2006), Workshop Report, Facilitating Public–Private Partnership for
Accelerated Infrastructure Development in India.
 Annual Report, (2006 -2013), Ministry of Finance (Budget Division),
Government of India.
 Archana, G. Gulati,” PPP for rural ICT- from obligation to opportunity”.
 Chambers, J. (2006), An Emerging ‘Interactions Economy’, The Economics
Times, September 18.
 Desai, J. (2006) Perspectives: Public-Private Partnership in Infrastructure, The
Economic Times, July 4.
 Chaudhary L & Bogart D (2009) Public-Private Partnerships and Efficiency: A
Historical Perspective from Indian Railways.
 Haldea G. (2013), Public Private Partnership in National Highways: Indian
Perspective, Discussion Paper No. -11.
 Mahalingam A, (2008), PPP experiences in Indian states Bottlenecks ‘Enablers
and key issues.
 Nataraj G. (2007), Infrastructure Challenges in South Asia: The Role of Public -
Private Partnerships, ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 80.
 Sathanapriya M. and Jesintha P., (2011) “Public Private Partnership in
India”, Journal of
 Management and Science, Journal of Management and Science Vol. 1, No.1,
pp. 61 -68. Saravanan P., Financing Sustainable Infrastructure, Assessing the
Risks in Public Private Partnership Models.

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38
Dynamics of Poverty Inequality and Exclusion In Urban
India: Debates And Discussions

Harendra Singh and Varun Kumar

Introduction
Urban sector of India is spreading its underlying foundations broadly.
Movement to urban regions by individuals demonstrates that the nation is in
the way of become a developed country and continuously individuals can
meet the basics as well as have been enhancing their norms of life. In any case,
the remarkable thing is that simultaneously to this advancement the slums in
urban areas likewise have been expanding step by step. The poor slum
dwellers have not the fundamentals of life and fighting economically and
socially. The reasons for this problem are the lack of employment or income
sources and lower income. The critical part of this issue is the lack of education
and skill standards in children and people of here so they can contend with
this world. Different plans have been presented by the government from time
to time to raise the lives of these destitute people but since of the lack of
administration and policies paralysis the government have failed to do
although not fully. A definitive solution for this issue is education including
Non formal education to individuals and children of these slums. So they can
develop economically, socially and educationally.

Urban Slum: Residence of Poor


The population census of India defines a slum as residential areas where
dwellings are unfit for human habitation". Roughly 1.37 crore households, or
17.4% of urban Indian households lived in a slum in 2011, data released by the
registrar general and census commissioner's office showed. The new data is
difficult to compare with previous years, because the 2011 census covers all
4,041 statutory towns in India, as compared to 2001 when only statutory towns
with population over 20,000 were covered. The 2001 data had set India's slum
population at 15% of the total population.

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Socio Economic Conditions


The people living in these slums are poor and living beneath the norms of life.
The standard of sanitation is underneath the line here and having no access to
water, power and waste management. The general population of here has
been confronting the financial crisis in their lives as they can't manage the cost
of the fundamental things of life and neither can teach their children nor ready
to bear the cost of the marriage for their girls. The male children use to go with
their parents at their little shops and stalls to help in their family income as
opposed to go to school and the young female children use to work at the
houses. The mental worry in the families likewise can be seen because of
financial problem. They are unable to meet up with the health and medical
expenses. Because of such poor economic condition they are unable to bear the
cost of daily bread and other nutrients of life which may results in
malnutrition among women and children and make a bar to the mental
growth of the children. Poor sanitation results into the spreading diseases.
Hence Women and children are the most exceedingly awful casualties.

Need To Study the Subject


The subject is expected to contemplate as the country we have today is
not running on the right way to become a developed nation. The significant
part of the India is living in slums in urban areas. They have been battling for
better financial conditions and want to rise up. Absence of skill and education
in urban slums is one the main factor of this evil. The general population of
urban slums for the most part carrying the occupation of Tailor, Labour etc. in
processing plants and utilizing to carry the small businesses like 'Tea Stalls'
and 'Pan Shops', which are not enough to live life in a better way. The majority
of them, who are not skilled or educated, are unemployed and conveyed no
business in light of the financial status. So they can rival this world of
precision. In the result of this, most of the persons over here can't bear the cost
of education of their children in good schools. Furthermore, the eventual
future of this nation remains outside from the race of financial status and
nation will stay battling to end up distinctly a developed country. The socio
economic growth of India is depending upon these people in some sense. As
well as present generation are also fighting against poverty. The major
solutions to this problem are education and skills. So that poor people who are
residing in these urban slums will also live their life of dreams, where they

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will have lots of happiness! What about the dreams and aspirations of the
people who live here?

Role of State
Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation is implementing
Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) throughout the country, aimed
at providing gainful employment to the urban unemployed and under-
employed poor, through encouraging the setting up of self employment
ventures by the urban poor living below the poverty line, skills training and
also through providing wage employment by utilizing their labour for
construction of socially and economically useful public assets. The scheme has
been comprehensively revamped with effect from 2009-2010. Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship has been initiated schemes like Pradhan
Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna (PMKVY) under which the skill training classes
are used to given the urban slum dweller.
In the past years the various steps were also taken by the states like
‘Operation Blackboard’ aimed to improve classroom environment, ‘Non-
Formal Education (NFE) and EGS & AIE’ for giving Non formal education for
children etc. State makes contribution to legislative steps in the form of
schemes to throw out the poor conditions of slum dwellers and also clubbed
hands with the non state actors like Non Governmental Organisation to fight
with the problem.
Recent scheme ‘The National Skill Development Mission’ was approved
by the Union Cabinet on 01.07.2015, and officially launched by the Hon’ble
Prime Minister on 15.07.2015 on the occasion of World Youth Skills Day. The
Mission has been developed to create convergence across sectors and States in
terms of skill training activities. (i) Institutional Training, (ii) Infrastructure,
(iii) Convergence, (iv) Trainers, (v) Overseas Employment, (vi) Sustainable
Livelihoods, (vii) Leveraging Public Infrastructure.

Role of N.G.O.’s
Sustainable and enduring associations with the voluntary area will fortify the
Government's endeavours to realize the objective of all inclusive education
and skill training in urban slums. The atmosphere for across the India reform
and improvement in education makes it an ideal time for the Government to
manufacture strategies cooperation with the voluntary organisations (N.G.O.)

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can able to help sovereign to discharge its functions, although it have been
doing work with the government for the constitutional pledge to serve basics
to its subjects.
‘Pratham’ N.G.O has been serving the education including vocational
and non formal education to various urban slum dwellers in multiple cities of
India. But it is facing problems in the serve of education because of the state’s
lack of governance and strategic malfunction. Not only one but many N.G.O.’s
are working for giving education to slum dwellers in urban areas. The author
would like to mention brief of his working experience where he have worked
as intern at Delhi based N.G.O , who have been providing basic education to
children including computer education, skill training to women of slums in
Delhi. He has seen over there the life of those people were changed
comparatively before prevailed conditions. Children over there were happy to
get education and the women over there were also happy to had skill training
so that they will no more depend upon their husbands and also they were able
to contribute to family expenses with their husbands proudly, they told. Skill
training includes beautician, tailoring, weaving etc. Challenges, it were facing
was lack of support and funds from government, although it was getting the
support. But what author felt over there if funds and support of government
will increase then it will be able to educate and train more people of slums. It
was working hardly.
Needs of Urban Slum Poor
 Overhauling the slums is not just moving the slum inhabitants into multi-
storeyed houses. It needs significantly more think attempts to be worked
upon both with body and the soul. The needs of them are:
 The government has made “Awas Yojanas”, including schemes having
same essence to eradicate the poor condition of living of urban slum
dweller, where it makes houses for the slum dwellers where they are
asked to shift, though this step of state is for welfare of them but the need
of them is something far from that. They don’t have enough sources to run
their livelihood as lack of employment and education skills.
 The issue doesn’t end here, as these slum dwellers give those houses on
rent to earn money and again keep on living in slums. So, government
must provide them education and skilled training simultaneously with the
employment so that they can earn money and able to meet with their
livelihood expenses.

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 Employment is the issue of whole country but by giving education


including skill education to slum dwellers will make them life better and
they will become entrepreneurs. So they will be able to stand on their own
feet.
The need of education and skill training of them are most needy rather than
anything else because only by this they can strengthen their economic
conditions and lives ultimately rather than temporary and fake reliefs of
government in which corruption is involved. And they can give education to
their children, able to meet with the medical expenses including daily
expenses of livelihood.

Challenges
 State is facing the lack of implementation of the schemes made by the
government for the slum dwellers due to the lack of governance at the
executive level.
o The N.G.O.’s are playing their role in getting to slum dwellers for their
betterment but they also face the problem of lack of funds, as the budget is
granted by the government but does not reach them properly.
o If reached properly than the N.G.O. are not used to utilize the fund for the
consideration of slum dwellers because they are making their profit
fraudulently.
o Absence of enthusiasm of teachers, low quality of training, ambiguity in
educational programs and course readings, absence of group participation,
powerless management system, inadequate cost, an absence of
accentuation on mainstreaming and so on. Additionally, most NFE centres
were in residences as of now served by formal schools
o Slum dwellers are facing the problem of corruption while getting the
benefit under various education schemes of government.
Solutions
We have to gain from the nations like Israel, which tended to the Urban
Poor issues by presenting ideal strategies and imaginative methodologies. In
Israel, despite the fact that they don't have slums as we have in India, they
confined their approaches for tending to the necessities of the urban poor and
cater those requirements by including private players in a more adaptable and
successful way.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Also the government of India has to fill all those loopholes which may cause to
the policy paralysis at legislative and executive level, which may be done in
the following manner:
• There should be the provisions of welfare for slum community including
educational and skill training in such manner which shall be beneficial to
them in real sense.
• The legislative policies must contain the provisions of involving more and
more role of Non state actors such as N.G.O. with the state machineries.
Such N.G.O. shall be recognised and time to time inspection should be
done for checking the work of N.G.O. by state and such inspection team
shall be governed by central government or appropriate government
directly and submit the report.
• The policies shall contain the rule of force to the provisions contained in it
for their implementation and there shall be accountability backed up by
the sanction in a positive approach of both state executive and Non state
actors towards the people.
• The education curriculum must contain the curriculum of latest era of
modernisation and should not be outdated. The programmes of skill
training to the dwellers must have the variety of courses so that the
women, men and children can choose their work of passion.
• By accelerating vocational and skill training programmes by issuing
certificate from appropriate authority or recognised organisation.
• At every district level or where the slums are situated in urban areas, a
welfare centre of government should be established especially for serving
the education to children.
• Every government teacher should be taken the classes in these slum areas
at least once in a week with rotating policy. The government must fix the
duty of every teacher in a reasonable and required manner. So that the
people and children can have the education by the persons having
eligibility to teach rather than the normal teachers and should bring some
law or amendment regarding this matter.
• For promoting this the government may award the extra allowances for
the government teachers who will teach over here.
• Report shall be submitted to the appropriate authority by time to time
regarding the course coverage by the teachers, report may includes ideas
and suggestion by teachers and learners.
• Continuous body shall be established to check and review the needs of
slum dwellers regarding education and skill training.

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• An autonomous body shall be established to implement and take care of


above said things.
In our opinion this is the correct way for exclusion of poverty from the slum in
urban areas and also the slums from the country by giving education. One day
just only because of the proper serve of education the slum factor will
disappear from this country otherwise without concern to the education
anything which can be done by government for their consideration will not
help them ultimately to migrate from slums. Only education can do this.
Conclusion & Prologue
To the extent the historical backdrop of slum inhabitants and their
conduct and mentality are concerned, our learning says that the Slum dwellers
have the innate inclination to stay at their places and are hesitant to move to
some other places offered by the Government. Regardless of the possibility
that they move, they return gradually and progressively to that specific place
from where they were moved. They don't have intends to procure their bread
and margarine all the time because of poor education, constrained aptitudes,
absence of business enterprise, social evils and essentially less confidence on
the Government (Local and National). Vitally, they are acclimated to the poor
living conditions and need drives of upward versatility. Rehashed poverty
cycles get to be distinctly driving reason for culpability and low quality of life.
Only by the way of education we can change the conditions of slum dwellers
ultimately and able to become a developed nation.
References
 R. Shrinivasan, 17% Of Urban India Lives In Slums: Census, Times Of India
(Mar 2013), Available At, Http://Timesofindia.Indiatimes.Com/India/17-Of-
Urban-India-Lives-In-Slums-Census/Articleshow/19118219.Cms (Last Visited
On Dec 8, 2016).
 Nnlrj India, Schemes Implemented For Slum Dwellers And Urban Poor (Sept
19,2011), Social And Develpoment News In India, Available At
Https://Equalityindia.Wordpress.Com/2011/09/19/Schemes-Implemented-
For-Slum-Dwellers-And-Urban-Poor/ (Last Visited On Dec 14, 2016) (Here In
After Referred As N.G.O.) Available At
Http://Www.Skilldevelopment.Gov.In/Nationalskillmission.Html (Last
Visited On Dec 14, 2016) Available At
Http://Www.Pratham.Org/Programmes/Vocational-Training (Last Visited
On Dec 14, 2016)
 ‘Adhaarshila’, Kalkaji, New Delhi (Internship Period July 2014).

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39
Urban development Vis- A - Vis Social inclusive: A Study
of CSR in India
Kavyashree.N

Introduction:
Every Constitution has its own philosophy and for the philosophy of
our Constitution we must look into the preamble of the Constitution of India,
which emphasis on justice of social, economic and political and equality and
liberty. The Indian Constitution enables the government to take positive
welfare measures some of which are legally enforceable they also give powers
to the government for pursuing collective good of the society. The formation
of socialistic pattern of society based on equality, liberty and fraternity, it laid
down certain provisions in Constitution of India for the social justice and
development. Secure to justice and access to justice is part of basic structure of
the Constitution and principles of Constitution are adopted by we the people
of India and hence it is our at most duty to frame policies for the protection of
philosophy of our Constitution.
II. Objectives of the study
 Legal discharge of corporate social responsibility.
 Amendment to the company law and its necessity.
 Social responsibility through legal instrument.
 Urban and social and civic development, through corporate
responsibility.
 There is no cross check on legal discharge of CSR.
 There is no development without social development.
 To understand the CSR initiatives in India.
The World Summit for Social Development, held in March 1995,
established the concept of Social integration to create an inclusive society, “a
society for all”, as one of the key goals of Social development. The
Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, a key outcome of the
Summit, pledged to make the eradication of poverty, full employment and
social integration overriding objectives of development. Member states made a

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commitment1 to promote social integration through fostering inclusive


societies that are stable, safe, just and tolerant, and respect Diversity, equality
of opportunity and participation of all people.
A close relationship exists between social inequality and economic
inequality since social inequality stands as a main cause of economic
inequality, while at the same time, economic inequality supports and
reinforces social inequality. Similarly, there is a strong relationship between
poverty and inequality, as social and economic inequality stand as a main
cause of the poverty of a nation. India has been a welfare state since
independence and the primary objective of all governmental endeavours has
been the welfare of its people, primary objective of our planning is alleviation
of poverty. Elimination of poverty ignorance, diseases and inequality of
opportunities and providing a better and higher quality of life were the basic
premise upon which all the plans and blue prints of development were built.
Urbanisation is a major ingredient of economic development and
progress. Urban population recorded annual growth rate of 2.76% during
2001-11 compared to a growth rate of 2.24% during the previous decade. The
policies of the government to impose constraints on the pattern of
urbanisation by market forces and bring out regional balance. Although the
success of these policies can at best be described as limited, the nation did see
a number of growth nuclei and corridors along with the emergence of number
of new towns. Understandably, further opening up of the economy since the
early 1990s has had additional impact on the pattern and process of urban
growth. As the nation aspires for a new development regime in the coming
decades, it is important to take stock of the pattern and process of urbanisation
and its implications for present and future economic growth in the nation.
With the fast rate of growth of population mainly through natural and
migration along with the fast development activities in urban areas. Rapid
urbanization has led to an alarming deterioration in the quality of city
dwellers in India. Our cities suffer from various infrastructural deficiencies,
poor sanitation and solid waste disposal, water shortage, polluted natural
water resources, water logging in rainy seasons, frequent epidemics,
inadequate health care, depletion of green areas, reducing the ground water
level, proliferation of slums and lack of support for social and economic
development of the socially and economically weaker sections of the society.
The ultimate result is emergence of slums in cities.

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In India out of the total population of 1210.2 million as on 1st March,


2011, about 377.1 million are in urban areas. The net addition of population in
urban areas over the last decade is 91.0 million. The percentage of urban
population to the total population of the country stands at 31.6. There has been
an increase 3.35 percentage points in the proportion of urban population in the
country during 2001-2011.The provisional results of Census 2011 reveals that
there is an increase of 2774 towns comprising 242 Statutory and 2532 Census
towns over the decade. Growth rate of population in urban areas was 31.8%.
According to the High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) appointed by the
Ministry of Urban Development, which gave its recommendations to the
Government in the year 2011, there is a requirement of investment in urban
infrastructure to the tune of ₹ 39 Billion (₹ 39.2 lakh crore at 2009-2010 prices)
over the next 20 years.Considering the huge estimated requirement of
investment, sums of these magnitudes cannot be located only from within the
budgetary resources of Central, State and Local Governments. Compulsions
have, therefore, arisen to access financial resources from the market, and
induce the private sector to participate in urban development programs as a
policy.

Defining Inclusive Growth


Rapid and sustained poverty reduction requires inclusive growth that
allows people to contribute to and benefit from economic growth inclusive
growth refers both to the pace and pattern of growth, which is considered,
interlinked, and therefore in need to be addressed together. The idea that the
pace and pattern of growth are critical for achieving a high, sustainable
growth record , as well as poverty reduction , should be consistent with the
findings in the growth report.
Inclusiveness includes equity, equality of opportunity and protection in
market and employment translation is an essential ingredient of any successful
growth strategy. Here, idea of equality of opportunities in terms of access to
all the aspects of growth and development. Systematic inequality of
opportunity is toxic as it will derail the growth process through political
channels or conflict. Following the Copenhagen Declaration, significant policy
commitments were made in the Millennium Declaration (2000), adopted at the
Millennium Summit in September 2000. The Millennium Declaration
subsumes social integration in its synthesis of peace, security, Development

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and human Right s, and further embodies social inclusion principles as well as
the objectives and goals set out in the Copenhagen Declaration. The question
now is how to make the concept of social inclusion operational, even in the
face of resistance to change. The challenge for policy makers and social
scientists is, therefore, to find ways to dissociate the concept of social inclusion
from the utopian realm of a “perfectly inclusive” world vision to redefining it
as a practical tool used to promote an inspirational yet realistic set of policy
measures geared towards a “society for all.” To this end, social inclusion, as an
overarching goal as well as a multi-dimensional process can play a critical role
in promoting sustainable human development.
The World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen 1995) defines
an inclusive society as a “society for all in which every individual, each with
Right s and responsibilities, has an active role to play”. Such an inclusive
society must be based on respect for all human Right s and fundamental
freedoms, cultural and religious diversity, social justice and the special needs
of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, democratic participation and the
rule of law. It is promoted by social policies that seek to reduce inequality and
create flexible and tolerant societies that embrace all people. IN short run
government could use its policies to bring equality in all the aspects through it
are burdens on the government to distribute it equally. Policies of the
government for inclusive growth are an important component of most
government strategies for sustainable growth.
Inclusive growth, cohesive societies with accountable institutions are better
able to sustain development. Here it has meant inclusiveness as societies
promote more access to opportunities.

Corporate Social Responsibility


Successful ventures are those business enterprises which has harassed
our natural resources including human resources of our country. In India
human resources are available for the enterprises at very reasonable prices.
These way businesses can have an overall positive impact on the communities,
culture, Society and environment in which they operate. mandated CSR
investment can be a novel solution to India's social problems. because to
achieve economic justice leading to social justice and also achieving goals of
our Constitution. It should be boon for the society; leading Indian economy
towards the path of equitable and sustainable growth.India became the first

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country to legally mandate corporate social responsibility with in the newr


rules in section 135 of companies’ act 2013, to spend 2% of their net profit for
the past three years on Corporate Social Responsibility. Social responsibility
has been a part of business since a long time. The relationship was initially
governed by philanthropic activities of community development. However,
towards 1980s, it became a formal part of business policies, better known as
corporate social responsibility, thus involving the language of sustainable
development, rights and obligations of business to the society. United Nations
global compact commission was the first CSR initiative launched on a global
scale. The recognition of the responsibility of private businesses in furthering
inclusive development comes in the wake of increasing role of market
economy and globalization in the lives of the people in every society and
nation

Definition of CSR
A widely quoted definition by the world business council for sustainable
development state that “corporate social responsibility is the continuing
commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic
development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their
families as well as of the local community and society at large. Hence it says
two fold concepts, one it exhibits the ethical behaviour that an organization
exhibits towards its integral and external stakeholders; on the other hand, it
denotes the responsibility of an organization towards the environment and
society in which it operates.
CSR was adopted by the companies as an instrument of government and not
only for relief, but for development welfare and service delivery, but
ultimately for urban development leading to social inclusion of those areas
which are deprived of facilities and infrastructural growth and necessities. For
these private companies can directly involve in these development work or
else setup strong foundations of their parent concern and works, some work
with the help of private public partnership (PPP), for urban development
leading to social inclusion for sustainable development. Sometimes companies
have tie ups with NGOs for implementation of CSR activities.
Through CSR activities companies are improving livelihood of those
who are in and around urban areas like semi urban and slums and other areas
by improving health, sanitation, providing education, helping them to have

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healthy environment and for these accommodating them with infrastructural


facilities.. Globalization has accelerated and Indian economy as opened up too.
The private sector has become much larger; it is the engine of growth for the
economy.
Through an instrument of CSR,, social inclusion of a country is
internally strengthened , leading to strengthening Indian economy and
society. If India is strong, it will be strong entreneurships central to productive
economy and inclusive urban development and Sustainable development.
City development activities don’t fall under the purview of CSR but, Slum
redevelopment and affordable housing, road safety awareness and consumer
protection services will be treated as CSR according to clarifications, issued by
the ministry of corporate affairs in response to queries from stake holders.
Though urban development is not there but through slum development,
supplying mid-day meals, projects for alleviation of poverty, malnutrition,
promoting education, promoting vocational skills and social projects like
giving medical and legal aid, treatment to road accident victims would fall
under the eligible category of promoting healthcare, renewable energy
projects would be eligible for promoting environmental sustainability.
Renovation of class rooms would be an eligible CSR activity to promote
education, even protection of national heritage, art and culture.

There is no denying that our cities need fixing. Burden sharing between
key stakeholders in urban space is key to tackling he need for urban
transformation, much more needs to be done. Hence, it is unwise to leave out
the private sector, which would want to improve the future of our cities for its
own growth and profitability. Inclusive urban development was top at the
agenda even for our present Prime Minister at the time of his tenure of Gujarat
CM. making schedule vii more inclusive, especially from an urban standpoint,
would be one of the steps in building economically vibrant cities. Rapid
urbanisation will be one of India’s largest transitions in the years to come,
because of too many factors with the urban population estimated to increase
from 300 million to 600 million by 2030. Policy making in India however, has
failed to keep up with this changing reality. Ministry of corporate affairs has
given some clarity on what is considered CSR under the company law Act
2013, by issuing circular.

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Government has plans to institute awards for corporate social


responsibility activities across sectors as part of efforts to incentivise
companies to take up the work towards social welfare. The main intention of
incorporating corporate social responsibility and providing effective
regulatory frame work to the Indian corporate sector that enables them to
freely exploit their energies to develop while contributing to the overall
growth of the society. National voluntary guidelines on social environmental
and economic responsibilities of business for mainstream the subject of
business responsibilities. Through CSR, sustainable development is also
possible or achieved because the concept of ‘needs’ in particular, the essential
needs of the world’s poor to which overriding priority should be given, is
main concept of sustainable development. Because any development involves
a progressive transformation of economy and society. Physical sustainability
requires changes in access to resources and in the distribution of costs and
benefits and also social equity between the populations of the country.
However, the efforts of government may not be adequate to provide
basic services to its citizens. It is being increasingly recognized that progress
and welfare of a society is not only responsibility of the government alone,
but many more supporting stake holders are interested to attain the
development goal. The corporate sector has a pivotal role to play in ensuring
private investment flows to those areas that have been left out of the
development process and to have sustainable development.
Over the past few years as a consequence of rising globalization the
perception of the role of corporates in the broader social context within which
it operates. Corporates consider themselves as an integral part of society and
accordingly act in a social responsible way of society and accordingly act in a
social responsible way that goes beyond economic performance. There is a
shift from profit to profit with social responsibility. It is essentially a concept
whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to the society to make it
better.

Conclusions:
The Indian economy, seeking stronger integration with the global system, has
shown many interesting features in its structure of urbanisation and process of
urban growth during the last few decades of the last century. In the widest
sense the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony

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among human beings, a production system that respects the obligation to


preserve the ecological base for development, which is the aim of sustainable
developmet.through CSR’s contribution country will be strengthened leading
to Indian economy to become strong. If it becomes internally cohesive and
internally strong, it can in turn strongly influence the world. Urban
development through CSR for inclusive growth should be monitored strictly,
so that its purpose is achieved. Even companies have felt CSR as an important
business issue, because they have realized that without socio economic
development of all, there can be no stability and sustainability for doing
business so as to compete with the global market and as well we attain
millennium goals.

References:
 Census of India 2011
 India 2015, A reference Annual , publications, Division, ministry of
information and broad casting, government of India, page no718
 World business council for sustainable development WBCSD-1999
 UNhabitat.org, UNHabitat for a better urban future
 Ministry of corporate affairs, notification(rules), new Delhi
27/02/2014(available at mca.gov.in.ministrypdf/companies act notification 2-
2014
 Corporate Social Responsibility –Towards a Sustainable Future White Paper
KPMG IN INDIA
 National voluntary guidelines on social environmental and economic
responsibilities of business, voluntary
 Govt of India, ministry of corporate affairs general circular, n,r21/2014 dated
18 June
 Prime urban development India limited csr policy, available at
ww.ptonline.com.>policies>corporate
 10. CSR in India-, www.sustainabledevelopment.in center of excellence
for sustainable development
 Hand book on corporate social responsibility in India pwc,
www.pwc.in.pdf.publication
 www.moud.goi.in ministry of urban development
 Govt plans to awards for corporate social responsibility acivities, economic
times.com/news/economy accessed on 22/12/16 a 1.30
 Commission on growth and development,2008 growth report: strategies for
sustained growth and inclusive development, the world bank report
 Creating an inclusive society: practical strategies to promote social integration,
, organized by DPSD/UNDESA, 23 May - 17 June, 2007

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40
Dynamics of Poverty, Inequality And Exclusion In Urban
India

Kumar Gaurav And Jasjit Pranjal

Introduction
Law is supreme and no one is above law but this is not the only thing. Law
and Order should be maintained in a country so that everything runs
smoothly but there are few things which are beyond the control of law. For
example, Poverty. Poverty not only gives rise to the class difference creating
inequality but also creates a barrier for people excluding or including them in
a particular kind of society.
Inequality and exclusion which are another main virus of our society which is
created by our society itself, generally people who migrate from the agrarian
based system to a primary economic system in general terms called as” urban
poor” suffer inequality which in one or the other way leads to exclusion as we
see them inferior to us, they are denied of various things like rights their
resources etc. An imbalance is created in our society because of this, class
difference is created which is not good for our society.
Society is created by us and because of the creation of this society the
difference of class is there, we have set up a standard to measure who is rich
and who is poor. We accept the rich people or people who have sufficient
money to buy luxury or at least some thing near to it but what about poor
people who don’t have enough money to afford or buy their daily needs, what
we do with them, we exclude them from our society. We don’t want them to
join the main stream of our society. We say that Law is supreme and no one is
above the law then why not this law has helped us to remove the imbalance
created by our society.
Since our society has given birth to social exclusion and is being practiced in
almost every part of our country. We have to eradicate this from our society to
establish equality amongst all. The problem is that we don’t participate to
bring about the change in the mind-set of our society. It is rightly said if we
want to see the change, we have to be the change we want to see.

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How to Reduce Inequality?


India being the 3rd largest economy faces a problem that has to be
highlighted i. e Inequality. As per Oxfam India dated October 4th, 2016, India is
now hitting the headlines as one of the most unequal countries in the world,
whether on the basis of Inequality or on the basis of income or wealth. After
knowing this fact that India is facing a problem of Inequality, one question
strikes in our mind, how is India unequal? The answer of this question is not
as simple as the question is. We accept that India is facing the problem of
inequality but as per the Indian Human Development Survey (IHDS),
inequality in India is very less when compared to the inequality in developed
nations like Russia, USA & China. This classification was done on the basis of
income. Among the BRICS nations, India stands second in per capita income
after South Africa.
There are many reasons of Inequality in India. Some of them are Inheritance,
System of Private Property, Differences in Natural Qualities & Acquired
Talent, Family Influence and Luck. These are the reasons of inequality. These
factors lead to a very serious economic and social consequences such as Class-
Conflict, Political Domination, Exploitation, Creation of Monopolies,
Suppression of Talent, Moral Degradation etc.
Inequality is a thing which should be removed for the fast development of our
Country. There are some measures with which Inequality can be reduced: -
 Fixing Minimum Wage- If people have a guarantee of minimum wages
then it is easy for them it maintains their budget. Under Minimum
Wages Act, people who are working in agricultural sector or are
involved in any ‘Sweated Trade’ in this act, are guaranteed minimum
wage.
 Social Security- Guaranteeing every individual a minimum standard of
economic welfare as a social security is one of the important measure to
reduce inequality. For example- Free Education, Free Medical and
Maternity Aid, Old- Age Pension, Accidental Insurance etc.
 High Taxes on Luxuries- High Taxes should be imposed on luxury
goods so that the power of rich to display the wealth decreases.
 Ceiling on Agricultural Lands- In order to reduce the Inequality
between big and small farmer, ceiling on holding of agricultural land
should be imposed. This will help in equal ownership of land to
farmers.

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Legal Help To Citizens For Reducing Poverty


As per Article 13 of Constitution of India, law includes any Ordinance, order,
bye law, rule, regulation, notification, custom or usages having in the territory
of India. This means that any order given by the government or any
notification given by the government or the Parliament of India will be
considered as a Law. This further implies that the guidelines issued by the
government to remove poverty are also a law.
There are many poverty alleviation programmes initiated by the Government
of India. Most of these programmes target rural poverty. For example-
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) which gives
employment in rural areas as a daily wage worker.
Poverty doesn’t lie only in rural areas but it is also present in urban areas.
There are many urban poverty alleviation programmes initiated by the
government. Urbanization is an important aspect for the development of the
nation but if poverty is present in urban area, the growth rate decreases.
Urban poverty leads to: -
 Proliferation of slums
 Fast growth of informal sector
 Increasing casualization of labour
 Increasing pressure on civic services
 Increasing Educational deprivation and health contingencies
Eight Five-Year Plan (1992-1997) included Poverty Alleviations programme for
Urban Development. These programmes were: -
 Nehru Rozgar Yojna (NRY)
 Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP)
 Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PM
IUPEP)
 Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojna (SJSRY)
 Urban Self Employment Programme (USEP)
 Development of Women and Children in Urban Areas (DWCUA)
 Urban Wage Employment Programme (UWEP)
Concept Of Urban Poor And Social Exclusion.
Urban Poor
People who live Below Poverty Line (BPL) are people living in poverty and of
those who fall under this category and are residing in Urban Area are known

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as Urban Poor. The population of Urban Poor is also very much. Around
Thirty-Five Percent of Indian Household qualify as poor. According to SECC
report, the monthly per capita expenditure is just Rs 1407 in urban areas in
2011-2012. As per C Rangarajan report, a person who is living in an urban area
and spending less than Forty-Seven Rupees will be considered as poor.
Dismissing the SECC report, the Rangarajan Committee said that the number
of poor people was much higher in 2011-12 which was 29.5% of the
population. According to this report, 3 out of 10 people living in India are poor
and the number of poor people has been increased by 9.4 crore in one year.
The same report says that the poverty in the country has declined by 3% every
year, from the financial year 2004-05 to 2011-12.
Social Exclusion
Social exclusion is a form of discrimination or we can say it as excluding
someone wholly or partially from being a part of social, economic or political
community. This exclusion is done on the basis of caste, creed, ethnicity,
religion or gender. It is referred as way in which any individual is cut off from
the involvement of the society. It is not accidental but systematic as it is result
of structural features of society and it is involuntary too as it is regardless of
the wishes of those who are excluded from the society.
We can also say that social exclusion is based on three pillars, or it has
basically three unique features which are as follows: -
 It involves culturally-defined social categories, with associated cultural
perceptions, values and norms that shape social interaction.
 It is embedded in our social relations.
 It affects the rights of people and their entitlement which is denying
them from the opportunities they need to maintain a universally
acceptable standard of living and to fulfil their potential.
Social exclusion is a complex and multi-dimensional process. It involves the
lack or complete or partial denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and
the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available
to the majority of people in a society, whether in economic, social, cultural or
political areas. It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity
and cohesion of society as a whole and we cannot deny this fact.
The PACS approach to Social Exclusion

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The PACS programme focused on five specifics socially excluded groups in


India – women, Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Muslims and people with
disabilities.
Its projects aimed to reduce the welfare gap between socially excluded groups
and the rest of the population by helping socially excluded communities to
claim their rights and entitlements more effectively.

Relation between Poverty, Inequality And Social Exclusion What is


Poverty?
Poverty is very often defined in absolute terms of low income – less than US$2
a day. Poverty can be also being stated as the undermining a range of key
human attributes, including health. The poor are exposed to greater personal
and environmental health risks, are less well nourished, have less information
and are less able to access health care; they thus have a higher risk of illness
and disability. Conversely, illness can reduce household savings, lower
learning ability, reduce productivity, and lead to a diminished quality of life,
thereby perpetuating or even increasing poverty. For example, in reality, the
consequences of poverty exist on a relative scale. The poorest of the poor,
around the world, have the worst health. Within countries, the evidence shows
that in general the lower an individual’s socioeconomic position the worse
their health. There is a social gradient in health that runs from top to bottom of
the socioeconomic spectrum. This is a global phenomenon, seen in low,
middle and high income countries.
What is Inequality?
Inequality is the difference in the various aspects and measures of economic
well-being among individuals in the group or we can say among groups in the
population or among the countries. It varies between societies, economic
structures and systems. We can also refer it as a social problem. Inequality is
categorized in two kinds one is vertical and other one is horizontal. Vertical
inequality focuses mainly on individuals but the horizontal inequality is rather
multidimensional. It is not limited to any individual.
What is Social Exclusion?
Social exclusion is a complex and multi-dimensional process. It involves the
lack of denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to
participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority
of people in a society, whether in economic, social, cultural or political arenas.

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It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity and cohesion of
society as a whole.
This definition also has the advantage of not narrowly limiting the causal
processes at work in social exclusion or the factors that affect life chances.
These are open to empirical investigation.
Relation between Poverty and Social Exclusion
Social exclusion has an undeniable impact on the poverty status of socially
excluded communities.
Those who belong to socially excluded groups are not affected by a lack of
resources ‘just like’ the rest of the poor. They face particular discrimination in
gaining access to these resources. For example, there may be a clean water
pump in a village but those who are socially excluded may not be allowed
access to it because social exclusion locks people out of the benefits of
development, denying them opportunities, choices and a voice to claim their
rights, it causes greater levels of poverty.
Relation between Social Exclusion and Inequality.
The concepts of social exclusion and inequality are closely linked. Unequal
societies in which certain groups are discriminated against can lead to
exclusion. Likewise, social exclusion involves inequality. Policies and
initiatives to reduce inequalities and social exclusion can be quite similar; both
take a multidimensional approach and generally target groups rather than
individuals. Both are also concerned with the responsibility of richer groups in
bringing about social exclusion, and are conscious of the need to address
policies towards richer as well as poorer people to reduce social exclusion/
inequality.

Conclusion
We would like to conclude this paper by stating that Poverty, Inequality
and Exclusion are inter-related with each other. If everything should be equal
and it is not, it means this is a situation of Inequality. Poverty means a person
who is Below Poverty Line (BPL) or a person who struggle too much for his
necessities whereas there are few people in the society who can afford
everything and live a luxury life. This difference of affording a luxury life and
struggling for necessity creates a huge difference and this difference creates
inequality of status.

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There are many forms of Inequality but inequality of status of one of the
prominent thing that appears in Indian Society. Equality of Status is
guaranteed by the Constitution of India. Government is also taking initiative
to ensure its citizen equality. People come to cities or urban areas to find jobs
for themselves but it is again found that they are jobless in cities. These people
constitute a major group in Urban Poor and thus, increases the poverty in
Urban Area. Government schemes to remove poverty in Urban Area is one
step taken towards development of cities.
The class difference introduced societal status which determines the Standard
of Living of people inviting exclusion of few people. For example- The maid
who works in house is not allowed to have food on the dining table with the
family. So, we can now see how these three factors are inter-linked with each
other. There is an unseen and hidden forces that keeps these three factors
together.

Bibliography
 Document of Fifth Five Year Plan
 Tendulkar Committee’s Report
 C Rangarajan Report
 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) Report, 2011
 Indian Human Development Survey Report (IHDS), 2011-2012
 Constitution of India
The sources of these data were online. They are: -
 www.indiankanoon.org
 www.planningcommission.org.in
 www.weforum.org
 www.economicdiscussion.net
 www.socialguide.net
 www.pacsindia.org
 www.who.int

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41
The Role of Social Inclusion In Tackling The Problem Of
Poverty Reduction

Manjunatha K G

Introduction
Social exclusion is a serious problem in many countries of the
world.Asian, African and Latin American countries are facing this problem.It
is an important issue also in India. Certain groups in the society are
systematically excluded from opportunities that are open to others, because
they are discriminated against on the basis of their race,
religion,gender,caste,age,disability and other social identity. People who are
excluded like this are not just like the rest of the poor, only poorer, and as a
result they are excluded out of the benefits of development. Social exclusion
deprives the people of their choices and opportunities to escape from poverty
and denies them a voice to claim their rights.Social exclusion is often a cause
of poverty, conflict and insecurity.if we have to tackle it effectively we need to
study the real problem. It would have to help us to formulate the
policies,laws.rules and regulations it also find out a different ways of working
with partner governments ,the international community and civil society
organisations to overcome it.The study of social exclusion can help us to
understand the problem of developing as well as developed economy. Social
exclusion and poverty are very much correlated with each other. The present
paper will analyse the how government policies, agencies are working for the
socially excluded people in India and around the world is very crucial issue in
the present time

Objectives of The Paper


 Creating legal, regulatory and policy frame works which promote social
inclusion; ensuring that socially excluded groups can benefit from
public expenditure as much as other groups.

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 Improving economic opportunities and access to services to the


excluded groups
 Promoting their political participation in society and their capacity to
organise and mobilise themselves;
 Increasing accountability to protect citizen’s basic human rights and
 Tackling prejudice and changing behaviours.
The term social exclusion has varied interpretations .It is closely linked
with the concept of depravation and poverty. More recently ,the term has
acquired specific focus. ’Social exclusion describes a process by which certain
groups are systematically disadvantaged because they are discriminated
against on the basis of their ethnicity, race ,religion, sexual orientation, caste,
gender disability and age or migrant status where they live. Discrimination
occurs in public institutions such as legal system or education and heaith
services as well as social institutions like the household’. Further more, the
concept of social exclusion adds a new dimension to the poverty analysis, if
we consider poverty as a ‘capability deprivation’. Amartya Sen in 1992
mapped relational considerations to the capability deprivation approach of
social exclusion, hough it is widely acknowledged phenomenon.
Causes of Social Exclusion
 Rural and backward economy
 Incapacity of the individual, which may be due to a faulty heredity or the
environment
 Misdistribution of wealth and income and the imperfect functioning of our
economic institutions
 Poor natural resources bad climate and epidemics
 Caste systems-it includes the dominance of high caste people
 Traditional and cultural prejudices
 Low literacy rate and backward status of women

Social Exclusion In Relation To Poverty


Social exclusion causes the poverty of particular people, leading to higher
rates of poverty among affected groups. It hurts them materially-making them
poor in terms of income, health or education by causing them to denied to
access to resources, markets and public services. It also hurts them
emotionally, by shutting them out of the life of their community. Even though
the economy may rise and income may grow, excluded people are likely to be
left behind. Social exclusion reduces the productive capacity-and rate of

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

poverty reduction-of society as a whole. It impedes the efficient operation of


market forces and restrains the economic growth. Socially excluded people
often do participate but on an unequal terms.

Effect of Social Exclusion And Poverty On Society And Economic


Development
 Crime: It is a price paid for the advantage of civilisation. In India there no
dependable data of crime is available. Security scam, the sugar scam and
the fodder scams are the recent examples of crimes
 Poverty And Hunger: 100 million older people live on less than a dollar
aday,and 80% of older people in developing countries have no regular
income. Women account for nearly 70% of the 1.9 billion people currently
livening in extreme poverty. In India around 26% population living under
poverty line
 Mental Health And Child Mortality: Mental health is very poor in many
developing nations including India. It is due to lack of medical facilities
and bad women status. In India, it is estimated that discrimination against
girls the total rate of child mortality by 20%
 Universal Primary Education: In the Indian states of uttar Pradesh ,Bihar
and Rajasthan the enrolment ratio of SCs and STs is just 27% compared to
the 60% of other categories.
 Gender Inequality: Women are deprived of property rights in many
developing nations. Globally 16-50% of women in steay relationships have
been physically assaulted by their partners.They have less parliamentary
seats in developing nations including India.

How To Tackle Social Exclusion And Poverty Through Public Policy


Government policies can alleviate social exclusion and reduce poverty in
many ways they are as follows,
 Legal, Regulatory And Policy Frameworks: To avoid discrimination most
states now have legislation to curb it and go further ‘positive actions’ such
as targeting support for skill development on underprivileged groupsThey
can encourage economic production and strengthen social mobility. Legal
frameworks can safeguard the interests of these groups by establishing
departments and ministries.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Government Budgets And Public Expenditure: Poverty can be effectively


tackled through the budgetary process. There are impressive examples of
collaboration between government and civil society to analyse the benefits
of public policy and expenditure. In India there has been a substantial
increase over a period of decades on education, health, food safety and
househoid. Many schemes in budget are crucial in removing malnutrition.
sanitation and illiteracy
 Economic Opportunities And Access To Services: Some excluded groups
have no access to public services, limiting their opportunities for long term
economic, social and human development. some measures extending
services like free school meals and abolishing fees for healthcare and
education.
 Role Of Civil Society Organisations To Reduce Social Exclusion: CSO’s
do promote rules and laws which is an voice for an excluded group. They
also have a rple in advocating increased representation and voice for them
and giving a scope in policy and decision making. They can link grassroots
works to national and international policy process. CSO’s such as faith
groups and charities can help excluded groups to exercise their rights and
obtain redress where that is not happening. In many African countries the
media have been effective in tackling stigma and discrimination on HIV
and AIDS in promoting debate on social issues as rape and domestic
violence
 Promoting Participation and Protecting People’s Rights: The main
international human rights organisations agreements all provide measures
to tackle discrimination. The individual countries governments are the
only bodies that protect those rights, by producing their own domestic
legislation to guarantee them. The Indian government enacted a legislation
of corporate social responsibility by investing some amount to improve the
social conditions of the people. participation in decision making can bring
about positive change both at national and regional level. Engaging with
excluded people ,and empowering them to take an active role in decisions
that affect their lives
Social Welfare In India In Reduction Of Exclusion And Poverty
Women Welfare: The constitution of India gives equal right to women.
According to 72 and 73 amendment bill to panchayat raj and urban local
bodies have provided 30% reservation for women, The Hindu Marriage

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Act1955,The Hindu Divorce Act 1955,The Hindu succession Interacts Act 1956
,The Dowry prohibition act 1961 have passed for women. The dowry
prohibition act of 1961 has been made more stringent by Amendment of 1984.
Welfare Of The Disable People: Four major national institutes have been
established in the country. National Institute for Orthopedically Handicapped
at Culcutta. National Institute for Visually Challenged in Dehraaduhun.
National Institute for Mentally Challenged in Secunderabad. National
Institute for the Hearing Handicapped in Bombay.
Welfare Of The Drug Addicted People: This is the major problem in India. The
ministry of welfare has no exact record about it. The children and youth of the
country involve in it.74 voluntary action agencies has been set up in the
country. Counseling centre started in the country since 1986-87 in Delhi. The
government passed Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act in 1985
The Welfare Of Underprivileged: The SC ,ST and OBC population ias a part of
the disadvantaged society. Under article 330 and 332 of the Constitution seats
are reserved for SC and ST population .Post metric and Premetric scholarship
schemes are implemented for this people in the different parts of the country.

Conclusion
Concepts of social exclusion are becoming increasingly prevalent as part of
the social policy approaches in the developed nations. They have emerged as
the result of general shift in considering poverty as multidimensional and a
process rather than a purely economic. They are popular because they claim
to capture both the material and cultural aspects of deprivation, and try to
integrate into various forms of disadvantages ina single framework.However
closer analysis reveals a number of problems with the core concepts of
underpinning them. Social exclusion approaches are in need of a better
understanding of a marginality, the limits of a dualistic notions of a power,
and need to consider the excluded as agents within the process of exclusion. It
is a major issue in every type of a economy. It should be studied and handle
properly for economic growth and economic development.
References:
 Sinha, Archana.Economic Empowerment and Amelioration of disadvantantaged
in India, Kurukshethra, vol.5,(2006)
 Sen, Amartya, Social Exclusion Concept Application and Scruitiny,Critical Quest
Publishing, New Delhi,2004
 Venkateshan, S ,Social Exclusion and Poverty,Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,2007.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

42
Socio-Cultural Transformation and Urbanization in India

Manjunatha B T
Introduction
India’s contact with the West was a contact between a pre-modern and a
modernizing cultural system. By the time the Western tradition exerted
influence on various aspects of Indian social life, cultural and political system,
and its own internal structure had experienced a series of transformations. Its
traditional hierarchical and holistic character had broken down; its value
structure was rendered more open, liberal, equalitarian and humanistic and
this tradition was imbued with a new-found sense of confidence in the
scientific and technological world-view based on rationalism, equality and
freedom.
Urbanization is a transformative process in which people migrate from
rural to urban areas and change the ways they use land, interact, and earn a
living. The urban populations include not only city dwellers but also
suburbanites and even residents of small towns that have been pulled in by
urban sprawl. Urbanization corresponds with a shift from labor-intensive
agriculture-based occupations to manufacturing, information, and service
occupations all of which depend heavily on fossil fuels, not only to provide the
energy to make, distribute, and deliver goods and services, but also to
transport employees from home to work.
Objective of the study
 To study the socio-cultural transformation and urbanization in India
 To analyses Law, Urban Poor and Social Exclusion
 Collecting opinions and giving suggestions

Hypothesis of the study


 The slow pace of socio-economic change among the rural and urban
people over the years is responsible for significantly low level of socio-
economic development among them in the state

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 The variation in the levels of social change and development among


different groups of rural and urban people groups is primarily the result
of varying degrees of influence of the processes of urbanization,
westernization and other related processes of modernization among
them as well as their varying degrees of interaction with other social
groups.

Methodology
The scope of the study is limited to understand the concept and applicability
of socio-cultural in Karnataka, the study includes the impact and appropriate
frame work for development of socio-cultural in Karnataka. The present study
is both Primary and Secondary data. Data collected through observation,
interview, research related articles, research papers, Reports of Ministry of
Tribal affairs in central as well as the state and, Karnataka Inclusive policy
The data also collecting from different websites related to the Urban
development and using qualitative and quantitative Research

What is social exclusion?


Social exclusion describes a process by which certain groups are systematically
disadvantaged because they are discriminated against on the basis of their
ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age,
disability, HIV status, migrant status or where they live. Discrimination occurs
in public institutions, such as the legal system or education and health
services, as well as social institutions like the household’s
Socio-cultural dynamics:
The word ‘dynamics’ refers to motion of a body or matter. Socio-cultural
dynamics would mean the change in the social and cultural attributes of a
society. Though in really these two attributes are inseparable like the two sides
of a coin but for analytic convenience that can be treated separately. Social
denotes structural aspects i.e. it emphasizes on the nature of patterned
interaction actually obtaining within and among various types of groups that
exist in society. Some examples of such group being family, caste, economic
organization and distribution of power and dominance.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Indian society, being no exception, has also been subject to this complex
process. Subsequent discussion on socio cultural dynamics in Indian society
shall focus on two aspects (A) what has been the context of change (B) How
these change came about. (A) Taking Aryan society of the Vedic times as a
point of departure, we can have an overview of these changes in demographic,
familial, stratificational, economic and political spheres. They constitute
various sub structure of Indian society. Thus these change are to be termed as
structural changes. They have been both endogenous and exogenous in
nature.

Families and living arrangements


The evolution to an urban society is also frequently equated with a
decline in the status of the family, and with a proliferation of nontraditional
family forms and new types of households. By nontraditional we mean those
families without two parents and/or without children. This trend is in part a
reflection of an increasing diversity in "choices of living arrangements." This
concept is used in the scholarly literature to refer to the myriad of ways in
which individuals in an urban society combine to form collective units (i.e.,
households). Those combinations may follow from marriage, the traditional
arrangement, or from any other association of individuals within the housing
system whether those individuals are related by marriage or blood, or are
unrelated. The highest propensities to form separate households, however,
have been within two principal groups: the young and the elderly. The former
includes single parents, the most rapidly growing household type in Western

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

cities; the growth of the latter has been facilitated by increased longevity and
improved health and social benefits. In previous generations, and in most
rural societies, many of these individuals would have shared accommodation,
often as part of extended family groupings. The result, again with respect to
Western countries, is that average family size is now fewer than four persons,
while average household size is fewer than three. In many older central cities,
in fact, average household size is below two persons. This is in part a sign of
success, reflecting improvements in housing and in our ability to afford to live
alone, but it also reflects dramatic changes in how we choose to live and in our
attitudes to marriage, family life, and social responsibility.

Urban Housing and Exclusion


Housing is many things to many people. The National Urban Housing
and Habitat Policy (2007) sees housing and shelter as ‘basic human needs next
to only food or clothing’,1 putting makaan in its familiar place beside roti and
kapda. The United Nations agrees, speaking of the ‘right to adequate housing’
as a human right. However, the qualifier— ‘adequate’—begins to push at the
boundaries of what is meant when talking about ‘housing’. Adequacy here
includes a litany of elements: ‘(a) legal security of tenure; (b) availability of
services, materials, facilities and infrastructure; (c) affordability; (d)
habitability; (e) accessibility; (f) location; and (g) cultural adequacy’.2 In the
move from ‘house’ to ‘housing’, the materiality of the dwelling unit expands
to include legal status, infrastructure, aesthetics, as well as the relationship of
the house to the city at large. Both these definitions share a common, unstated
refrain: the consequences of exclusion from a basic human need or right are
such that, in most societies, such exclusions are seen as ethically and often
legally unacceptable. It is important to note that while housing policy and
programmes in India have emphasized an ethical commitment to increasing
access to housing, the latter is not a textual, constitutional right in India. Legal
jurisprudence does, however, offer significant precedents— though even these
are contested, as will be seen later—that many have used to argue that access
to housing is a derived right, and certainly one of the entitlements that a state
owes to its citizens. Other discourses of housing speak at some distance from
the claims of ‘rights’ and ‘needs’. They speak of housing more as a commodity
to be bought and sold as per the dictates of supply and demand—to each as
she or he can afford. Housing here is closer to the narrower economic

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

categories of real estate and property, both its means and ends reconfigured.
The two imaginations sometimes overlap: as developers building ‘affordable
housing’ units demand concessions from the state, they draw upon both the
commodity nature of housing as well as recognition of the social and need-
based characteristics of the commodity they produce. In different ways,
however, these contrasting imaginations of housing eventually see it as an
asset to be accessed, consumed and used, be it by households or developers,
for use or exchange. Housing is, in other words, an end unto itself. However,
housing is not just what it is but what it does. Declaring affordable housing to
be a sector marked for priority lending, the Reserve Bank of India spoke not
just of access to housing but of the ‘employment generation potential of these
sectors’.4 Similarly, for the National Housing Bank, housing is a basic need but
also ‘a valuable collateral that can enable the access of credit from the financial
market’.5 Others argue that housing is a vector to other developmental
capabilities. Without it, health, education, psycho-social development, cultural
assimilation, belonging, and economic development are impossible. As a bidi
worker and member of the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA),
Manjuben, says, ‘My house is my asset, my savings, my workshop, and my
place to rest and belong.’6 Debates within development circles disagree only
about where the virtuous or vicious cycle begins—the fact that these
developmental capabilities are interlinked is widely accepted. It is, therefore,
within the multiple meanings and roles of housing (as need, right, commodity,
infrastructure, legal status, and financial asset) as well as the dual nature of
housing (as an end in itself as well as a means to other desired outcomes) that
it is essential to approach the question of exclusion in access to housing. In this
chapter, this is done so from a particular location. It is argued, in keeping with
the framework of this report, that access to affordable and appropriate
housing must be seen as a public good, the protection and provision of which
requires strong public commitment and action in multiple ways, including an
unambiguous framing of housing as a right and entitlement. This is primarily
for two reasons: (a) a belief that the economic, social, political, and
developmental implications of exclusions from housing, unlike with private
goods, make life with dignity impossible; and (b) the structure of the housing
market is such that reasonable access is deeply prone to entrenched exclusions
in the absence of corrective intervention and public action.
Conclusion

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Conclusion & Policy Implication According to the UN-HABITAT 2006 Annual


Report, in regard to future trends, it is estimated 93% of urban growth will
occur in Asia and Africa and mainly in two Asian countries, India and China.
By 2050 over 6 billion people, two thirds of humanity, will be living in towns
and cities. With the country’s growing population concentrating on less and
less land and linking together more and more tightly in an expanding network
of large cities, the well established geographical concepts of inhibited area,
state population and population density are gradually becoming less
meaningful and pertinent. The blind forces of urbanization, flowing along the
lines of least resistance, show no aptitude for creating an urban and industrial
pattern that will be stable, self-sustaining, and self-renewing. Neither the
blotting-out of the landscape nor the disappearance of the city is the climax
stage of urbanization. Rather, it is the farsighted and provident balancing of
city populations and regional resources so as to maintain in a state of high
development all the elements (social, economic, and agricultural) necessary for
their common life. In India policies towards urbanization have traditionally
been negative and since independence no government has ever made any
sincere effort to 16 implement a uniform and coherent urban reform policy for
better management of this concurrent issue. This must be changed so that the
process of urbanization is regarded as a positive force in the development of
the country. Policies concerned with urbanization and urban development
must pay special attention to increase the access of the poor to urban incomes
and amenities so that they also take advantages of urbanization. There should
be a mechanism for sustainable urban environmental management so that the
urban environment will be supportive to the needs of a rapidly increasing
urban population. The urbanization is always a supportive force for economic
and social development and it should be welcomed, indeed we must seek out
creative and sustainable ways to accelerate it in the interest of both common
masses and our environment.

Reference
 Ahmad, A. (1986): “Socio-Cultural Change in a Developing Society: The
Case of India”, in Safi, M. and Raza, M. (eds.) Spectrum o f Modem
Geography, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Barooah, B. (1998): The Sonowal Kacharis o f Assam, pub. by the author,
Guwahati, p. 4. Barua, I., Sengupto, S. and Dutta Das, D. (eds.) (2002):

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Ethnic Groups, Cultural Continuities and Social Change in North East


India, Mittal Publication, New Delhi.
 Bhattacharjee, T. (1986): Sociologies o f the Karbis, B it. Publishing
Corporation, Delhi. Bhattacharjee, T. (1992): “The Dimasa Female Clans
and Some Problems”, in Bhuyan, B. C. (ed.) The Tribal Women, Omsons,
New Delhi, pp. 60-86.
 Bell, D and M Jayne (2009): “Small Cities? Towards a Research Agenda”,
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 33(3):
 Bora, A. (1992): “Status of Women in Karbi Society”, in Bhuyan, B.C. (ed.)
The Tribal Women, Omsons, New Delhi.
 Bhagat, R. B. (1992) Component of urban Growth in India with reference to
Haryana: Findings from Recent Censuses, Nagarlok, Vol25, No.3, page.10-
14
 Brennan, E. M. (1999). Population, urbanization, environment, and security:
a summary of the issues. The Woodrow Wilson Center, Environmental
Change and Security Project Report, issue 5, 4-14
 Donga, D.G. (1978): Among the Dimasas o f Assam: An Ethnogeographic
Study, Sterling Publishers, Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
 Dowerah, D. (1992): “Social Status o f Dimasa womenfolk”, in Bhuyan, B.C.
(ed.) The Tribal Women, Omsons, New Delhi. Ghosh, G.K. (1992): Tribals
and Their Culture: Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram, Vol. 1, Ashish
Publishing House, New Delhi.
 Goswami, H.K. (1984): Rabhas: A Sociological Study, an unpublished PhD.
Thesis, Gauhati University.
 Nijman, Jan (2012): “India’s Urban Challenge”, Eurasian Geography and
Economics, 53 (1): 720. Planning Commission (2011): Mid Term Appraisal
of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).
 Pradhan, Kanhu C (2012): “The New Census Towns of India”, Mimeo,
Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi.
 Sengupta, Oindrilla (2012): “The Expansion of Malegaon and Its Impact on
Surrounding Area” MPlan thesis, Department of Regional Planning, School
of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi

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43

MGNREG Act and Urban Migration in Backward Areas -


A Micro Level Investigation in Yadgir District in
Karnataka State

Ramesh Rangappa, Shripathi Kalluraya P and Anilkumar B Kote

I. Background and Introduction:


Evolving the design of the wage employment programmes to more effectively
fight poverty, the Central Government formulated the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in 2005. With its legal framework
and rights-based approach, MGNREGA provides employment to those who
demand it and is a paradigm shift from earlier programmes. Notified on
September 7, 2005, MGNREGA aims at enhancing livelihood security by
providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a
financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do
unskilled manual work. The Act covered 200 districts in its first phase,
implemented on February 2, 2006, and was extended to 130 additional districts
in 2007-2008. All the remaining rural areas have been notified with effect from
April 1, 2008.
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) is one
of the most progressive legislations enacted since independence. Its
significance is evident from a variety of perspectives. First, it is a bold and
unique experiment in the provision of rural employment – in India and
indeed in the world at large. Second, it is the first expression of the right to
work as an enforceable legal entitlement. In a country where labour is the
only economic asset for millions of people, gainful employment is a
prerequisite for the fulfillment of other basic rights – the right to life, the
right to food, and the right to education.
There is much that the NREGA promises from the perspective
of women’s empowerment as well. Most boldly, in a rural milieu marked
by stark inequalities between men and women – in the opportunities for

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

gainful employment afforded as well as wage rates – NREGA represents


action on both these counts. The act stipulates that wages will be equal
for men and women. It is also committed to ensuring that at least 33%
of the workers shall be women. By g e n e r a t i n g employment for
women at fair wages in the village, NREGA can play a substantial role in
economically empowering women and laying the basis for greater
independence and self-esteem.

Salient features of the Act


 Right based Framework: For adult members of a rural household willing
to do unskilled manual work.
 Time bound Guarantee: 15 days for provision of employment, else
unemployment
o Allowance Upto 100 days in a financial year per household, depending on
the actual demand.
 Labour Intensive Works: 60:40 wage and material ratio for permissible
works; no contractors/machinery.
 Decentralized Planning Gram Sabhas to recommend works At least 50% of
works by Gram Panchayats for execution Principal role of PRIs in planning,
monitoring and implementation
 Work site facilities : Crèche, drinking water, first aid and shade provided
at worksites
 Women empowerment: At least one-third of beneficiaries should be
women
 Transparency & Accountability: Proactive disclosure through Social
Audits, Grievance Redressal Mechanism,

Implementation
Under Sec 3, States are responsible for providing work in accordance
with the Scheme. Under Sec 4, every state government is required to make a
scheme for providing not less than 100 days of guaranteed employment in a
financial year, to those who demand work
Migration in India is not new and historical accounts show that people have
moved in search of work, in response to environmental shocks and stresses, to
escape religious persecution and political conflict. However improved
communications, transport networks, conflicts over natural resources and new

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economic opportunities have created unprecedented levels of mobility. But as


we discuss in following sections, the increase in mobility is not fully captured
in larger survey so often leading to erroneous conclusions about mobility
levels in India. Traditional rural-urban migration exists in India as villagers
seek to improve opportunities and lifestyles. In 1991, 39 million people
migrated in rural-urban patterns of which 54% were female.
Caste and tribe systems complicate these population movements Seasonal
urban migration is also evident throughout India in cities like Surant where
many migrants move into the city during periods of hardship and return to
their native villages for events such as the harvest. Although significant in
recent years, growth has been unequal in India (Balisa can and Ducanes2005),
characterized by industry in developed states such as Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Punjab drawing labour from agriculturally backward and poor regions
such as eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, southern Madhya Pradesh, western
Orissa and southern Rajasthan. High productivity agricultural areas (“green
revolution areas”) continue to be important destinations, but rural urban
migration is the fastest growing type of migration as more migrants choose to
work in better paying non-farm occupations in urban areas and industrial
zones. Delhi and the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra are top destinations for
inter-state migrant labour. Labour mobility has grown and will probably
continue to grow once the economy recovers from the current crisis. Migrant
labour makes enormous contributions to the Indian economy through major
sectors such as construction, textiles, small industries, brick-making, stone
quarries, mines, fish and prawn processing and hospitality services. But
migrants remain on the periphery of society, with few citizen rights and no
political voice in shaping decisions that impact their lives (Kabeer 2005).

Table: 1.Census 2001 Data on Migration Count by place of Birth:


Sl no Migrants Persons Males Females
1 Intra-district migrants 181,799,637 42,781,678 139,017,959
2 Inter-district migrants 76,841,466 24,778,327 52,063,139
3 Inter-state migrants 42,341,703 19,675,774 22,665,929
4 International migrants 6,166,930 3,174,717 2,992,213
5 Unclassifiable 421 194 227
Total migrants 307,150,157 90,410,690 216,739,467
Source: Census 2001 data

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Chart: 1.Census 2001 Data on Migration Count by place of Birth

Inter-state Unclassifiable International


migrants 0% migrants
14% 2%

Inter-district
Intra-district
migrants
migrants
25%
59%

Table: 2. Census 2001 data-Reasons for Migration


Sl. Durat Place of Total Work Bus Educa Marri Moved Moved
No ion of last migr emplo ine tion age after with
reside residence ants yment ss birth househ
nce old
1 All Inter-state 4116 108651 816 549372 12233 153918 970817
durati migrants 6265 97 572 530
on
2 Less Inter-state 2014 784138 301 46756 14208 59571 705939
than migrants 770 36 1
1-year
3 1-4 Inter-state 8276 263300 143 323061 17440 286392 244693
yaers migrants 637 7 842 35 8
4 5-9 Inter-state 6535 194287 136 72389 18687 293607 174707
years migrants 472 1 537 28 2
5 10 Inter-state 2138 550194 505 106898 84760 783782 432888
years migrants 9642 8 792 06 6
and
above
Source: Census 2001 data

Chart: 2: Census 2001 data-Reasons for Migration

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

90000000
80000000
70000000 10 years and above Inter-state
60000000 migrants
50000000
40000000 5-9 years Inter-state migrants
30000000
20000000 1-4 yaers Inter-state migrants
10000000
0
Less than 1-year Inter-state
migrants
All duration Inter-state
migrants

II. Statement of the Problem:


Poverty, unemployment and migration are dominating to the nation in
the 21st century. Developing economy invites the rural poor to urban
migration many Governments have tried to fight against poverty,
unemployment and migration by conducting various programmes but have
meet little success. So what India need is something more lasting than patch
work policies to help its millions of poverty stricken people. The government
Guarantee Act can solve the problem given that it has the potential to provide
a livelihood of millions.
The United Progressive Alliance Government has passed the historic”
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act bill on December 23,2004 and the
Act was notified on September 7th 2005 and it has started the golden days of
NREGA by implementing on 2nd February 2006. The study area Yadgir district
has the label of most backward district in Karnataka state, where NREGA is
being implemented well and where there is a history of distress migration the
area is industrially backward, agriculture have not productive and looking at
yields. So the study area is backward and semi-irrigated area of Karnataka
state and recently this district suffered from flood in the year of 2008-09 for
this reason the present paper is tries to analyses the effectiveness of the
programmme impact on rural urban migration in backward areas like Yadgir
district in Karnataka state. This study also tries to bridge that lacuna by
attempting to study the impact of NREGA on Rural Urban migration in
backward areas like Yadgir district. The potential of NREGA in reaching the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

rural poor is unsurpassed as it is now being implemented in all the district of


India. There is thus an urgent need to some studies how such success stories
can be made. Impact on rural urban migration, what are the lacuna and
drawbacks and how they can be addressed.

III. Objectives of the Study:


The major objectives of the proposed study shall be an evaluation of the
MGNREGA on rural urban migration in Yadgir district. The study shall have
the following specific objectives are outlined for the present study.
 To examine the socioeconomic condition of the beneficiaries under
MGNREGA.
 To analyze the impact of MGNREGA on rural urban migration in
Yadgir district.
 To analyze the extent of additional employment generation through
MGNREGA to the rural poor
 To know the problems faced by the MGNREGA beneficiaries.

IV. Results and Discussion:


Evaluation of MGNREGA scheme is Yadgir block, for the purpose of the
present study, two gram panchayats from Yadgir block are selected on the
basis of simple random sampling method. For the purpose of the evaluation of
MGNREGA scheme in Yadgir Block, 60 households were selected from
different categories on the basis of simple random sampling method.

Table-3: Age wise classification of sample beneficiaries


Gram 21-25 40-60 60 Total
Panchayat
Sydapur 10 15 05 30
Mudnal 12 13 05 30
Total 22 28 10 60
Source: Field survey.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Chart: 3.Age wise classification of sample beneficiaries

60
50
Saydapur
40
Mudnal
30
Total
20
Total
10
Saydapur
0
21-25 40-60 60 Total

Table -4
Gender wise classification of the sample respondents
Gram Male Female Total
Panchayat
Sydapur 08 22 30
Mudnal 10 20 30
Total 18 42 60
Source: Field survey.
Chart: 4. Gender wise classification of the sample respondents

60
60
42
50

40
18 30 Sydapur
30
20 30 Mudnal
20 10 22
Total
10 8

0
Male
Female
Total

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Table -5: No of worked during 2009-2010


No of days worked
Gram Panchayat < 75 days 76-90 days 90-100 days >100 days Total
Sydapur 14 8 4 4 30
Mudnal 8 12 3 7 30
Total 22 20 7 11 60
Source: Field survey.
Chart: 5.No of worked during 2009-2010.
70

60 60

50

40 Sydapur

30 30 Mudnal

22 Total
20 20
14 12
10 11
8 8 7 7
4
3 4
0
< 75 days 76-90 days 90-100 days >100 days Total

Table-6: Respondents Perception of Migration to cities


Gram Decreased Increased Remained Total
Panchayat Same
Syadapur 10 15 10 35
Mudnal 12 8 5 25
Total 22 23 15 60
Source: Field survey.
Chart: 6.Respondents Perception of Migration to cities

60

40
Syadapur
20 Mudnal
Total
0 Mudnal Total
Decreased Syadapur
Increased
Remained
Same Total

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

V. Analysis of the Study:


An analysis of the respondent households in two selected Two Gram
Panchayat namely Syadapur Gram Panchayat 30 respondents and Mudnal
Gram Panchayat 30 respondents has been picked up.
 Revered 40-60 years to be the pre-dominant group of the 28 respondent,
32% were found to be aged of 26 to 40 years, 48% to be aged 40 to 60 years
and 12% to be aged 21 to 25 years 8% aged over 60 years as respondents
indicates the need for employment even for those over 60 years and the
poor framework of MGNREGA which has not set any age limit for
considering to be eligible for the scheme.
 The analysis of gender classification of the respondents revealed that 70%
of the respondents to female and reaming 30% to be male.
 The study revealed that out of 40respondents 40% are SCs 10% are STs,
30% are OBCand 20% are OCs in all the four panchayats. It is thus clear
that MGNREGA has been strictly applied to rural categories people
especially in the rural areas like Yadgir district.
 Number of days worked under MGNREGA it’s observed from the table
that out of 60 respondents from two Panchayat 50 of the respondents in
Mudnal.50% in Syadapur had worked less than 78 days during 2009-2010.
 Total wages received under works during 2009-2010 in two Panchayat out
of 60 respondents, 42% received an amount of less than Rs 6500, 50%
revived between Rs.6500 to 8000 and only 8% received above Rs.1200 from
MGNREGA wages during 2009-2010.
 The extent of migration after MGNREGA Scheme it is shown in table
number 4% of the respondents opine that there has been a decreases in
migration since the launch of MGNREGA. 32% opine that there has been
no change and 3% opine that migration has increase even with the
introduction of MGNREGA. 63% stating that migration to have decreased
with MGNREGA implementation is a good indicator of development for
these Gram Panchayat.
 MGNREGA workers as per the study findings in selected villages have
helped in food security management as stated by 22% of the respondents.
An analysis by Syadapur Gram Panchayat to have a highest proportion of
respondents 68% perceive MGNREGA to have helped particularly in food
security management. 17% of the respondents perceive that MGNREGA in

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

no way to have helped in food security management while 15% are not
sure about food security management.

VI. The Main Findings of the Study in Brief Are:


 Employment has been generated on a massive scale. The average job
card holder in Yadgir has already been employed for nearly 28 days
since 2010 compared with just about 2days for the same period in 2009.
 Minimum wage Rs. 80 for men and Rs.70 per women are being paid.
 Wages are paid within a week and there were few complaints of delay
in wage payments.
 Gender classification of the respondents revealed that 70% of the
respondents to female and other 30% to be male.
 MGNREGA is a life line for the rural poor.
 The large proportion of the respondents 62% unaware of the
MGNREGA in two villages.

VII. Suggestions for the Policy Makers:


 There are more landless poor in Yadgir district who totally depend on
farm work and other seasonal, manual labourers, the number of days
are to be increased from 100 to at least 150 days. So that the labour can
make out their livelihood.
 Participation of women should be increased with the men for raising the
income of the family.
 Genuine laboure who richly deserve work should be enrolled there by
providing work to all the needy families without any political
interference.
 An evaluation of MGNREGA annually would help in releasing the
programme effectively.
 Yadgir district is one the more rural district of Karnataka state and is
actually in need of proper implementation of MGNREGA.
 Most of the people would prefer not to migrate men and women both.
Therefore, if MNREGA can be used to curb rural urban migration then it
will be yet another benefit from this act.
VI. Conclusion:
This paper looks at the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Programme (NREGP) in India that was launched in the year 2005

334
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

as a social security measure aimed at providing employment security to the


poor in villages. The MGNREGA was also meant to use this labour to
construct rural infrastructure that is clearly wanting in India. The National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act guarantees 100 days of work to all
households. This analysis looks at the direct and the indirect effects that the
NREGA has on employment generation and poverty reduction in a local. For
this, a micro level survey in a specific village was undertaken to highlight the
impact of the MGNREGA on the rural urban migration and the living
condition of the rural poor in rural areas. This survey covered a poor
agricultural village with 60 households. The survey recorded income and
expenditure levels by type of household (large, small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labour.
References:
 Anindita Adhikari and Karlika Bhatia (2010). NREGA Wage Payments : Can We
Bank on the Banks? Economic and Political Weekly, January 2nd., pp. 30-37.
 Anupam Hazra. 2011. Rural India : Still searching jobs for the millions.
Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, January, pp. 3-5.
 Anupam Hazra. 2010. Migration : Still a survival strategy for rural India.
Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, No. 2., December. pp. 3-5.
 Anita Modi. 2011. Role of migration in urban growth. Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, No.
2., December. pp. 7-10.
 Atul K.R. Tiwari. 2010. Bridging urban-ruralk divide providing urban
amenities in rural areas (PURA). Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, No. 2., December. pp.
12-14.
 Bharat S. Sontakki and Laxman M. Ahire. 2011. Rural employment Guarantee
Scheme : Boon or Bane to Indian Agriculture? Kurukshetra. Vol. 60, April, pp.
39-44.
 Pattanaik, B.K. (2007). Rural Poverty and Need for Primary Sector Development.
Kurukshetra, May.
 Prem Chand Kamboj, Manoj Siwach and Narpreet Kaur (2010). Impact of
NREG Scheme on Agriculture Sector. Southern Economist, pp. 45-48.
 Ruddar Datta and K.P.M. Sundharam (2006). Indian Economy. S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 89-92.
 Venkata Naid, G., T. Gopal and K. Nagabhushan (2010). Impact of NREGA on
the Living Condition of Rural Poor. Southern Economist, pp. 13-15.
 Zilla Panchayat Report, 2005. http://planning.kar.nic.in/planning.htm.
 Parmindar Kaur and Arjinder Kaur. 2011. pattern of rural work force
participation in India : Gender inequalities. Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, January,
 Shusbhashree Sanyal. 2011. Rural employment generation programme in
India : An analytical review. Kurukshetra. Vol. 59, January, pp. 15-17.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

44
Slum Education: Importance of Present and Future
Scenario
H.N. Narasingappa

Introduction;
Education is a critical input in human resource development and is
essential for the country’s economic growth. Though the major indicators of
social –economic development are the growth rate of the economy, birth rate.
death rate .infant mortality rate and literacy rate. and all of are
interconnected. The literacy rate has been the major determinant of the rise or
fall in other indicators. There is enough evidence in India to show that a high
literacy rate. especially in the case of the women. correlates with low birth-
rate. And increase in the rate of life expectancy
The recognition of this fact has created awareness on the need to focus
upon literacy And elementary education programmes. Not simply as a matter
of social justice but more to foster economic growth. social well-being and
social stability. Literacy rate in India has shown considerable improvement
over the past few years but the conditions of slum education is still in its
immature phase. This article tries to study how youth participation can help
in education of slums especially to their social- economic conditions slum
;residence of urban poor for billions of people, the urban experience is one of
poverty and exclusion. Often studies overlook those residents of a city whose
homes and work are unofficial or unregistered preciously those most likely to
be poor or suffer discrimination i .e. the slums. Difficult urban living
conditions reflect and are exacerbated by factors such as illegibility, limited
voice induction-making and lack of secure tenure, assets and legal protection.
Exclusion is often reinforced by discrimination on the grounds of gender
,ethnicity, race or disability’s addition ,cities often expand beyond the capacity
of the authorities to provide the infrastructure and services needed to ensure
people’ s health and well being . a significant proportion of urban population
growth is occurring in the most unplanned and deprived areas .these factors
combine to push essential services especially education beyond the reach of
children and families living in poor urban neighborhood however by no

336
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

means do all of the urban poor live in slums and by no means is every in
habitant of a slum poor never the less ,slums are an expression of and a
practical response to deprivation and exclusions and despite their many
deprivation s slum residents provide at least one essential service to the very
socialist from which they are marginalized labour some of it is formal and
some undocumented but almost all is low paid for example as factory hands
shop assistants street vendors and domestic workers and hence if provided
with basic elementary education this labour can be utilized to improve their
social –economic condition

Socio- Economic Conditions of Slums In India


Decent housing is a basic human need and a basic human right but in
many developing countries including India urban population continuous to
grow at a rapid pose and providing safe sanitary affordable housing and basic
infrastructure for all citizens will become an increasingly serious challenge for
the policy makers slum upgrading and participation can improve their
housing conditions studies indicate that the prevalence of deceases(
phenomena, diarrhea. Malaria ,measles, and HIV/AIDS) in urban slums is
due to bad living conditions rather than income levels quality of life of the mi
grants in slums is most adversely affected . living in unhygienic and
congested place devoid of basic necessities for a healthy life like housing ,
water supply , drainage and sanitation, slums are also the breeding ground
for crime ,pollution and health hazards .women and children are the worst
victims .physically ,mentally, and emotionally they are affected. the rapid
growth of slums and squatter settlements has largely contributed to the social
,and environmental problems in urban areas. The re-habitation programme of
slum clearance board is totally in adequate in relation to the mushroom
growth of slums. social-economic conditions of slums dwellers indicated that a
majority of slum dwellers were migrants from different places .and were of
unskilled with low occupational status and low incomes. There for the policy
makers should recognize that just providing a house and even a better
environment to live cannot solve the problem of growth of slums which has its
roots in thief very demand for low valued informal occupations .
Educational Levels of Slums In India
Various survey s of slum areas show that only over half the children
are in school .it also shows that a high over –age and dropout ratio exists

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

among slum children .overage is often the outcome of late admission to school.
Late admission is caused both by demand side i.e. migration from rural areas
to slum s and supply side i,e, lack of school capacity for all children a short
period of admission , requirements of birth certificate, etc. Economic problems
are one of the main reasons why children do not attend school .however
various educational schemes have been applied by government to increase the
literacy rate some of them are as follows.
 Right to education
 Mid day meal
 National Achievement Survey(NAS)
 Mahila Samakhya Programme
 Scheme to Provide Quality Education in Madrasas (SPQEM)
 Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institutes (
 Nali-Kali - A Recipe for Joyful Learning
 Chinnara Angala – A Course to the Mainstream
 Baa Bale Shaalege (Bringing the girl child to School) Campaign
 Beediyinda Shaalege (From Street to School)
 Cooliyinda Shalege [Labour to School]
 Listen – Learn
 Mobile Schools
 Tribal Education – Special Drive in a Forest
 Programme for the backward districts of north east Karnataka
 akshara dasoha
 Distribution of Uniforms, School Bags & Text Books under Vidya Vikasa
Scheme
 Sarva shikshana abhiyana

Sarva Shiksh Abhiyana Objectives;


 Universilization of access to elementary education from 1 to 8 th
standards to all children upto the age of 14 years
 Universilization of enrolments and retention in elementary education
and completion of 8th standard by all children
 Universalization means age-specific enrolment and full retention of all
enrolled children
 Provision of education of a satisfactory quality with emphasis on life
skills and meaningful Schooling
Complete attention to equity by sex and across social groups and parity across
regions in educational development

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Total involvement of communities up to the village level and especially local


government institutions in management of schools and movement towards the
goals of self managing schools
Operation Black Board: The operation black board scheme , started i 1987-88
which aimed at improving the classroom environment by providing
infrastructural facilities , additional teachers and teaching –learning material
to primary schools and by provision of a third teacher to schools were
enrolment exceed 100,has been extended topper primary schools.
Restructuring and reorganization of teacher education , started in 1987 aims to
strengthen the institutional base of teacher training by taking up special
programs for training of teachers in specified areas and other non –
institutional training programs
District Primary Education Program( DPEP): The district primary education
program (DPEP), launched i 1994 , is assisted by the world bank , European
commission, and department for international development (DFID) of the
united kingdom , the Netherlands and the united nations international
children ’s emergency fund (UNICEF).
Mahila Samakhya: It was started in 1989 in five states. it aims to promote
women’ s education and empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly
women in socially and economically marginalized groups . many schemes
have been developed for increasing the educationally level of India however
only one scheme has been developed extensively and exclusively for slum
education which is;
Non –Formal Education (NFE) And EGS And AIE: The scheme of non-
formal education (NFE) , introduced in 1977-78 on a pilot basis and
expanded in subsequent years, focused o out –of school children in the 6-14
age group who have remain d outside the formal system due to social –
economic and cultural reasons. Te scheme was initially limited to ten
educationally backward states covering urban slums ,hilly tribal and desert
areas. the scheme has many lacunae
Lack of enthusiasm of teachers, poor quality of training, ambiguity curriculum
and text –books, lack of community participation, weak management system
,insufficient outlay, a lack of emphasis on mainstreaming etc .moreover, most
NFE centers were in habituations already served by formal schools
Conclusion

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Children from poor urban neighbourhoods are among the least likely to
attend school. A survey in Delhi ,India, found a primary school attendance
rate of 54.5 percent along children living in slums in 2004-2005, compared with
90 percent for the city as a whole . the quality of available schooling options
in poor urban areas is another issues to consider. While data tend to focus s
on access, enrolment and retention, these are linked to the perceived quality
and benefits of available education. Overcrowding and a lack of appropriate
facilities such as toilets are among the factor that undermine the quality of
education access to education for poor and marginalized children access to
education for poor and marginalized children, including the provision of
quality schooling in informal settlements ,is of paramount importance. other
forms of training, such as vocational course ,can be particularly useful for
adolescents seeking to secure future live hoods in the urban context .whether
trough classroom or on the job training ,apprenticeships or skill-specific
course such as language or computer training, vocational initiatives should
aim to increase young people employability accelerated learning programs
are a practical solution for children who may had their schooling disrupted ,
whether by emergency or circumstance .such programs offer students the
Opportunity to fallow certified education course on the basis of competency
,not age or previous grade

Bibliography
 K. Michaelowa, “Primary Education Quality in Francophone Sub-Saharan
Africa: Determinants of Learning Achievements and Efficiency
Considerations”.
 J. Moil, “Primary Education, Teachers’ Professionalism and Social Grade
about Motivation and Demonization of Government School Teachers in India
 P.R. Panchamukhi, Household Expenditure on Elementary Education,
 J. Trolley, and P. Dixon “Private Schooling for Low-income Families: A
Census and Comparative Survey in East Delhi, India”, International Journal of
Educational Development
 UN Millennium Project: Towards Universal Primary Education: Investments,
Incentives and Institutions, London.
 .I. Gupta and A. Mitre “Rural Migrants and Labour Segmentation: Micro Level
Evidence from Delhi Slums”, Economic and Political Weekly.
 Sallie Singh and Kaplana deepen .assistant professor, beanie group of college
,jaipur,
 Rajastan,research scholar, GCA, Ajmer, Rajasthan slum education; present scenario
and future need

340
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

45
Performance of National Urban Livelihood Mission in
India – An Evaluation

Manjuprasad C, Yogesh H S and Naveenkumar R

Introduction
Economic development and urbanization are closely connected. Indian
cities are emerging as the country’s engines of economic growth, with a
contribution of more than 60% to total GDP. As per Census of India, 2011,
India’s urban population is now 377 million which shows a 31 per cent
increase from 2001. The Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of
Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector by the National Commission on
Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector brought out in August 2007 (NCEUS,
2007) reveals that in 2004-05, out of India’s total workforce, 92% worked in the
informal sector. The urban informal sector comprises a large part of the
unorganized non-agriculture sector. Low levels of education and skill in the
unorganized sector workers have resulted in their inability to access the
opportunities offered by emerging markets. This underscores the criticality of
skills up-gradation for better livelihoods opportunities in urban areas.
Apart from this, urban poverty is also being multi-dimensional, various
vulnerabilities faced by the poor in cities and towns: occupational, residential
and social need to be addressed simultaneously in a comprehensive and
integrated manner with a targeted focus on the vulnerable groups so that a
definitive impact can be made on ground. Residential vulnerability issues are
being addressed through programs like JNNURM and RAY. The other two
vulnerabilities: occupational and social can be best addressed by creating
opportunities for skill development leading to market based employment and
helping them to set up self-employment ventures. Urban poverty alleviation
programs need to be based on skill development and easy access to credit. It is
in this context that a mission-mode approach to urban livelihoods is
considered necessary in the form of the National Urban Livelihoods Mission
(NULM).

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

In this connection the present study is a modest attempt in analyzing


various issues like, strategies of NULM, targets, components of National
Urban Livelihood Mission. Interestingly it also focused on the analysis Central
Fund Allocation under National Urban Livelihood Mission in India and
reviewing of the Financial / Physical Progress under National Urban
Livelihood Mission (NULM).

Objectives and Methodology of the Study


The present study has formulated the following objectives are, to
analyze the Central Fund Allocation under National Urban Livelihood
Mission in India. To review the Financial / Physical Progress under National
Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM) and the present study is based on purely
secondary data. The data are collected from the various sources like Journals,
Books and The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Reports.
The study has used Exponential Growth Model to analyze the present issue at
India level.

National Urban Livelihoods Mission:


The State Urban Livelihoods Mission will aim “to reduce poverty and
vulnerability of the urban poor households by enabling them to access gainful
self-employment & skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in
appreciable improvements in the livelihood on a sustainable basis, through
building strong grassroots level institutions of the poor”.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation had been
implementing a Centrally Sponsored Scheme Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar
Yojana (SJSRY) which has been restructured into National Urban Livelihoods
Mission (NULM) since September, 2013. It aims at organizing urban poor in
Self-Help Groups, imparting skill training to urban poor for self and wage
employment and helping them to set up self-employment ventures by
providing credit on subsidized rate of interest. In addition, shelters for urban
homeless and infrastructure for street vendors can also be taken up under this
Mission.
Strategy: NULM will adopt the following strategy.
Building capacity of the urban poor, their institutions and the machinery
involved in the implementation of livelihoods development and poverty
alleviation programmes through handholding support. Building skills to

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

enable access to growing market-based job opportunities offered by emerging


urban economies. Training for and support to the establishment of micro-
enterprises by the urban poor– self and group. Ensure availability and access
for the urban homeless population to permanent 24-hour shelters including
the basic infrastructural facilities like water supply, sanitation, safety and
security. To address livelihood concerns of the urban street vendors by
facilitating access to suitable spaces, institutional credit, social security and
skills to the urban street vendors for accessing emerging market opportunities.
Special provision for the benefit of disabled persons under National Urban
Livelihoods Mission (NULM)
Employment through Skills Training & Placement component of the
National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) provides interalia that
minimum 3% candidates should be differently-abled. Also, based on the trade
and area of implementation, if the requirement of minimum percentage cannot
be fulfilled through common training programs, specific training programs
may be undertaken by the State Urban Livelihoods Mission. Under the Self
Employment Programme component of NULM, special provision of 3 percent
reserve reservation for the differently-abled has been made. Suitable
provisions for persons with disabilities have been incorporated also in the
Scheme of Shelters for Urban Homeless and Innovative & Special Projects
under NULM.

Components of the NULM: NULM have the following 7 components; they are
1. Social Mobilization and Institution Development (SM&ID): This
component of the NULM envisages mobilization of urban poor households
into thrift and credit-based Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and their
federations/collectives.
2. Capacity Building and Training (CB&T): A multi-pronged approach is
planned under NULM for continuous capacity building of SHGs and their
federations/collectives, government functionaries at Central, State and
City/ Town levels, bankers, NGOs, CBOs and other stakeholders. Support
is also provided for creation of National, State and City level mission
management units to assist in implementation of programme for the poor.
3. Employment through Skill Training and Placement (EST&P): NULM
focuses on providing assistance for skill development/ upgrading of the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

skills of urban poor to enhance their capacity for self-employment or better


salaried employment
4. Self-employment Programme (SEP): This component has focus on
financial assistance to individuals/groups of urban poor for setting up
gainful self-employment ventures/ micro-enterprises, suited to their skills,
training, aptitude and local conditions.
5. Support to Urban Street Vendors: This component covers development of
vendors market, credit enablement of vendors, socioeconomic survey of
street vendors, skill development and micro enterprises development and
convergence with social assistance under various schemes of the
Government.
6. Shelter for Urban Homeless (SUH): Under this component, the
construction of permanent shelters for the urban homeless equipped with
essential services will be supported.
7. Innovative & Special Projects (I&SP): Under this component, initiatives in
the form of innovative projects are promoted. These initiatives may be in
the nature of pioneering efforts, aimed at catalyzing sustainable approaches
to urban livelihoods through Public, Private and Community Partnership
(PPCP).
Results and Discussion
Table - 1: Central Fund Allocation under SJSRY / NULM during 2006-2016
Year Allocation (Rs. in Crores)
2006-07 250.00
2007-08 344.00
2008-09 545.00
2009-10 515.00
2010-11 587.96
2011-12 800.50
2012-13 838.00
2013-14 950.00
2014-15 1003.00
2015-16 510.00
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.

The table 1 illustrates the details of central funds allocation under


NULM during the period 2006 to 2016. As per the given table, there is huge
variation in the funds allocation over a period of time. In the year 2006-07 it

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

was only 250 crore which were increased to 344 crore in the next year.
Whereas in the year 2008-09 the funds allocation steadily increased from 344
crore to 545 which was followed by 515, 587.96 in the next years.
Subsequently, there was an enormous increase in the funds allocation in the
year 2011-12 i.e., 800 crore which was followed by 838, 950 and 1003 crore in
the next three years and finally it has decreased to 510 crore in the year 2015-
16. These variations of annual growth of central funds allocation also proved
by the exponential growth model also.

Table - 2: Average Annual growth of Central Fund Allocation under SJSRY /


NULM
Model Summary and Parameter Estimates
Dependent Variable: Funds Allocation under NULM
Equation Model Summary Parameter Estimates
R Square F df1 df2 Sig. Constant b1
.574 10.77 1 8 .011 315.765 .112
Exponential
9

Above table shows the average annual growth of central fund allocation
under NULM. Here, exponential growth model has been used to analyze the
growth of central fund allocation. According to the above results, the average
annual growth of central funds allocation under NULM is 11.2 percent which
is statistically significant at 5percent level with the R squared value of 0.574.
And the F value is 10.779.

Table - 3: Financial / Physical Progress under Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar


Yojana (SJSRY) / National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM)
Si.
All India Cumulative details (since 1997-98 till 2014-15)
No
Total Central funds released to the State/UT under SJSRY/NULM
1 6136.72
since 1997-1998 (including opening balance) (Rs. in crore)
Total Central funds spent by the State/UT under SJSRY/NULM (Rs.
2 5071.44
In crore)
Total Central funds unspent available with the State/UT under
3 1065.28
SJSRY/ NULM (Rs. in crore)
Total number of beneficiaries assisted for setting up individual
4 15,75,446
microenterprises
5 Total number of urban poor imparted skill training 37,46,546

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Total number of beneficiaries assisted for setting up Group micro


6 6,75,429
enterprises
Total number of beneficiaries assisted through Revolving Fund for
7 11,13,469
Thrift & Credit Societies
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.

Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP) and Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)
Scheduled Castes Sub Plan (SCSP) for Scheduled Castes (SC) and the
Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) for the Scheduled Tribes (ST) are intended to channelize
flow of resources towards development of SC and ST, at least in proportion to
their numbers in the population, both in physical and financial terms. Relevant
guidelines regarding formulation, implementation and monitoring of
SCSP/TSP have been issued from time to time by erstwhile Planning
Commission.
Separate allocation for SCSP and TSP as part of the Plan allocation was
made from 2011-12. Accordingly, funds under various schemes administered
by MoHUPA from time to time viz., SJSRY, since restructured as NULM,
BSUP & IHSDP under erstwhile JnNURM, RAY and RRY have been
earmarked for SCSP and TSP. The SEP and EST&P components of NULM are
predominantly beneficiary oriented. Schemes for slum rehabilitation in urban
areas, however, have universal coverage, whereby all eligible slum dwellers
are covered.
The physical and financial details regarding SCSP and TSP are as under:
Table - 4: Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP)
Financial (Rs. in Crore) Physical Achievements under NULM
Year Allocation SEP EST & P
2011-12 247.50 14,996 60,843
2012-13 259.87 18,420 79,553
2013-14 328.50 17,865 1,39,090
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.
Note: SEP-Self employment Program
EST and P – Employment through skill Training and Placement

The table 4 clearly shows the allocation of funds under scheduled caste
sub plan during the year 2011-2014. According to the given details, in the year
2011-12 the total allocation of funds was 247.50 crore, the beneficiaries under
SEP were 14,996 and EST and P beneficiaries were 60,843. Where as in 2012-13

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the total allocation of funds were increased to 259.87 and the beneficiaries of
SEP and EST and P were also increased to 18,420 and 79,553 respectively.
Finally, in the year 2013-14, the total allocated funds were increased to 328.50
and the beneficiaries under SEP were decreased to 17,865 crore and EST and P
were increased enormously to 1,39,09 0 during the study period.
Table - 5: Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)
Financial Physical Achievements under
(Rs. in Crore) NULM
Year Allocation SEP EST & P
2011-12 26.40 3,281 15,382
2012-13 27.72 3,920 27,992
2013-14 35.04 4,177 27,955
2014-15 144.00 1,659 14,735
2015-16 130.00 1,269 8,657
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.
Note: SEP-Self employment Program
EST and P – Employment through skill Training and Placement

The table 4 clearly shows the allocation of funds under tribal sub plan
during the year 2011-2016. According to the given table, in the year 2011-12 the
total allocation of funds was 20.40 crore, the beneficiaries of SEP were 3,281
and EST and P beneficiaries were 15,382. Where as in 2012-13 the total
allocation of funds were increased to 27.72 and the beneficiaries of SEP and
EST and P were also increased to 3,920 and 27,992 respectively. Subsequently
in the year 2013-14 the allocated funds were 35.04 and SEP, EST and P
beneficiaries were 4,177 and 27,955 orderly. Likewise in the year 2014-15 this
amount was 144.00 crore and SEP beneficiaries were 1,659 and EST and P were
14,735. Finally, in the year 2015-16, the total allocated funds were decreased to
130 crore and the beneficiaries under SEP were decreased to 1269 and EST and
P were decreased gradually to 8657 during the study period.

Conclusion
We may conclude that, National Urban Livelihood Mission has been
playing a vital role in improving the occupational, residential and social needs
of urban poor. On the other hand, NULM requires a comprehensive plan in an
integrated manner with a targeted focus on the vulnerable groups living in
urban areas. Subsequently, the Central government should have to provide

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financial assistance in a proper channel. Further, the States / UTs will be


required to send in Monthly and Quarterly Progress Reports (QPRs) in
prescribed formats in connection with the targets and achievements. Apart
from the progress reports, the Mission Directorate, NULM may prescribe other
progress reports as may be considered appropriate from time to time. The
States / UTs will establish suitable monitoring mechanisms and monthly
reporting from the CMMUs regarding the progress of various components of
NULM. States / UTs will be required to submit progress reports online. The
Mission Directorate in the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
Alleviation, Government of India will issue a set of detailed operational
guidelines from time to time for each component and sub-component of
NULM, for effective operationalisation, implementation and monitoring of the
Mission.

References
 Arjun.R. (2013). Multi Dimensional Approach to Measure Poverty. Abhyudaya,
Volume-1 Issue-2 October-2013 Pages-8 www.uni-mysore.ac.in
 Economic Survey of Karnataka - 2015-16. Department of Planning, Programme
Monitoring & Statistics, Government of Karnataka
 Moser, C. O. (1998). The asset vulnerability framework: reassessing urban
poverty reduction strategies. World development, 26(1), 1-19.
 Prabhavathi P.O, and Naveena .N. (2014). An Analysis of Poverty in Karnataka:
A Study. IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 19,
Issue 3, Ver. III (Mar. 2014), PP 27-31 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
 Rogerson, C. M. (1999). Local economic development and urban poverty
alleviation: the experience of post-apartheid South Africa. Habitat International,
23(4), 511-534.
 Shankar B and Chidambaraswamy. (2009). Urban Poverty Alleviation:
Experiences of Community Development Initiatives in Karnataka. International
Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 6, May 2009
 Urban Poverty Reports. Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation,
Government of India

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46

Policies and Legal Framework for Alleviation Of Poverty:


Critique of International and National Efforts
Kumar Salva Raghuvanshi and Jwngthima Brahma
“I am often asked what is the most serious form of human rights violations in the
world today, and my reply is consistent: extreme poverty.” – Mary Robinson

Introduction:
Poverty, one of the worst earth-shattering violations of human dignity
on this planet which has been deeply rooted in the mankind. The degree and
seriousness of poverty differ amongst developed, developing and least
developed economies of the world. Various Sustainable development
conventions including “Stockholm Conference, 1972”; “Brundtland.
Commission, 1987”; “Rio Declaration, 1992”; “Millennium Development
Goals, 2000”; and the most recent “Sustainable Development Goals of 2015”
have mooted for the alleviation of poverty. Further, various International
Conventions and agencies on Human Right including UDHR, UNICEF,
UNDP, ICCPR, etc. have been taking various steps in regard to curbing and
curing the disastrous disease of poverty in any economy of the world.
Methodology
Research Methodology
The research methodology embraced is altogether doctrinal, analytical and
comparative in nature depending on primary and secondary source material.
Primary Sources: Primary Sources used herein are the statutory enactment and
case laws.
Secondary Sources: Secondary sources used in the project are the text books,
journals and online database.

Aims and Objective of Research


The aims and objective are explicated in the three categories. Namely,
 To illuminate the various framework on poverty reduction in International
and National laws with reference to relevant policies of government.

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 To analyse the facts in the context of statutory provisions and policies and
relate it with the fundamental human right of development.
 To critically evaluate the grey areas prevalent and to make suggestions.
Research questions
1. What are the different International and National policy and legal
framework on alleviation of poverty?
2. How and why alleviation of poverty in world is a need of hour towards
promoting economic development?
3. What are the main causes of poverty and why it still persists despite
various efforts taken by international community for eradication of
poverty?
Part-I: International Perspective

1.1 Understanding Global Poverty and Global Inequality:


Poverty can be psychologically viewed both as a structure and product
of given system. In other words, poverty can also be termed as structural
component of society. As such it has multidimensional impact on human
behaviour and motivation. According to Oscar Lewis (1966), “the culture of
poverty is both an adaptation and reaction of the poor to their marginal
position in a class-stratified, highly individualized capitalist society. It
represents an effort to cope with the feelings of helplessness and despair
which develop from the realization of the improbability of achieving success
in terms of the values and goals of the larger society”.
Poverty has many dimensions, such as economic, sociological, psychological,
cultural and political. Many of them are not easily amenable to quantification.
Moreover, they reinforce each other in a variety of intricate ways.
1.2. World Bank: Messiah of poor.
The World Bank helps in providing financing facilities and gives advices to the
developing countries on the implementation of various social policies and
schemes related to poverty alleviation. In order to achieve that task it has
established two institutions for the purpose of making finance namely, the
“International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)” it provides
loan facility to middle income group poorer countries, and the “International
Development Association (IDA)” it gives finance facility to around 78
countries where average incomes is below $500 per year without interest.
The poverty pretension is examined in three perspectives by the World Bank:

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1. “the evolution of income poverty based on the new international


poverty line that has been re-estimated at $1.90 a day;
2. an assessment of person-equivalent income poverty, a new indicator
that combines the incidence with the depth of poverty;
3. a review of the breadth of poverty, recognizing that income shortfalls
often coexist with multiple non-income deprivations”.
According the data of word bank, “Global poverty is estimated to have
declined in 2012 to 902 million people, or 12.8 percent of global population,
according to the most recent data. Poverty is forecast to fall in 2015 to 702.1
million, a poverty rate of 9.6 percent, the first time the share people living in
extreme poverty would be in the single digits”.
1.3. Goal 1! SDG-2030: a way forward-
Out of 17 SDG’s and on top the first and foremost goal of SDG .i.e. Goal 1 viz.
“an end to poverty in all its manifestations by 2030”. It has a very wide
implication and also provides for protection of poor people and vulnerable
class against all forms of disaster of poverty and to provide them access to all
the basic necessities.
After the end of “Millennium Development Goals” in 2015, there were still
many important issues which have not been completely achieved MDG
programme due to various reasons. So, in order to carry further those tasks a
new set of goals were substantiated by the member countries of United
Nations for the next 15 years so as to frame there political policies and agendas
to be achieved. These were called as “Sustainable Development Goals” or
SDG. In fact it expanded and followed the aims provided under MDG.
"Poverty is not simply measured by inadequate income. It is manifested in
restricted access to health, education and other essential services and, too
often, by the denial or abuse of other fundamental human rights [...] Let us
listens to and heeds the voices of people living in poverty. Let us commit to
respect and defend the human rights of all people and end the humiliation and
social exclusion that people living in poverty face every day by promoting
their involvement in global efforts to end extreme poverty once and for all." —
UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon
1.4. Role of U.N.D.P in Poverty Alleviation:
The UNDP has been playing a very important role in poverty alleviation
since its inception. After the foundation of MDG and SDG it has been a very
important agency in implementing the policies. It is working towards

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removing economic inequality through creation of job prospects and


education the deprived section of society in various parts of the world.
According to U.N the following is the data with regard to poverty in the
world:
 “836 million people still live in extreme poverty
 About one in five persons in developing regions lives on less than $1.25
per day
 The overwhelming majority of people living on less than $1.25 a day
belong to two regions: Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa
 High poverty rates are often found in small, fragile and conflict-affected
countries
 One in four children under age five in the world has inadequate height
for his or her age
 Every day in 2014, 42,000 people had to abandon their homes to seek
protection due to conflict”
It is further stated that, “an estimated 2.4 billion people have no access to
improved sanitation, 1.1 billion people have no access to electricity and 880
million people live in urban slums. Opportunities continue to remain scarce
for the world’s most vulnerable people – 59 million children of primary school
age are out of school and the youth unemployment rate is 15 per cent, more
than three times the rate of adults”.
The United Nation Development Programme have suggested in 1998 through
“Human Development Report” in ‘Kofi Annan’s astounding facts’, New York
Times, September 28, 1998: “Americans spend $8 billion a year on cosmetics—
$2 billion more than the estimated annual total needed to provide basic
education for everyone in the world. Europeans spend $11 billion a year on ice
cream—$2 billion more than the estimated annual total needed to provide
clean water and safe sewers for the world’s population. Americans and
Europeans spend $17 billion a year on pet food—$4 billion more than the
estimated annual additional total needed to provide basic health and nutrition
for everyone in the world. It is estimated that the additional cost of achieving
and maintaining universal access to basic education for all, basic health care
for all, reproductive health care for all women, adequate food for all and clean
water and safe sewers for all is roughly $40 billion a year—or less than 4
percent of the combined wealth of the 225 richest people in the world. If I am

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right, no cut on these trivial expenditures, or any taking of the property of the
referred billionaires, is needed to eliminate extreme poverty.”

Part-II: National Perspective


2.1 The issue of poverty in India:
India is the world’s largest democracy consisting of 1.311 billion
populations. According to the Central Statistics Organisation (CSO) and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) India has emerged as one of the fastest
growing major economy which represents 3.34 per cent of the world economy
but issue of poverty is still pervasive. According to the World Banks data
around 22% of its population leaves below the poverty line and among them
80% lives in the rural area.
The Government of India has taken up many policies and programmes
since independence to overcome such vulnerable situation of poverty with the
help of recommendations by NITI Aayog (earlier planning commission). Some
of the programmes initiated are the targeted public distribution system,
National social assistance programme, Integrated Rural Development
Program (IRDP), Rural Housing-Indira awaas Yojana (IAY). India also signed
the Millennium Development goals (MDG) with 8 goals in September 2000 at
the United Nations General Assembly. But due to end of deadline of MDG a
new set of goals has been adopted to carry forward the efforts initiated for the
sustainable development. On 25th September 2015, the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) also known as ‘Transforming our world: the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development’ was adopted consisting 17 goals with
169 targets to end poverty initiated by MDG.

2.2 The approach of poverty measurement in India:


In the last few years India has seen a clear transformation in the targets of the
development and advancement planning from the simple development of
formation of goods and services, and the subsequent increase of per capita
income, initiation for improvement of human welfare. This approach has
helped in the abetment of poverty along with comprehensive development in
the condition of life.
In 2009, an expert group was constituted under the chairmanship of Suresh D.
Tendulkar. They recommended shifting away from calorie consumption based
poverty estimation to intake nutrition support, incorporation of private

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expenditure on health and education, and also adopted the cost of living as the
basis for identifying poverty. In 2012, a new expert panel was constituted
chaired by C. Rangarajan. According to the report of the committee, the new
poverty line was determined as Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.
The earlier poverty line figure was Rs 27 for rural India and Rs 33 for Urban
India in the Tendulkar report. On 8th February, 2015 a task force was
constituted under Shri Arvind Panagariya, the Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog.
Their objectives are to develop a working definition of poverty, suggest
strategies and anti-poverty programmes and other relevant measures.

2.3 The legal mechanisms for poverty alleviation in India:


Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru also initiated for the development of people in the
constituent assembly by stating “first work of this assembly is to make India
independent by a new constitution through which starving people will get
complete meal and cloths, and each Indian will get option that he can progress
himself.” One of the first initiatives was the initiation of First 5 year plan in
1951 which was an attempt to build protected and advanced society for the
weaker section. The first 5 year plan document stated "Economic planning has
to be viewed as an integral part of a wider process aiming not merely at the
development of resources in a narrow technical sense, but at the development
of human faculties and the building up of an institutional framework adequate
to the needs and aspirations of the people".Early 1980s onwards, the
government of India has come up with many programmes based on the non-
material and potentiality building needs of the poor. In the case of Randhir
Singh vs. Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 879 , the Supreme Court observed that
the principle aim of the word ‘Socialist’ is to eliminate inequality of income,
status , standard of life and to provide a decent standard of life to the working
people.
2.4 Critical analysis of the policies and legal framework of the poverty
alleviation:
One of the major issues in India is the measurement of poverty which is done
on the basis of income, expenditure and calorie intake. So as a result the social
dimension of poverty gets neglected where the poverty is more of a social
exclusion of an individual, household or a group in a society rather than
insufficiency of income to fulfil the basic needs. Indeed insufficient income is a
factor for the prevailing of poverty but it is not the only sole reason. The goal

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of poverty alleviation programme should not merely aim at increasing the


income level of people, household or a group but it should be for the exposure
of the marginalised people in the development process of the country.
Central and state governments have considerably extended the purpose of
poverty reduction by including the provisions of education, health, sanitation
and other facilities, which encourages the capacity building and well-being of
the poor. Special programmes have also been taken up for the welfare of SCs
and STs, the disabled and other vulnerable groups
Although, India’s policies and programmes provide for people’s active
participation in advancement planning and administration, such affective
presence has generally been ineffective due to lack of active participations by
officials itself. Poverty can efficaciously be eradicated only when the poor start
contributing to the advancement by their active involvement in the growth
process. The people in need should also be made aware about the available
policies so that they can have a proper access to it.
Part-III
Conclusion:
A British Chancellor Gordon Brown has said at World Economic Forum
in Davos: “I now sense that in 2005, hundreds, then thousands, then millions
in every continent are coming together with such a set of insistent demands to
fight poverty that no politician, no government, no world leader can ignore
them”. The expansion and contraction of severe poverty is purely dependent
on the human decisions at all levels: starting from a small or personal
decisions of people or individual, NGO’s or voluntary organisation living in
the community to large decisions taken by government and policy makers. In
order to come out of the disease of poverty there is a need of making proper
policy and their effective implementation from the government and society.
Another important aspect in order to control poverty is to control the
increasing population. Thus, from the laws of the nature there must be some
check on population. It can be said that it should be checked from the
perspective of problems and difficulties in carrying out the responsibility of
family and fear of dependent poverty where it can destroy the entire family
unit.
However, it is also contended that over with the existence of plant and
animal kingdoms, almighty has scattered the seeds of life in the nature
through gushing and liberal hands. If the germs of thingness scattered upon

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the earth flourishes freely, it would easily pour and fill the hunger of millions
of population of world for many years who are living their life under extreme
poverty. However, it is only possible through the concept of social justice or
distributive justice. Government of India also recognised the high growth of
income is not the only approach to improve the quality of life of the poor. It is
very important that the citizens are provided with the minimum services such
as education, health care and nutrition security to improve their live.

References
Primary Sources:
Statute:
 The constitution of India.
 United Nations Charter, 1945.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
Case Laws:
 Randhir Singh vs. Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 879
 Secondary Sources:
 Pogge Thomas; Freedom from poverty as a Human Right; Oxford.
Articles:
 Neepa Saha; Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India; (22/11/2016) available
at http://www.vhai.org/
 Yesudian, C. A. K. "Poverty alleviation programmes in India: A social audit."
Indian Journal of Medical Research 126.4 (2007): 364.
 Pranab Bardhan: Efficiency, Equity and Poverty Alleviation: Policy Issues in
Less Developed Countries; Vol. 106, No. 438 (Sep., 1996), pp. 1344-1356;
Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2235526
 Sengupta, Arjun. "Human rights and extreme poverty." Economic and
Political Weekly (2010): 85-93. Available at
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25664389
 G. Sampath and Rukmini S; Is the MGNREGA being set up for failure? The
Hindu may 31, 2015; available at http://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/
 Joyita; Poverty estimation in India; the PRS Blog; August 5th, 2013; available at
http://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/?p=2848
 PABLO GILABERT; Kant and the Claims of the Poor; Philosophy and
Phenomenological Research , Vol. 81, No. 2 (SEPTEMBER, 2010), pp. 382-418;
available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/20779568?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
 Nuria Sánchez Madrid; Kant on poverty and welfare: the conflict between
social demands and juridical goals in Kant’s Doctrine of Righ; , University of
Wales Press, 2016.
 Thomas R. Malthu; The Theory of Population; available at
http://sites.middlebury.edu/econ0450f10/files/2010/08/malthus.pdf.

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47
Roots of Social exclusion
Harshit P. Tayal, Jayesh Hariramani and Govind Bhadoria
1. Introduction
“An inability or incapacity to choose to fully participate in the
development of the society or exclusion is terms which is used when the rights
are granted to all, but some individuals and/or the groups are not allowed to
enjoy the privilege; when some people of the society are denied to enjoy
various defined rights, privileges, immunities and opportunities that are
afforded to others at the same time and in the same circumstances.”
It said that the concept of “exclusion” was originally coined in France in 1974,
referring to various social categories of people, such as mentally, physically
handicapped, single parents, substance users, and other groups unprotected
by social insurance. But India is witnessing exclusion from decades, even in
Vedas and holly books like Ramayana, Mahabharata, the exclusion is defined,
and the concept is practiced from long time. Thus, arrival of Exclusion or the
social exclusion or the other manifestations of exclusion is not an accident of
sociological imagination nor it is emerged as a result of the in adequacy of
earlier concepts which are considered or which are explaining social exclusion
in its myriad ways. Exclusion and social exclusion is matter of fact and reality,
and is something which is done by people of a society to the other people of
society.
Exclusion covers a wide range of social, political, economical, ethnical,
and cultural, discrimination, deprivations and denials of equal social
opportunities, to some groups and section of society. In real sense it means
exclusion of such groups from access to such things as are considered to be
normal or taken for granted by the others in society. Exclusion is one of such
topics which can’t be explained in on one line definition, the scope is too wide.
But the practice is made to explain the term with two of its defining characters,
namely: the deprivation caused through exclusion or due to the refusal of
equal opportunity in multiple spheres of life, and secondly, its being rooted in
the societal relations and institutions, in brief it is the process through which
individuals or groups are wholly or partially excluded from the full

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participation in the society in which they live. Illustrations will help to explain
it more: exclusion of groups and individuals like, women, prostitutes, Dalits
from education, housing, ownership, voting, health care centers, etc, is
example of exclusion of individuals of groups due to refusal of equal
opportunities in multiple sphere of life; secondly, discrimination on the basis
of gender, age, widows, and the physically handicapped are the examples of
the exclusion in the society being rooted in the societal relation and
institutions. Exclusion is the concern related to society as a whole, it is
fundamentally concerned with the consequences of inequality, implying that
there are individuals and groups that are excluded. The root causes and
consequences of exclusion are poverty, inequality, and discrimination.
Hurting the excluded group and reducing their productive capacity by not
allowing them to enjoy all right and opportunities available are the key points
which we can relate to it. It has been rightly said that “They do not want to
remain in the dehumanizing social order, but fear that they may be subjected
to repression if they resist exclusion, inequality and discrimination.”

2. Multi-Dimensions And Manifestation Of Social Exclusion


Social exclusion is a process with multi dimensions, multidimensional in the
sense of process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and/or
individuals from social relations and institutions and barring them from full or
partial participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the
society in which they1 live.
In broad sense, manifestation of social exclusion can be done in two different
types:
1. Economic category; (Poverty, unemployment and low class situation)
2. Social category; (Caste, Religion, Community, Sex, etc)
Economic Category: Why economic aspect is focused? The simple reason or
explanation are the two aspect i.e., “poverty and the unemployment”, these
two results in exclusion of individuals or/and groups from the denial from the
basic goods and services like education, housing, food, rights and
opportunities. Child labour, forced labour, bounded labour, slum dwellers,
destitute, beggars and mendicants are also the variants which come under this
aspects, but poverty and unemployment are the major, and key roots of this
aspect.

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Social Category: Like economic category, to explain this category also we need
to focus on four different aspects. In term of social categories the exclusion can
be defined as “excluding certain communities from the interaction and access
to social resources through social arrangements, normative value system and
customs.” Caste, Tribal, Muslim community, and women are the focused
aspect of this category.
Best example of Caste system can be the untouchables, in many
regions/part of India still the practice of untouchables is followed, like
preventing entry into certain temples, and institutions; SC’s and ST’s in qmany
villages are forbidden from using the well, or they have different well to use
water. Tribal faces a rare quandary. They are isolated and now they are
considered to be the victims of discrimination. Non-tribal see them in a
derogatory manner for various reasons especially for their food habits, ways of
living, which are actually very different from the main streams, but what then?
Everyone has its own ways and cultures and traditions, but still they are
discriminated and become part of exclusion. Women are the other most
excluded and discriminated section of the society. Within the segment of
Indian population women’s mobility and liberty is constrained and their
access to education and information hindered. Majority of times women in
India have been grounded in both of the economic aspects, the poverty and
employment.
Social Exclusion is structural, dynamic, and normative in nature and
comprehensive in coverage, involving denial of equal opportunities.
3. Exclusion in Indian Society!
As it has been earlier stated that social exclusion is structural, dynamic and
normative in nature, it is no wrong if I state here that in India the social
exclusion can be identified in 6 odd aspects which are interrelated,
interconnected and indivisible in nature.
1. Social exclusion is structural;
2. Social exclusion has an agency;
3. Social exclusion is multidimensional;
4. Social exclusion is collective;
5. Social exclusion is dynamic and has historicity;
6. Social exclusion extends to cultural spheres.
Forms of exclusion and discrimination in India
In actual sense the exclusion, discrimination and caste system has
exploited the social and economic life of the people of India, while some of the

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theories says that the caste system has regulated the social and the economic
life of the people of India.
In India, exclusion revolves around the societal interrelations and institutions
that excludes, discriminate against, isolate and deprive some groups on the
basis of their group identity, particularly cast.
Social exclusion not only promote discrimination and complexities in the
society but also results in lack of access and entitlement, not only to economic
rights but also to civil, cultural and political rights.
1. Caste based exclusion: Caste based exclusion, untouchability based
exclusion and discrimination can be further categorized into economic,
civil, cultural and political spheres.
1.1. Exclusion and discrimination in Economic Sphere: Inequality and lack of
opportunities in the economic sphere operates through markets and non-
market transaction and exchanges. In labor market denial of jobs, in capital
market denial of access to capital, in agricultural land market through
denial of sale and purchase of factor inputs and in consumer market
through denial of sale and purchase of commodities and consumer goods.
Secondly, exclusion and discrimination can occur in terms of access of social
needs supply or supply of public goods by the government, public, or
private institution in the area of education, housing and healthcare, and
some other goods which are essentials of every human to live life with
dignity; Public goods: a commodity or service that is provided without
profit to all members of a society, either by the government or by a
private individual or organization.
Further, from participation of a particular group in a particular job only or
denial of jobs on the ground that the individual is from a particular group
both the situations results in discrimination and social exclusion.
The best example of this kind of exclusion which our society witness is,
members of so called high society do not like to get associated with, or are
not associated with people engaged in certain category of jobs or to
perform these jobs on account of their being unclean or degrading, which
is why such jobs may be relegated to the “untouchables or dalits”. After
being part of civilized society this kind of discrimination is still in
practice.
1.2. Exclusion and discrimination in civil and cultural spheres: again one of
the common practices followed in India lack of access or absolute denial

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of individuals or groups from various public places or public services,


like temples, mosque, water bodies, educational institutions, hospitals
and health care centers and many such places.
1.3. Exclusion and discrimination in Political sphere: here discrimination can
be faced in use of political rights and in participation in decision making
process. Best example in voting rights of sex workers in India, sex
workers in India are not granted their address proofs which results in no
voting rights.
2. Ethnic identity based exclusion: History is evidence which prove that
various ethnic social groups like Adivasis or STs or Dalits have suffered
from isolation, exclusion, and underdevelopment due to their being
culturally different from the mainstream Indian society.
According to Amartya Sen, 2 odd concepts of exclusion also exist, firstly, the
‘active and passive exclusion’. It means exclusion which operates through
social processes wherein there is no deliberate attempt to exclude the
persons concerned, but which may nevertheless results in the exclusion of a
particular social Group from a set of circumstances. Secondly, ‘the
constitutive relevance’ of exclusion i.e., the exclusion which arises due to
their inability to relate to others, to take part in the life of community, and
thus could directly impoverishes the members of these groups.
Who are excluded?
The definition of exclusion is mentioned above as, “when some people of the
society are denied to enjoy various defined rights, privileges, immunities and
opportunities that are afforded to others at the same time and in the same
circumstances, than those groups or individuals are said to be excluded or are
suffering from social exclusion”. Now the major concern is who are those
people, individuals and groups, who are excluded and why. We have
discussed the ground of exclusion, this part of the research paper will deal in
who are excluded and why.
1. Women: Even today women are considered as subordinates to men. In many
cases, the role of women as a wife and mother is reported to be so flexible that
the women who fall outside this category are ostracized by the individuals
and discriminated against by the state and the other institutions. The
increasing role of women in low paid formals and informal jo markets has
brought new opportunities as well as burdens to women. Due to these

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inequalities and social constrains some women walk out of abusive homes and
assert their rights in overt and covert ways.
2. Children: Children are amongst the most disempowered and exploited
groups in the society. They have no influence or say or power over the social
processes that govern their lives and they can seldom protect themselves from
the abuse or exploitation. Children come under the most vulnerable groups,
child labor, child prostitution, lack of education, and mal nourishment are
some of the major aspect where they exploited and hence excluded. Poverty
and social reason are enough for their exclusion from schools and colleges,
and this is again an enough reason to exploit them.
3. The poor: poverty, exclusion and discrimination are two concepts which are
actually different in nature, but the terms and there concepts are inextricably
connected to each other. Exclusion become easy for people who are poor, they
have lack of access to various resources and opportunities and this makes
them inferior and excluded from society. So, poverty plays two different roles,
first even an individual is not facing exclusion but is poor he will be excluded
from the society due to lack of access to all the goods, rights and opportunities,
and on the same page if any group is facing exclusion in society, than poverty
would be one of his characteristics, due to discrimination and exploitation. So,
this vicious cycle is difficult to break in India, around 40% of the population
stands below the poverty line, struggling to eke out a livelihood.
Ethnic Groups: social exclusion due to differences is a common feature across
the globe. In India, exclusion on the ground of ethnicity is perpetuated by the
rigidities of the caste system. The best example for such exclusion is the native
Adivasi population. They are forced to become sources of agriculture labor for
the non-tribes who encroached on the former’s resources. Social exclusion is a
key to the understanding of the problem of loss of ownership of land by the
tribes.
4. Widows: In many parts of India, widows are considered as an excluded
group. Even before the funeral of the diseased husband, some widows are ill
treated by the in-laws who take all the property, including the children. The
widows are excluded from attending certain social ceremonies and rituals at
both family and community level. Else they are forced to remarry the younger
brother of the deceased husband.
5. Transgender: Transgender people are those who live fully or partially in the
gender role ‘opposite’ to their biological sex. Instead, they are treated as the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

‘other’, often being subjected to violence, ridicule and disgust. The report
highlights the many ways in which the transgender community has been
discriminated against in India and denied elementary rights, largely through
the instruments of civil and criminal law. Trans-people often find themselves,
almost by definition, on the wrong side of the law and rarely, if ever, are
awarded the protections that the rule of law should provide to any citizen.
Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), for example, makes punishable
‘unnatural offences’ of voluntary and consenting sexual intercourse which go
‘against the order of nature. They are also discriminated and excluded in all
possible ways like, jobs, access to social and public places, education,
marriage, etc.
4. Need Contexualizing The Concept Of Social Exclusion
Exclusion is subject matter which is adversely affecting the whole globe not
only a particular sector or society, that’s why now a day’s exclusion is concern
of the whole society. To know exclusion and reasons for the its development
or for its existence in society we have to go through the whole process and
then after observing and collecting all respective information we can map it, or
than it has to be located in its context. This will help us to evolve a
methodology to map exclusion. So, some of the reasons why we need to
contextualize social exclusion are as follows:
1. First, particular context we can carve out clear cut contours of the group
that we wabt to analyze this will avoid overlapping of group of people or
will help us to identify if there is any overlapping if groups which suffer
from the same type of exclusion.
2. Second, because we all know that there is different basis of or reasons for
exclusion different groups of people hence there construction of
consciousness is also based on different types of exclusion. For instance,
the causes of exclusion of tribal in India of women, religious, minorities,
etc are different and that is why their ways and means of assertion for
inclusion is also different.
3. Further, for contextualization it becomes easy to identify the forces of
exclusion. For instance if we locate exclusion of dalits in Hindu social
order than we can identify Brahmanism and Brahmins or so called upper
caste in general as the forces of exclusion. . Since social exclusion has an
agemcy that it is done by someone to others and this can be identified by
its contextualization.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

5. Conclusion
The question remains, as to why the excluded people i.e., the individuals or
group of individuals have poor access to all resources; that directly and
indirectly determine the level of income and capabilities to secure other
sources of income. Why the ownership of agriculture land and on land capital
asset is low compared with non-SCs/STs? Why are the unemployment rates
high particularly among the women, transgender, SCs STs, and other social
excluded people? Why the literacy rate ad education levels are much lower
when compared with above mentioned individuals or groups of individuals.
The concept of social exclusion, tough in use only recently, is undoubtedly
quite powerful. It is a fundamental and wide category that may include in its
arch, the issues of poverty, hunger unemployment, and destitution. It is not
only about all those individuals or groups that are excluded from the basis
means of livelihood, but also about those excluded from the process of
political and economic decision making as well as these excluded from any
conceptualization of social security. At a wider level, it may refer to exclusion
from education, health care, and ultimately the freedom that an individual
must have to organize or control his or her life in a given social setting.
Social exclusion is not concerned solely with attitude; it is built into the social
structure and thus changing attitude will not necessarily change social
structure. The social structure of the society contributes t the formation if its
attitude and the attitude in turns contributes to the maintenance t[of the social
structure there is no easy way out of this vicious cycle it is thus ample clear
that social exclusion is India is a multi-dimensional concept that needs to be
addressed urgently as it is linked to poverty as well as denial of basic human
rights. It would, however, be useful to quantify social exclusion and monitor
progress towards social integration goals.
References
 Sukhadeo Thorat, Nidhi Sadana Sabharwal; Bridging the Social Gap (Prespective
on Dalit Empowerment);
 Social Exclusion, Integration and Inclusive Policies; V. Subramanyam and K.
Sekhar; Rawat Publications;
 Ambedkar, B.R. 1987. ‘The Hindu Social Order: Its essential features’
 Mapping Social Exclusion in India: Caste, Religion and Broadlands; Cambridge
Uni. Press; Paramjit S. Judge.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

48
Urban Poverty and Inclusive Growth: An Overview

Srikantha K N
Introduction:
Though, each rural and concrete areas struggle with the
impoverishment the image of urban impoverishment is exclusive. Besides
impoverishment money exclusion additionally became a constraint to the
thought development urban poor. With the additional rising of the Indian
economy in recent years that is predicted to continue, the speed of
urbanization can increase and concrete issues too. In India, most studies on
impoverishment are targeted on the agricultural poor and concrete
impoverishment has received very little attention of the policy manufacturers.
With the rising of massive cities, slums, the breeding grounds of urban
sordidness and impoverishment, swell primarily because of enlarged
migration of the poor from the villages in search of higher employment
opportunities and improved commonplace of living. Urban impoverishment
has become major social downside everywhere the world within the gift era of
economic process and unequal economic process. during this context the
requirement of the hour is to debate the urban impoverishment issues in-
depth and provides geographically compatible and divergent policy live to
bring urban poor into thought development. Hence, there's Associate in
Nursing pressing ought to analyze urban impoverishment from a definite
read.
As per Census of Asian country 2011, there are 7935 cities within the
country. The amount of cities has enlarged by 2774 since last Census. Several
of those cities are a part of UAs and therefore the rest are freelance cities. The
overall range of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, that constitutes the urban
frame, is 6166 within the country. The Census of India 2011 additionally
reveals that, the overall population of India was 1210.2 million. Of this, the
urban population stands at 377.1 million and in absolute numbers, the urban
population has enlarged by 91.00 million within the last decade (GoI: 2011).
The incidence of urban financial gain impoverishment declined considerably
from 49% in 1973-74 to 25.7% in 2004-05. However, there have been still 80.8

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

million persons in urban India in 2004-05 World Health Organization were


formally outlined as ‛poor’, increasing from 76.3 million in 1993-94 (GOI:
2011b). Urban poverty Report of the govt of India (UPR: 2009) notes that the
magnitude relation of urban impoverishment in some States of India is over
that of rural impoverishment. Progress in terms of reducing the incidence of
urban impoverishment has been extremely uneven within the country, with a
trifle over forty per cent of the urban poor targeted within the states of state,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Moreover, the NSSO
information show that concentration of impoverishment has intense in these
states, with the proportion of the urban poor registering a rise from 31.1 per
cent in 1973-74 to 42.0 per cent in 2004-05. On the opposite hand, urban
impoverishment has declined far more imposingly in states like Gujarat and
Punjab; in Kerala and province, urban impoverishment was over the all-India
average in 1983 however declined to well-below the national average in 2004-
05. Thus, the proof is each a big decline in some states, and noticeable will
increase in others (GoI 2011).
In 1992, the govt. of India had decentralized additional powers to rural
and urban local government bodies (ULBs) through the 73rd and 74th
constitutional amendments. In 2005 India conjointly launched Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) with and connotation to
form cities as engines of economic and social development (GoI, 2009).
However, the urban issues haven't been resolved absolutely. As per Census of
India 2011, only to 71.2% of the urban population has access to drink inside the
premises and solely 20.7% of the population has access to drink close to the
premises. None of the cities have 24x7 water provides. Non-revenue water,
which has leakages of assorted types, is fairly high, being within the vary of 40
to 50%. The challenge of sanitation in Indian cities is acute. Really the matter
of lack of systematic sanitation facility is far worse in urban areas than in rural
areas. But the information shows that 60 % of the households within the cities
have sanitation facilities. Census 2011 conjointly reveals that, 32.7% of the
urban population has access to a piped sewage works and 12.6% of the urban
population still defecates within the open. put in waste matter treatment
capability is merely half-hour as per Central Pollution electrical device Report
2009. The capability utilization is around 72.2%, which suggests that solely
regarding 20% of waste matter generated is treated before disposal in most of
the cities and cities (GoI 2012). Hence, if these challenges aren't tackled

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

expressly, not solely would India’s cities get more and more chaotic and
clogged, rural financial condition are going to be born-again to urban financial
condition with no gains to improvement of livelihoods of India’s burgeoning
population.
It has been assumed that with high concentration of health facilities and
services within the cities compared with rural areas, urban health issues
square measure less. However, for the urban poor and people living in shanty
cities, the amount of access to health facilities falls below the minimum
equitable level, wherever primary health care facilities, their location,
resources, quality and performance square measure poor, their links to
disadvantaged communities square measure inadequate and their utilization
is low (WHO, 1992). although all types of health services are accessible in our
cities, not all sections of the community are benefited by these facilities. There
exist wide gap within the utilization pattern of health services and health
improvement in populated area. Health improvement is influenced by 3
factors (Nayar, 1999), a) health factors, that embrace medical intervention, b)
health promoting factors like housing, facility, sanitation and hygiene. c) non-
health factors that embrace social and economic factors. specifically the trends
in urbanization that followed is additionally liable for the modification in
health standing of urban population. As per the Urban Health Resource
Centre (UHRC) India one in each 10 kids in slums don't live to visualize their
fifth birthday.1 solely 42 maximize slum kids receive all the counseled
vaccinations. Over 56 % of kid births happen reception in slums put the
lifetime of each the mother and new born to serious risk. Poor sanitation
conditions in slums contribute to the high burden of sickness in slums. 2/3 of
urban poor households don't have access to bogs and nearly forty you are
doing not have piped facility reception. Health system in India is additional
targeted towards the agricultural are having a structure right from grass root
to tertiary care and are managed by dedicated employees. But there's a large
deficiency of any such health care structure within the urban areas.

Urban Poverty: Causes and Consequences


There are several reasons for urban economic condition and monetary
exclusion that has become the hurdle for the inclusion urban development;
like state, migration and absence of basic infrastructure etc. Migration from the
agricultural to geographical area additionally adds to downside of urban

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

economic condition and monetary exclusion. because the variety of migrants


increase, therefore will the index of economic condition. The poor do manage
to seek out some work, however it's either not regular or within the
unregulated sector with no guarantee of minimum wages and variety of
operating hours. Unsecured employment or no employment force the urban
poor to eke out a living somehow. a number of them desire crimes, however a
majority of them add factories or homes or do some petty mercantilism. The
ball-hawking ones manage to induce utilized somehow, however the big
majority of unskilled folks forces add the unorganized sector. Some square
measure even forced to driven to beggary, harlotry or marketing medicine
within the hope of obtaining straightforward cash.
Urban poor largely reside in rental homes and tho' clear their residence
is close to permanent, it can not be naturally assumed as within the case of
their rural counterparts. This facet is Associate in Nursing large business risk
for the formal monetary establishments as repayments for loans square
measure terribly frequent and within the sort of small installments. Another
main reason for formal monetary establishments to avoid urban areas comes
from their lack of homogeneity of culture. Indeed, if there's not enough
intimate information of the transactions at intervals families or at intervals the
community, the chance of over financial obligation will increase. This is often
particularly relevant once loan sizes square measure comparatively high.
In 2007-08, 18 per cent of the urban population aged fifteen years and on
top of weren't literate. Out of these literate, 0.9 per cent were while not formal
education, 36.3 per cent had studied up to the center faculty level, and 28.1 per
cent had studied up to the secondary and higher-secondary level. Only 11.4
per cent had graduated and solely 3.5 per cent went on to finish post-
graduation studies and on top of (GoI, 2011). Consequently, the dearth of
education ends up in a scarcity of ability sets required to amass employment
within the formal sector

Policy Suggestions:
Alleviating urban economic condition needs several tools as well as
food, shelter, employment, health services, monetary services, education and
infrastructure. The key to reducing economic condition is aware of a way to
use these tools. Among this credit could be a powerful tool which will be used
effectively once it's created on the market to the credit worthy among the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

economically active poor collaborating in a minimum of a partial money


economy-people with the power to use loans and therefore the temperament
to repay them. For a rustic like India wherever a considerable variety of
populations is poor, access of the poor to credit facilities isn't solely necessary
however additionally indispensable for optimizing their contribution to the
expansion of Indian economy. supported the on top of discussions created on
the issues of urban economic condition following suggestions are often
created.
 There could be a ought to maximize the speed of creation of jobs within the
urban sector besides guaranteeing basic services, like, sanitation, water,
and basic housing to urban voters expected to be.
 For mainstreaming the urban poor it's significantly necessary to impart
monetary accomplishment to them.
 Further, city administrations got to avoid formation of recent slums, and it
needs development of low value homes to accommodate new entrants into
the city-life. This desires development of outer ring roads/urban corridors
providing road-networks within the urban boundary and designating
appropriate areas for cheap housing within the recently on the market
areas on the urban peripheries.
 There could be a ought to begin a regular number with a national positive
identification, that ought to cause the creation of a agency. So that,
unhealthy borrowers or defaulters (especially in slums) would be simply
known as within the formal banking sector. This can facilitate formal
monetary establishments and alternative group-lending models like
Finally, India must develop a deeper understanding of urban economic
condition and a solid platform for forthcoming generation. The urban poor
mustn't be treated as a homogenous cluster. The urban poor may be classified
into poverty-stricken households (living below the poverty level and requiring
Social Security schemes) and families with marginal incomes and token skills
and want to create a strategic arrange according the classification of society
and therefore the community. Hence, there's a desire for inclusive methods to
transfer the urban poor into the thought and which might act as a very
important entranceway for inclusive growth.

References:

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Chakrabarty (2011), Speech delivered by K C Chakrabarty at the Annual


National Seminar titled ‘Financial Inclusion of Urban Poor’ conducted by the
American India Foundation at New Delhi, on January 28,
 GoI (2009): National Seminar on Developing Harmonious and Sustainable
Cities in India for a Better Urban Future Inaugural Address By Dr. M.
Ramachandran, Secretary, Urban Development, GoI Friday, 20 March 2009,
Gulmohar Hall, India Habitat Centre, New Delhi.
 GoI (2012): Report of the Sub-Committee On Financing Urban Infrastructure, In
The 12th Plan Ministry Of Urban Development Government of India.
 GoI (B): 2012: High Level Committee on Financing Infrastructure Report Of The
Sub-Committee On Financing Urban Infrastructure, In The 12th Plan Ministry of
Urban Development Government of India,
 GoI (2011): Report Of The Working Group On Urban Poverty, Slums, And Service
Delivery System, Steering Committee on Urbanization Planning Commission,
New Delhi
 GOI: (2011): Census of India, Provisional Populations Total, Office Of The
Registrar General And Census Commissioner, India Ministry Of Home Affairs
 Nayar K.R. (1999) Housing and health another Kerala conandrum in Rethinking and
Development, Oommen M.A ed, Vol 2 Concept Publishing Company, Delhi,
P.44.
 WHO (1992) The Role of Health Centres in the Development of Urban Health
Systems, Report of the WHO study group on primary health care in urban
areas, Geneva.
 UPR (2009), Urban Poverty Report, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
Alleviation, Government of India, Oxford Publications.

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49
Effects of Demonetization on Street Vendors
Ramesh and Ashraya.S.Chakrabarty

Introduction:
The importance of money in human life is similar to the importance of
food for the body. Just like you can’t live even for a few days without food,
you can’t survive for long without money. One can definitely solve most of
your problems of life if you have unlimited supply of money The only
problem is that money does not come just like that to any person by any
amount of wishing, praying or wanting. You have to work hard and compete
with fellow human beings to earn money as the supply of money is limited in
this world but the demand of money is unlimited.
The importance of Demonitisation at this scenario as proposed by the
Government of India is to curb the unaccounted money, curb circulation of
fake notes and making centralized circulation of currency notes which is legal
tender. In such case there are people who are affected by this initiative. The
unorganized sector of the society who run their business without any support
or incentives from the government are been immensely affected by this drive.

Constitutional Provisions to change the economic policies:


The Preamble of our Constitution uses two other concepts which create
responsibilities on the state to involve actively in social welfare, namely
“social” and “economic justice”. Under the concept of social justice the state is
required to ensure that the dignity of socially excluded groups is not violated
by the powerful and they are considered on equal footing with others.
Constitutional Provisions Regarding Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within
the Territory of India:
Articles 301 to 307 of Constitution of India deals with the constitutional
provisions regarding Trade and Commerce. The framers of the Indian
Constitution were fully conscious of the importance of maintaining the
economic unity of the Union of India.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Free movement and exchange of goods throughout the territory of India was
essential for the Economic Unity of the country which alone could sustain the
progress of the country.
Prior to the integration of India and enforcement the new constitution there
were in existence a large number of Indian states which in exercise of their
sovereign powers, had created customs barriers between themselves and the
rest of India, thus hindering at several points which constituted the
boundaries of those Indian states, the free flow of commerce.
Thus the main object of Article 301 was obviously to encouraging the free-flow
of stream of trade and commerce throughout the territory of India. The word
‘trade’ means ‘buying’ or ‘selling’ of goods while the term ‘commerce includes
all forms of transportation such as by land, air or water.
The term ‘intercourse’ means movement of goods from one place to another.
Thus, the words ‘trade commerce and intercourse’ covers all kinds of activities
which are likely to come under the nature of commerce.
Article 302 of Indian Constitution explains the power of parliament to impose
restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse. The Parliament may by law
impose it. Such restrictions on the freedom of trade, commerce or intercourse
between one state and another or within any part of the territory of India, as
may be required in the public interest.
Article 303 deals with the restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union
and of the states with regard to trade and commerce. It provides that
parliament shall not have power to make any law giving any preference to any
one state over another by virtue of any entry relating to trade and commerce
in any one of the list in the VIIth Schedule.
But under Clause (2) of this article the parliament may however, discriminate
among states. If it is declared by a law that it is necessary to do so for the
purpose of dealing with the situation arising from scarcity of goods in any part
of the Territory of India. The question whether there is a scarcity of goods in
any part of India is for the parliament to decide.
Article 304 explains State’s power to regulate trade and commerce. The details,
(a) impose on goods imported from other states (or the Union Territories) any
tax to which similar goods manufactured or produced in that state are subject.
So, however as not to discriminate between goods so imported and goods so
manufactured or produced; and (b) impose such reasonable restrictions on the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

freedom of trade, commerce or Intercourse with or within that state as my be


required in the public interest.
Article 305 saves existing laws and laws providing for state monopolies
insofar as the president may by order otherwise direct. Article 307 empowers
parliament to appoint such authority as it considers appropriate for carrying
out purposes of Articles 301, 302, 303 and 304. It can confer on such authorities
such powers and duties as it think necessary.
In a country like India, the sovereignty lies with the constitution;
parliament and state legislatures are expected to make the law strictly
according to the constitution. The policy of the state can be changed only in
the interest of the nation and the people. However the government which
changes the policy is accountable to the people ultimately, especially in the
democratic setup. For the development of economic of a country all the people
are contributing n their own capacity. Be it software engineer or any other
professional for that matter, like that street vendors are also contribute to the
development of the nation. Street vendors are an integral part of urban
economies around the world, offering easy access to a wide range of goods
and services in public spaces. They sell everything from fresh vegetables to
prepared foods, from building materials to garments and crafts, from
consumer electronics to auto repairs to haircuts. The total number of street
vendors in the country is estimated at around 10 million. The street vendors
constitute approximately 2 per cent of the population of a metropolis.
Contributions of street vendors
The ways in which street vendors strengthen their communities:
 Most street vendors provide the main source of income for their
households, bringing food to their families and paying school fees for their
children.
 These informal workers have strong linkages to the formal economy. They
source the goods they sell from formal enterprises. Many customers work
in formal jobs.
 Many vendors try to keep the streets clean and safe for their customers
and provide them with friendly personal service.
 Street vendors create jobs, not only for themselves but for porters, security
guards, transport operators, storage providers, and others.
 Many generate revenue for cities through payments for licenses and
permits, fees and fines, and certain kinds of taxes.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Types of Street Vendors:


There are three types of Street Vendors-
1. Stationary Street Vendors
2. Peripatetic Vendors
3. Mobile Vendors
Impact of Demonitisation on Street Vendors:
Recent move by the government on demonetization of high valued currency
notes though has long terms economic and social benefits, it has hit various
sectors hardly. Unorganized sector is the most affected of all and more than
90% of workforce is placed in unorganized sector worsens the scenario.
1) Cash economy – Most of the transactions in this sector happens through
cash, some even daily wages. Sudden liquidity crunch hit both employers
and employers on merchandise and wages respectively
2) Bank and digital literacy- Most of the employers in the unorganized
sector are illiterate; they are not tech-savvy and may not be completely
aware of banking procedures. Also many unorganized jobs are in rural
areas gives them less access t banks and ATMs
3) Future trade flow - No cash made them impossible to carry on buying
products for next cycle of selling. This could be clearly evidenced in
agriculture sector, where farmers are not able to buy seeds, fertilizers for
rabi cycle.
Emperical analysis:
In view of the demonitisation an empirical study was made on the Street
Vendors. The following questions were asked. A total number of 30
respondents were questioned through structured questionnaire, following are
the data .
Vendors who have bank accounts:
Respondents Bank A/c’s
30 80%
Vendors who have knowledge about online transaction.
Respondents Yes No
30 30% 70%
Vendors who support from their family. .
Respondents Yes No
30 20% 80%

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Vendors who have seasonal business.


Respondents Yes No
30 10% 90%
Vendors who have vending license.
Respondents Yes No
30 0% 100%
Confirmation of rights from the respective state or central government.
Respondents Yes No
30 0% 100%
Effects from Demonitisation.
Respondents Yes No
30 80% 20%

Findings:
 Poor implementation of the policy (demonitisation)
 No proper prior preparation before demonitising the old currency notes.
 No governing body for the unorganized sector.
 No social security for the Street Vendors.
Suggestion:
 An au8thorituy to govern Street Vendors.\
 Right implementation of Street Vendors Act, 2014.
 Social Security for Street Vendors.
 Providing suitable Insurance Plans/Policy for Street Vendors.
Conclusion:
In this drive of demonitisation the organized sector of the society have some
how hold their nerve in the said period of time, but the unorganized sector
have been shattered through this initiation. The inflow of money had become
low and the people are not ready to invest in any sought due to the cash crisis.
The unorganized sector has no back up for the loss in their respective business.
This drive has affected the street vendors particularly to their very livelihood.
References:
1. VII Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Consumer Education and Research Centre v. Union of India. AIR 1995 SC 922

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50
Poverty And Social Security Protection Among The
Women In The Informal Sectors
Mohan Das. K and Kavallaiah . C
Introduction:
Social security means the overall security for a person in the family,
work place and society. Social Security is a system to meet the basic needs as
well as contingencies of life in order to maintain an adequate standard of
living. It is not a charity rather a right. But women workers in the informal
sector have the least access to social security.
There are some of the inherent problems existing in the informal sector
and the women workers are subjected to all kinds of exploitation. It is found
that their earnings and job security are law, hours long, lifetime earning
profiles, flat and working conditions, physically stressful. Women workers in
this sector are totally neglected by the Governments and policy makers. These
innumerable problems made her to work mainly for economic independence,
for economic necessity. Most Indian women by and large undertake
“productive work” only under economic compulsion. This is the reason for
high female participation rates in economically under privileged communities.
For the millions in the unorganized sector or informal economy, social security
continues to be a missing link in their struggle for survival. And yet, it is these
unorganized women workers who are the poorest of workers, and are most
exposed to shocks and multiple risks that threaten their very survival.
Thus, Social Security protects not just the subscriber but also his/her entire
family by giving benefit packages in financial security and health care. Social
Security schemes are designed to guarantee at least long-term sustenance to
families when the earning member retires, dies or suffers a disability. Thus the
main strength of the Social Security system is that it acts as a facilitator - it
helps people to plan their own future through insurance and assistance. The
success of Social Security schemes however requires the active support and
involvement of employees and employers. Therefore, as a worker/employee,
they are a source of Social Security protection for themselves and their family.
As an employer they are responsible for providing adequate social security
coverage to all their workers.

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Strategies
Although social security is not a fundamental right in India, the laws
incorporating it derive their strength and spirit from the Directive Principles of
the State Policy as contained in the Constitution of India, which seek to
achieve social, economic and political justice in all institutions of national life.
Specially, Article 41 of the Constitution requires that the State should within
the limits of its economic capacity make effective provision for securing the
right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of unemployment,
old age, sickness and disablement. Article 42 requires that the State should
make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity relief. The obligations cast on the State in the above Articles
constitute Social Security.
The principal social security laws enacted in the line with these provisions are
the following:
 The Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948 (ESI Act) which covers factories
and establishments with 10 or more employees and provides for
comprehensive medical care to the employees and their families as well as
cash benefits during sickness and maternity, and monthly payments in
case of death or disablement.
 The Employees’ Provident Funds & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
(EPF & MP Act) which applies to specific scheduled factories and
establishments employing 20 or more employees and ensures terminal
benefits to provident fund, superannuation pension, and family pension in
case of death during service. Separate laws exist for similar benefits for the
workers in the coal mines and tea plantations.
 The Employees' Compensation Act, 1923 (WC Act), which requires
payment of compensation to the workman or his family in cases of
employment related injuries resulting in death or disability.
 The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (M.B. Act), which provides for 12
weeks wages during maternity as well as paid leave in certain other
related contingencies.
 The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 (P.G. Act), which provides 15 days
wages for each year of service to employees who have worked for five
years or more in establishments having a minimum of 10 workers.

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These above mentioned social security legislations cover workers in the


organized sector. With the existing social security measures, only minimum
coverage of the workers is covered under the unorganized sector.
Centrally funded Social Assistance Programmes
Social assistance programme comprises of food based transfer
programmes, income transfer programmes and cash transfer programmes.
The basic aim of food based transfer programmes is to provide food security
to the poor and thereby improving their nutritional status. The Public
Distribution System (PDS) plays an important role in providing food security
in the country. The aim was to supply food grain and other essential
commodities at lower prices, i.e., wheat, rice, sugar, imported edible oil,
kerosene and soft cake. Due to limited effectiveness of PDS, the government
introduced from 1997 onwards Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
The main aim of TPDS is to identify beneficiary one is below the poverty line
and another is above the poverty line. The beneficiaries who are below the
poverty line receive food grains at subsidized prices. Along with TPDS, other
schemes were introduced such as Annapurna Scheme, Antyodaya Anna
Yojana, Mid-day Meal Scheme and Integrated Child Development Scheme.
Both mid-day meal scheme and integrated child development scheme provide
cooked food to poor children. Among the income transfer programmes, the
Food for Work Programme (FFW),JawaharRozgarYojana (JRY), Sampoorna
Gram SwarozgarYojana (SGSY),Jawahar Gram SamriddhiYojana (JGSY), and
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) are some of theprogrammes meant for
providing employment opportunities in informal sector.Similarly the cash
transfer programmes like, National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS),
National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and National Maternity Benefit
Scheme (NMBS) have been implemented to provide social security to the
informal sector workers. Now the government has modified the NMBS to JSY
(JananiSurakshaYojana )for providing cash assistance and better diet to
pregnant women who are below the poverty line.

The Unorganized Workers Social Security Act, 2008


This Act enacted with an object to provide for the Social Security and
Welfare of unorganized workers and for other matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto. With reference to social security schemes under the Act, it is
laid down that the Government would periodically notify schemes relating to

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life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, old age protection and
any other benefit as may be determined by the Central Government. Schedule
I of the Act consists of ten schemes. It is essential and pertinent to mention
here that these schemes are not new and are mostly applicable only for BPL
families having income of Rs. 500 in urban areas and Rs. 300 in rural areas.
Therefore most of the urban unorganized workers may not fall under BPL
category and may not get the benefits of these schemes. Contrary to it, the
government should endeavour to give maximum benefits of these schemes to
the maximum number of unorganized workers.
Under the same Act the other category of women workers such as
unpaid women workers are not covered as they do not fall within the
definitions of self employed workers, wage workers or home based workers.
According to these definitions, getting wages or monthly earnings are
condition precedent for being considered as unorganized workers. Therefore,
the thing which gives pain is that the monetary value of women’s work is not
measured. However, it should not be a reason for denying social security to
women workers. Moreover, the problems of security, sexual harassment,
proper accommodation for migrant women workers, issues relating to nature
of work and industrial safety, gender wage gap, nonpayment of wages, child
care facilities at work spot etc. have been totally ignored.
Conclusion
From the above discussion it can be concluded that social security
constitutes an important element in guaranteeing social and economic needs
to individual. The right to social security is a core right to maintain human
dignity. Due to the socioeconomic changes has shrunken away that source of
security and expect that the state will be the umbrella of total protection
against economic risk. Thus, the mission for security must create a number of
social devices to afford protection to the needy. Because the informal sector
which imposes a heavy cost on society in terms of jobs, income and health
care. In this context, the Government’s strategy is to utilize not only its own
apparatus, but also non-governmental organization and other concerned
sections to design a credible comprehensive and workable social security
package for unorganized women workers of India.
Apart from these the relatively more successful schemes have been
those which have been targeted at certain specific sectors in particular regions.
While these schemes have reasonably achieved their limited objectives still

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vast majority of unorganized sector workers are outside the purview of social
security protection because of various reasons.
Even though the Unorganized Sector Workers’ Social Security Act, 2008
was enacted by the Government of India to provide social security benefits to
these vulnerable classes of persons, the Act is unsuccessful in fulfilling the
demands of the unorganized workers. The Act only offers some schemes
which are nothing but already existing target oriented social security
programmes initiated by the Central Government which are not universally
applicable to all unorganized sector workers. Application of these schemes is
subject to the condition that the family must be a below poverty line. Thus this
awaited Act is failed in realizing the aspirations of millions of poor workers.
Therefore in this connection what all the steps taken by the government to
meet the needs of these workers men/women no satisfactory results have
achieved. Hence, these issues need to be scrutinized and think for alternatives
or major reformation in the system otherwise social security protection to
unorganized sector will be a myth.
References
1. Abdul Aziz (1984) ‘Labour problems of a developing economy’, Asia
publishing house, New Delhi.
2. 3. Anand S.C (1986) ‘Migrant construction workers – A case study of Tamil
Nadu workers in Kerala’, MPhil dissertation, Thiruvananthapuram, CDS.
3. Ann Davis and Lucy Gibson (1994) ’Designing employee welfare
provision’,Personnel Review, vol. 23, pp33-45.
4. Adams, D. Plessis, Gumbie, A and Willis (2007) ‘Introduction to safety practice
in South African Mines’, Braamfontien creda communication.
5. Anu Rai and Prof. Ashis Sankar (2012) ‘Workplace Culture & Status of
Women Construction Labourers: A case study in Kolkata, West Bengal’,Indian
Journal of Spatial Science, vol-3, IJSS, pp44.
6. Becker G.S (1998) ‘A theory of competition among pressure groups for
political influence’, the quarterly journal of economics.
7. Binoy Joseph, Joseph Injodey, and Raju Varghese (2009) ‘Labour welfare in
India’, Journal of workplace behavioural health, vol. 24, pp 221-242.
8. Dr. Beena Narayan (2010) ‘Unorganised Workers: Role of ESIC in Creating
Awareness’, International Referred Research Journal, October, vol.II.

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51
Poverty, Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion:
Understanding Indian Experience
K.L. Chandrashekhara

Introduction
‘Poverty’ as a social problem is very much rampant in India. Poverty
and unemployment, the twin social problems are found throughout the length
and breadth of this land. Poverty is essentially relative concept, a condition
measurable only in terms of the living standards and resources of a given
society at a particular time. Though India is regarded as a developing country
it is very badly facing the problem of poverty. Though we became
independent seven decades ago our society has not become free from the
stranglehold of the problems such as poverty, over-population,
unemployment, illiteracy, etc. Even today every third poor man of the world is
an Indian. It means one-third of world’s poor people are found in India. More
than 50% of Indians are not able to contribute anything for economic
productivity while just 20% of the people are enjoying more than 50% of our
national income. These startling facts make it abundantly clear that India is a
poor country.
The poverty line in any given society is determined by the customs and
mode of living. The poverty line in India is not at the same point as in the
U.S.A. or in the U.K. As defined by Gillin and Gillin “Poverty is that condition
in which a person, either because of inadequate income or unwise
expenditures, does not maintain a scale of living high enough to provide for
his physical and mental efficiency and to enable him and his natural
dependents to function usefully according to the standards of the society of
which he is a member.”i
Urban Poverty and Urbanization in India
According to 2001 census, the urban population of the country was 286.11
million, living in 5161 towns, which constitutes 27.81% of the total country’s
population. However, the same as per 2011 census has risen to 377.16 million
viz. 32.16% of the total country’s population and at the same time number of

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towns has gone up to 7935. The rate of urban growth in the country is very
high as compared to developed countries, and the large cities are becoming
larger mostly due to continuous migration of population to these cities. India’s
current urban population exceeds the whole population of the United States,
the world’s third largest country. By 2050, over half of India’s population is
expected to be urban dwellers. This creates enormous pressure on existing
urban infrastructure. India’s urbanization is often termed as over-
urbanization, pseudo-urbanization. The large population size is leading to
virtual collapse in the urban services and followed by basic problems in the
field of housing, slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life, etc.
Urban poverty is a major challenge before the urban administrators. Though
the anti-poverty strategy comprising of a wide range of poverty alleviation
and employment generating programmes has been implemented but results
show that the situation is grim. More importantly, poverty in urban India gets
exacerbated by substantial rate of population growth, high rate of migration
from the rural areas and mushrooming of slum pockets. Migration alone
accounts for about 40 per cent of the growth in urban population, converting
the rural poverty into urban one. Moreover, poverty has become synonymous
with slums. The relationship is bilateral i.e. slums also breed poverty. This
vicious circle never ends. Most of the world’s poor reside in India and majority
of the poor live in rural areas and about one-fourth urban population in India
lives below poverty line. If we count those who are deprived of safe drinking
water, adequate clothing, or shelter, the number is considerably higher.
Further, the vulnerable groups such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,
minorities, pavement dwellers etc., are living in acute poverty. Housing
conditions in large cities and towns are depicting sub human lives of slum
dwellers. With the reconstruction of poverty alleviation programmes in urban
India, it is expected that social and economic benefits will percolate to the
population below the poverty line. However, eradication of poverty and
improving the quality of life of the poor, remains one of the daunting tasks.

Magnitude of Poverty
One way of measuring the richness or poverty of a country is the
availability of goods and services for consumption in a particular year. This
we call the national income or dividend of a country is an elaborate task and
requires the services of expert economists. Sometimes it is difficult to decide

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which items should or should not be included in the national income and
there is difference of opinion among the economists over this. For example, the
services rendered by domestic servants or housewives should be included in
national income or not, though one of them is a paid worker and the other
unpaid. Similarly, the goods consumed by the cultivator at home without
bringing it to the market cannot be estimated easily. ii According to the United
Nations publication on National Income Statistics the net national product is
the aggregate of the net values added in all branches of economic activity
during a specified period together with the net income from abroad.iii
Poverty is “pronounced deprivation in well-being.”iv The conventional view
links well-being primarily to command over commodities, so the poor are
those who do not have enough income to meet their needs. This view explains
poverty largely in monetary terms. Poverty may also be tied to a specific type
of consumption; thus someone might be house poor or food poor or health
poor. These dimensions of poverty can often be measured directly, for instance
by measuring malnutrition or literacy.
Poverty is the biggest challenge to development for almost half of the
world. At the start of the twenty-first century, almost half of the world’s
people suffer in a state of “deep poverty amid plenty” measured as an income
of less than $2 a day.v The World Bank estimates that 456 million Indians i.e.,
42% of the total Indian population at present live under the global poverty line
of $1.25 per day. This means huge number of the global poor now reside in
India. However, this also represents a significant decline in poverty from 60
percent in 1981 to 42 percent in 2005, although the rupee has decreased in
value since then, while the official standard of 538/356 rupees per month has
remained the same.
The Planning Commission of India uses its own criteria and has
estimated that 27.5% of the population is living below the poverty line in
2004–2005, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978, and 36% in 1993-1994.vi 75% of the
poor are in rural areas, most of them are daily wagers, self-employed
householders and landless labourers.
The Human Development Reports and other United Nations/World
Bank reports identify South Asia as one of the most deprived regions in the
World. South Asia has the largest number of people in the world living in
absolute poverty which includes 46 per cent of the developing world’s
population. Sixty percent of these are women, with limited access to basic

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needs. The greatest burden of human deprivation and poverty, illiteracy and
health- related problems falls on women.vii
Poverty as a material reality disfigures and constrains the lives of millions of
women, men and children and its persistence diminishes those among the
non-poor who acquiesce in or help sustain it. Socio-economic structural and
cultural contexts shape the experiences and understandings of poverty. Thus,
“Poverty” is at the same time culture bound and universal.viii According to
World Bank Report poverty imposes an oppressive weight on India, especially
in rural areas, where out of four Indians one is poor or very poor, which
comprises about 77 percent of the total population, living is poor.ix According
to the Planning Commission, about 23.62 percent of the urban population and
about 27.09 percent of the rural population lived below the line of poverty in
1999-2000. x Overall, there is about 26.10 percent of India’s total population
which lives below the line of poverty.
Poverty and the poor are always associated with
(a) Resourcelessness
(b) Choicelessness
(c) Insecurity and
(d) Deprivation
which create incapacities in the pursuit of dignified life in a given society for a
person, household, group or community. Furthermore, those suffering chronic
poverty also suffer several simultaneous disadvantages including gender, age,
caste, ethnicity, location, etc.xi
Chronic poverty seems to be disproportionately high among historically
marginalized groups such as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs)
the elderly, women and the disabled.xii The multiple deprivations suffered by
these groups make it harder for them to escape from poverty. In recent years
there has been an increasing trend to incorporate the gender dimension in
analysis of poverty. xiii Lanjouw and Stern (1991) also postulate a strong
correlation between caste and poverty in India. The feminization of poverty is
a term used to describe the overwhelming representation of women among
the poor. “Women tend to be disproportionately represented among the poor,
the poorer the family the more likely it is to be headed by women”. xiv On an
average one out of two persons belonging to scheduled caste and tribe groups
is poor as compared with an average for the general population of less than
one in three. Whereas 31.4% rural non- SC/ST households were below the

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poverty line, the corresponding estimates were 52% for Scheduled Tribes and
48% for Scheduled Castes.xv
Poverty and Social Exclusion
Social exclusion can be understood as “people being prevented from
participation in the normal activities of the society in which they live or being
incapable of functioning”. In sum, social exclusion means incomplete
citizenship and unequal access to the status, benefits, and experiences of
typical citizens in society. Though social exclusion has multiple meanings, the
concept can also be reduced to one central notion. If an individual is socially
excluded, that person has a limited capability to effectively participate in
society.xvi

Chronic Poverty
Chronic Poverty describes people (individual, households, social
groups, geographical areas, and territories) who are poor for significant
periods of their lives, who may pass their poverty onto their children, and for
whom finding exit routes from poverty is difficult. As opposed to transient
poverty, chronic poverty involves people, households, and social groups who
are poor for sustained and significant or extended periods of their lives and
whose families and children may inherit this persistent condition. While
chronic poverty is dynamic in that people do climb out of, or fall into poverty
in significant numbers, exiting such poverty can prove difficult. Chronic
poverty is often concentrated in certain geographic areas and amongst certain
castes and occupational groups. It not only has economic dimensions, but also
social and political ones.xvii

Gravity of Urban Poverty


Urban poverty is seen in urban areas like metropolitan cities, semi town
etc. According to World Bank, Urban poverty is a multidimensional
phenomenon, and the poor suffer from various deprivations for example, lack
of access to employment, adequate housing and services, social protection and
lack of access to health, education and personal security. Urban poverty which
is a cruel reality is considered to be the most demanding urban challenge and
number one urban problem because it is poverty which leads to many other
problems in the urban areas.xviii

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Urban poverty is a complex, multidimensional problem with origin in both


developing and developed domains depending upon its nature and extent. In
2001, 924 million people, or 31.6 percent of this world urban population, lived
in slum settlements. The majority of them were in the developing regions,
accounting for 43 percent of urban population, in contrast to 6% in more
developed regions. The quality of life of people is influenced by the
phenomenon of urbanization. World Development Report 2000-2001, state
that nearly half of the world’s poor live in south Asia - a region that account
for roughly 30 percent of the world’s population. In many instances rural to
urban migration has been the major factor in increasing urban poverty.
For the first time in India, urban poverty estimates provided by the expert
groupxix appointed by the Planning Commission, indicated that urban poverty
is more severe than rural poverty. According to the group, 83 million persons
in urban India live below the poverty line compared to 229 million in rural
India. According to the Planning Commission estimates (1999-2000), around
61 million people are urban poor in the country. India has the largest number
of poor living in urban areas compared to any other country in the world.
India has a high population density, therefore urban poor face the problem of
shelter, adequate supply of water, sanitation facilities, poor drainage and solid
waste disposal. Urban poor occupy the lowest rungs of the social hierarchy
and deprive of basic services and amenities. They occupy the marginal
positions in the socio cultural system of the communities.
According to India Urban Poverty Report 2009, India has shared the growth
pattern and rapid urbanization with some of the fastest growing regions in
Asia. As per the latest NSSO survey reports there are over 80 million poor
people living in the cities and towns of India. The Slum population is also
increasing and as per the Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO)
estimates 2001, over 61.80 million people were living in slums. The Report also
explored that the ratio of urban poverty in some of the larger states is higher
than that of rural poverty leading to the phenomenon of ‘Urbanization of
Poverty’. Urban poverty poses the problems of housing and shelter, water,
sanitation, health, education, social security and livelihoods along with special
needs of vulnerable groups like women, children and aged people. Poor
people live in slums which are overcrowded, often polluted and lack basic
civic amenities like clean drinking water, sanitation and health facilities.
Urban Poverty is a major challenge for policymakers in our country as the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

urban population in the country is growing; urban poverty is also on the rise
due to various factors. There is an urgent need to develop strategies to develop
poverty reduction approaches to attack the multi-dimensional issues of urban
poverty.

Conclusion
It is an indisputable fact that India still remains a poor country in spite
of our various developmental projects, township plans, urbanization policies
and programmes. An all-pervading problem like poverty cannot be removed
all on sudden. Urban poverty requires the critical attention to policymakers.
Unless urban poverty is addressed, continued urbanization would result in
increases in urban poverty and inequality which might strain the city life. It
will affect relations between the different economic groups and may lead to
rising levels of insecurity, which in turn could lead to conflict. Poverty related
conflicts are already in existence in the rural parts of India. Studies on Poverty
and Conflicts in contemporary India shows that there are more conflicts
between the poverty affected social groups and others in the urban areas in
recent decades, and poverty related conflicts have positive and negative
potential in the context of political and economic reforms.
Urban poverty reduction requires different kinds of approaches,
because it is different from rural poverty in many respects: the urban poor are
affected by the highly monetized nature of urban living, which forces them to
spend far more on accommodation, food, transport and other services than the
rural poor; unlike rural poverty, urban poverty is characterized by the
regulatory exclusion of the poor from the benefits of urban development. The
three dimension of poverty such as lack of regular income and employment,
productive assets, access to social safety nets; lack of access to services such as
education, health care, information, credit, water supply and sanitation; and
political power, participation, dignity and respect are important in
understanding urban poverty. To escape urban poor from the multiple
vulnerabilities of urban living and to benefit them from the inclusive growth
process, Central Government’s intervention is therefore critical. Government’s
proposal to extend National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme to urban
areas, with modifications is certainly welcome policy intervention in
addressing the problems of urban poor in providing wage employments and
for income generating activities that would prevent the urban poor to find the

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roots of exit from poverty. Attention needs to be provided to ensure access to


affordable healthcare, improving the conditions of housing and social security
is the priority for all unorganized workers in the urban settings.

i
Gillin, J.L. and Gillin, J.P., An Introduction of Sociology (1942), p.721.
ii Wadia, P.A. and Merchant, K.T., Our Economic Problem, 1952, pp.678-680.
iii United Nations, National Income Statistics of Various Countries 1938-47(1948), p.5.
iv World Bank Institute, 2005, Introduction to Poverty Analysis, Poverty Manual, p.8.
v World Bank. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001. New York: Oxford University Press. p.3.
vi 61st round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) and the criterion used was monthly per capita

consumption expenditure below Rs.356.35 for rural areas and Rs.538.60 for urban areas.
vii UNIFEM, 1999, Carrying the Beijing Torch in South Asia cited in Neera Burra et.al.(2005), ‘Micro-

Credit, Poverty and Empowerment; Linking the triad’, Sage publications, New Delhi, p.25.
viii Oyen, Else, Miller, S.M. and Samed, Syed Abdus, Poverty: A Global Reviewed, Hand Book on

International PovertyResearch, Rawat Publication, Jaipur. p. 4.


ix World Bank Report, 1998.
x Planning Commission Report, 2001.
xi Kumar, Anand, (2004), Political Sociology of Poverty in India: Between Politics of Poverty and

Poverty of Politics, CPRC-IIPA, Working Paper 3. p. 4.


xii Mehta, Aasha Kapur and Amita Shah, (2004), Chronic Poverty in India: An Overview. CPRC-IIPA

Working Paper No. 2.


xiii Asthana, M., Ali, S. (2004), Urban Poverty in India: Issue and Politics, p.152.
xiv World Bank 1989 cited in Jackson 1996, p.491.
xv Mehta, Aasha Kapur and Amita Shah, (2004), Chronic Poverty in India: An Overview. CPRC-IIPA

Working p.44.
xvi Brady, David (2003), “Rethinking the sociological Measurement of poverty”, Social Forces, Vol. 81,

No., p. 724.
xvii India Chronic Poverty Report, 2011.
xviii Bhasin, R. (2001), Urban Poverty and Urbanization, p.15.
xix Lakdawala Committee.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

50
A study of Yeshasvini Health Insurance Scheme in Urban
Karnataka

Dinesha P T and Ramachandra Murthy


Introduction
Promotion of health is basic to national progress. Nothing could be of
greater significance than the health of the people in terms in terms of resources
for socio-economic development. And health insurance is an important
intermediate step in the evolution of an equitable health financing mechanism.
There are many state sponsored health insurance programme in India and
Karnataka among this Yeshasvini health insurance in Karnataka is also
important. The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers’ Health Care Scheme
(YCFHCS) is a pioneering health insurance scheme that was initiated by the
Government of Karnataka in 2002, though came into operation with effect
from 1 June 2003. It is reported to be the largest self-funded healthcare scheme
in the world as of 2006 and aims at meeting the healthcare requirements of
farmer co-operators throughout the state of Karnataka. The success of the
scheme is evident in the wide membership base it commands apart from the
more telling fact that this social security scheme has been in operation for
seven years now.

Objectives and Methodology


The Present study is undertaken to study the Yeshasvini health Insurance
Scheme in Karnataka and to review the Division wise Cost for SC/STs
Membership of Urban Yeshasvini plan in Karnataka. The study is based on
secondary source of data such as Sahakara Sindhu, Co-operation Department
Reports, Yeshasvini Trust report and the literature has also been gathered
from published articles, books and Govt reports.
The Yeshasvini scheme is being implemented under the aegis of the
Karnataka State Cooperative Department. It provides insurance cover
primarily for surgical treatment, besides certain medical emergencies and free
OPD treatment. The scheme places co-operative societies at the heart of the

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

enrolment process, with members being enrolled through these and the
societies playing the role of facilitators in securing the benefits under the
scheme.
The scheme is administered by the Yeshasvini Trust and is implemented
by a Third Party Administrator (TPA). Family Health Plan Ltd. (FHPL) was
TPA since inception to 30-11-2010 but subsequently this was replaced by
Medi-Assist India. Healthcare is provided through an identified network of
hospitals that meet certain prescribed standards and cashless treatment is
envisaged. The cost of treatment and the reimbursement of medical expenses
are the purview of the TPA and the Trust, for the range of treatments and
surgical procedures covered under the scheme. Assessments of the
performance of the Yeshasvini scheme have revealed that a large majority of
stakeholders have expressed satisfaction with and appreciation of the scheme.
The scheme has evolved in the last eight years or so to expand the range of
benefits and streamline the functioning of the system to increase efficiency in
performance. The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers Health Care Scheme
provides cost-effective medical facilities to farmers across the state courtesy
cooperative societies registered with the Department of Cooperatives. This
scheme targets informal workers in the lower-middle income and middle-
income groups. In other words, any patient in Karnataka can have access to
medical facilities, provided he or she is a member of any cooperative society.

Yeshasvini Cooperative Farmers Health Care Trust


Registered under the Indian Trust Act 1882, the Yeshasvini Cooperative
Farmers Health Care Trust was established to ensure efficient implementation
of the Yeshasvini Health Insurance Scheme. The chief patron of the Trust is the
chief minister of Karnataka while the patron is the minister for cooperation. It
is important to note that the state government makes contributions to the
Trust. The governing body of the Trust comprises five senior officers, who in
turn, report to the principal secretary, cooperation department.

Yeshasvini Health Insurance Scheme administered


 Department of Cooperation: Reviews the overall publicity required for
the scheme besides monitoring the entry of beneficiaries
 Cooperative societies: Enroll beneficiaries into the scheme

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Network hospitals: Provide all medical facilities to the beneficiaries


under the scheme, subject to conditions
 Management Support Service Provider (IRDA licensed): Manages
claims settlement and other administrative matters
 Yeshasvini Cooperative Farmers Health Care Trust Board: Meets once
in three months to take important policy decisions, review funds
availability and disbursement under the scheme.
Funding of Yeshasvini Health Insurance Scheme:
The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers Health Care Scheme is one of the
biggest self-funded health care schemes in India. The Yeshasvini Co-operative
Farmers Health Care Scheme is, therefore, a contributory scheme in that
beneficiaries make small contributions (rate of annual contributions) annually
to avail of the benefits under this scheme. In 2013-14, the contribution fixed
amounted to Rs.210 p.a.
Table 1 and Figure 1 explain division-wise Expenditure made on taking
membership of Urban Yeshasvini Scheme by SC/STs in Karnataka during
2014-15. 17863 urban SC/ST people have taken membership of Yeshasvini
Scheme in Karnataka and total government expenditure for SC and STs
membership is Rs. 3572600 in 2014-15. The table reveals that Bangalore
division (11769) has highest urban SC/ST Membership of Yeshasvini Scheme
in the State followed by Mysuru division (Second place 4499), Belagavi
division (1314) and Kalburgi division (281). Expenditure incurred in Bangalore
division is very high i.e. Rs. 2353800. In contrast, the total amount received by
Mysuru (Rs. 899800), Belagavi (Rs. 262800) and Kalburgi (Rs. 56200) is very
low compare to Bangalore division. The table clearly shows that there is a
significant difference in the division wise expenditure for SC and STs
Membership of urban yeshasvini scheme in Karnataka during 2014-15.

Table -1: Division wise Expenditure for SC and STs Membership of Urban
Yeshasvini Scheme in Karnataka 2014-15
SI.No Name of the District SC/STs Members Total Amount
1 Bangalore Division 11769 2353800
2 Mysuru Division 4499 899800
3 Kalburgi Division 281 56200
4 Belagavi Division 1314 262800
Total 17863 3572600
Source: Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers’ Health Care Scheme Trust

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

Fingure-1: Division wise Expenditure for SC and STs Membership of Urban


Yeshasvini Scheme in Karnataka 2014-15

Conclusion
The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers Health Care Scheme provides
cost-effective medical facilities to farmers across the state courtesy cooperative
societies registered with the Department of Cooperatives. It provides
insurance cover primarily for surgical treatment, besides certain medical
emergencies and free OPD (Out Patient Department) treatment. The scheme
places co-operative societies at the heart of the enrolment process, with
members being enrolled through these and the societies playing the role of
facilitators in securing the benefits under the scheme. It has reveals that the
scheme targets informal workers in the lower-middle income and middle-
income groups. In other words, any peasant in Karnataka can have access to
medical facilities, provided he or she is a member of any cooperative society.
The study has found that Bangalore division has highest urban SC/ST
Membership of Yeshasvini Scheme in the State followed by Mysuru division
(Second place), Belagavi division and Kalburgi division. The present study
clearly shows that there is a significant difference in the division wise
expenditure for SC and STs membership of urban yeshasvini scheme in
Karnataka during 2014-15.

References:
 Devadasan, N., Ranson, K., Van Damme, W., & Criel, B. (2004). Community
health insurance in India: an overview. Economic and Political Weekly, 3179-
3183.

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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion

 Kuruvilla, S., Liu, M., & Jacob, P. (2005). A case study of the Yeshasvini Health
Insurance Scheme for the rural poor in India. International Journal of Self
Help and Self Care, 3(3/4), 261.
 Soors, W., Devadasan, N., Durairaj, V., & Criel, B. (2010). Community health
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health report.
 Radermacher, R., Wig, N., Putten-Rademaker, V., Müller, V., & Dror, D. M.
(2005). Yeshasvini Trust, Karnataka India. Karnataka India.
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performance and future challenges. Health Affairs, 27(4), 921-932
 Rajashekar and manjula (2012). A Comparative study of the health insurance
schemes in Karnataka, Planning Department, Government of Karnataka.

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