HANDMADE CAR USING BIKE ENGINE

Abstract:
A machine or device which derives heat from the combustion of fuel
and converts part of this energy into mechanical work is called a heat engine. Heat
engines are broadly classified into internal combustion engines [I.C. engines] and
external combustion engines.

Petrol and diesel engines fall under the category of internal

combustion engines as these are reciprocating heat engines in which fuel mixed with
correct amount of air is burnt inside a cylinder. The gaseous products of combustion
form the working substance which make the piston move and produce mechanical
work at the engine crankshaft. In contrast, the combustion of fuel in external
combustion engines (ex. Steam engines) is external.

Here in this project we are using a 4 stroke petrol bike engine to power
up our vehicle. The engine is mounted on a chassis (car like structure), all parts of the
bike i.e. stator, accelerometer, Brakes and steering etc are mounted on the chassis
just like a car. The engine will give power to the rear 2 wheels which will push the car
to move on driven by the front 2 whiles. This project can help us to build a low cost
car, which can be usable for any one.
ENGINE
"Engine" was originally a term for any mechanical device that converts force into motion.
Hence, pre-industrial weapons such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams were called
"siege engines". The word "gin," as in "cotton gin", is short for "engine." The word derives from
Old French engine, from the Latin ingénue, which is also the root of the word ingenious. Most
mechanical devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines the
steam engine being a notable example.

FOUR-STROKE ENGINE
A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in which the
piston completes four separate strokes which comprise a single thermodynamic cycle. A stroke
refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate
strokes are termed:

INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top
of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of
fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater by some form of air pump) pressure into the
cylinder through the intake port.

COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of
the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
 POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top
Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a spark plug in
gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine.
The resulting pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the
piston back down toward bottom dead centre.

EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre while
the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust
valve(s).

Atkinson cycle
The Atkinson cycle engine is a type of single stroke internal combustion engine invented by
James Atkinson in 1882. The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of
power density, and is used in some modern hybrid electric applications. Also called the Barta
engine. (1884)

The original Atkinson cycle piston engine allowed the intake, compression, power, and exhaust
strokes of the four-stroke cycle to occur in a single turn of the crankshaft and was designed to
avoid infringing certain patents covering Otto cycle engines.

Due to the unique crankshaft design of the Atkinson, its expansion ratio can differ from its
compression ratio and, with a power stroke longer than its compression stroke, the engine can
achieve greater thermal efficiency than a traditional piston engine. While Atkinson's original
design is no more than a historical curiosity, many modern engines use unconventional valve
timing to produce the effect of a shorter compression stroke/longer power stroke, thus
realizing the fuel economy improvements the Atkinson cycle can provide.
Diesel cycle
The diesel engine is a technical refinement of the 1876 Otto Cycle engine. Where Otto had
realized in 1861 that the efficiency of the engine could be increased by first compressing the
fuel mixture prior to its ignition, Rudolph Diesel wanted to develop a more efficient type of
engine that could run on much heavier fuel. The Lenoir, Otto Atmospheric, and Otto
Compression engines (both 1861 and 1876) were designed to run on Illuminating Gas (coal gas).
With the same motivation as Otto, Diesel wanted to create an engine that would give small
industrial concerns their own power source to enable them to compete against larger
companies, and like Otto to get away from the requirement to be tied to a municipal fuel
supply. Like Otto, it took more than a decade to produce the high compression engine that
could self-ignite fuel sprayed into the cylinder. Diesel used an air spray combined with fuel in
his first engine.
During initial development, one of the engines burst nearly killing him. He persisted and finally
created an engine in 1893. The high compression engine, which ignites its fuel by the heat of
compression is now called the Diesel engine whether a four-stroke or two-stroke design.

The four-stroke diesel engine has been used in the majority of heavy duty applications for many
decades. It uses a heavy fuel containing more energy and requiring less refinement to produce.
The most efficient Otto Cycle engines run near 30% efficiency.

Thermodynamic Analysis
The idealized four-stroke Otto cycle p-V diagram: the intake (A) stroke is performed by an
isobaric expansion, followed by the compression (B) stroke, performed by an adiabatic
compression. Through the combustion of fuel an isochoric process is produced, followed by an
adiabatic expansion, characterizing the power (C) stroke. The cycle is closed by an isochoric
process and an isobaric compression, characterizing the exhaust (D) stroke.

The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles is not a simple task.
However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if air standard assumptions[5] are utilized.
The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the Otto cycle.

During the normal operation of the engine as the fuel mixture is being compressed an electric
arc is created to ignite the fuel. At low rpm this occurs close to TDC (Top Dead Centre). As
engine rpm rises the spark point is moved earlier in the cycle so that the fuel charge can be
ignited while it is still being compressed. We can see this advantage reflected in the various
Otto engines designs. The atmospheric (non-compression) engine operated at 12% efficiency.
The compressed charge engine had an operating efficiency of 30%.
Fuel Considerations:
The problem with compressed charge engines is that the temperature rise of the compressed
charge can cause pre-ignition. If this occurs at the wrong time and is too energetic, it can
damage the engine. Different fractions of petroleum have widely varying flash points (the
temperatures at which the fuel may self-ignite). This must be taken into account in engine and
fuel design.

The tendency for the compressed fuel mixture to ignite early is limited by the chemical
composition of the fuel. There are several grades of fuel to accommodate differing
performance levels of engines. The fuel is altered to change its self ignition temperature. There
are several ways to do this. As engines are designed with higher compression ratios the result is
that pre-ignition is much more likely to occur since the fuel mixture is compressed to a higher
temperature prior to deliberate ignition. The higher temperature more effectively evaporates
fuels such as gasoline, which increases the efficiency of the compression engine. Higher
Compression ratios also mean that the distance that the piston can push to produce power is
greater (which is called the Expansion ratio).
The octane rating of a given fuel is a measure of the fuel's resistance to self-ignition. A fuel with
a higher numerical octane rating allows for a higher compression ratio, which extracts more
energy from the fuel and more effectively converts that energy into useful work while at the
same time preventing engine damage from pre-ignition. High Octane fuel is also more
expensive.

Diesel engines by their nature do not have concerns with pre-ignition. They have a concern with
whether or not combustion can be started. The description of how likely Diesel fuel is to ignite
is called the Cetane rating. Because Diesel fuels are of low volatility, they can be very hard to
start when cold. Various techniques are used to start a cold Diesel engine, the most common
being the use of a glow plug.

Design and engineering principles

Power output limitations

The four-stroke cycle

1=TDC

2=BDC

A: Intake

B: Compression

C: Power

D: Exhaust

The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum

amount of air ingested. The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size
(cylinder volume), whether it is a two-stroke or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency, losses,
air-to-fuel ratio, the calorific value of the fuel, oxygen content of the air and speed (RPM). The
speed is ultimately limited by material strength and lubrication. Valves, pistons and connecting
rods suffer severe acceleration forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston ring
flutter can occur, resulting in power loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs
when the rings oscillate vertically within the piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter
compromises the seal between the ring and the cylinder wall, which causes a loss of cylinder
pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve springs cannot act quickly enough to
close the valves. This is commonly referred to as 'valve float', and it can result in piston to valve
contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder wall
interface tends to break down. This limits the piston speed for industrial engines to about 10
m/s.

Intake/exhaust port flow

The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and
exhaust matter to move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head. To
increase an engine's output power, irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as
casting flaws, can be removed, and, with the aid of an air flow bench, the radii of valve port
turns and valve seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This process is called
porting, and it can be done by hand or with a CNC machine

Supercharging
One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can
be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression
device known as a supercharger, which can be powered by the engine crankshaft.
Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its
displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been
designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed).
Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used
to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has
been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only
expanded in one stage.

Turbocharging
A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a
turbine. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses
the intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.

When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small
exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally
aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle
opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spin up' the turbocharger's
turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the intake manifold.

Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust
pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as
turbo lag. The increased engine power is not immediately available due to the need to sharply
increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to
do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins
the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty is
that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the
mechanical parts of the engine.

Rod and piston-to-stroke ratio

The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the
piston stroke. A longer rod reduces sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the
stress forces, increasing engine life. It also increases the cost and engine height and weight.

A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where
the bore diameter is larger than its stroke length is an oversquare engine, conversely, an engine
with a bore diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an undersquare engine.
Valve train
The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft. It
has a series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part
of an intake or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and cam is a contact surface on which
the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines use one or more camshafts “above” a row (or
each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in which each cam directly actuates a valve through
a flat tappet. In other engine designs the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which case each cam
contacts a push rod, which contacts a rocker arm that opens a valve. The overhead cam design
typically allows higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam
and valve.

Valve clearance
Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that
the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment, excessive clearance
causes noise from the valve train. A too small valve clearance can result in the valves not closing
properly, this results in a loss of performance and possibly overheating of exhaust valves.
Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.

Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve
train component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF IC ENGINES:

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two revolutions of the
crankshaft. These are respectively, the suction, compression, power and exhaust strokes. In Fig.
3, the piston is shown descending on its suction stroke. Only pure air is drawn into the cylinder
during this stroke through the inlet valve, whereas, the exhaust valve is closed. These valves can
be operated by the cam, push rod and rocker arm. The next stroke is the compression stroke in
which the piston moves up with both the valves remaining closed. The air, which has been
drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke, is progressively compressed as the piston
ascends. The compression ratio usually varies from 14:1 to 22:1. The pressure at the end of the
compression stroke ranges from 30 to 45 kg/cm2. As the air is progressively compressed in the
cylinder, its temperature increases, until when near the end of the compression stroke, it
becomes sufficiently high (650-80O oC) to instantly ignite any fuel that is injected into the
cylinder. When the piston is near the top of its compression stroke, a liquid hydrocarbon fuel,
such as diesel oil, is sprayed into the combustion chamber under high pressure (140-160
kg/cm2), higher than that existing in the cylinder itself. This fuel then ignites, being burnt with
the oxygen of the highly compressed air.
During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its compression stroke and
commences to return on its third consecutive stroke, viz., power stroke. During this stroke the
hot products of combustion consisting chiefly of carbon dioxide, together with the nitrogen left
from the compressed air expand, thus forcing the piston downward. This is only the working
stroke of the cylinder.
During the power stroke the pressure falls from its maximum combustion value (47-55 kg/cm2),
which is usually higher than the greater value of the compression pressure (45 kg/cm2), to
about 3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve then opens, usually a little
earlier than when the piston reaches its lowest point of travel. The exhaust gases are swept out
on the following upward stroke of the piston. The exhaust valve remains open throughout the
whole stroke and closes at the top of the stroke. The reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and
crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates in the main bearings, which are set in the crankcase. The
flywheel is fitted on the crankshaft in order to smoothen out the uneven torque that is
generated in the reciprocating engine.

Principle of four-stroke engine

FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and partially vaporized in a
carburettor (Fig. 5). The mixture is then sucked into the cylinder. There it is compressed by
the upward movement of the piston and is ignited by an electric spark. When the mixture is
burned, the resulting heat causes the gases to expand. The expanding gases exert a pressure
on the piston (power stroke). The exhaust gases escape in the next upward movement of the
piston. The strokes are similar to those discussed under four-stroke diesel engines. The
various temperatures and pressures are shown in Fig. 6. The compression ratio varies from
4:1 to 8:1 and the air-fuel mixture from 10:1 to 20:1.
 Principle of operation of four-stroke petrol engine

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TWO-STROKE CYCLE OVER

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
Advantages:

1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of the
crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine speed and cylinder
volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one working stroke for
every two revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because of poor scavenging,
only 50-60% extra power is developed.

2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning moment on
the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine requires a lighter flywheel.

3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is much simpler
and their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.

4) The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and exhaust strokes is
saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.

5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve mechanism, the
mechanical efficiency is higher.

6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.

7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less space than a
four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in small machines and
motorcycles.

8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed especially when the
crankcase compression is used.

9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.

10) A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.

Disadvantages:

1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of the charges
takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.

2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication system and
normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as efrective as the lubrication of a
four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to greater
wear and tear.

3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the exhaust.
Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.

4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat
produced.At the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at light loads.

5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat generated.

6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression starts
only after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the compression
ratio of this engine is lower than that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions.
As the efficiency of an engine is directly proportional to its compression ratio, the
efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is lower than that of a four-stroke cycle engine
of the same size.
 Steering
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow a vessel (ship, boat) or
vehicle (car, motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail
transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches (and also known as
'points' in British English) provide the steering function.
Introduction
The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a hand–operated
steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the steering column, which may
contain universal joints (which may also be part of the collapsible steering column design), to
allow it to deviate somewhat from a straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on
different types of vehicles, for example, a tiller or rear–wheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as
bulldozers and tanks usually employ differential steering — that is, the tracks are made to move
at different speeds or even in opposite directions, using clutches and brakes, to bring about a
change of course or direction.

Wheeled vehicle steering

The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions. This
is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental
concepts is that of caster angle – each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel;
this makes the steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction of travel.

The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a
variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner
wheel is actually travelling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of
toe suitable for driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make
with the vertical plane also influences steering dynamics (see camber angle) as do the tires.
Rack and pinion, recirculating ball, worm and sector
Rack and pinion steering mechanism: 1 Steering wheel; 2 Steering column; 3 Rack and pinion; 4
Tie rod; 5 Kingpin

Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car chassis. For most high
volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side of this panel

Steering box of a motor vehicle, the traditional (non-assisted), you may notice that the system
allows you to adjust the braking and steering systems, you can also see the attachment system
to the frame.

Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering wheel turns
the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion,
converting circular motion into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side
motion). This motion applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced
previously used kingpins of the stub axle of the steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever
arm called the steering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct steering
"feel". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash,
the only cure is replacement.
Older designs often use the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and
utility vehicles. This is a variation on the older worm and sector design; the steering column
turns a large screw (the "worm gear") which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate
about its axis as the worm gear is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the
Pitman arm, which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The
recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball
bearings between the teeth of the worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus
the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box which connects
them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are "recirculated".

The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage,
so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited
to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering, however,
this is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on
newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center,
where a minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering
apparatus; this is easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for
wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated because it will create excessive internal forces at
other positions and the mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and
other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than
robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go-
karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bellcrank (also commonly known as a
Pitman arm) attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use
of cable-operated steering linkages (e.g. the Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found
on some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.

Power steering
Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of the its power to assist
in swiveling the steered roadwheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier
and switched to front wheel drive, particularly using negative offset geometry, along with
increases in tire width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering
axis has increased, often to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it
not for power assistance. To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems:
or more correctly power-assisted steering—on road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical
linkage as a fail safe. There are two types of power steering systems; hydraulic and
electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible.

A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to
assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric power steering (EPS) is more efficient
than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only needs to
provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run
constantly. In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed,
and even driver preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed
by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not
lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine
stops, making the steering doubly heavy as the driver must now turn not only the very heavy
steering—without any help—but also the power-assistance system itself.

Speed Sensitive Steering

An outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily
assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers perceive that
motorists might need to make large steering inputs while manoeuvering for parking, but not
while traveling at high speed. The first vehicle with this feature was the Citroën SM with its
Diravi layout[citation needed], although rather than altering the amount of assistance as in
modern power steering systems, it altered the pressure on a centring cam which made the
steering wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead position. Modern speed-sensitive
power steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical assistance as the vehicle speed
increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming more common.
 BRAKE
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object or
preventing its motion. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the
kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may
be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical
energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use
magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which
is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different
forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as
the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a
combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a
parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K=mv^2/2), an object moving at 10
m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently
the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In
practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly
with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts
may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes
on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in
flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some
fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe
speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the
deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking
then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their
engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston
pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it
is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel
down.

Types
Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake
may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create
friction:

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes,
using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction
in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean
pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use
friction.

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating
wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a
rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside
of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible;
and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations
are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to
the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco
Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes
that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally.

Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example,
an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal
pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a
Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can
be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the
machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a
generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric
railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a
resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already
have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with
an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-
mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are
often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).
Characteristics
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The
peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause
a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be
dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous
power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are
inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake
force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes
without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and
leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.

Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force
leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion
of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a
brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower
(worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a
function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and
other factors.

Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of
the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under
braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake
condition.

Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be
tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.
 Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in
some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support
structure.

Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.

Brake boost
Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force
applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is supplied by the
manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine.
This force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference
between ambient air pressure and manifold (absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore
available vacuum is diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver
takes the right foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is
used.

Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied
by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine, having an open
throttle, is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is
exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically
downshift upon application of the brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the
driven-wheels in contact with the road surface.

AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND WIRING

Identify charging, starting, ignition, and accessory-circuit components, their functions, and
maintenance procedures. Identify the basic types of automotive wiring, types of terminals, and
wiring diagrams. The electrical systems on equipment used by the Navy are designed to perform
a variety of functions. The automotive electrical system contains five electrical circuits.

These circuits are as follows :

Charging circuit
Starting circuit
Ignition circuit
Lighting circuit
Accessory circuit

Electrical power and control signals must be delivered to electrical devices reliably and safely so
electrical system functions are not impaired or converted to hazards. This goal is accomplished
through careful circuit design, prudent component selection, and practical equipment location.
By carefully studying this chapter and the preceding chapter, you will understand how these
circuits work and the adjustments and repairs required to maintain the electrical systems in peak
condition.

CHARGING CIRCUIT
Learning Objective: Identify charging-circuit components, their functions, and maintenance
procedures. The charging system performs several functions, which are as follows:

It recharges the battery after engine cranking or after the use of electrical accessories with the
engine turned off. It supplies all the electricity for the vehicle when the engine is running. It must
change output to meet different electrical loads. It provides a voltage output that is slightly
higher than battery voltage. A typical charging circuit consists of the following:

BATTERY- provides current to energize or excite the alternator and assists in stabilizing initial
alternator output.

ALTERNATOR or GENERATOR- uses mechanical (engine) power to produce electricity.

ALTERNATOR BELT- links the engine crankshaft pulley with alternator/ generator pulley to
drive the alternator/ generator.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR- ammeter, voltmeter, or warning light to inform the operator of
charging system condition.

STORAGE BATTERY
The storage battery is the heart of the charging circuit . It is an electrochemical device for
producing and storing electricity. A vehicle battery has several important functions, which are as
follows: It must operate the starting motor, ignition system, electronic fuel injection system, and
other electrical devices for the engine during engine cranking and starting. It must supply ALL of
the electrical power for the vehicle when the engine is not running.

GENERATORS
The generator is a machine that applies the principle of electromagnetic induction to convert
mechanical energy, supplied by the engine, into electrical energy. The generator restores to the
battery the energy that has been used up in cranking the engine. Whether the energy required for
the rest of the electrical system is supplied directly by the generator, by the battery, or by a
combination of both depends on the conditions under which the generator is operating.

The two types of generators are as follows:

The dc generator supplies electrical energy directly to the battery and or electrical system
through various regulating devices. The ac generator (alternator) has the same function as the dc
generator but because only direct current can be used to charge a battery, a component, called a
rectifier, must be used to convert from alternating to direct current.

Schematic wiring diagram of a typical dc charging circuit.

ALTERNATORS
The alternator (fig. 2-21) has replaced the dc generator because of its improved efficiency. It is
smaller, lighter, and more dependable than the dc generator. The alternator also produces more
output during idle which makes it ideal for late model vehicles.

The alternator has a spinning magnetic field. The output windings (stator) are stationary. As the
magnetic field rotates, it induces current in the output windings.

Alternator Construction
Knowledge of the construction of an alternator is required before you can understand the proper
operation, testing procedures, and repair procedures applicable to an alternator.
 Typical alternator.

ALTERNATOR OUTPUT CONTROL

A voltage regulator controls alternator output by changing the amount of current flow through
the rotor windings. Any change in rotor winding current changes the strength of the magnetic
field acting on the stator windings. In this way, the voltage regulator can maintain a preset
charging voltage.

The three basic types of voltage regulators are as follows:

Contact point voltage regulator, mounted away from the alternator in the engine compartment
Electronic voltage regulator, mounted away from the alternator in the engine compartment
Electronic voltage regulator, mounted on the back or inside the alternator The contact point
voltage regulator uses a coil, set of points, and resistors that limits system voltage. The electronic
or solid-state regulators have replaced this older type. For operation, refer to the "Regulation of
Generator Output" section of this chapter.

The electronic voltage regulators use an electronic circuit to control rotor field strength and
alternator output. It is a sealed unit and is not repairable. The electronic circuit must be sealed to
prevent damage from moisture, excessive heat, and vibration. A rubber like gel surrounds the
circuit for protection.

An integral voltage regulator is mounted inside or on the rear of the alternator. This is the most
common type used on modern vehicles. It is small, efficient, dependable, and composed of
integrated circuits. An electronic voltage regulator performs the same operation as a contact
point regulator, except that it uses transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors to regulate voltage
in the system. To increase alternator output, the electronic voltage regulator allows more current
into the rotor windings, thereby strengthen the magnetic field around the rotor. More current is
then induced into the stator windings and out of the alternator.

To reduce alternator output, the electronic regulator increases the resistance between the battery
and the rotor windings. The magnetic field decreases and less current is induced into the stator
windings. Alternator speed and load determines whether the regulator increases or decreases
charging output. If the load is high or rotor speed is low (engine at idle), the regulator senses a
drop in system voltage. The regulator then increases the rotors magnetic field current until a
preset output voltage is obtained. If the load drops or rotor speed increases, the opposite occurs.

STARTING CIRCUIT
Learning Objective: Identify starting-circuit components, their function, operation, and
maintenance procedures. The internal combustion engine is not capable of self-starting.
Automotive engines (both spark-ignition and diesel) are cranked by a small but powerful electric
motor.

This motor is called a cranking motor, starting motor, or starter. The battery sends current to the
starter when the operator turns the ignition switch to start. This causes a pinion gear in the starter
to mesh with the teeth of the ring gear, thereby rotating the engine crankshaft for starting. The
typical starting circuit consists of the battery, the starter motor and drive mechanism, the ignition
switch, the starter relay or solenoid, a neutral safety switch (automatic transmissions), and the
wiring to connect these components.

STARTER MOTOR

The starting motor converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical or rotating energy
to crank the engine. The main difference between an electric starting motor and an electric
generator is that in a generator, rotation of the armature in a magnetic field produces voltage. In a
motor, current is sent through the armature and the field; the attraction and repulsion between the
magnetic poles of the field and armature coil alternately push and pull the armature around. This
rotation (mechanical energy), when properly connected to the flywheel of an engine, causes the
engine crankshaft to turn.

Starting Motor Construction

The construction of the all starting motors is very similar. There are, however, slight design
variations. The main parts of a starting motor are as follows:

ARMATURE ASSEMBLY- The windings, core, starter shaft, and commutator assembly that
spin inside a stationary field.
COMMUTATOR END FRAME- The end housing for the brushes, brush springs, and shaft
bushings.

PINION DRIVE ASSEMBLY- The pinion gear, pinion drive mechanism, and solenoid.

FIELD FRAME- The center housing that holds the field coils and pole shoes.

DRIVE END FRAME- The end housing around the pinion gear, which has a bushing for the
armature shaft.

ARMATURE ASSEMBLY.- The armature assembly consists of an armature shaft, armature

core, commutator, and armature windings. The armature shaft supports the armature assembly as
it spins inside the starter housing. The armature core is made of iron and holds the armature
windings in place. The iron increases the magnetic field strength of the windings.

The commutator serves as a sliding electrical connection between the motor windings and the
brushes and is mounted on one end of the armature shaft. The commutator has many segments
that are insulated from each other. As the windings rotate away from the pole shoe (piece), the
commutator segments change the electrical connection between the brushes and the windings.
This action reverses the magnetic field around the windings. The constant changing electrical
connection at the windings keeps the motor spinning.

IGNITION COIL
The ignition coil (fig. 2-44) produces the high voltage required to make current jump the gap at
the spark plugs. It is a pulse type transformer capable of producing a short burst of high voltage
for starting combustion. The ignition coil is made of two sets of windings (primary and
secondary), two primary terminals (low voltage connections), an iron core (long piece of iron
inside the windings), and a high voltage terminal (coil wire connection).

The primary winding is the outer winding and is made up of several hundred turns of heavy wire,
wrapped around or near the secondary winding. The secondary winding is the inner winding and
is made up of several thousand turns of heavy wire located inside or near the primary winding.
The secondary windings are wound in the opposite direction of the primary, and the ends are
attached internally to the primary windings and the high voltage terminal. Both windings are
wrapped around an iron core and are housed inside the coil case.

To obtain the high current required for ignition, battery current flows through the ignition coil
primary windings producing a strong magnetic field. The action of the iron core strengthens the
magnetic field.

Ignition switch and positions.

 Sectional view of an ignition coil.

When the current flowing through the coil is broken (the primary circuit is opened), the magnetic
field collapses across the secondary windings. As the magnetic field collapses, a high electrical
voltage is induced into the secondary circuit. Since both the primary and secondary windings of
the coil are stationary, some means other than movement of the windings must be found to
change the magnetic field surrounding the coils. In practice, a switching device in the primary
circuit creates this effect. There are two common methods to break current flow and fire the coil
mechanical contact points or an electronic switching device.

SPARK PLUG
The spark plug consists of a porcelain insulator in which there is an insulated electrode supported
by a metal shell with a grounded electrode. They have a simple purpose of supplying a fixed gap
in the cylinder across which the high voltage surges from the coil must jump after passing
through the distributor.

The spark plugs use ignition coil high voltage to ignite the fuel mixture. Somewhere between
4,000 and 10,000 volts are required to make current jump the gap at the plug electrodes. This is
much lower than the output potential of the coil. Spark plug gap is the distance between the
center and side electrodes. Normal gap specifications range between .030 to .060 inch. Smaller
spark plugs gaps are used on older vehicles equipped with contact point ignition systems. Spark
plugs are either resistor or non-resistor types (fig. 2-46). A resistor spark plug has internal
resistance (approximately 10,000 ohms) designed to reduce the static in radios. Most new
vehicles require resistortype plugs. Non-resistor spark plug has a solid metal rod forming the
center electrode. This type of spark plugs is NOTcommonly used except for racing and off-road
vehicles.

Sectional view of a (A) non-resistor and (B) resistor spark plug.

LIGHTING CIRCUIT

Identify lighting-circuit components, their functions, and maintenance procedures. The lighting
circuit (fig. 2-54) includes the battery, vehicle frame, all the lights, and various switches that
control their use. The lighting circuit is known as a single-wire system since it uses the vehicle
frame for the return. The complete lighting circuit of a vehicle can be broken down into
individual circuits, each having one or more lights and switches. In each separate circuit, the
lights are connected in parallel, and the controlling switch is in series between the group of lights
and the battery.
The marker lights, for example, are connected in parallel and are controlled by a single switch. In
some installations, one switch controls the connections to the battery, while a selector switch
determines which of two circuits is energized. The headlights, with their high and low beams, are
an example of this type of circuit. In some instances, such as the courtesy lights, several switches
may be connected in parallel so that any switch may be used to turn on the light. When a wiring
diagram is being studied, all light circuits can be traced from the battery through the ammeter to
the switch (or switches) to the individual light.

Lamp construction and configurations.

WIRE SUPPORT AND PROTECTION
Wire in the electrical system should be supported by clamps or fastened by wire ties at various
points about the vehicle. When installing new wiring, be sure to keep it away from any heat-
producing component that would scorch or bum the insulation.

CONCLUSION
Thus we successfully complete the engine section , steering system, brake and electrical
system in the minor part of our project and later we do the next in our major project.