IRRIGATION AND WATER ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE
FOR AGRICULTURE PURPOSE
(IDT102)

By: TUYISHIME HERVE CHRISTIAN

Assistant Lecturer
 COURSE OBJECTIVES
Having successfully completed the module, students
should be able to:
• Determine, by using laboratory test methods,
important physical parameters of soil and analyze their
influence on water movement and use of the soil,
• Determine, by using laboratory test methods,
important index parameters of the soil and use them in
making different classifications and nomenclatures of
the soil.
• Examine how soils function in terms of water
application & purification, plant growth nutrient supply,
ecological habitat
 Course Structure & Assessment
Theory + Practical
Practical :
• 1. Sampling for physical analysis
• 2. Soil bulk density (Field & Lab)
• 3. Soil water content, Lab and Field)

Assessment:
 CAT s (1&2) : 40
 Assignments & reports: 20
 Final Exam: 40
 COURSR CONTENTS
• UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
• UNIT 2: SOIL AS A MEDIUM FOR PLANT GROWTH
• UNIT 3: SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• UNIT 4: SOIL ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY
• UNIT 5: SOIL WATER
• UNIT 6: SOIL WATER MANAGEMENT
• UNIT 7: SOIL CHEMISTRY
• UNIT 8: SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
• UNIT 9: FERTILIZERS
 Textbook
• Daniel Hillel, 1998. Environmental Soil Physics, by.
Academic Press, Inc. San Diego,California.
• Brady, Nyle C., and R. R. Weil. 1999. The Nature
• and Properties of Soils.
• Lar,Shukla.2004.Principles of soil physics
• EGOR. P. POPOV., “Engineering Mechanics of Solids”,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1993.
• Punmia. B. C., “Strength of Materials and Theory of
Structures”, Vol.1,Laxmi Publications, 9th edition.1992.
 Textbook (cont’d)
• Ramamrutham.S & Narayanan.R., “Strength of
Materials”, Dhanpat Rai Publishing, Company-2002
• Armenakas, A. E. (1988). Classical Structural
Analysis – A Modern Approach, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, NY, ISBN 0-07-100120-4
• Hibbeler, R. C. (2002). Structural Analysis, Pearson
Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., Delhi, ISBN 81-
7808-750-2
• Junarkar, S. B. and Shah, H. J. (1999). Mechanics of
Structures – Vol. II, Charotar Publishing House.
 Textbook (cont’d)
• Leet, K. M. and Uang, C-M. (2003).
Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New Delhi, ISBN 0-07-058208-4
• Negi, L. S. and Jangid, R.S. (2003). Structural
Analysis, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi, ISBN 0-07-
462304-4
 UNIT 1:
Introduction to
Soil
 Perceptions of Soil
Agriculture

Science

Environment
 SOIL
• Geologic definition: Loose surface of the
earth as distinguished from solid bedrock;
support of plant life not required.
 SOIL
• Traditional definition:
Material which nourishes and
supports growing plants;
foundation of every living
thing
 Soil Ecosystem

Soil is a living entity that is continually undergoing development;

dirt is stagnant remnants of organic and mineral matter
 Why Study Soil?
• Great Integrator!
– Medium of crop production
– Filter water and waste
– Producer and absorber of gases
– Home to organisms
– Medium for plant growth
– Waste decomposer
– Source material for construction, art, medicine, etc.
– Snapshot of geological, climatic, biological, and human
history
– Essential natural resource.
Soils Perform Several Vital Functions
Sustaining plant and animal
life below and above the
surface
Regulating and partitioning
water and solute flow

Filtering, buffering, degrading,

immobilizing, and detoxifying

Storing and cycling nutrients

Providing support to
structures
Soil Development
Soil Development
Soil Development
Soil Development
 Soil Forming Factors (cont’d)
• 1. Parent materials (geologic or organic
precursors to the soil
• 2. Climate (primarily precipitation & temperature)
• 3. Biota (living organisms, especially native
vegetation, microbes, soil animals & humans
• 4. Topography (slope, aspect & landscape
position)
• 5. Time (the period of time since the parent
materials became exposed to soil formation
factors)
Soil profile
The vertical face of a soil that can be exposed,
for example by digging a pit or in a road cut.

It includes layers(horizons) from surface down

to parent material

Within the soil profile the part that contains

plant roots or influenced by plant roots is
called the solum
Soil Profile Development

?
The Beginning
• Soil Profile Development
 contains characteristic
layers called horizons
A

E soil

B
development
Bedrock
C

Bedrock
 Soil Layers (Horizons)

• Soils consists of at least 3

horizons (layers)
A Horizon= topsoil.
B Horizon= subsoil.
C Horizon= soil base.
Bedrock= below the
horizon.
 SOIL COMPONENTS AND PHASES
• Mixture of mineral
matter, organic
matter, water, and
air.
• Properties of soil
Portion of each soil component for optimum plant growth
Inorganic component are:
primary and secondary minerals
Derived from parent material
Organic components are derived from plants and
animals
The liquid component consists of a dilute aqueuos
solution of inorganic and inorganic compounds
The gaseous component include soil air;
mixture of some major (nitrogen , oxygen)
and trace gas(CO2,CH4, nitrous oxide
General properties of phase and components
Phase Components composition Properties

Solid Inorganic Products of weathering; quartz, Skeleton , matrix

feldspar, magnetite, silicates,
secondary minerals
Organic Remains of plants and animals,
living organisms, usually <5%
s=2.0-2.8MG/m3
Large surface area, very
active, affects CO2 in the
atmosphere s=1.2-
1.5Mg/m3

Liquid Soil solution Aqueous solution of ions Heterogeneous, dynamics,

(Na,K,Ca,Mg,Cl,No3,PO4,SO4) discontinuous
W=1Mg/m3
Gas Soil air N2,O2,CO2,CH4,H2S,N2O,NO a=1-1.5kg/m3 variable,
dynamic
 UNIT 2: SOIL AS A MEDIUM FOR
PLANT GROWTH
• Soil – the unconsolidated cover of the earth, made
up of mineral and organic components, water and air
and capable of supporting plant growth. Most
important function: GROW PLANTS
• Photosynthesis – plant ability to combine CO2 and
H2O from the ground into sugar (C6H12O6). Light
furnishes the energy for this reaction. Nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus are required for synthesis of
plant proteins too.
 Soil as a medium for plant Growth
I. Introduction
1. The function of Soil
 Plant anchorage
 Provides water to plants
 Supplies plant nutrients
• As a medium for plant
growth, soil performs four
functions:
– Anchors roots
– Supplies water
– Provides air
– Furnishes minerals for
plant nutrition
• The pore space between
the solids is taken up by
water and air.
• Air takes up part of the pore space not
occupied by water. As the water increases,
the air content decreases. In respiration
(opposite of photosynthesis), plant roots use
oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. So, soil
usually contains less oxygen and more carbon
dioxide than atmospheric air does.
• Millions of microbes live in each ounce of
fertile soil. Without them, soils would
become inactive and lose their ability to
support plants.
 UNIT 3

SOIL PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
 SOIL PYSICAL PROPERTIES
The study of soil physical properties(e.g. texture,
structure, water retention) and processes(e.g.
aeration) including measurement and prediction
under natural and managed ecosystem

It also consists of the study of soil components and

phases, their interaction with one another and the
environment, and their temporal and spatial
variations in relation to natural and anthropogenic
or management factors
Soil physics draws principle of physics,
hydrology, engineering and meteorology to
address practical problems of agriculture,
ecology and engineering

Indeed soil physics plays a pivotal role in

the human endeavor to sustain agricultural
productivity while maintaining
environmental quality
 Soil physics
Soil physics has an important role to play in
i)Preserving the resource base
ii)Improving the resource use efficiency
iii)Minimizing risks of erosion and soil
degradation/restoring and reclaiming degraded
soil and ecosystems
iv)Enhancing production by alleviation of
soil/weather constraints through development
and identification of judicious management
options
 Soil physics
Application of physics include
Control of erosion
Alleviation of soil compaction
Management of soil salinity
Moderation of soil, air and water through
drainage and irrigation
And alteration of soil temperature through
tillage and residue management
Soil texture, Density, Porosity
and Structure
Soil Texture
• Different sized
mineral particles give
soil its texture
– Sand
– Silt
– Clay
3 Fractions of Mineral Matter

• Sand
• Silt
• Clay
 Soil texture(size fraction)
Soil texture depends on the amount of each size of
particle in the soil.
Depending on size distribution, primary particles are
usually divided into three classes(textural faction
or soil separates)
Sand silt and clay
Numerous systems of classifying
-USDA
-ISSS
-ASTM
 Soil texture
• Material >2mm considered as nonsoil fraction
• Sand
• Sand are the largest (coarse) particles size 2.00-
0.05mm and
they feel "gritty."
Can be subdivided into coarse, medium and fine
fractions
Sand grains comprise mostly quartz but also
contain fragments of feldspar and mica
 Soil texture
• Silt :
Intermediate size fraction;
0.05-0.002mm
Silt particles feel soft, silky or "floury
Mineralogical composition of silt is
similar to that of sand, but silt has
more surface area
 Soil texture
• Clay :
Fine fraction, <0.002mm
Clay feel "sticky
Reactive fraction of soil
Because its very fine size, clay fraction is
colloidal, highly reactive
Has large surface area and high charge density
Shape: plate- like or needle-like
Clay has the most influence on many soil
properties due to its large surface area
• Clay particles are plastic and sticky when wet.
They are highly adsorptive of water, gas, and
dissolved substances. Clays are minute, plate-
shaped, aluminosilicate crystals consisting of
silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, oxygen,
and hydrogen.
• There are several types of clay. Two of the
most important ones are kaolinite and
smectite. Smectite clays have the ability to
swell on wetting and shrink when dry.
Smectite enter chem rxns more than kaolinitic
clays.
 Soil texture
Particle size distribution (USDA system)
Soil separates Size range in (mm)
Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00
Course sand 1.00-0.50
Medium sand 0.5-0.25
Very fine sand 0.10-0.05
Silt 0.05-0.002
Clay <0.002
 Soil texture
Particle size distribution (ISSS system)
Soil separates Size range in (mm)

Course sand 2.00-0.2

Fine sand 0.20-0.02

Silt 0.02-0.002

Clay <0.002
 Assessment of particles size fractions
PROCESS: Mechanical analysis
Two steps:
dispersion and fractionation
Dispersion involves removal of cementing
material(compounds which bind the particle
together)
Dispersion agents depend on the nature of cementing
material
Hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) to remove organic material
Dilute acid to remove carbonate
 Soil texture
• Assessment of particles size
fractions
Fractionation: process of
physically separating the
particles into different size
ranges
A wide range of methods are
used
Two most commonly used are
sieving and sedimentation
 Soil texture
• Assessment of particles size fractions
Sedimentation Procedure is based on the rate of
fall of particles through a liquid
Two commonly used methods of mechanical
analysis by sedimentation are the hydrometer
and the and pipet method
 Soil texture
• Expression of results of particle size fractions
1.Textural classes
For agricultural purpose, results are expressed into
textural classes using textural triangle(see next
slide)
2. Summation curve
For enginnering purpose, results of mechanical
analysis are expressed in the form of a frequency
diagram in which particle size is plotted against the
percentage of the soil that fall within a particular
size distribution
Soil texture
Examples
 Sand + Silt + Clay = 100%
40 % Sand
40 % Silt
20 % Clay
Texture = LOAM
25 % Sand
30 % Silt
45 % Clay
CLAY
65 % Sand
20 % Silt
15 % Clay
SANDY
LOAM
40 % Sand
30 % Silt
30 % Clay
CLAY
LOAM
 Soil structure
• Soil structure is the arrangement of the
primary soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) and
other soil materials into discrete aggregates.
 Peds
• Structural units are called peds, and
have distinct boundaries and well-
defined planes of weakness between
the aggregates.
• Peds consist of primary particles
bound together by cementing agents
like organic matter, clay, and hydrous
oxides of iron and aluminum.
• Peds can take several shapes.
 Ped Shapes
• Granular
• Blocky
• Prismatic
• Columnar
• Platy
• Single-grained
• Massive
 Granular Structure
• Resembles cookie
crumbs and is usually
less than 0.5 cm in
diameter.
http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/granular.gif

• Commonly found in
surface horizons where
roots have been
growing.

http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/images/fig3-30_large.jpg
 Blocky Structure
• Irregular blocks that are
usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in
diameter.
• Can be subangular or
angular blocky.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pv
g/blocky.gif
http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/glenimages.nsf/Im
ages/gl167_profile/$File/gl167_profile.jpg
 Prismatic Structure
• Vertical columns of soil
that might be a number
of cm long.
• Usually found in lower
horizons.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pv
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manu
g/prismatic.gif
al/images/fig3-27_large.jpg
 Columnar Structure

• Vertical columns of soil that have a salt "cap" at the

top.
• Found in soils of arid climates.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/
pvg/columnar.gif
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/i
mages/fig3-28_large.jpg
 Platy Structure
• Thin, flat plates of soil
that lie horizontally.
• Usually found in
compacted soil.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/platy.gif http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/i/Arid_03.jpg
 Single-grained Structure
• Soil is broken into individual particles that do not
stick together.
• Always accompanies a loose consistence.
• Commonly found in sandy soils.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/singlegrained.gif
 Massive Structure

• Soil has no visible structure, is hard to break apart

and appears in very large clods.

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/massive.gif http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/images/fig3-31_large.jpg
 Grade of Soil Structure
• The terms weak, moderate, or strong are used to
describe the grade or how stable the peds are and
how hard they are to break apart.
• What do you think
the grade would be
for this picture?

http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/images/fig3-27_large.jpg
 How does structure affect water
movement in soils?
• In soils with good structure, the pore space
that occurs between peds is relatively large
and facilitates water and air movement.
• Well-developed structure is very important in
clayey soils.
• Clayey soils with poor structure restrict water
and air movement.
 Degree of Water Movement

Structure
Water
Movement

http://ohioline.osu.edu/b905/images/006.jpg
 Altering Soil Structure

• Unlike texture, structure

can be altered by tillage
or traffic.
• Tilling soils that are too
wet, or compacting soils
with heavy equipment
can break down the
natural structural units. http://www.ny.nrcs.usda.gov/program
s/images/tractor-tillin.jpg
Activity 2 - write down your definition of
these terms

1. Soil texture
____________________________________
__________________________

2. Soil structure
____________________________________
__________________________
 Soil texture v Soil structure

1. Soil texture is the composition of the soil in

terms of particle size -i.e. % sand, % silt and
% clay

2. Soil structure - Arrangement of soil particles,

pores and aggregates within a soil body
Vt= Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw+ Va Wtotal: total weight
Wsolids: weight of solid
Wwater: weight of water
Wa: weight of air = 0

Wtotal=Wsolids+Wwater
 Bulk Density
• Soil bulk density is the mass per unit bulk volume of
soil that has been dried to a constant weight at 105
°C.
 Bulk Density Example

• If we have a soil that weighs 50 grams after being

oven-dried and has a volume of 30 cm3, what will
be the bulk density?

• It would be 50 g/30 cm3 or 1.67 g/ cm3.

 Bulk Density in the Field
• Bulk density of organic soils can be very low,
such as 0.5 g/cm3.
• Clayey soils have higher bulk densities.
• Compacted clay soils have very high bulk
densities, between 1.6 and 1.8 g/cm3.
 Particle Density and Porosity
• Particle density is the mass per unit
volume of soil particles.
• Particle density is a relatively constant
parameter and is sometimes assumed
to be 2.65 g/cm3.
Bulk Density vs. Particle Density

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/pd3.htm
 Porosity

• Soil porosity is the percentage of a soil that is pore space or

voids.
• The average soil has a porosity of about 50%, and the pores
are filled with air or water depending on the moisture
content.
• Sands have larger pores, but less total pore space than clays.
• If both bulk density and particle density are known, the total
porosity can be calculated using these values.
 Soil Permeability
• Soil permeability is the ease with which
air, water, or plant roots penetrate or
pass through soil.
• Soils with large pores that are connected
are more permeable.
• Rainwater soaks in readily and moves
down through the soil profile.
• Clayey soils can have greater total
porosity than sand and still be less
permeable than sand since the pores are
small.
 Soil density
Example
1.A soil is sampled by a core measuring 7.6cm in diameter and 7.6 cm
deep. The core weighs 300g. The total core plus wet soil is 1000g.
On oven drying at 105oC the core plus dry soil weighed 850g.
Calculate bulk density and gravimetric moisture content,
Determine the volumetric moisture content, and the depth of water
contained in the top 40 cm of the soil profile.

2. A dry soil sample of 1000cm3requires 300g of water to completely

saturate it
Calculate
(a)Its porosity
(b)Volume of water required to saturate the plow layer(20cm) of
1hectare of the farmland
Soil density
Density is the ratio of mass and volume
Commonly expressed in units of g/cm3 and Mg/m3

Density can be defined in following ways as follows

Particle density(s)
Also called true the true density, it is the mass of solid Ms
devided by the volume of solid(Vs)
Particle density of inorganic soils range from 2.6 to
2.8g/cm3 or Mg/m3
Density of organic matter is about half of that of inorganic
mineral
Bulk density(b)
Also called apparent density, it is the ratio of
mass of solid(Ms) to the total volume(Vt)

Relative density or specific gravity:(Gs)

Ratio of particle density of a soil to that of
water
It is a dimensionless entity and expressed as

Gs=s /w
Soil porosity
Soil porosity refers to relative volume of voids or
pores
Total porosity: ration of volume of fluids or water
plus air to total volume
Air filled porosity: relative proportion of air-filled
pores
In relation to plant growth , the critical limit is 0.10
or 10%
Total porosity – volumetric moisture content
Void ratio:
e=Vf/Vs
Interrelationship among soil properties
Void ratio: e = Vv/Vs;
Porosity n = Vv/Vt
e=n/(1-n)
n=e/(1+e)

e=n/(1-n)
n=e/(1+e)
n=Vv/Vt=Vv/(Vs-Vv)=(Vv/Vs)/(1+Vv/Vs)=e/(1+e)

e=n/(1-n)
n=e/(1+e)
e=Vv/Vs=Vv/(Vt-Vv)=(Vv/Vt)/(1-Vv/Vt)=n/(1-n)
 UNIT 4

SOIL ECOLOGY AND

BIOLOGY
Who lives in the
soil ??
 SOIL ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY
• Soil is full of life. Scientists say that
most fertile soils contain more living
organisms in a handful of soil than
there are people on planet Earth
(approx. 7,000,000,000). This says
that the majority are very small. In
fact, most are so small you can’t see
them without aid of a microscope.
Biology Pyramid
Vertebrates (1)
Snails and Slugs (100)
Pot worms and Earthworms (3,000)
Insects and Spiders (5,000)
Rotifers (10,000)
Springtails (50,000)
Mites (100,000)
Nematodes (5,000,000)
Protozoa (10,000,000,000)
Fungi (100,000,000,000)
Bacteria (10,000,000,000,000)
 Biology Pyramid
• This pyramid represents a food chain
showing the diversity of living organisms
found in most soils. The base has lots of
organisms, which tend to be small and
support life for organisms above. Upward
through each level, fewer organisms
remain until you get to the top with a
single bird. The smallest organisms, it
turns out, are the most abundant.
 Bacteria
Under the Microscope
“Single-celled
organisms that are
microscopic ranging in
shape from spheres,
rods, to spirals”
Bacteria are some of the smallest of life forms,
normally just 1 to 3 micrometers in length. They
are rather complex, however, because each cell
contains everything needed for life. Plants need
bacteria to convert elements in the soil and air
into nutrients that plants require for growth.
 What do bacteria do in soil ?
 Colonize aerobic and anaerobic
environments
 Decompose labile substrates
 Mediate redox transformations
 Nourish bacterivores
 Fix N
 N-fixing nodules
on a cowpea plant
 Protozoa Rotifers-Microscopic
animals found in many
freshwater
environments and in
moist soil that move by
swimming or crawling.
Single-celled Rotifers
organisms larger
than bacteria that
move in water films
and feed on
bacteria and soil
organic matter
 Protozoa
• Protozoa are single-celled organisms that feed
mainly on bacteria and organic debris.
Protozoa swim through water films in the soil
to collect their food.
• Notice the fine hairs around this organism that
allow it to swim. The organism in this
photograph is magnified 1000 times
 PROTOZOA
Ciliates • Largest of the protozoa
• Move by means of hair-like cilia

Amoebae • Also large

• Move by means of a temporary foot
(pseudopod)
• Include testate amoebae (with shell-like
covering), and naked amoebae

Flagellates • Smallest of the protozoa

• Move by means of flagella (1-2)

Important bacterivores
 FUNGI
have many
different life
forms
– Yeasts
– Mycelia
– Fruiting bodies
– Spores
 What do fungi do in soil ?
 Decompose recalcitrant organic compounds
 Penetrate residues
 Stabilize soil structure
 Nourish fungivores
 Form symbioses with plant roots and soil fauna
 Compete with plant pathogens
 Parasitize plants and soil animals
 Produce toxins e.g. aflatoxin produced by
Aspergillus flavus on peanut
 NEMATODES
 Most abundant of the
soil fauna

 Functionally diverse
Bacterivores
Fungivores
Herbivores
Predators
Omnivores
 Most are beneficial -
promoting http://nematode.unl.edu/hdigonic.htm
decomposition
and nutrient recycling
Mites

Springtails
Six-legged animals that
often have a tail-like
structure folded beneath
the body that can be used
for jumping when the
animal is threatened.
 MITES
• Mites chew plant debris into small
pieces, which makes the debris
available to smaller organisms. Some
also feed on other mites, living fungi,
or other soil organisms. Mites have
eight legs and are related to spiders.
 Bigger Organisms
Slugs

Snails and slugs are larger organisms that we

can find in garden or field soils. They secrete
a slimy coating that keeps their bodies from
drying out as they slither across the soil
surface. They primarily eat vegetation and
decaying organic matter.
 Earthworms

Earthworms are nature’s plow that dig and

burrow through the soil. In the process they
leave channels that are important for air and
water to freely move into and through the soil.
Their ‘manure’ (called casts) helps to fertilize
the soil.
 SPIDERS
Spiders seem
always to be
hunting for food.
Some live below
ground and hunt
organisms that
live at the soil
surface. All
spiders have eight
legs.
 Dung Beetles
Dung beetles
(dung is another
word for manure)
can readily be
seen with the
unaided eye.

They decompose and bury the manure of

mammals in soil where it decomposes
more rapidly. Some will lay eyes in the
buried manure to feed their young.
RODENTS
SUMMARY…
 AS SUMMURY
This is a complex visual that relates soil life to
the real world.
Each organism lives in close proximity with
others and they often interact.
All have their own place and function. Some are
large and easily seen with the unaided eye and
others have to be magnified by 1000 times just
to see their general shape.
Life in soil often depends on the death of a plant
or another organism, and life results for the
second organism as the first organism and its
remains are decomposed. This is part of the
carbon cycle.
 UNIT 5:
SOIL WATER
Some terms
 Some terms
• Infiltration
–Rate depends on texture and
topography
• Percolation
• Water table
• Evapotranspiration
• Runoff
Water forms films on soil particles

Water is polar; soil particle surfaces are negatively charged.

Water diagram is cross section of film
 Types of water in soil:
• 1. Adhesion water
– “HYGROSCOPIC WATER”

– Remove by oven drying

– Not available to plants
 Hygroscopic coefficient
(an amount of water)

• Amount of moisture in air dry soil

• Difference between air dry and oven dry

amounts
2. Cohesion water
– “CAPILLARY WATER”

– 15 – 20 molecules thick
– Remove by air drying
– Most is available to plants
• some unavailable to plants (especially in clay or high
OM soils)
 WILTING POINT
(an amount of water)

• “the amount of water in the soil when plants

have removed all that they can”

• Divides available and unavailable water

 Wilting Point
• Amount of water in soil
when plants begin to
wilt.
This amount of water is “wilting point”
 Difference between wilting point and hygroscopic
coefficient:

at wilting at hygroscopic
point coefficient

Moist Dry to touch

Can’t squeeze water Air-dried
Plant can’t get water Can be oven dried to
remove water
3. Gravitational water

– Not available to plants

– Drains through soil under influence of gravity
– Through large pores
• Small pores can hold water against pull of gravity
through capillarity
 FIELD CAPACITY
(an amount of water)

• “amount of water after gravity has removed

all freely drained water”

• Divides capillary water from gravitational

water
 Field Capacity
• Amount of water in soil after free drainage has
removed gravitational water (2 – 3 days)

• Soil is holding maximum amount of water

available to plants
• Optimal aeration (micropores filled with
water; macropores with air)
 Oven (Air dry) Field capacity
dry Hydroscopic Wilting point
coefficient

No water

Plant-
Adhesion unavailable Plant-available
Gravitational
water water Water
water
(capillary) (capillary)
 capillarity

Height water will

rise in
cylinder depends
on
diameter of tube;
due to adhesion
of water and
tube

Plastic Glass
 Critical levels of water in soil:

• Field capacity
• Wilting point
• Hygroscopic coefficient

Plant available water is between field capacity

and wilting point.
 Not all capillary water is equally
available to plants
• Plants can extract water easily from soils
that are near field capacity
–Sponge example

• Wilting point is not the same for all

plants
–Sunflowers can extract more water
from soil than corn
• Sponge example
 Micropores full;
Adhesion water macropores have air

Wilting point Field Capacity

All pores full

Gravitational water
 Hydraulic pressure of soil water
• Pressure = force / area
Hydraulic pressure

“0”
at surface

increases with
depth

Open body of water

Same in saturated soil

“0”
at surface

increases with depth

 Capillary pressure
• Thin tube in open pan water
(Adhesion to walls of tube;
cohesion in center of tube;
-20 g/cm3 therefore thin tube only)
Pressure in tube
decreases away
-10 from water surface

0
 Same in unsaturated soil:

• Capillary water is water in small pores

continuously connected to free water surface
(soil water table)

-20

Capillary water
-10
(continuous film)

0 Soil water table

Saturated soil
+10
• the smaller the pore space, the higher
capillary water will rise in profile

• Smaller pore space, tighter water is held to

particle surfaces against gravity (i.e., higher
field capacity)
clay silt sand

Pan of water
at
• Insert Fig 9.6
 Energy status of soil water
• Energy status
– Things move to lower energy states
• It takes work to keep them from doing so
– E.g. keeping something from falling in response to gravity

– Influences water movement

• E.g. adhesion attracts water to soil particles so particles
close to soil are at lower energy state
 Forces on soil water:
• Adhesion
– Attracts water to soil particles
• Holds adhesion(hygroscopic) water and cohesion
(capillary) water
– Called “matric force”
• Ions in solution
– Attracts water to ions
– Called “osmotic force”
• Gravity
– Pulls water downward
– “gravitational force”
• Soil water potential
– Amount of work required to move water
– Expressed in bars or Pascals
– Similar to soil water tension
Water is held at various tensions/attractions
 potentials

Water is removed by various potentials

• Water moves from areas of higher water
potential (wetter) to areas of lower water
potential (drier).
 Potentials

• Matric
• Gravitational
• Hydrostatic
• Osmotic
 Matric potential
• Work required to remove water held by
adhesion to soil surface and cohesion in
capillary pores.
– Hygroscopic and capillary water

Gravitational potential
• Work required to draw water down in
response to gravity
Applies to gravitational water only
 Hydrostatic Potential
• Work required to move water below the water
table; applies only to saturated conditions

Osmotic potential
If there are solutes in the solution, water will
group around them and reduce the freedom of
water movement, i.e., lowering the potential.
 Osmotic potential
• Water containing salts is less able to do work than
pure water
– e.g., cannot boil at standard boiling point
• The more salts, the lower the potential
• Important for plant uptake
– In “salty” soil, potential in soil solution may be lower than
inside plant root cells, impeding ability of water to pass
into plant
 Practical application
• Irrigation water contains soluble salts.
– When water evapotranpirates, salts stay behind in
soil.
– They can be removed by adequate rainfall that
flushes the salts to the water table.
• BUT
– If water table is too high, salts cannot be flushed.
– If climate is arid, salts cannot be flushed by rainfall.
– If soil is fine-textured or has poor structure, water will not be
flushed.
• Creates SALINE soils
 SALINE soils
• Too much salt in soil water prevents plants
from getting water.
– Salinity raises osmotic pressure of soil water
inhibiting water uptake.
• Applying too much fertilizer has same effect
because fertilizers present nutrients in the
form of “salts”
 How do plants get water?
• Root hairs are in contact with soil water
• Salts (nutrients) are in a more dilute solution
in the soil than in roots (plant “sap”)

• By osmosis, water (with dissolved salts) moves

into root hairs.

• From the roots hairs, water diffuses into other

plant cells, eventually to xylem, which is the
water conduit of the plant.
• This “root pressure” pushes water up into the
plant.
– This mechanism is called “active absorption”
• (requires energy)
• “passive absorption” :

• Plants transpire during the day.

– Transpiration is loss of water vapor to the
atmosphere from Stomata (pores) on
leaves.

• In transpiration water is pulled from the plant,

beginning at the leaf tip.
• This pull from the leaf tip is transmitted all the
way down to the roots.
– “Domino effect” of water in a continuous film
being drawn up column from soil through plant
cells, as water is lost by transpiration.
– Cohesion holds water together in a continuous
film.

– No energy required; roots are passive.

 DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE
CONTENT
Soil moisture is the term used to denote water
contained in the soil
Can be expressed in following way:
Gravimetric soil moisture content: ratio of mass of
water(Mw) to that of solids(Ms), expressed either as
a fraction or percent
W=Mw/Ms
Volumetric soil moisture content: also expressed as a
ratio or percent
ϴ=Vw/Vt
 DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE
CONTENT
Soil moisture content
Degree of saturation
Refers to relative volume of pore space
containing water or liquid in relation to
the total porosity

S=Vw/Vv*100%
 UNIT 6:

SOIL WATER
MANAGEMENT
 Definition
• Soil water management can be defined
as active involvement in controlling soil
water content at an optimal state for all
given purposes, including environmental
needs. An optimal state is often a
compromise between competing uses
and needs to account for long term
sustainability of the soil water system.
 SOIL EROSION
What is Soil Erosion?
• Soil erosion is a gradual process that occurs
when the actions of water, wind, and other
factors cat away and wear down the land,
causing the soil to deteriorate or disappear
completely.
• Soil deterioration and low quality of water due
to erosion and run off has often become a severe
problem around the world.
• Many times the problems become so severe that
the land can no longer be cultivated and is
abandoned 169
• Soil erosion is a continuous process of
detachment of soil and geologic materials,
their removal, their transportation and
their deposition from one place to another
under the influence of water, wind or
gravity force
• Water in the form of rainfall, runoff, and
surface flow, and wind are the two major
agents responsible for the detachment
and transportation of soils.
170
• Erosion of soil sediments by water and wind
results from two physical processes:
detachment and transport.
• Detaching forces include glacial ice, excessive
tillage, wind, flowing water, and crushing by
vehicles, animal hooves, and people’s feet.
• Transporting forces include glacial ice, gravity,
strong wind, and flowing water.

171
Influence of Agriculture on Soil Erosion
1. Agriculture increases the risk of erosion through
its disturbance of vegetation by way of land-use
conversion, tillage or over-grazing.
2. Many farmers prepare land by tilling or ploughing
their fields to produce a smooth planting surface
devoid of vegetation.
3. This process, however, creates a soil surface that is
very vulnerable to erosion.

The following agricultural practices lead to

accelerated soil erosion:
172
(i) Over-grazing: More than the allowable number of
animals are raised than the forage can sustain.
Trampling and eating diminishes the number of
species grown in a particular forage area, and
without adequate vegetative cover, the land
becomes more susceptible to both wind and water
erosion.
Further, when animals are grazed near stream
areas, the trampling near the stream banks
clauses erosion and stream sedimentation.

173
Soil degradation due to over-grazing by goats
Soil degradation due to over-grazing by cows
Soil degradation due to over-grazing by sheeps
(ii) Planting of monoculture: This practice can lead
to erosion for several reasons.
First, a monoculture is harvested all at one time,
which leaves the entire field bare and the
natural rainfall is not retained by the soil and
flows rapidly over the surface rather than into
the ground.
Secondly, if a disease or pests invade the area, the
entire crop is usually wiped out and again
leaving the bare soil susceptible to the elements
of erosion.

177
(iii)Row cropping: This agricultural practice is
common with monoculture but can also be
found in ploy cultures.
This technique exposes the soil between
each row of crops which is then vulnerable
to erosion.

178
(iv)Tilling or ploughing: This is one of the oldest
agricultural practices; it involves mixing up the
nutrients within the soil, loosening the soil
particles, incorporating oxygen and getting rid of
weeds, however, it also increases the likelihood of
erosion because it disturbs the natural surface and
protective vegetation.

(v) Crop removal: The continuous removal of crops

does not only increase the soil susceptibility to
erosion due to exposure but it also increases it
because the organic matter in the soil is depleted.
Organic matter has the ability to absorb a lot of
rainwater and without it, erosion is increased
because water doesn’t soak into the soil.
179
(vi) Development of new land: This is a
problem particularly in the least developed
countries.
Rising population are forcing people onto
marginal lands to grow crops.
Hill sides are not developed properly, and are
very vulnerable to erosion when water
passes over them.

180
 Factors affecting soil erosion
• Climate (rainfall, wind)
• Roughness of the surface soil
• Erodibility of the soil
• Slope length and gradient
• Land management gradient and
• Vegetation cover

181
 Types of soil erosion
In broad sense, the erosion process can be
classified into two types:
• Geologic erosion: represents the erosion of
soil in its natural condition without the
influence of human being. It sometimes also
known as natural or normal erosion.
• Accelerated erosion: is activated by natural
and man’s activities which have brought about
changes in natural cover and soil conditions.
182
The accelerated erosion takes place by the action
of water, wind and gravity:
• Water causes the erosion through sheet flow,
stream flow, wave action and ground water
flow
• Wind detaches and transport the soil particles
and causing a general mixing of the soil at the
surface.
• Gravity force causes the mass movement such
as soil creep, rock creep, rock slide and
subsidence of the soil surface
183
• The water and wind are the primary agents to
cause the accelerated erosion.
• Thus, accelerated erosion can further be sub-
classified as;
1. Water erosion and
2. Wind erosion.

184
 I. Water erosion
• This the soil erosion caused by water.
• It is defined as the movement of soil by rain
water running rapidly over exposed land
surface.
• Erosion is an energy-related process. It follows
the principles of kinetic energy
• Raindrops falling on a bare soil, water running
overland, wind blowing close to the ground,
and an overloaded mass of soil slipping down
the slope carry kinetic energy.
• The amount of energy carried by erosion
agents, then will depend on:
KE = ½ MV2 where,

KE - Kinetic Energy (Joules)

M - Mass of water (raindrop) and suspended
materials
V - Velocity (cm/sec.)
• The higher the kinetic energy of falling
raindrops or flowing water, the higher
becomes the erosivity of water, and more soil
is detached and transported.
187
• Water erosion of soil starts when raindrops
strike bare soil peds and clods, causing the
finer particles to move with the flowing water
as suspended sediments.
• Soil erosion, for whatever cause, destroys
man-made structures, fills reservoirs, lakes,
and rivers with washed soil sediment, and
badly damages the land.
• Erosion sediment is the richest part of the soil,
the nutritive topsoil containing most of the
organic matter.
Due to severe water erosion, top soil is
removed, exposing the rocks
 Classification of Water Erosion
• As the name implies, water erosion refers to
those forms of erosion that are caused by
water.
• Water erosion occurs because of the action of
raindrops, runoff (overland flow), channel
flow, and subsurface flow.
1.Splash (Raindrop) Erosion
• This form of erosion has been recognized as
the initial stage of an advanced water erosion.
• It is the main process responsible for the
detachment of soil particles and the breakdown of
surface aggregates.
• Raindrops fall with an approximate speed of 914
cm/s. When raindrops strike bare soil, they beat it
into flowing mud, which splashes as much as 61 cm
high and 152 cm away.
• Splash erosion is caused by the impact of raindrops.
Coarse soil particles are not shifted about as much
because of their greater volume and weight.
• The magnitude of detachment and splash depends
on the size of rain, terminal velocity of the rain, soil
erodibility, and soil cover.
Fig. Raindrop or Splash Erosion 192
The splashed particles may fill the pore space on the soil
surface, sealing of the surface, reducing the infiltration rate,
and causing puddling.
The consequence will be the production of more runoff and
the development of other forms of erosion, mainly sheet
erosion.

Fig. Raindrop Erosion - Disturbance of Soil Particles193

Fig. Effect of Raindrops on the field. 194
 2. Sheet Erosion
• A more or less uniform removal of the top soil
resulting from raindrop erosion and the action of
runoff, is referred to as surface wash or sheet
erosion.
• During this process, the most fertile part of the soil
(topsoil) is removed unnoticeably, reducing
gradually the productivity and fertility of the soil.
• The mechanism of sheet erosion is not
complicated.
• Following raindrop erosion, the runoff carries the
detached and splashed particles down the slope
196
3. Rill Erosion
As runoff concentrates in bare spots or surface
depressions such as footpaths, cattle tracks, plough
furrows up and down the slope, or natural dividers,
sufficient soil may be removed to form a rill.
This form of erosion is therefore caused by the
concentration of runoff in certain spots in a sloping
landscape.
Rills are small enough to be plowed in or crossed by
farm equipment.
If unchecked, they may become wider and deeper
and eventually form a gully.

197
Fig. Rill erosion in a field 198
 4. Gully Erosion

• Gullies are channels that are cut by running water

too deep to be crossed or smoothed out by
ordinary equipment. The depth, therefore,
separates the gullies from rills.
• That is, gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill
erosion. Gullies are the result of severe erosion
and have been described as a “characteristic
symptom of erosion”.
• Gullies are U-shaped, V-shaped or have
intermediate shapes.
Development of wider gullies due
to water erosion
Fig. Cultivated land devastated by Gully erosion.
201
Fig. Gully Erosion in mountain of Gakenke 202
 5.Subsurface Water Erosion
• Subsurface flow refers to the flow that runs
beneath the soil surface.
• The presence of clay pan, rocks, or other
impermeable layers underlying the soil surface
causes the concentration and flow of
subsurface water.
• The materials detached and transported by
subsurface flow are usually fine clay particles.
• They are transported in the form of
suspension..
 6.Stream bank erosion
• This is the erosion along the banks of
perennial water courses.
• It is the removal of stream bank soil by water
either flowing over the sides of the stream or
scouring from there.
• It is mainly aggravated due to the removal of
vegetation, overgrazing or cultivation riparian
zones, construction, etc. on the area near to
the stream banks.
Fig. Stream bank erosion
Fig. Stream bank erosion
7. Mass Movement
On hill slopes, water not only detaches and
transports debris through surface wash, rill and
gullying, it also infiltrates into the soil mass.
Mass movement refers to those processes that
bring about slow or rapid movement of
overloaded masses of the soil down the slope
due to the force of gravity.
Basically, mass movement starts when the mass
of the soil and rock on a steep slope can no
longer bear its own weight.
208
209
210
211
212
 Factors affecting water erosion
a. Natural factors
1. Climate
• Rainfall characteristics
• Atmospheric temperature
• Wind velocity
There is no water erosion without atmospheric
precipitations. These act through its amount,
intensity, frequency and duration. All these
have a great effect on runoff and soil loss.
2. Soil nature
Research showed that some soils resist
against disintegrating effect of rain and
runoff.
This resistance depends upon to:
• The soil infiltration rate
• The soil structure
• The soil texture, and
• The soil organic matter.
3. Vegetation
• Vegetative foliage intercept the part of rainfall
• Vegetative cover creates a surface obstruction
in flowing path of the surface runoff and so
reduce the runoff velocity.
• The root system makes the soil more porous
and thus increases the absorption of water
• Vegetation reduces the surface runoff and soil
erosion by marking greater water loss through
transpiration.
4.Topography
The land slope, length of the slope and shape of the
slope are the main topographic factors which
influence the soil erosion:
• A flat land does not have the problem of soil
erosion while the sloping lands are predominantly
affected by water erosion.
• The length of slope also pronounces the effect of
erosion by increasing the velocity of water flow.
• The base of slope is more susceptible to erosion
than to the top because runoff is more
concentrated as it approaches the base of slope.
b. Artificial factors
Human activities may accelerates soil erosion
through the followings:
Clearing of forest, development of marginal
land into agriculture
Fire
Overgrazing
Mining activities
Road and urban construction which increase
surface of runoff
Overexploitation of agricultural lands
Etc.
 II. WIND EROSION
Introduction
•As in water erosion, wind erosion is the process
of detachment, transportation and deposition of
soil particles by wind action.
•Erosion by wind increases where soil is less cohesive,
loose particles are smaller, land cover is less, and wind
speeds are higher.
•Soils low in clay but high in fine sands and coarse silts
are usually weakly structured.
•These soil particles are easily detached and
transported if wind speeds are about 20 km/h. Wet
soils, being denser, are less easily borne by winds. 218
Wind erosion occurs wherever:
• The soil is loose, finely divided and dry
• The soil surface is smooth and bare
• The wind velocity is strong

Wind erodes the soil in three steps:

• Initiation of movement,
• Transport either in the air, or along the surface, and
• Deposition of soil in a new site.
Each step is influenced by the condition of the air,
ground surface and the soil.
219
After such movement is started, the soil
particles are carried by the wind in three
types, namely:
• suspension, the floating of small sized
particles in the air stream.
• Saltation, a process of soil movement in
a series of bounces or jumps.
• surface creep, Surface creep is the rolling
or sliding of large soil particles along the
ground surface
220
221
 Factors affecting wind erosion
Climatic conditions
• Precipitation
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Velocity and prevailing wind
Wind velocity and duration have a direct impact
on wind erosion

222
• The other climatic factors (temperature,
humidity,…) are directly related to affect
evaporation and transpiration.
• This means that these factors are responsible
for depleting the soil moisture and making the
soil more susceptible to wind erosion.
Soil conditions
The major factor that makes soil resist wind
erosion is the size of individual soil grains that
are exposed to the wind.

223
Vegetation
• It is one of the most effective means to
control wind erosion.
• Indeed, it creates a direct obstruction in flow
path of blowing wind and deflect the wind
current at farther distance down stream side.
Topography
Topographic effect is not so important in the
process of wind erosion, but the length of
eroding surface has more importance on mass
movement.
224
 Universal soil loss equation(USLE)
• The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) predicts the
long term average annual rate of erosion on a field
slope based on rainfall pattern, soil type,
topography, crop system and management
practices.
• USLE only predicts the amount of soil loss that
results from sheet or rill erosion on a single slope
and does not account for additional soil losses that
might occur from gully, wind or tillage erosion.
• This erosion model was created for use in selected
cropping and management systems.
225
 Some unities
• 1 gallon = 3785cm3
• 1 inch = 2.54 cm
• 1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3m
• 1 acre = 4047 m2

226
 A = RKLSCP
Where:
• A = estimated average soil loss in tons per acre
per year
• R = rainfall-runoff erosivity factor
• K = soil erodibility factor
• L = slope length factor
• S = slope steepness (gradient) factor
• C = cover (cropping) management factor
• P = support practice factor
227
Equation for Calculation of LS
LS = [0.065 + 0.0456(slope) + 0.006541(slope)2]
x (slope_length ÷ const)NN
Where:
• slope = slope steepness (%)
• slope length = length of slope (ft.)
• constant = 72.5 Imperial or 22.1 metric
• NN = see Table below
S <1 1 < Slope < 3 3 < Slope < 5 >5

NN 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

228
Example: Calculation of Soil losses Using
USLE : A =R x K x LS x C x P
Rainfall and Runoff Factor (R)
• The sample field is in Middlesex County.
• Therefore the R Factor is obtained in Table 1
from the London weather station.
• R Factor = 100
Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
• The sample field consists of fine sandy loam soil
with an average organic matter content. The K
Factor is obtained from Table 2.
• K Factor = 0.18
229
Slope Length-Gradient Factor (LS)
• The sample field is 800 feet long with a 6%
slope. The LS factor can be obtained directly
from Table 3A or may be calculated using the
"Equation". The NN value from Table 3B to be
used in the "Equation" is 0.5.
• LS Factor = 1.91
Crop/Vegetation and Management Factor (C)
• The sample field was plowed in the spring and
grain corn was planted. The C Factor is
obtained from the crop type factor (Table 4A)
and the tillage method factor (Table 4B).
230
• Crop Type Factor for grain corn = 0.4
• Tillage Method Factor for spring plow = 0.9
• C Factor = 0.4 x 0.9 = 0.36
Support Practice Factor (P)
• Cross slope farming is used on this sample field.
• The P Factor was obtained from Table 5.
• P Factor = 0.75
Therefore,
• A = R x K x LS x C x P
• = 100 x 0.18 x 1.91 x 0.36 x 0.75
• = 9.28 tons/acre/year 231
Exercises
1. A field is cultivated on the contour
with continuous corn. The other details are
as K=0.40, R=200, LS= 0.75, P=0.55.

Determine the crop management practice

factor (C) that would be permitted for the
field,
if soil loss tolerance of the field is
a) 2.5 tons/acre/year
b) 2.5 tons/ha/year

232
2. A field is cultivated on the contour with
continuous corn. The other details are as K=0.40,
R=175, LS= 0.75, P=0.55. Determine the crop
management practice factor (C) that would be
permitted for the field, if soil loss tolerance of the
field is 2.5 tons/acre/year.
3. A field is cultivated on the contour with
continuous corn. The other details are as K=0.40,
R=150, LS= 0.75, P=0.55, C=0.50. Compute the soil
loss from the field and convert your answer in
tons/ha/year. Also make a comment on soil loss
when same field is kept under continuous pasture
with 95% cover. Assume C factor for new crop is
0.003.
233
4. Calculate the soil losses if he sample field is in
Rwanda County i.e R factor is 90 and it consist
of fine sandy loam soil with an average
organic matter content (K from table 2 is
0.20). The sample field is 800 feet long with a
6% slope (LS factor is 1.80). Crop Type Factor
for grain corn = 0.4 and Tillage Method Factor
for spring plow = 0.9 Cross slope farming is
used on this sample field. Use 0.70 as support
practice factor (P). Convert your answer in
tons/ha/year.

234
 Water losses
Various water losses which could occur during or
after the rainfall are given as under:
• Interception loss
• Depression storage
• Evaporation loss
• Transpiration loss
• Evapotranspiration loss or consumptive use
• Infiltration loss
• Runoff, and
• Deep percolation 235
Interception
• It is that part of precipitation, which is
intercepted by the vegetation foliage, buildings
and other objects lying over the ground surface
and is returned back to the atmosphere by
evaporation.
• Intercepted water does not reach to the ground
surface.
• Interception loss is that part of precipitation
which is intercepted by the surface object and
returned back to the atmosphere through
evaporation.
• At saturation stage, the interception loss is equal
to the evaporation loss.
Interception...........
First, the falling precipitation
may be intercepted by the
vegetation in an area.
It is typically either distributed
as runoff or evaporated back to
the atmosphere.
The leafy surface matter may
also intercept precipitation
 Interception…the point
• The point of the interception is that
the precipitation is temporarily stored
before the next process begins.
• The intercepted/stored precipitation
may not reach the ground to
contribute to runoff.
• Interception may be referred to as a
loss, i.e. it does not contribute to
runoff or soil moisture
• Interception storage is that amount of precipitated
water, which wets the initially dried surfaces of the
object lying over the ground surface.
Factors affecting interception
• Storm factor
• Plant factor
• Season of the year, and
• Prevailing wind.
1. Storm factor
Storm affect the interception by several ways, such as
by its nature, duration etc.
2. Plant factor
• Plant affect the interception loss by its
phenological characteristics, i.e. canopy size,
canopy density and leaf characteristics.
• A plant with wide canopy causes greater
interception loss.
• Also, from dense canopy, the interception is
always more.
3.Season of the year
• It affects the interception loss by affecting the
vegetative growth and phenological features of
the crop. cover
• Vegetative growth refers to increase in surface area
of the crop canopy.
• Interception increases with increase in vegetative
growth.
• In addition, the season also affect the amount and
forms of precipitation.
4. Prevailing wind
It affect the interception by the following two ways:
• By reducing the storage capacity of vegetative
foliage.
• By increasing the evaporation rate from the storage
build up on the canopy.
 Depression Storage
Definition:
•Rainwater retained in puddles, ditches, and
other depressions on the ground surface.
• As soon as rainfall intensity exceeds the local
infiltration capacity, the rainfall excess begins to
fill depression.
•Water held in depression at the end of rain
either evaporates or contributes to soil moisture
and/or subsurface flow by following the
infiltration.

.
• Depression storage may be of considerable
magnitude and may play an important role in
hydrologic analysis. Stock ponds, terraces, and
contour farming all tend to moderate flood by
increasing depression storage.
Retention - storage held for a long period of time
and depleted by evaporation.
Detention - short-term storage depleted by flow
away from the storage location.
• The 1st abstraction that occurs in hydrologic
cycle and it, along with the depression storage, is
sometimes considered as the initial loss