Por Que Nada Funciona - Antropo - Marvin Harris

A GRAMMAR OF
MODERN
INDO-EUROPEAN
Second Edition
Language and Culture
Writing System and Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Texts and Dictionary
Etymology
DNGHU Carlos Quiles
with Fernando López-Menchero

Version 4 (10/2009)
Copyright © 2007-2009 Asociación Cultural Dnghu.
© 2006-2009 Carlos Quiles Casas.
With contributions by Fernando López-Menchero Díez, M.Phil. in IE studies © 2007-2009.
Printed in the European Union.
Published by the Indo-European Language Association.
Edition Managed by Imcrea Diseño Editorial ® at <http://www.imcrea.com/>.
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cover texts), see <http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html>.
All images are licensed under the same Dual Licence, most of them coming from Dnghu’s website
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Modern Indo-European, which in turn may have copied content from the English Wikipedia and other
online and collaborative sources.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors
assume no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the
information contained herein.
For corrections, translations and newer versions of this free (e)book, please visit
<http://dnghu.org/en/Indo-European grammar/>.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... 3
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................... 9
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.............................................................................................. 11

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION................................................................................................. 15
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. 17
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK........................................................................................... 18
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 23
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY .........................................................................23

1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS ......................................................................................................... 26
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES................................................................................. 29
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT OR ‘HOMELAND’ ............................................... 37
1.5. OTHER LINGUISTIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORIES .......................................................45
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES ............................................................................. 48
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS .............................................................................................. 50
Schleicher’s Fable: From PIE to Modern English .......................................................... 50
1.7.1. Northern Indo-European dialects........................................................................... 53
1.7.2. Southern Indo-European Dialects ..........................................................................78
1.7.3. Other Indo-European Dialects of Europe ............................................................. 88
1.7.4. Anatolian Languages ............................................................................................. 98
1.8. MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN .............................................................................................. 102
2. LETTERS AND SOUNDS ................................................................................................... 109
2.1 THE ALPHABETS OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN................................................................ 109

A. Vowels and Vocalic Allophones.................................................................................. 109
B. Consonants and Consonantal Sounds ....................................................................... 110
2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS ............................................................................................ 112
2.3. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS .................................................................................................117
2.4. SYLLABLES....................................................................................................................... 119
2.5. QUANTITY........................................................................................................................ 121
A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
2.6. ACCENT ...........................................................................................................................122

2.7. VOWEL CHANGE...............................................................................................................123
2.8. CONSONANT CHANGE ......................................................................................................124
2.9. PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 126
2.10. KINDRED FORMS........................................................................................................... 128
3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS ......................................................................................... 129
3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH .................................................................................................... 129

3.2. INFLECTION .................................................................................................................... 130
3.3. ROOT, STEM AND BASE .................................................................................................... 131
3.4. GENDER ...........................................................................................................................133
3.5. GENERAL RULES OF GENDER ........................................................................................... 135
3.6. VOWEL GRADE ................................................................................................................. 137
3.7. WORD FORMATION ..........................................................................................................139
3.8. COMPOUND WORDS .........................................................................................................142
3.9. NAMES OF PERSONS .........................................................................................................143
4. NOUNS ..................................................................................................................................... 145
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ...................................................................................................145

4.2. FIRST DECLENSION ......................................................................................................... 148
4.2.1. First Declension Paradigm................................................................................... 148
4.2.2. First Declension in Examples .............................................................................. 149
4.2.3. The Plural in the First Declension ....................................................................... 150
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION ...................................................................................................... 151
4.3.1. Second Declension Paradigm................................................................................ 151
4.3.2. Second Declension in Examples ........................................................................... 152
4.5.3. The Plural in the Second Declension .................................................................... 153
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION.........................................................................................................154
4.4.1. Third Declension Paradigm ..................................................................................154
4.4.2. In i, u ....................................................................................................................... 155
4.4.3. In Diphthong ..........................................................................................................156
4.4.4. The Plural in the Third Declension ....................................................................... 157
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION ......................................................................................................159
Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

Table of Contents
4.5.1. Fourth Declension Paradigm ................................................................................ 159

4.5.2. In Occlusive, m, l ................................................................................................... 160
4.5.3. In r, n, s .................................................................................................................. 161
4.5.4. The Plural in the Fourth Declension .................................................................... 162
4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS ............................................................................................................ 162
4.7. VOCALISM BEFORE THE DECLENSION............................................................................... 163
4.8. VOCALISM IN THE PLURAL ............................................................................................... 165
4.9. ACCENT IN DECLENSION .................................................................................................. 166
5. ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 169
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES ............................................................................................. 169

5.2. THE MOTION ................................................................................................................... 169
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALIZATION .............................................................................................171
5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ...........................................................................................171
5.5. NUMERALS ...................................................................................................................... 173
5.5.1. Classification of Numerals .................................................................................... 173
5.5.2. Cardinals and Ordinals ........................................................................................ 173
5.5.3. Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals ................................................................. 176
5.5.4. Distributives........................................................................................................... 178
5.5.5. Numeral Adverbs .................................................................................................. 179
5.5.6. Multiplicatives ....................................................................................................... 179
6. PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................................... 181
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS .................................................................................................... 181

6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS ..................................................................................................... 181
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS .................................................................................................... 183
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ................................................................................................... 184
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS ................................................................................................... 185
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS .......................................................................................... 185
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS .................................................................. 187
6.7.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 187
6.7.2. Compounds ............................................................................................................ 189
6.7.3. Correlatives............................................................................................................ 190
5
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS ...................................................................................................... 191

6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS ......................................................................................................... 192
7. VERBS ...................................................................................................................................... 193
7.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................193
7.1.1. Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number ....................................................................193
7.1.2. Noun and Adjective Forms ....................................................................................195
7.1.3. Voices....................................................................................................................... 197
7.1.4. Moods ..................................................................................................................... 198
7.1.5. Tenses of the Finite Verb ....................................................................................... 199
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB .......................................................................................................200
7.2.1. The Verbal Stems ...................................................................................................200
7.2.2. Verb-Endings ........................................................................................................ 201
7.2.3. The Thematic Vowel ............................................................................................. 205
7.2.4. Verb Creation ........................................................................................................ 206
7.2.5. Separable Verbs .................................................................................................... 209
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS ....................................................................................................... 209
7.4. THE FOUR STEMS.............................................................................................................214
7.5. MOOD STEMS .................................................................................................................. 233
7.6. THE VOICE ...................................................................................................................... 236
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS ........................................................................................ 237
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES ................................................................................................ 242
7.8.1. Thematic Verbs ...................................................................................................... 242
7.8.2. Athematic Inflection ............................................................................................. 248
7.8.3. Other Common PIE Stems ................................................................................... 254
7.9. The Verbal Accent .................................................................................................... 256
8. PARTICLES ............................................................................................................................ 257
8.1. PARTICLES ...................................................................................................................... 257

8.2. ADVERBS ........................................................................................................................ 258
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS ............................................................................................... 259
8.4. PREPOSITIONS ................................................................................................................ 260
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS............................................................................................................... 262

Table of Contents
9. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN SYNTAX ........................................................................... 265
9.1. THE SENTENCE ............................................................................................................... 265

9.1.1. Kinds of Sentences ................................................................................................. 266
9.1.2. Nominal Sentence ..................................................................................................267
9.1.3. Verbal Sentence .................................................................................................... 269
9.2. MORPHOSYNTAX .............................................................................................................272
9.2.1. Verbal Morphosyntax ........................................................................................... 272
9.2.2. Nominal Morphosyntax ....................................................................................... 281
9.3. SENTENCE MODIFIERS ................................................................................................... 294
9.3.1. Intonation Patterns .............................................................................................. 294
9.3.2. Sentence Delimiting Particles ............................................................................. 296
9.4. VERBAL MODIFIERS ........................................................................................................297
9.4.1. Declarative Sentences ...........................................................................................297
9.4.2. Interrogative Sentences ....................................................................................... 298
9.4.3. Negative Sentences .............................................................................................. 300
9.5. NOMINAL MODIFIERS ...................................................................................................... 301
9.5.1. Adjective and Genitive Constructions .................................................................. 301
9.5.2. Compounds. .......................................................................................................... 302
9.5.3. Determiners in Nominal Phrases. ....................................................................... 305
9.5.4. Apposition ............................................................................................................. 308
9.6. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES................................................................ 309
9.6.1. Coordination. ........................................................................................................ 309
9.6.2. Complementation. ................................................................................................. 312
9.6.3. Subordinate Clauses. ............................................................................................ 314
9.7. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES .................................................................................................. 319
9.7.1. Particles as Syntactic Means of Expression ........................................................ 319
9.7.2. Marked Order in Sentences. ................................................................................ 323
9.7.3. Topicalization with Reference to Emphasis. ...................................................... 324
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE ....................................................................... 325
I.1. TEXTS TRANSLATED INTO MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN.......................................................325

I.1.1. Pater Nos (Lord’s Prayer) ......................................................................................325
7
I.1.2. Slwēje Marijā (Hail Mary) ................................................................................... 326

I.1.3. Kréddhēmi (Nicene Creed) .................................................................................... 326
I.1.4. Noudós sūnús (Parable of the Prodigal Son)....................................................... 329
I.1.5. Newos Bheidhos (New Testament) – Jōhanēs, 1, 1-14 ........................................ 333
I.2 KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION) ...................................................................................... 336
I.3 LATE PIE LEXICON ........................................................................................................... 339
I.3.1. English - PIE Dictionary ....................................................................................... 339
I.3.2. PIE - English Dictionary ....................................................................................... 379
APPENDIX II: PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN PHONOLOGY........................................ 455
II.1. DORSALS: THE PALATOVELAR QUESTION ....................................................................... 455

II.2. PHONETIC RECONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................ 460
II.2.1. Proto-Indo-European Sound Laws..................................................................... 460
II.2.2. Consonants ........................................................................................................... 469
II.1.3. Vowels and syllabic consonants.......................................................................... 472
II.3. THE LARYNGEAL THEORY .............................................................................................. 475
Laryngeals in morphology............................................................................................. 485
Pronunciation.................................................................................................................. 487
APPENDIX III: ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES....................................................................... 489
III.1. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN VOCABULARY ........................................................................ 489

III.2. INDEFINITE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.......................................... 803
III.2.1. Indefinite Pronouns ............................................................................................ 803
III.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns ................................................................................... 804
III.2.3. Personal Pronouns ............................................................................................. 804
III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS AND SUFFIXES .............................. 809
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING ................................................................ 819

PREFACE
This second edition of A Grammar of Modern Indo-European is a renewed effort to

systematize the reconstructed phonology and morphology of Europe’s Indo-European.
Modern Indo-European is common to most Europeans, and not only to some of them,
as Latin, Germanic, or Slavic. Unlike Lingua Ignota, Solresol, Volapük, Esperanto,
Quenya, Klingon, Lojban and the thousand invented languages which are imagined by
individuals daily, PIE dialects are natural, i.e. they evolved from an older language –
Proto-Indo-European, of which we have extensive knowledge –, and were spoken by
prehistoric communities at some time roughly between 2500 and 2000 BC, having
themselves evolved into different dialects already by 2000 BC.
Proto-Indo-European and its dialects have been reconstructed in the past two centuries
(more or less successfully) by hundreds of linguists, having obtained a rough
phonological, morphological, and syntactical system, equivalent to what Jews had of Old
Hebrew before reconstructing a system for its modern use in Israel. Instead of some
inscriptions and oral transmitted tales for the language to be revived, we have a complete
reconstructed grammatical system, as well as hundreds of living languages to be used as
examples to revive a common Modern Indo-European.
Some known philologists, university professors, experts in Classical Languages, still

consider the Proto-Indo-European language reconstruction an “invention”; also, Spanish
Indo-Europeanist Bernabé, a brilliant Spanish IE professor, has left its work on IE
studies to dedicate himself to “something more serious”. Francisco Villar, professor of
Greek and Latin at the University of Salamanca, deems a complete reconstruction of PIE
“impossible”; his opinion is not rare, since he supports the glottalic theory and the
Armenian Homeland hypothesis (against the view of the majority), and supports the use
of Latin instead of English within the EU. The work of Elst, Talageri and others
defending the ‘Indigenous Indo-Aryan’ viewpoint by N. Kazanas, and their support of an
unreconstructible and hypothetical PIE nearest to Vedic Sanskrit opens still more the
gap between the mainstream reconstruction and minority views supported by political or
personal opinions. Also, among convinced Indo-Europeanists, there seems to be no
possible consensus between the different ‘schools’ as to whether Common PIE
distinguished between ŏ and ă (as Gk., Lat. or Cel.) or if those vowels were all initial ă, as
in the other attested dialects (Villar), or if the Preterites were only one tense (as Latin
praeteritum) with different formations, or if there were actually an Aorist and a Perfect.
Furthermore, José Antonio Pascual, a member of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE),
considers that “it is not necessary to be a great sociologist to know that 500 million
people won’t agree to adopt Modern Indo-European in the EU” (Spa. journal El Mundo,
8th April 2007). Of course not, as they won’t agree on any possible question – not even on
using English, which we use in fact –, and still the national and EU’s Institutions keep
working, adopting decisions by majorities, not awaiting consensus for any question. And
it was probably not necessary to be a great sociologist a hundred years ago to see e.g. that
the revival of Hebrew under a modern language system was a utopia (an “impossible”,
“unserious” “invention” then), and that Esperanto, the ‘easy’ and ‘neutral’ IAL, was going
to succeed by their first so-called ‘World Congress’ in 1905. Such learned opinions are
only that, opinions, just as if Hebrew and Semitic experts had been questioned a hundred
years ago about a possible revival of Biblical Hebrew in a hypothetic new Land of Israel.
Whether MIE’s success is more or less probable and why is not really important for our
current work, but hypotheses dealt with by sociology, anthropology, political science,
economics, psychology, etc. or usually just by personal opinions with no strict rational
and reasonable basis. It remains unclear whether the project will be accepted by the
different existing social movements, such as Pan-Latinism, Pan-Americanism, Pan-
Sanskritism, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Iranism, Pan-Slavism, Pan-Hispanism, Francophonie,
Anglospherism, Atlanticism, and the hundred different pan-nationalist ideas, as well as
the different groups supporting anti-globalization, anti-capitalism, anti-communism, etc.
What we do know now is that the idea of reviving Europe’s Indo-European as a modern
language for Europe and international organizations is rational, that it is not something
new, that it doesn’t mean a revolution – as the use of Spanglish, Syndarin or Interlingua
– nor an involution – as regionalism, nationalism, or the come back to French, German
or Latin predominance –, but merely one of the many different ways in which the
European Union linguistic policy could evolve, and maybe one way to unite different
peoples from different cultures, languages and religions (from the Americas to East Asia)
for the sake of stable means of communication. Just that tiny possibility is enough for us

Preface
to “lose” some years trying to give our best making the main Proto-Indo-European
dialects as usable and as known as possible.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
According to Dutch sociologist Abram de Swaan, every language in the world fits into
one of four categories according to the ways it enters into (what he calls) the global
language system.
• Central: About a hundred languages in the world belong here, widely used and
comprising about 95% of humankind.
• Supercentral: Each of these serves to connect speakers of central languages. There
are only twelve supercentral languages, and they are Arabic, Chinese, English,
French, German, Hindi, Japanese, Malay, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish and
Swahili.
• Hypercentral: The lone hypercentral language at present is English. It not only
connects central languages (which is why it is on the previous level) but serves to
connect supercentral languages as well. Both Spanish and Russian are supercentral
languages used by speakers of many languages, but when a Spaniard and a Russian
want to communicate, they will usually do it in English.
• Peripheral: All the thousands of other languages on the globe occupy a peripheral
position because they are hardly or not at all used to connect any other languages.
In other words, they are mostly not perceived as useful in a multilingual situation
and therefore not worth anyone’s effort to learn.
De Swaan points out that the admission of new member states to the European Union
brings with it the addition of more languages, making the polyglot identity of the EU ever
more unwieldy and expensive. On the other hand, it is clearly politically impossible to
settle on a single language for all the EU’s institutions. It has proved easier for the EU to
agree on a common currency than a common language.
Of the EU’s current languages, at least 14 are what we might call a ‘robust’ language,
whose speakers are hardly likely to surrender its rights. Five of them (English, French,
German, Portuguese and Spanish) are supercentral languages that are already widely
used in international communication, and the rest are all central.
11
In the ongoing activity of the EU’s institutions, there are inevitably shortcuts taken -
English, French and German are widely used as ‘working languages’ for informal
discussions. But at the formal level all the EU’s official languages (i.e. the language of
each member state) are declared equal.
Using all these languages is very expensive and highly inefficient. There are now 23
official languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French,
German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish Gaelic, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish,
Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish and Swedish, and three semiofficial (?):
Catalan, Basque and Galician. This means that all official documents must be translated
into all the members’ recognized languages, and representatives of each member state
have a right to expect a speech in their language to be interpreted. And each member
state has the right to hear ongoing proceedings interpreted into its own language.
Since each of the twenty one languages needs to be interpreted/translated into all the
rest of the twenty, 23 x 22 (minus one, because a language doesn’t need to be translated
into itself) comes to a total of 506 combinations (not taking on accound the ‘semiofficial’
languages). So interpreters/translators have to be found for ALL combinations.
In the old Common Market days the costs of using the official languages Dutch,
English, French, and German could be borne, and interpreters and translators could be
readily found. But as each new member is admitted, the costs and practical difficulties
are rapidly becoming intolerably burdensome.
The crucial point here is that each time a new language is added, the total number of
combinations isn’t additive but multiplies: 506 + one language is not 507 but 552, i.e. 24 x 23,
since every language has to be translated/interpreted into all the others (except itself).
It is not hard to see that the celebration of linguistic diversity in the EU only lightly
disguises the logistical nightmare that is developing. The EU is now preparing for more
languages to come: Icelandic and Norwegian might be added in the future, with the
incorporation of these two countries to the EU, as well as Albanian, Macedonian,
Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian (the three formerly known as Serbo-Croatian, but further
differentiated after the Yugoslavian wars) if they are admitted to the EU as expected; and
many other regional languages, following the example of Irish Gaelic, and the three semi-
official Spanish languages: Alsatian, Breton, Corsican, Welsh, Luxemburgish and Sami

Preface
are likely candidates to follow, as well as Scottish Gaelic, Occitan, Low Saxon, Venetian,
Piedmontese, Ligurian, Emilian, Sardinian, Neapolitan, Sicilian, Asturian, Aragonese,
Frisian, Kashubian, Romany, Rusin, and many others, depending on the political
pressure their speakers and cultural communities can put on EU institutions. It will
probably not be long before Turkish, and with it Kurdish (and possibly Armenian,
Aramaic and Georgian), or maybe Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian, are other official
languages, not to talk about the eternal candidates’ languages, Norwegian (in at least two
of its language systems, Bokmål and Nynorsk), Icelandic, Romansh, Monegasque
(Monaco) and Emilian-Romagnolo (San Marino), and this could bring the number of EU
languages over 40. The number of possible combinations are at best above 1000, which
doesn’t seem within the reach of any organization, no matter how well-meaning.
Many EU administrators feel that to a great extent this diversity can be canceled out by
ever-increasing reliance on the computer translation that is already in heavy use. It is
certainly true that if we couldn’t count on computers to do a lot of the translation ‘heavy
lifting’, even the most idealistic administrator would never even dream of saddling an
organization with an enterprise that would quickly absorb a major part of its finances
and energy. But no machine has yet been invented or probably ever will be that is able to
produce a translation without, at the very least, a final editing by a human translator or
interpreter.
The rapidly increasing profusion of languages in the EU is quickly becoming intolerably

clumsy and prohibitively expensive. And this doesn’t even count the additional expense
caused by printing in the Greek alphabet and soon in the Cyrillic (Bulgarian and
Serbian). Everyone agrees that all languages must have their ‘place in the sun’ and their
diversity celebrated. But common sense suggests that the EU is going to be forced to
settle on a very small number of working languages, perhaps only one, and the linguistic
future of the EU has become the subject of intense debate.
Only in public numbers, the EU official translation/interpretation costs amount to

more than 1230 M€, and it comes to more than 13% of today’s administrative
expenditure of the EU institutions. There are also indirect costs of linguistic programmes
aimed at promoting the learning of three or more languages since the Year of Languages
(2001), which also means hundreds of millions of Euros, which haven’t been counted in
13
the EU’s budget as linguistic expenditure, but are usually included in budget sections
such as Cohesion or Citizenship. It is hard to imagine the huge amount of money (real or
potential) lost by EU citizens and companies each day because of communication
problems, not only because they can’t speak a third party’s language, but because they
won’t speak it, even if they can.
Preserving the strict equality is the EU’s lifeblood, and it is a very disturbing thought
that the strongest candidate for a one-language EU is the one with an established
dominance in the world, English, which is actually only spoken by a minority within
Europe. Latin and Artificial languages (as Esperanto, Ido or Interlingua) have been
proposed as alternatives, but neither the first, because it is only related to romance
languages, nor the second, because they are (too) artificial (invented by one person or a
small group at best), solve the linguistic theoretical problems, not to talk about the
practical ones.
The Indo-European language that we present in this work, on the contrary, faces not
only the addressed theoretical problems - mainly related to cultural heritage and
sociopolitical proud - but brings also a practical solution for the European Union,
without which there can be no real integration. European nations are not prepared to
give up some of their powers to a greater political entity, unless they don’t have to give up
some fundamental rights. Among them, the linguistic ones have proven harder to deal
with than it initially expected, as they are raise very strong national or regional feelings.
Indo-European is already the grandmother of the majority of Europeans. The first

language of more than 97% of EU citizens is Indo-European, and the rest can generally
speak at least one of them as second language. Adopting Indo-European as the main
official language for the EU will not mean giving up linguistic rights, but enhancing
them, as every other official language will have then the same status under their common
ancestor; it won’t mean losing the own culture for the sake of unity, but recovering it
altogether for the same purpose; and, above all, it will not mean choosing a lingua franca
to communicate with foreigners within an international organization, but accepting a
National Language to communicate with other nationals within the same country.
NOTE. The above information is mainly copied (literally, adjusted or modified) from two of Mr.
William Z. Shetter Language Miniatures, which he published in his (now dead) website.

Preface
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
This is A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Second Edition, with Modern Indo-

European Language Grammar in Version 4, still adjusting some important linguistic
questions, and lots of minor mistakes, thanks to the contributions of experts and readers.
NOTE. A version number (N) is given to full revisions of the grammar, and each minor
correction published must be given a different number to be later identified, usually ranging from
N.01 to N.99. This book includes a full correction of version 3, following Pre-Version 4, which
means the correction was finished, and it its therefore 4.xx.
“Europe’s Indo-European” version 4 continues “Modern Indo-European” version 3

(first printed edition, since June 2007), and this in turn version 2, which began in March
2007, changing most features of the old “Europaio”/“Sindhueuropaiom” concept of
version 1 (Europaio: A Brief Grammar of the European Language, 2005-2006).
1. Apart from the unified “Modern Indo-European”, based on Europe’s Indo-European

(also residual or North-Western Indo-European, or Proto-European), this grammar
makes reference to other coeval PIE early dialects, especially Proto-Greek, Proto-Indo-
Iranian (or Proto-Aryan) and Common Anatolian.
2. One of the main changes of this version is the adoption of a writing system with a
clear phonological distinction between i, u and their semivocalic allophones j, w. The
artificial distinction of i/j and u/w in PIE roots and derivatives, hold in versions 1-3, was
untenable in the long term, as it was a labile decision, open to future changes. With the
traditional written differentiation we get a greater degree of stability.
3. Emphasis is on the old Latin-only alphabet, but attention is paid to Greek and
Cyrillic writing systems. Stubs of possible Armenian, Arabo-Persian and Devanagari
(Abugida) systems are also included. The objective is not to define them completely (as
with the Latin alphabet), but merely to show other possible writing systems for Modern
Indo-European, Modern Aryan, and Modern Hellenic languages.
4. The traditional distinction in writings of the controversial palatovelar phonemes has
been extensively discussed and rejected. Whether satemization appeared already as a
dialectal phonological trend in Late PIE, or were just similar individual dialectal
innovations restricted to some phonetic environments (k- before some sounds, as with
15
Latin c- before -e and -i), is not important. Reasons for not including the palatovelars in
MIE writing system are 1) that, although possible, their existence is not sufficiently
proven (see Appendix II.2); 2) that their writing because of tradition or even ‘etymology’
is not justified, as this would mean a projective writing (i.e., like writing Lat. casa, but
Lat. ĉentum, because the k-sound before -e and -i evolves differently in Romance).
5. The historically alternating Oblique cases Dative, Locative, Instrumental and

Ablative, are shown on a declension-by-declension (and even pronoun-by-pronoun)
basis, as Late PIE shows in some declensions a simpler reconstructible paradigm (for
some more archaic, for others an innovation) while others show almost the same Late
PIE pattern of four differentiated oblique case-endings. The 8 cases traditionally
reconstructed are used – and its differentiation recommended – in MIE.
5. The so-called Augment in é-, attested almost only in Greek, Indo-Iranian and
Armenian, is sometimes left due to tradition of Indo-European studies, although recent
research has shown that it was neither obligatory, nor general in the earliest PIE dialects.
It is believed today that it was just a prefix that had a great success in the southern
dialects, just like per- (<PIE per-) in Latin, or ga- (<PIE ko-) in Germanic.
6. The syntactical framework of Late PIE has been dealt with extensively by some
authors, but, as the material hasn’t still been summed up and corrected within
mainstream Indo-European linguistics – Indo-Europeanists usually prefer the
phonological or morphological reconstruction –, we use literal paragraphs from possibly
the most thorough work available on PIE syntax, Winfred P. Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-
European Syntax (1974), adding comments and corrections made since its publication by
other scholars
7. The whole section on Morphosyntax is taken from Michael Meier-Brügger’s Indo-

European Linguistics (2003).
8. Appendices I and III were written by Fernando López-Menchero and published

2007-2009. The rest of this book has been written thanks to his countless corrections
and additions in those years.

Preface
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Mayte, my best friend, for her support and encouragement before I worked on this
project, even before she knew what was it all about. For the money and time spent in
lunchtimes, books, websites, servers and material. For her excitement when talking
about the changes that Proto-Indo-European revival could bring to the world’s future.
Thank you.
To Fernando López-Menchero, Civil Engineer and Classic Languages’ Philologist,

expert in Indo-European linguistics, for his invaluable help, revisions, corrections and
innumerable contributions. Without his unending knowledge, this grammar wouldn’t
have shown a correct Proto-Indo-European reconstruction.
To Neil (UK), Michael (PL) Olivier (FR), Louis (FR), Alberto (IT), Diego (ES), Michal
(SK); to Mithridates (CA), Simona (SL), Ófeigur (IS), Manuel (ES); and to all other
members and friends of the Dnghu Association, for their collaboration, contribution, and
promotion of the grammar and revival project.
To Prof. Dr. Luis Fernando de la Macorra, expert in Interregional Economics, and Prof.
Dr. Antonio Muñoz, Vice-Dean of Academic Affairs in the Faculty of Library Science, for
their support in the University Competition and afterwards.
To the University of Extremadura and the Cabinet of Young Initiative, for their prize in
the Entrepreneurial Competition in Imagination Society (2006).
To the Department of Classical Antiquity of the UEx, for their unconditional support to
the project.
To the Regional Government of Extremadura and its public institutions, for their open
support to the Proto-Indo-European language revival.
To Manuel Romero from Imcrea.com Diseño Editorial, for his help with the design and
editorial management of the first printed edition.
17
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK
1. Modern Indo-European (MIE), Eurōpājóm or European are used only to refer to

the European language, i.e. to the modern language system based on the reconstructed
North-West or Europe’s Indo-European (EIE), also Old European proto-language.
2. The roots of the reconstructed PIE language are basic morphemes carrying a lexical
meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences, these
form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs).
NOTE. PIE reconstructed roots are subject to ablaut, and except for a very few cases, such
ultimate roots are fully characterized by its constituent consonants, while the vowel may alternate.
PIE roots as a rule have a single syllabic core, and by ablaut may either be monosyllabic or
unsyllabic. PIE roots may be of the following form (where K is a voiceless stop, G an unaspirated
and Gh an aspirated stop, R a semivowel (r̥, l̥, m̥, n̥, w, j) and H a laryngeal (or s). According to
Meillet, impossible PIE combinations are voiceless/aspirated (as in *teubh or *bheut), as well as
voiced/voiceless (as in *ged or *deg). The following table depicts the general opinion:
stops - K- G- Gh-
- [HR]e[RH] K[R]e[RH] G[R]e[RH] Gh[R]e[RH]
-K [HR]e[RH]K - G[R]e[RH]K Gh[R]e[RH]K
-G [HR]e[RH]G K[R]e[RH]G - Gh[R]e[RH]G
-Gh [HR]e[RH]Gh K[R]e[RH]Gh G[R]e[RH]Gh Gh[R]e[RH]Gh*
*This combination appears e.g. in bheudh-, awake, and bheidh-, obey, believe.
A root has at least one consonant, for some at least two (e.g. PIH *h₁ek- vs. EIE ek-, “quick”,
which is the root for MIE adj. ōkús). Depending on the interpretation of laryngeals, some roots
seem to have an inherent vowel a or o; as, EIE ar- (vs. PIH *h2ar-), fit, EIE ongw- (vs. PIH
*h3engw-) “anoint”, EIE ak- (vs. PIH *h2ek-) “keen”.
By “root extension”, a basic CeC (with C being any consonant) pattern may be extended to CeC-
C, and an s-mobile may extend it to s-CeC.
The total number of consonant, sonant and laryngeal elements that appear in an ordinary
syllable are three – i.e., as the triliteral Semitic pattern. Those which have less than three are called
‘Concave’ verbs (cf. PIH *Hes-, *Hei-, *gwem-); those extended are called ‘Convex’ verbs (cf. Lat.
plangō, spargō, frangō, etc., which, apart from the extension in -g, contain a laryngeal); for more
on this, vide infra on MIE Conjugations.

Preface
3. In this book PIE roots are usually written with laryngeals. Therefore, we only assume
certainty in the non-laryngeal nature of early PIE dialects, from ca. 2500 BC on. Whether
Late PIE lost them all sooner (ca. 3500 BC?) or later (ca. 2500 BC?), etymological roots
which include laryngeals will often be labelled as PIH, or just as (general) PIE, while
specific Late PIE vocabulary will be shown with an undetermined laryngeal output *ə.
NOTE. Common PIE (or PIH) roots are reconstructed by most modern Indo-Europeanists with
laryngeals; so e.g. different vowel outputs of early PIE dialects (like North-West IE or Proto-
Greek) are explained through the phonological effects of old aspirated phonemes on adjacent
vowels. See Appendix II.3 for more on this question.
Some linguists still follow the old non-laryngeal PIE concept (see Walde-Pokorny’s lexica), while
many only conceive a PIE with laryngeals. However, it is not logical to assume that, whereas in
Proto-Anatolian laryngeals were lost or evolved, in Late PIE they were the same (*h1, *h2, *h3, or
any other scheme) as in their common ancestor, Middle PIE. Therefore, some scholars have
adapted the Late PIE reconstruction to a partially laryngeal or non-laryngeal language (see
Adrados, Nikolayev, etc.), coeval with the partially laryngeal PAn, thus supposing a similar
laryngeal loss in both Middle PIE dialects, usually implying a quicker loss in Late PIE, due to the
conservation of laryngeals in Anatolian, and their complete disappearance in Late PIE dialects.
Some still reconstruct for Late PIE an uncertain laryngeal (or vowel) *H or *ə, in some phonetic
environments, otherwise difficult to explain, prior to its full loss in early PIE dialects.
4. Proto-Indo-European vowel apophony or Ablaut is indeed normal in MIE, but

dialectal Ablaut must be corrected when loan-translated. Examples of these Lat.
confessus (cf. Lat. fassus sum), from EIE bhā-; Lat. facilis/difficilis, from EIE dhē-; Lat.
saliō/insiliō/insultō, etc.
NOTE. Such Ablaut is linked to languages with musical accent, as Latin. In Italic, the tone was
always on the first syllable; Latin reorganized this system, and after Roman grammarians’
“paenultima rule”, Classic Latin accent felt on the second to last syllable if long, on the third to last
syllable, or antepaenultima, if short (hence Lat. pudícus but módicus), thus triggering off different
inner vocalic timbres or Ablauts. Other Italic dialects, as Oscan or Umbrian, didn’t suffered such
apophony; cf. Osc. anterstataí , Lat. interstitae; Umb. antakres, Lat. integris; Umb. procanurent,
Lat. procinuerint, etc. Germanic also knew such tone variations. More on Latin phonotactic
development at <http://www.cunyphonologyforum.net/SYLLPAPERS/Senhandoutnew.pdf>.
5. In Romance languages, Theme is used instead of Stem. Therefore, Theme Vowel and
Thematic refer to the Stem endings, usually to the e/o endings. In the Indo-European
19
languages, Thematic roots are those roots that have a “theme vowel”; a vowel sound that
is always present between the root of the word and the attached inflections. Athematic
roots lack a theme vowel, and attach their inflections directly to the root itself.
NOTE. The distinction between thematic and athematic roots is especially apparent in the Greek
verb; they fall into two classes that are marked by quite different personal endings. Thematic verbs
are also called -ω (-ô) verbs in Greek; athematic verbs are -μι (-mi) verbs, after the first person
singular present tense ending that each of them uses. The entire conjugation seems to differ quite
markedly between the two sets of verbs, but the differences are really the result of the thematic
vowel reacting with the verb endings. In Greek, athematic verbs are a closed class of inherited
forms from the parent IE language. Marked contrasts between thematic and athematic forms also
appear in Lithuanian, Sanskrit, and Old Church Slavonic. In Latin, almost all verbs are thematic; a
handful of surviving athematic forms exist, but they are considered irregular verbs.
The thematic and athematic distinction also applies to nouns; many of the old IE languages
distinguish between “vowel stems” and “consonant stems” in the declension of nouns. In Latin, the
first, second, fourth, and fifth declensions are vowel stems characterized by a, o, u and e,
respectively; the third declension contains both consonant stems and i stems, whose declensions
came to closely resemble one another in Latin. Greek, Sanskrit, and other older IE languages also
distinguish between vowel and consonant stems, as did Old English.
6. PIE *d+t, *t+t, *dh+t → MIE st; PIE *d+d, *t+d, *dh+d → MIE sd; PIE *d+dh,
*t+dh, *dh+dh → MIE sdh; because of the common intermediate phases found in Proto-
Greek, cf. Gk. st, sth (as pistis, oisqa), and Europe’s Indo-European, cf. Lat. est, “come”,
and O.H.G. examples. For an earlier stage of this phonetic output, compare O.Ind.
sehí<*sazdhi, ‘sit!’, and not *satthi (cf. O.Ind. dehí, Av. dazdi).
NOTE. It has been proposed an old PIE TT→TsT (where T = dental stop), i.e. that the cluster of
two dental stops had a dental fricative s inserted between them. It is based on some findings in
Hittite, where cluster tst is spelled as z (pronounced as ts), as in PIH *h1ed-ti, “he eats” → *h1etsti →
Hitt. ezzi. Confirmation from early intermediate and common (Late PIE) *-stare found e.g. in
O.Ind. mastis, “measure”, from *med-tis, or Av. -hasta-, from *sed-tós. This evolution was
probably overshadowed by other Aryan developments, see Appendix II.
7. The Feminine Late PIE *-jə/-ī, old Abstract Collective PIH *-ih2, gives EIE -ja/-ī.
While both were still interchangeable in the common North-West IE (as the different
dialectal outputs show), we prefer to use the ending -ja for feminines, and -ī for neuters;
as, smīghslī, thousand (neuter), but trja, three (fem.).

Preface
The following abbreviations apply in this book:
IE : Indo-European PGk : Proto-Greek

IE II : Middle PIE or PIH Gk. : (Ancient) Greek
PIH : Proto-Indo-Hittite Phryg. : Phrygian
IE III : Late PIE Thr. : Thracian
PIE : Proto-Indo-European Dac. : Dacian
EIE : Europe’s Indo-European Ven. : Venetic
MIE : Modern Indo-European Lus. : Lusitanian
A.Mac. : Ancient Macedonian
PAn : Proto-Anatolian Illy. : Illyrian
CA : Common Anatolian Alb. : Albanian
Hitt. : Hittite
Luw. : Luwian
Ita. : Proto-Italic
Lyc. : Lycian Osc. : Oscan
Pal. : Palaic Umb. : Umbrian
Lyd. : Lydian Lat. : Latin
O.Lat. : Archaic Latin
PII : Proto-Indo-Iranian
V.Lat. : Vulgar Latin
Ind. : Proto-Indo-Aryan
L.Lat. : Late Latin
O.Ind. : Old Indian
Med.Lat. : Mediaeval Latin
Skr. : Sanskrit
Mod.Lat. : Modern Latin
Hind. : Hindustani
O.Fr. : Old French
Hi. : Hindi
Prov : Provenzal
Ur. : Urdu
Gl.-Pt. : Galician-Portuguese
Ira. : Proto-Iranian
Gal. : Galician
Av. : Avestan
Pt. : Portuguese
O.Pers. : Old Persian
Cat. : Catalan
Pers. : Persian
Fr. : French
Kur. : Kurdish
It. : Italian
Oss. : Ossetian
Spa. : Spanish
Kam. : Kamviri
Rom. : Romanian
21
Cel. : Proto-Celtic
PGmc. : Pre-Proto-Germanic
Gaul. : Gaulish
Gmc. : Proto-Germanic
O.Ir. : Old Irish
Goth. : Gothic
Sco. : Scottish Gaelic
Frank. : Frankish
Ir. : Irish Gaelic
Sca. : Scandinavian (N. Gmc.)
Bret. : Breton
O.N. : Old Norse
Cor. : Cornish
O.Ice. : Old Icelandic
O.Welsh : Old Welsh
O.S. : Old Swedish
Nor. : Norwegian
BSl. : Balto-Slavic
Swe. : Swedish
Bal. : Proto-Baltic
Da. : Danish
O.Lith. : Old Lithuanian
Ice. : Icelandic
Fae. : Faeroese O.Pruss. : Old Prussian
W.Gmc. : West Germanic Lith. : Lithuanian

O.E. : Old English (W.Saxon, Ltv. : Latvian
Mercian)
Sla. : Proto-Slavic
O.Fris. : Old Frisian
O.C.S. : Old Church Slavonic
O.H.G. : Old High German
O.Russ. : Old Russian
M.L.G. : Middle Low German
O.Pol. : Old Polish
M.H.G. : Middle High German
M.Du. : Middle Dutch Russ. : Russian
Eng : English Pol. : Polish

Ger. : German Cz. : Czech
L.Ger. : Low German Slo. : Slovenian
Fris. : Frisian Slk. : Slovak
Du. : Dutch
Ukr. : Ukrainian
Yidd. : Yiddish
Bel. : Belarusian
Bul. : Bulgarian
Sr.-Cr. : Serbo-Croatian

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
1.1.1. The Indo-European

languages are a family of
several hundred modern
languages and dialects,
including most of the
major languages of
Europe, as well as many in
Asia. Contemporary
languages in this family
include English, German, In dark, countries with a majority of Indo-European
speakers; in light color, countries with Indo-
French, Spanish, Portuguese, European-speaking minorities.
Hindustani (i.e., Hindi and Urdu among other modern dialects), Persian and Russian. It
is the largest family of languages in the world today, being spoken by approximately half
the world’s population as mother tongue. Furthermore, the majority of the other half
speaks at least one of them as second language.
1.1.2. Romans didn’t perceive similarities between Latin and Celtic dialects, but they
found obvious correspondences with Greek. After Grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus:
Suppum antiqui dicebant, quem nunc supinum dicimus ex Graeco, videlicet pro
adspiratione ponentes <s> litteram, ut idem ὕλας dicunt, et nos silvas; item ἕξ sex, et
ἑπτά septem.
Such findings are not striking, though, as Rome was believed to have been originally
funded by Trojan hero Aeneas and, consequently, Latin was derived from Old Greek.
1.1.3. Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti travelled to the Indian subcontinent, and
was among the first European observers to study the ancient Indian language, Sanskrit.
Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian, e.g.
deva/dio, “God”, sarpa/serpe, “snake”, sapta/sette, “seven”, ashta/otto, “eight”,
nava/nove, “nine”. This observation is today credited to have foreshadowed the later
discovery of the Indo-European language family.
1.1.4. The first proposal of the possibility of a common origin for some of these
languages came from Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn in 1647.
He discovered the similarities among Indo-European languages, and supposed the
existence of a primitive common language which he called “Scythian”. He included in his
hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, adding later Slavic, Celtic and
Baltic languages. He excluded languages such as Hebrew from his hypothesis. However,
the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and did not stimulate
further research.
1.1.5. On 1686, German linguist Andreas Jäger published De Lingua Vetustissima

Europae, where he identified an remote language, possibly spreading from the Caucasus,
from which Latin, Greek, Slavic, ‘Scythian’ (i.e. Persian) and Celtic (or ‘Celto-Germanic’)
were derived, namely Scytho-Celtic.
1.1.6. The hypothesis re-appeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on
similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek,
Sanskrit and Persian:
“The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more
perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than
either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and
the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong
indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to
have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a
similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the
Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the
Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family”
1.1.7. Danish Scholar Rasmus Rask was the first to point out the connection between
Old Norwegian and Gothic on the one hand, and Lithuanian, Slavonic, Greek and Latin
on the other. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by the
young German linguist Franz Bopp supported the theory, and his Comparative
Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852, counts as the starting-point of Indo-
European studies as an academic discipline.
NOTE. The term Indo-European itself now current in English literature, was coined in 1813 by
the British scholar Sir Thomas Young, although at that time there was no consensus as to the
naming of the recently discovered language family. Among the names suggested were indo-

1. Introduction
germanique (C. Malte-Brun, 1810), Indoeuropean (Th. Young, 1813), japetisk (Rasmus C. Rask,
1815), indisch-teutsch (F. Schmitthenner, 1826), sanskritisch (Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1827),
indokeltisch (A. F. Pott, 1840), arioeuropeo (G. I. Ascoli, 1854), Aryan (F. M. Müller, 1861),
aryaque (H. Chavée, 1867), etc.
In English, Indo-German was used by J. C. Prichard in 1826 although he preferred Indo-

European. In French, use of indo-européen was established by A. Pictet (1836). In German
literature, Indo-Europäisch was used by Franz Bopp since 1835, while the term Indo-Germanisch
had already been introduced by Julius von Klapproth in 1823, intending to include the
northernmost and the southernmost of the family’s branches, as it were as an abbreviation of the
full listing of involved languages that had been common in earlier literature, opening the doors to
ensuing fruitless discussions whether it should not be Indo-Celtic, or even Tocharo-Celtic.
1.1.8. There are certain common linguistic ancestors of modern IE languages, and some
of them are well-attested dead languages (or language systems), such as Latin for
modern Romance languages – French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian or
Catalan –, Sanskrit for some modern Indo-Aryan languages, or Greek for Modern Greek.
Furthermore, there are some still older IE languages, from which these old formal
languages were derived and later systematized. They are, following the above examples,
Archaic or Old Latin, Archaic or Vedic Sanskrit and Archaic or Old Greek, attested in
older compositions or inscriptions, or inferred through the study of oral traditions and
even foreign texts, like the Indo-Aryan superstrate of the Mitanni.
And there are also some old related dialects, which help us reconstruct proto-
languages, such as Osco-Umbrian for an older Proto-Italic (and with Proto-Celtic, Proto-
Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic for Europe’s Indo-European), Indo-Aryan dialects for
Proto-Indo-Aryan (and with Proto-Iranian for Proto-Indo-Iranian) or Mycenaean for an
older Proto-Greek.
NOTE. Mallory and Adams (2006) argue, about (Late) Proto-Indo-European: “How real are our
reconstructions? This question has divided linguists on philosophical grounds.
o There are those who argue that we are not really engaged in ‘reconstructing’ a past language but
rather creating abstract formulas that describe the systematic relationship between sounds in the
daughter languages.
o Others argue that our reconstructions are vague approximations of the proto-language; they can
never be exact because the proto-language itself should have had different dialects (yet we
reconstruct only single proto-forms) and our reconstructions are not set to any specific time.
25
o Finally, there are those who have expressed some statistical confidence in the method of
reconstruction. Robert Hall, for example, claimed that when examining a test control case,
reconstructing proto-Romance from the Romance languages (and obviously knowing beforehand
what its ancestor, Latin, looked like), he could reconstruct the phonology at 95% confidence, and
the grammar at 80%. Obviously, with the much greater time depth of Proto-Indo-European, we
might well wonder how much our confidence is likely to decrease.
Most historical linguists today would probably argue that [laryngeal PIE] reconstruction results
in approximations. A time traveller, armed with this book and seeking to make him- or herself
understood would probably engender frequent moments of puzzlement, not a little laughter, but
occasional instances of lucidity”.
1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS
1.2.1. In the beginnings of the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic studies using the

comparative grammar, the Indo-European proto-language was reconstructed as a
unitary language. For Rask, Bopp and other Indo-European scholars, it was a search for
the Indo-European. Such a language was supposedly spoken in a certain region between
Europe and Asia and at one point in
time – between ten thousand and
four thousand years ago, depending
on the individual theories –, and it
spread thereafter and evolved into
different languages which in turn
had different dialects.
1.2.2. The Stammbaumtheorie or

Genealogical Tree Theory states that
languages split up in other
languages, each of them in turn split
up in others, and so on, like the
branches of a tree. For example, a Modern tree
well known old theory about Indo- diagram of the IE
languages by Eric
European is that, from the PIE Hamp (1990),
Mallory & Adams
language, two main groups of (2007).

1. Introduction
dialects known as Centum and Satem separated – so called because of their

pronunciation of PIE *kmt̥ óm, “hundred”, in Latin and Avestan. From these groups
others split up, as Centum Proto-Germanic, Proto-Italic or Proto-Celtic, and Satem
Proto-Balto-Slavic, Proto-Indo-Iranian.
NOTE. The Centum and Satem isogloss is one of the oldest known phonological differences of IE
languages, and is still used by many to classify them in two main dialectal groups – postulating the
existence of proto-Centum and a proto-Satem –, disregarding their relevant morphological and
syntactical differences. The isogloss is based on a simple vocabulary comparison; as, from PIE
*km̥tóm (possibly earlier *dkm̥tóm, from *dekm̥, “ten”), Satem: O.Ind. śatám, Av. satəm, Lith.
šimtas, O.C.S. sto, or Centum: Gk. ἑκατόν, Lat. centum, Goth. hund, O.Ir. cet, etc.
It remains the most used model for understanding the Indo-European language
reconstruction, since it was proposed by A. Schleicher (Compendium, 1866). The
problem with its simplicity is that “the branching of the different groups is portrayed as a
series of clean breaks with no connection between branches after they have split, as if
each dialectal group marched away from the rest. Such sharp splits are possible, but
assuming that all splits within Proto-Indo-European were like this is not very plausible,
and any linguist surveying the current Indo-European languages would note dialectal
variations running through some but not all areas, often linking adjacent groups who
may belong to different languages” (Mallory & Adams, 2006).
1.2.3. The Wellentheorie or Waves

Theory, of J. Schmidt, states that
one language is created from
another by the spread of
innovations, the way water waves
spread when a stone hits the water
surface. The lines that define the
extension of the innovations are
called isoglosses. The convergence
“Wave model” of some of the interrelationships
of different isoglosses over a of the IE languages, Mallory & Adams (2007).
common territory signals the existence of a new language or dialect. Where isoglosses
from different languages coincide, transition zones are formed.
27
NOTE. These old models for our understanding of language reconstructions are based on the
hypothesis that there was one common and static Proto-Indo-European language, and that all
features of modern Indo-European languages can be explained in such unitary schemes, by
classifying them either as innovations or as archaisms of one old, rigid proto-language. After
Mallory and Adams (The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-
European World, 2006), “their criteria of inclusion, why we are looking at any particular one, and
not another one, are no more solid than those that define family trees. The key element here is
what linguistic features actually help determine for us whether two languages are more related or
less related to one another. A decision in this area can be extraordinary difficult because we must
be able to distinguish between features that may have been present throughout the entire Indo-
European world (Indoeuropeia has been employed to describe this concept) and have dropped out
in some but not others against those features that are innovations in only some of the different
groups. The historical linguist is principally looking for shared innovations, i.e. are there traces of
corresponding developments between two or more language groups that would indicate that they
shared a common line of development different from other language groups? Only by finding
shared innovations can one feel confident that the grouping of individual Indo-European linguistic
groups into larger units or branches of the tree is real”.
1.2.4. Because of the difficulties found in the modelling of Proto-Indo-European

branches and daughter languages into the traditional, unitary ‘Diverging Tree’
framework, i.e. a uniform Proto-Indo-European language with its branches, a new model
called ‘Converging Association of Languages’ was proposed, in which languages that are
in contact (not necessarily related to each other) exchange linguistic elements and rules,
thus developing and acquiring from each other. Most linguists have rejected it as an
implausible explanation of the irregularities found in the old, static concept of PIE.
NOTE. Among the prominent advocates is N.S. Trubetzkoy (Urheimat, 1939): “The term
‘language family’ does not presuppose the common descent of a quantity of languages from a
single original language. We consider a ‘language family’ a group of languages, in which a
considerable quantity of lexical and morphological elements exhibit regular equivalences (…) it is
not necessary for one to suppose common descent, since such regularity may also originate
through borrowings between neighboring unrelated languages (…) It is just as conceivable that the
ancestors of the Indo-European language branches were originally different from each other, but
though constant contact, mutual influence, and borrowings, approached each other, without
however ever becoming identical to one another” (Meier-Brügger, 2003).

1. Introduction
Agreeing with Neumann (1996), Meier-Brügger (2003) states that “that the various Indo-
European languages have developed from a prior unified language is certain. Questionable is,
however, the concrete ‘how’ of this process of differentiation”, and that this “thesis of a
‘converging association of languages’ may immediately be dismissed, given that all Indo-European
languages are based upon the same Proto-Indo-European flexion morphology. As H. Rix makes
clear, it is precisely this morphological congruence that speaks against the language association
model, and for the diverging tree model”, even if the traditional language tree models were unable
to explain the newest findings.
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES
1.3.1. Even some of the first Indo-Europeanists had noted in their works the possibility
of older origins for the reconstructed (Late) Proto-Indo-European, although they didn’t
dare to describe those possible older stages of the language.
NOTE. The development
of this theory of three
linguistic stages can be
traced back to the very
origins of Indo-European
studies, firstly as a diffused
idea of a non-static PIE
language, and later widely
accepted as a dynamic
dialectal evolution, already
in the 20th century, after
the decipherment of the
Expansion of Proto-Indo-European and its dialects ca.
Anatolian scripts. Most 4000BC-500AD, according to the Kurgan hypothesis.
linguists accept that Proto-Indo-European must be the product of a long historical development.
On this question, H. Rix (Modussystem, 1986) asserts “Whereby comparative reconstruction is
based upon a group of similar forms in a number of languages, internal reconstruction takes its
point of departure from irregularities or inhomogeneities of the system of a single language (…)
The fundamental supposition of language-internal reconstruction is that such an irregularity or
inhomogeneity in the grammar of a language is the result of a diachronic process, in which an
older pattern,, or homogeneity is eclipsed, but not fully suppressed”. According to Meier-Brügger
(2003), “Rix works back from Late Proto-Indo-European Phase B (reconstructible Proto-Indo-
European) using deducible information about an Early Proto-Indo-European Phase A, and gathers
29
in his work related evidence on the Proto-Indo-European verbal system”. On that question, see
also G.E. Dunkel Early, Middle, Late Indo-European: Doing it My Way (1997), Adrados,
Bernabé, Mendoza, Manual de Lingüística Indoeuropea (1998); etc.
1.3.2. Today, a widespread Three-Stage Theory divide PIE (internal) language evolution
into three main historic layers or stages, including a description of branches and
languages as clean breaks from a common source (e.g. PAn from IE II) or from
intermediate dialect continua (e.g. Germanic and Balto-Slavic from EIE), or classifying
similarities into continued linguistic contact (e.g. Italic and Celtic, or Balto-Slavic and
Indo-Iranian):
1) Early PIE (also IE I, for some Pre-Proto-Indo-European) is the hypothetical

ancestor of Middle PIE, and probably the oldest stage of the language that comparative
grammar could help reconstruct using internal reconstruction. There is, however, no
common position as to how it was like or when and where it was spoken.
2) The second stage corresponds to a time before the separation of Proto-Anatolian

from the common linguistic community where it should have coexisted (as a Pre-
Anatolian dialect) with Pre-IE III. That stage of the language is called Middle PIE or IE
II, also Indo-Hittite, identified with early Kurgan cultures in the Kurgan Hypothesis.
NOTE. On the place of Anatolian among IE languages, the question is whether it separated first
as a language branch from PIE, and to what extent was it thus spared developments common to
the remaining (Late) Proto-Indo-European language group. There is growing consensus in favor of
its early split from Indo-European (Heading, among others, ‘Indo-Hittite’); see N. Oettinger ‘Indo-
Hittite’ – Hypothesen und Wortbildung (1986), A. Lehrman Indo-Hittite Revisited (1996), H.
Craig Melchert The Dialectal Position of Anatolian within IE in IE Subgrouping (1998), etc.
For Kortlandt (1989): “Since the beginnings of the Yamnaya, Globular Amphora, Corded Ware,
and Afanasievo cultures can all be dated between 3600 and 3000 BC, I am inclined to date Proto-
Indo-European to the middle of the fourth millennium, and to recognize Proto-Indo-Hittite as a
language which may have been spoken a millennium earlier”.
3) The common immediate ancestor of most of the earliest known IE proto-languages –

more or less the same static PIE searched for since the start of Indo-European studies,
before Hittite was deciphered – is usually called Late PIE, also IE III, often simply
Proto-Indo-European, often dated some time ca. 3500-3000 BC using linguistic or
archaeological models, or both.

1. Introduction
NOTE. According to Mallory &

Adams (2006), “Generally, we find
some form of triangulation based on
the earliest attested Indo-European
languages, i.e. Hittite, Mycenaean
Greek, and Indo-Aryan, each of these
positioned somewhere between c.
2000 and 1500 BC. Given the kind of
changes linguists know to have
occurred in the attested histories of
Greek or Indo-Aryan, etc., the linguist
compares the difference wrought by
such changes with the degree of Yamna culture ca. 3000 BC, roughly the time
difference between the earliest when Late PIE and Proto-Anatolian were spoken,
according to the Kurgan framework.
attested Hittite, Mycenaean Greek,
and Sanskrit and reconstructed Proto-Indo-European. The order of magnitude for these estimates
(or guesstimates) tends to be something on the order of 1,500-2,000 years. In other words,
employing some form of gut intuition (based on experience which is often grounded on the known
separation of the Romance or Germanic languages), linguists tend to put Proto-Indo-European
sometime around 3000 BC plus or minus a millennium (…) the earliest we are going to be able to
set Proto-Indo-European is about the fifth millennium BC if we want it to reflect the
archaeological reality of Eurasia. We have already seen that individual Indo-European groups are
attested by c. 2000 BC. One might then place a notional date of c. 4500-2500 BC on Proto-Indo-
European. The linguist will note that the presumed dates for the existence of Proto-Indo-European
arrived at by this method are congruent with those established by linguists’ ‘informed estimation’.
The two dating techniques, linguistic and archeological, are at least independent and congruent
with one another”.
Likewise, Meier-Brügger (2003) thinks that “No precise statement concerning the exact time
period of the Proto-Indo-European linguistic community is possible. One may only state that the
ancient Indo-European languages that we know, which date from the 2nd millennium BC, already
exhibit characteristics of their respective linguistic groups in their earliest occurrences, thus
allowing one to presume the existence of a separate and long pre-history (…) The period of 5000-
3000 BC is suggested as a possible timeframe of a [common] Proto-Indo-European language”.
However, on the early historic and prehistoric finds, B. Hänsel (1994) states that “Linguistic
development may be described in steps that, although logically comprehensible, are not precisely
31
analyzable without a timescale. The archaeologist pursues certain areas of cultural development,
the logic of which (if one exists) remains a mystery to him, or is only accessible in a few aspects of
its complex causality”. On the other hand, he is provided with concrete ideas with regard to time,
as vague as these may be, and works with a concept of culture that the Indo-European linguist
cannot attain. For the archaeologist, culture is understood in the sense of a sociological definition
(…) The archaeological concept of culture is composed of so many components, that by its very
nature its contours must remain blurred. But languages are quite different. Of course there are
connections; no one can imagine cultural connections without any possibility of verbal
communication. But it is too much to ask that archaeologists equate their concept of culture,
which is open and incorporates references on various levels, to the single dimension of linguistic
community. Archaeology and linguistics are so fundamentally different that, while points of
agreement may be expected, parallels and congruency may not. The advantage of linguistic
research is its ability to precisely distinguish between individual languages and the regularity of
developments. The strength of archaeology is its precision in developing timelines. What one can
do, the other cannot. They could complement each other beautifully, if only there were enough
commonality.
1.3.3. Another division has to be made, so that the dialectal evolution and this revival
project is properly understood. Late PIE had at least two main inner dialectal branches,
the Southern (or IE IIIa) and the Northern (or IE IIIb) ones. As far as we know, while
speakers of Southern or Graeco-Aryan dialects (like Pre-Greek and Pre-Indo-Iranian
Indo-European) spread in different directions with the first Late PIE migrations ca.
3000-2500 BC, speakers of Northern dialects remained still in close contact for centuries
in Europe, but for those (like Pre-Tocharian IE speakers) who migrated to Asia.
NOTE. “Within the group of IE languages, some individual languages are more closely associated
with one another owing to morphological or lexical similarities. The cause for this, as a rule, is a
prehistoric geographic proximity (perhaps even constituting single linguistic community) or a
common preliminary linguistic phase, a middle mother-language phase, which would however
then be posterior to the period of the [common PIE] mother language” (Meier-Brügger, 2003).
About Tocharian, Adrados (1998) says “even if archaic in some respects (its Centum character,
subjunctive, etc.) it has shares common features with Balto-Slavic, among other languages: they
must be old isoglosses, shared before it separated and migrated to the East. It is, therefore, an IE
III B [=Northern] language. It shows great innovations, too, something normal in a language that
evolved isolated”.

1. Introduction
On the Southern (Graeco-Aryan or Indo-Greek) PIE dialect, see Gamkrelidze, Ivanov (1995) Indo-
European and the Indo-Europeans, and Clackson (1994) The Linguistic Relationship Between
Armenian and Greek, Adrados (1998), etc. Even in Mallory & Adams (2006): “Many have argued
that Greek, Armenian, and Indo-Iranian share a number of innovations that suggest that there
should have been some form of linguistic continuum between their predecessors”; “An Irish-Indic
cognate looks a damn sight stronger than a Greek-Iranian and linguists have long noted that there
are a whole series of words that seem to be confined largely to Greek and Indo-Iranian”.
1.3.4. The so-called North-West, Residual, or Europe’s Indo-European language, also

Old European or Proto-European, linguistic ancestor of Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Balto-
Slavic and other (fragmentary or unattested) European dialects, is believed to have
formed the last common IE dialect continuum in Northern Europe during the centuries
on either side of 2500 BC. It was therefore a language coeval with Common Anatolian,
Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Greek, able to fill in the time gap between the dates
estimated for North-West IE proto-languages and the Central and Eastern ones.
NOTE 1. On the so-called “Nort-West Indo-European” language or dialect continuum, see N.
Oettinger Grundsätzliche überlegungen zum Nordwest-Indogermanischen (1997), and Zum
nordwestindogermanischen Lexikon (1999); M. E. Huld Indo-Europeanization of Northern
Europe (1996); Adrados, Bernabé, Mendoza, Manual de Lingüística Indoeuropea (1998); etc.
Furthermore, regarding modern IE studies, even without accepting a common, independent

North-West IE language, “There are so many of these words that are confined within these five
language groups (Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic) that most linguists would regard
33
cognates found exclusively between any two or among all of these groups as specifically North-
West Indo-European and not demonstrably Proto-Indo-European. To accept a series of cognates
as reflections of a PIE word requires that the evidence come from further afield than a series of
contiguous language groups in Europe”, Mallory & Adams (2006).
NOTE 2. About the ‘Dark Ages’, the time gap between the reconstructed North-West Indo-
European proto-languages (dated ca. 1500 BC) and the other IE proto-languages reconstructed
(dated ca. 2500 BC), Mallory & Adams (2006): “If one reviews discussion of the dates by which the
various Indo-European groups first emerged, we find an interesting and somewhat disturbing
phenomenon. By c. 2000 BC we have traces of Anatolian, and hence linguists are willing to place
the emergence of Proto-Anatolian to c. 2500 BC or considerably earlier. We have already
differentiated Indo-Aryan in the Mitanni treaty by c.1500 BC so undifferentiated Proto-Indo-
Iranian must be earlier, and dates on the order of 2500-2000 BC are often suggested. Mycenaean
Greek, the language of the Linear B tablets, is known by c.1300 BC if not somewhat earlier and is
different enough from its Bronze Age contemporaries (Indo-Iranian or Anatolian) and from
reconstructed PIE to predispose a linguist to place a date of c. 2000 BC or earlier for Proto-Greek
itself. So where we have written documentation from the Bronze Age, we tend to assign the proto-
languages to an earlier period of the Bronze Age, i.e. earlier than at least 2000 BC if not 2500 BC.
When we turn to western and northern Europe, however, both our attestation of the different
groups and the estimates of their proto-languages tend to be shallower. The Germanic languages,
for example, are all derived from Proto-Germanic. Now the earliest runic inscriptions are so close
to reconstructed Proto-Germanic that there is a tendency to date the Germanic proto-language to
about 500 BC. Similarly, if we examine the earliest Celtic inscriptional evidence, be it Continental
or even the much more recent Irish ogam stones, these inscriptions are not that far removed from
the reconstructed Proto-Celtic and again we tend to have dates suggested on the order of 1000 BC.
The Slavic languages only began differentiating from one another during the historical period, and
Proto-Slavic is generally set to about the beginning of the Christian era while Proto-Baltic and
Proto-Balto-Slavic (assuming its existence) are probably envisaged as a second millennium BC
phenomenon. In short, where the Indo-European groups are more recently attested, we tend to
find that they are also regarded as having differentiated at a more recent time, i.e. between c.1500
and 500 BC. One explanation for the relatively short time depths of the attested northern and
western Indo-European groups is that these groups are the only survivors of a long process of
linguistic assimilation that has occurred as small demographic and linguistic groups moved,
interacted, and merged. We can see precisely such a process in action in the historic period as
Latin assimilated and replaced all the other Italic languages, Umbrian, Oscan, etc., and then went
on to assimilate and replace much of the Celtic languages. Also within the historic period Slavic

1. Introduction
assimilated and replaced such other Indo-European languages as Thracian, and Koine Greek
replaced nearly all other varieties of Greek. If we had only contemporary data to work with, we
would have to conclude that both Proto-Italic (now equivalent to Proto-Romance) and Proto-
Greek flourished around the beginning of the Christian era. These ‘extinction events’ in the history
of Italic and Greek had the effect of ‘resetting’ the time depth of the proto-language. This process
must have been repeated time and again in the prehistoric period”.
Similarly, Kortlandt (1989) detected what “seems to be a general tendency to date proto-
languages farther back in time than is warranted by the linguistic evidence. When we reconstruct
Proto-Romance, we arrive at a linguistic stage which is approximately two centuries later than the
language of Caesar and Cicero (cf. Agard 1984: 47-60 for the phonological differences). When we
start from the extralinguistic evidence and identify the origins of Romance with the beginnings of
Rome, we arrive at the eighth century BC, which is almost a millennium too early. The point is that
we must identify the formation of Romance with the imperfect learning of Latin by a large number
of people during the expansion of the Roman empire”.
IE dialects ca. 500 BC.
1.3.4. Apart from the shared phonology and vocabulary, Europe’s Indo-European shows
other common features, as a trend to reduce the noun inflection system, shared
innovations in the verbal system, the -r endings of the middle or middle-passive voice,
etc. The southern dialects, which spread in different directions and evolved without
forming a continuum, show therefore a differentiated phonology and even vocabulary,
but common developments like the augment in é-, etc.
35
NOTE. Some European dialects like Balto-Slavic and, to some extent, Italic (or Latin, if
differentiated from Osco-Umbrian), either because of general PIE innovative or archaic trends
that only they maintained, or because of their original situation within the prehistoric dialectal
territories in relation with the origin of innovations – or just because they remained in contact
with Southern Indo-European dialects after the first PIE split (e.g. through the Scythian or general
Iranian expansions) – show features usually identified with Indo-Iranian, as an 8-case noun
declension and phonetic satemization, while having morphological features clearly common to
Germanic and Celtic dialects, like their verbal system. Images show IE languages ca. 500 AD
(top) and 1500 AD (under these lines).

1. Introduction
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT OR ‘HOMELAND’
1.4.1. The search for the Urheimat or ‘Homeland’ of the prehistoric Proto-Indo-
Europeans has developed as an archaeological quest along with the linguistic research
looking for the reconstruction of the proto-language.
NOTE. According to A. Scherer’s Die Urheimat der Indogermanen (1968), summing up the
views of various authors from the years 1892-1963, still followed by mainstream Indo-European
studies today, “Based upon the localization of later languages such as Greek, Anatolian, and Indo-
Iranian, a swathe of land in southern Russia north of the Black Sea is often proposed as the native
area of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European” (Meier-Brügger, 2003).
1.4.2. The Kurgan hypothesis was

introduced by Marija Gimbutas in
1956 in order to combine
archaeology with linguistics in
locating the origins of the Proto-
Indo-Europeans. She named the set
of cultures in question “Kurgan”
after their distinctive burial mounds
and traced their diffusion into
Eastern and Northern Europe. Photo of a Kurgan ( Archaeology Magazine).
1.4.3. According to her hypothesis, PIE speakers were probably a nomadic tribe of the
Pontic-Caspian steppe that expanded in successive stages of the Kurgan culture and
three successive “waves” of expansion during the 3rd millennium BC:
• Kurgan I, Dnieper/Volga region, earlier half of the 4th millennium BC. Apparently
evolving from cultures of the Volga basin, subgroups include the Samara and
Seroglazovo cultures.
• Kurgan II–III, latter half of the 4th millennium BC. Includes the Sredny Stog culture
and the Maykop culture of the northern Caucasus. Stone circles, early two-wheeled
chariots, anthropomorphic stone stelae of deities.
• Kurgan IV or Pit Grave culture, first half of the 3rd millennium BC, encompassing the
entire steppe region from the Ural to Romania.
37
o Wave 1, predating Kurgan I, expansion from the lower Volga to the Dnieper,
leading to coexistence of Kurgan I and the Cucuteni culture. Repercussions of the
migrations extend as far as the Balkans and along the Danube to the Vinča and
Lengyel cultures in Hungary.
o Wave 2, mid 4th millennium BC, originating in the Maykop culture and resulting
in advances of “kurganized” hybrid cultures into northern Europe around 3000
BC – Globular Amphora culture, Baden culture, and ultimately Corded Ware
culture.
o Wave 3, 3000-2800 BC, expansion of the Pit Grave culture beyond the steppes;
appearance of characteristic pit graves as far as the areas of modern Romania,
Bulgaria and eastern Hungary.
Hypothetical Homeland or Urheimat of the first PIE speakers, from 4500 BC

onwards. The Yamna (Pit Grave) culture lasted from ca. 3600 till 2200 BC. In this
time the first wagons appeared. People were buried with their legs flexed, a
position which remained typical for the Indo-Europeans for a long time. The
burials were covered with a mound, a kurgan. During this period, from 3600 till
3000 IE II split up into Pre-IE III and Pre-Proto-Anatolian. From ca.3000 B.C on,
Late PIE dialects began to differentiate and spread by 2500 westward (Europe’s
Indo-European), southward (Proto-Greek) and eastward (Proto-Aryan, Pre-Proto-
Tocharian).

1. Introduction
NOTE. On the Kurgan hypothesis, Mallory & Adams (2006) say that “[t]he opposite method to a
retrospective approach is a prospective approach where one starts with a given archaeological
phenomenon and tracks its expansion. This approach is largely driven by a theory connected with
the mechanism by which the Indo-European languages must have expanded. Here the trajectory
need not be the type of family tree that an archaeologist might draw up but rather some other
major social phenomenon that can move between cultures. For example, in both the nineteenth
century and then again in the later twentieth century, it was proposed that Indo-European
expansions were associated with the spread of agriculture. The underlying assumption here is that
only the expansion of a new more productive economy and attendant population expansion can
explain the widespread expansion of a language family the size of the Indo-European. This theory
is most closely associated with a model that derives the Indo-Europeans from Anatolia about the
seventh millennium BC from whence they spread into south-eastern Europe and then across
Europe in a Neolithic ‘wave of advance’.
A later alternative mechanism is the spread of more pastoral societies who exploited the horse
(and later the chariot) and carried a new language across Europe and Asia from the fourth
millennium bc onwards. The underlying assumption here is that the vector of Indo-European
language spread depended on a new, more aggressive social organization coupled with a more
mobile economy and superior transportation technology. As this theory sets the homeland in the
steppelands north of the Black and Caspian seas among different cultures that employed barrows
for their burials (Russian kurgan), it is generally termed the Kurgan theory.
Although the difference between

the Wave of Advance and Kurgan
theories is quite marked, they both
share the same explanation for the
expansion of the Indo-Iranians in
Asia (and there are no fundamental
differences in either of their
difficulties in explaining the
Tocharians), i.e. the expansion of
mobile pastoralists eastwards and
then southwards into Iran and India.
Moreover, there is recognition by
supporters of the Neolithic theory that the ‘wave of advance’ did not reach the peripheries of
Europe (central and western Mediterranean, Atlantic and northern Europe) but that these regions
adopted agriculture from their neighbours rather than being replaced by them.
39
I. LINGUISTIC RECONSTRUCTION AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL TIMELINE
The Manual de Lingüística Indoeuropea (Adrados, Bernabé, Mendoza, 1998) makes a

summary of main linguistic facts, supported by archaeological finds: “Remember the
recent date of the ‘cristalization’ of European languages. ‘Old European’ [=North-West
Indo-European], from which they derive, is an already evolved language, with opposition
masculine/feminine, and must be located in time ca. 2000 BC or before. Also, one must
take into account the following data: the existence of Tocharian, related to IE IIIb
[=Northern PIE], but far away to the East, in the Chinese Turkestan; the presence of IE
IIIb [=Graeco-Aryan] languages to the South of the Carpathian Mountains, no doubt
already in the 3rd millennium (the ancestors of Thracian, Iranian, Greek speakers);
differentiation of Hittite and Luwian, within the Anatolian group, already ca. 2000 BC, in
the documents of Kültepe, what means that Common Anatolian must be much older.
NOTE. Without taking on account archaeological theories, linguistic data reveals that:
a) IE IIIb, located in Europe and in the Chinese Turkestan, must come from an
intermediate zone, with expansion into both directions.
b) IE IIIa, which occupied the space between Greece and the Northwest of India,
communicating both Paeninsulas through the languages of the Balkans, Ukraine
and Northern Caucasus, the Turkestan and Iran, must also come from some
intermediate location. Being a different linguistic group, it cannot come from
Europe or the Russian Steppe, where Ural-Altaic languages existed.
c) Both groups have been in contact secondarily, taking on account the different
‘recent’ isoglosses in the contact zone.
d) The more archaic Anatolian must have been isolated from the more evolved IE; and
that in some region with easy communication with Anatolia.
(…) Only the Steppe North of the Caucasus, the Volga river and beyond can combine all
possibilities mentioned: there are pathways that go down into Anatolia and Iran
through the Caucasus, through the East of the Caspian Sea, the Gorgan plains, and they
can migrate from there to the Chinese Turkestan, or to Europe, where two ways exist:
to the North and to the South of the Carpathian mountains.
NOTE. For Kortlandt (1989), too, “Starting from the linguistic evidence (…) The best candidate
for the original IE homeland is the territory of the Sredny Stog culture in the eastern Ukraine”.

1. Introduction
Phase 1
IE II
Anat.
Phase 2
Northern horde Tocharian
West IE Bal.-Sla. IE IIIb
Gk.-Thrac. Arm. Ind.-Ira. IE IIIa
Southern Horde
Phase 3
Northern Horde
Germanic Bal.-Sla. IE IIIb
Cel. Ita. Indo-Iranian IE IIIa

Thr.
Arm. I.-I.
Gk.
Southern Horde
Diagram of the expansion and relationships of IE languages, Adrados (1979).
These linguistic data, presented in a diagram, are supported by strong archaeological arguments:
they have been defended by Gimbutas 1985 against Gamkrelidze-Ivanov (…) This diagram
proposes three phases. In the first one, IE II [=Middle PIE] became isolated, and from it Anatolian
emerged, being first relegated to the North of the Caucasus, and then crossing into the South:
there must Common Anatolian be located. Note that there is no significant temporal difference
with the other groups; it happens also that the first IE wave into Europe was older. It is
somewhere to the North of the people that later went to Anatolia that happened the great
revolution that developed IE III [=Late PIE], the ‘common language’.
The following phases refer to that common language. The first is that one that saw both IE III B
[=Northern IE] (to the North) and IE III A [=Southern IE] (to the South), the former being
fragmented in two groups, one that headed West and one that migrated to the East. That is a proof
that somewhere in the European Russia a common language III B emerged; to the South, in
Ukraine or in the Turkestan, IE III A.
41
The second phase continues the movements of both branches, that launched waves to the South,
but that were in contact in some moments, arising isoglosses that unite certain languages of the IE
IIIa group (first Greek, later Iranian, etc.) with those of the rearguard of IE IIIb (especially Baltic
and Slavic, also Italic and Germanic)”.
II. ARCHEOGENETICS AND INDO-EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS
Cavalli-Sforza and
Alberto Piazza argue
that Renfrew (v.i.) and
Gimbutas reinforce
rather than contradict
each other, stating
that “genetically
speaking, peoples of
the Kurgan steppe
descended at least in
part from people of Distribution of haplotypes R1b (light color) for Eurasiatic
Paleolithic and R1a (dark color) for Yamna expansion; black
the Middle Eastern represents other haplogroups.
Neolithic who immigrated there from Turkey”.
NOTE. The genetic record cannot yield any direct information as to the language spoken by these
groups. The current interpretation of genetic data suggests a strong genetic continuity in Europe;
specifically, studies of mtDNA by Bryan Sykes show that about 80% of the genetic stock of
Europeans originated in the Paleolithic.
Spencer Wells suggests that the origin, distribution and age of the R1a1 haplotype
points to an ancient migration, possibly corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan
people in their expansion across the Eurasian steppe around 3000 BC, stating that “there
is nothing to contradict this model, although the genetic patterns do not provide clear
support either”.
NOTE. R1a1 is most prevalent in Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, and is also observed in Pakistan,
India and central Asia. R1a1 is largely confined east of the Vistula gene barrier and drops
considerably to the west. The spread of Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup R1a1 has been associated
with the spread of the Indo-European languages too. The mutations that characterize haplogroup
R1a occurred ~10,000 years bp.

1. Introduction
Haplogroup R1a1, whose lineage is thought to have originated in the Eurasian Steppes north of
the Black and Caspian Seas, is therefore associated with the Kurgan culture, as well as with the
postglacial Ahrensburg culture which has been suggested to have spread the gene originally.
The present-day
population of R1b
haplotype, with
extremely high peaks
in Western Europe
and measured up to
the eastern confines
of Central Asia, are
believed to be the
descendants of a
refugium in the
Iberian peninsula (Portugal and Spain) at the Last Glacial Maximum, where the
haplogroup may have achieved genetic homogeneity. As conditions eased with the
Allerød Oscillation in about 12000 BC, descendants of this group migrated and
eventually recolonised all of Western Europe, leading to the dominant position of R1b in
variant degrees from Iberia to Scandinavia, so evident in haplogroup maps.
NOTE. High concentrations of Mesolithic or late Paleolithic YDNA haplogroups of types R1b
(typically well above 35%) and I (up to 25%), are thought to derive ultimately of the robust
Eurasiatic Cro
Magnoid homo sapiens
of the Aurignacian
culture, and the
subsequent gracile
leptodolichomorphous
people of the
Gravettian culture that
entered Europe from
the Middle East
20,000 to 25,000
years ago, respectively.
43
III. THE KURGAN HYPOTHESIS AND THE THREE-STAGE THEORY
ARCHAEOLOGY (Kurgan Hypothesis) LINGUISTICS (Three-Stage Theory)
ca. 4500-4000 BC. Sredny Stog, Dnieper-Donets Early PIE spoken, probably somewhere in the
and Sarama cultures, domestication of the horse. Pontic-Caspian Steppe.
ca. 4000-3500 BC. The Yamna culture, the kurgan Middle PIE. Pre-IE III and Pre-Proto-Anatolian
builders, emerges in the steppe, and the Maykop dialects evolve in different communities but
culture in northern Caucasus. presumably still in contact
ca. 3500-3000 BC. Yamna culture at its peak: Proto-Anatolian becomes isolated south of the
stone idols, two-wheeled proto-chariots, animal Caucasus, and has no more contacts with the
husbandry, permanent settlements and hillforts, linguistic innovations of the common Late PIE
subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. language.
Contact of the Yamna culture with late Neolithic
Europe cultures results in kurganized Globular
Amphora and Baden cultures. Maykop culture
shows earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze
Age; bronze weapons and artifacts introduced.
ca. 3000-2500 BC. The Yamna culture extends Late PIE evolves into dialects, at least a
over the entire Pontic steppe. The Corded Ware Southern and a Northern one. Dialectal
culture extends from the Rhine to the Volga, communities remain still in contact, enabling
corresponding to the latest phase of IE unity. the spread of phonetic and morphological
Different cultures disintegrate, still in loose innovations, and loan words. PAn, spoken in
contact, enabling the spread of technology. Asia Minor, evolves into Common Anatolian.
ca. 2500-2000 BC. The Bronze Age reaches The breakup of the southern IE dialects is
Central Europe with the Beaker culture of complete. Proto-Greek spoken in the Balkans;
Northern Indo-Europeans. Indo-Iranians settle Proto-Indo-Iranian in Central Asia; North-West
north of the Caspian in the Sintashta-Petrovka and Indo-European in Northern Europe; Common
later the Andronovo culture. Anatolian dialects in Anatolia.
ca. 2000-1500 BC. The chariot is invented, leading Indo-Iranian splits up in two main dialects,
to the split and rapid spread of Iranians and other Indo-Aryan and Iranian. European proto-
peoples from the Andronovo culture and the dialects like Germanic, Celtic, Italic, and Balto-
Bactria-Margiana Complex over much of Central Slavic differentiate from each other. Anatolian
Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern Anatolia. languages like Hittite and Luwian are written
Greek Darg Ages and flourishing of the Hittite down; Indo-Iranian attested through Mitanni;
Empire. Pre-Celtic Unetice culture. a Greek dialect, Mycenaean, is already spoken.
ca. 1500-1000 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age sees the Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Baltic and Slavic are
rise of the Germanic Urnfield and the Celtic already different proto-languages, developing
Hallstatt cultures in Central Europe, introducing in turn different dialects. Iranian and other
the Iron Age. Italic peoples move to the Italian related southern dialects expand through
Peninsula. Rigveda is composed. The Hittite military conquest, and Indo-Aryan spreads in
Kingdoms and the Mycenaean civilization decline. the form of its sacred language, Sanskrit.
ca. 1000-500 BC. Northern Europe enters the Pre- Celtic dialects spread over Western Europe,
Roman Iron Age. Early Indo-European Kingdoms German dialects to the south of Jutland. Italic
and Empires in Eurasia. In Europe, Classical languages in the Italian Peninsula. Greek and
Antiquity begins with the flourishing of the Greek Old Italic alphabets appear. Late Anatolian
peoples. Foundation of Rome. dialects. Cimmerian, Scythian and Sarmatian in
Asia, Palaeo-Balkan languages in the Balkans.

1. Introduction
1.5. OTHER LINGUISTIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORIES
1.5.1. A common development of new hypotheses has been to revise the Three-Stage
assumption. It is actually not something new, but the come back to more traditional
views, reinterpreting the new findings of the Hittite scripts, trying to insert Anatolian
into the old, static PIE concept.
1.5.2. The most known new alternative theory concerning PIE is the Glottalic theory. It
assumes that Proto-Indo-European was pronounced more or less like Armenian, i.e.
instead of PIE *p, *b, *bh, the pronunciation would have been *p’, *p, *b, and the same
with the other two voiceless-voiced-voiced aspirated series of consonants. The IE
Urheimat would have been then located in the surroundings of Anatolia, especially near
Lake Urmia, in northern Iran, hence the archaism of Anatolian dialects and the glottalics
found in Armenian.
NOTE. Those linguistic and archaeological findings are supported by Th. Gamkredlize-V. Ivanov
(1990: “The early history of Indo-European languages”, Scientific American, where early Indo-
European vocabulary deemed “of southern regions” is examined, and similarities with Semitic and
Kartvelian languages are also brought to light. This theory has been criticized by Meid (1989)
1.5.3. Alternative theories include:
I. The European Homeland thesis maintains that the common origin of the IE
languages lies in Europe. These theses are more or less driven by Archeological. A.
Häusler (1981, 1986, 1992) continues to defend the hypothesis that places Indo-
European origins in Europe, stating that all the known differentiation emerged in the
continuum from the Rhin to the Urals.
NOTE. It has been traditionally located in 1) Lithuania and the surrounding areas, by R.G.
Latham (1851) and Th. Poesche (1878: Die Arier. Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologie,
Jena); 2) Scandinavia, by K.Penka (1883: Origines ariacae, Viena); 3) Central Europe, by G.
Kossinna (1902: “Die Indogermanische Frage archäologisch beantwortet”, Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie, 34, pp. 161-222), P.Giles (1922: The Aryans, New York), and by linguist/archaeologist
G. Childe (1926: The Aryans. A Study of Indo-European Origins, London).
a. The Old European or Alteuropäisch Theory compares some old European

vocabulary (especially river names), which would be older than the spread of Late PIE
dialects through Northern Europe. It points out the possibility of an older, pre-IE III
45
spread of IE, either of IE II or I or maybe some other Pre-IE dialect. It is usually related
to the PCT and Renfrew’s NDT.
b. The Paleolithic Continuity Theory posits that the advent of IE languages should be
linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper
Paleolithic. The PCT proposes a continued presence of Pre-IE and non-IE peoples and
languages in Europe from Paleolithic times and allowing for minor invasions and
infiltrations of local scope, mainly during the last three millennia.
NOTE. There are some research papers concerning the PCT available at
<http://www.continuitas.com/>. Also, the PCT could in turn be connected with Frederik
Kortlandt’s Indo-Uralic and Altaic studies <http://kortlandt.nl/publications/> – although they
could also be inserted in Gimbutas’ early framework.
On the temporal relationship question, Mallory & Adams (2006): “How early a solution is
admitted depends on individual decisions regarding the temporally most diagnostic vocabulary.
That the vocabulary is clearly one reflecting at least a Neolithic economy and technology, i.e.
domesticated plants and animals, ceramics, means that it cannot be set anywhere on this planet
prior to c. 8000 BC. Although there are still those who propose solutions dating back to the
Palaeolithic, these cannot be reconciled with the cultural vocabulary of the Indo-European
languages. The later vocabulary of Proto-Indo- European hinges on such items as wheeled
vehicles, the plough, wool, which are attested in Proto-Indo-European, including Anatolian. It is
unlikely then that words for these items entered the Proto-Indo-European lexicon prior to about
4000 BC. This is not necessarily a date for the expansion of Indo-European since the area of
Proto-Indo-European speech could have already been in motion by then and new items with their
words might still have passed through the continuum undetected, i.e. treated as inheritances
rather than borrowings. All that can be concluded is that if one wishes to propose a homeland
earlier than about 4000 bc, the harder it is to explain these items of vocabulary”.
c. The PCT is, in turn, related to the theories of a Neolithic revolution causing the
peacefully spreading of an older pre-IE language into Europe from Asia Minor from
around 7000 BC, with the advance of farming. It proposes that the dispersal
(discontinuity) of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia.
NOTE. Reacting to criticism, Renfrew by 1999 revised his proposal to the effect of taking a
pronounced Indo-Hittite position. Renfrew’s revised views place only Pre-Proto-Indo-European in
7th millennium BC Anatolia, proposing as the homeland of Proto-Indo-European proper the
Balkans around 5000 BC, explicitly identified as the “Old European culture” proposed by
Gimbutas.

1. Introduction
As of 2005, Colin Renfrew seems to support the PCT designs and the usefulness of the
Paleolithic assumptions. He co-authored a paper concluding: Our finding lends weight to a
proposed Paleolithic ancestry for modern Europeans The above quotation coming as results of
archaeogenetic research on mtDNA where 150 x greater N1a frequency was found. The first
European farmers are descended from a European population who were present in Europe since
the Paleolithic and not coming as a wave of Neolithic migration as proposed in Renfrew’s NDT.
Talking about these new (old) theories, Adrados (1998) makes an interesting remark about the
relevance that is – wrongly – given to each new personal archaeological ‘revolutionary’ theory:
“[The hypothesis of Colin Renfrew (1987)] is based on ideas about the diffusion of agriculture from
Asia to Europe in [the 5th millennium Neolithic Asia Minor], diffusion that would be united to that
of Indo-Europeans; it doesn’t pay attention at all to linguistic data. The [hypothesis of
Gamkrelidze-Ivanov (1980, etc.)], which places the Homeland in the contact zone between
Caucasian and Semitic peoples, south of the Caucasus, is based on real or supposed lexical loans; it
disregards morphological data altogether, too. Criticism of these ideas – to which people have paid
too much attention – are found, among others, in Meid (1989), Villar (1991), etc.”.
II. Another hypothesis, contrary to the European ones, also mainly driven today by a
nationalistic view, traces back the origin of PIE to Vedic Sanskrit, postulating that it is
very pure, and that the origin of common Proto-Indo-European can thus be traced back
to the Indus Valley Civilization of ca. 3000 BC.
NOTE. Such Pan-Sanskritism was common among early Indo-Europeanists, as Schlegel, Young,
A. Pictet (1877: Les origines indoeuropéens, Paris) or Schmidt (who preferred Babylonia), but are
now mainly supported by those who consider Sanskrit almost equal to Late Proto-Indo-European.
For more on this, see S. Misra (1992: The Aryan Problem: A Linguistic Approach, Delhi), Elst’s
Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate (1999), followed up by S.G. Talageri’s The Rigveda: A
Historical Analysis (2000), both part of “Indigenous Indo-Aryan” viewpoint by N. Kazanas, the
“Out of India” theory, with a framework dating back to the times of the Indus Valley Civilization.
III. The Black Sea deluge theory dates the origin of the expansion of IE dialects in the
genesis of the Sea of Azov, ca. 5600 BC, which would in turn be related to the deluge
myth, which would have remained in oral tails until its description in the biblical story of
Noah’s Ark, the Hindu Puranic story of Manu, through Deucalion in Greek mythology or
Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh. This date is generally considered as rather early
for the PIE spread under frameworks which include the Urheimat near the Black Sea.
47
NOTE. W.Ryan and W.Pitman published evidence that a massive flood through the Bosporus
occurred about 5600 BC, when the rising Mediterranean spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus.
The event flooded 155,000 km² of land and significantly expanded the Black Sea shoreline to the
north and west. This has been connected with the fact that some Early Modern scholars based on
Genesis 10:5 had assumed that the ‘Japhetite’ languages (instead of the ‘Semitic’ ones) are rather
the direct descendants of the Adamic language, having separated before the confusion of tongues,
by which also Hebrew was affected. That was claimed by Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich (18th
c.), who stated in her private revelations that the purest descendants of the Adamic language were
the main Proto-Indo-European dialects, v.i.
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES
1.6.1. Many higher-level relationships between PIE and other language families have
been proposed. But these speculative connections are highly controversial. Perhaps the
most widely accepted proposal is of an Indo-Uralic family, encompassing PIE and Proto-
Uralic, a language from which Hunarian, Finnish, Estonian, Saami and a number of
other languages belong. The evidence usually cited in favor of this is the proximity of the
proposed Urheimaten for both of them, the typological similarity between the two
languages, and a number of apparent shared morphemes.
NOTE. Other proposals, further back in time (and correspondingly less accepted), model PIE as
a branch of Indo-Uralic with a Caucasian substratum; link PIE and Uralic with Altaic and certain
other families in Asia, such as Korean, Japanese, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo-Aleut
(representative proposals are Nostratic and Joseph Greenberg’s Eurasiatic); etc.
1.6.2. Indo-Uralic or Uralo-Indo-European is therefore a hypothetical language family

consisting of Indo-European and Uralic (i.e. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic). Most linguists
still consider this theory speculative and its evidence insufficient to conclusively prove
genetic affiliation.
NOTE. Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt supports a model of Indo-Uralic in which its speakers
lived north of the Caspian Sea, and Proto-Indo-Europeans began as a group that branched off
westward from there to come into geographic proximity with the Northwest Caucasian languages,
absorbing a Northwest Caucasian lexical blending before moving farther westward to a region
north of the Black Sea where their language settled into canonical Proto-Indo-European.

1. Introduction
The problem with lexical evidence is to weed out words due to borrowing, because Uralic
languages have been in contact with Indo-European languages for millennia, and consequently
borrowed many words from them.
1.6.3. The most common arguments in favour of a relationship between Early PIE and
Uralic are based on seemingly common elements of morphology, such as:
Meaning Early PIE Proto-Uralic

“I, me” *me, “me” (Acc.), *mene, “my” (Gen.) *mun, *mina, “I”
“you” (sg) *tu (Nom.), *twe (Acc.), *tewe “your” (Gen.) *tun, *tina
1st P. singular *-m *-m
1st P. plural *-me *-me
2nd P. singular *-s (active), *-tHa (perfect) *-t
2nd P. plural *-te *-te
Demonstrative *so, “this, he/she” (animate nom) *ša (3rd person singular)
Interr. pron. *kwi-, “who?, what?”; *kwo-, “who?, what?” *ken, “who?”, *ku-,
(An.) “who?”
Relative pronoun *jo- *-ja (nomen agentis)
Accusative *-m *-m
Ablative/partitive *-od *-ta
Nom./Acc. plural *-es (Nom. pl.), *-m̥-s (Acc. pl.) *-t
Oblique plural *-i (pronominal pl., cf. we-i- “we”, to-i- “those”) *-i
Dual *-H₁ *-k
Stative *-s- (aorist); *-es-, *-t (stative substantive) *-ta
Negative particle *nei, *ne *ei- [negative verb] , *ne
“to give” *deh3- *toHe-
“to wet”,“water” *wed-, “to wet’”, *wodr̥-, “water” *weti, “water”
“water” *mesg-, “dip under water, dive” *muśke-, “wash”
“to assign”, *nem-, “to assign, to allot”, *h1nomn̥-, “name” *nimi, “name”
“name”
“metal” *h2weseh2-, “gold” *waśke, “some metal”
“trade” *mei-, “exchange” *miHe-, “give, sell”
“fish” *(s)kwalo-, “large fish” *kala, “fish”
“sister-in-law” *galou-, “husband's sister” *kälɜ, “sister-in-law”
“much” *polu-, “much” *paljɜ, “thick, much”
49
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
Languages of Europe. The black line divides the zones traditionally (or politically)
considered inside the European subcontinent. Northern dialects are all but Greek and
Kurdish (Iranian); Armenian is usually considered a Graeco-Aryan dialect, while
Albanian is usually classified as a Northern one. Numbered inside the map, non-Indo-
European languages: 1) Uralic languages; 2) Turkic languages; 3) Basque; 4) Maltese;
5) Caucasian languages.
SCHLEICHER’S FABLE: FROM PIE TO MODERN ENGLISH

The so-called Schleicher's fable is a poem composed in PIE, published by August Schleicher in
1868, originally named “The Sheep and the Horses”. It is written here in the different
reconstructible IE dialects for comparison.
The immediate parent dialect of each proto-language is enclosed in parentheses.

1. Introduction
A Common PIE version (ca. 3500 BC?): H3owis h1ekwōs-kwe. • H3owis, kwesjo wl̥h1neh2 ne h1est,
• h1ekwoms spekét, • h1oinom gwr̥h3úm woghom wéghontm̥, • h1oinom-kwe megeh2m bhorom, •
h1oinom-kwe dhh1ghmonm̥ h1oh1ku bhérontm̥. • H3owis nu h1ékwobhjos weukwét: • “Kr̥d h2éghnutoi
h1moí, • h1ekwoms h2égontm̥ wih1róm wídn̥tei”. • H1ekwōs tu weukwónt: “Kludhí, h3owi! • kr̥d
h2éghnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tbhjos: • h2ner, potis, h3owjom-r̥ wl̥h1neh2m̥ • swebhei gwhermom westrom
kwr̥neuti”. • H3owjom-kwe wl̥hneh2 ne h1esti. • Tod kékluwos h3owis h2egrom bhugét.
Common Anatolian (PAn), 2500 BC Europe’s IE (IE IIIb), ca. 2500 BC

Howis ekwōs-kwe. Owis ekwōs-kwe.
Howis, kwesjo wl̥neh ne est, Owis, kwesjo wl̥̄nā ne est,
ekwons spekét, ekwons spekét,
oikom gwr̥rúm wogom wégontm̥, oinom gwr̥úm woghom wéghontm̥,
oikom-kwe megehm borom, oinom-kwe megām bhorom,
oikom-kwe dgomonm̥ oku bérontm̥. oinom-kwe dhghomonm̥ ōkú bhérontm̥.
Howis nu ékwobos wūkwét: Owis nu ékwobhos weukwét:
“Kr̥di xégnutor moi, “Kr̥di ághnutoi moi,
ekwons xégontm̥ wiróm wídn̥tę”. ekwons ágontm̥ wīróm wídn̥tei”.
Ekwōs tu weukwónt: “Kludí, howi! Ekwōs tu weukwónt: “Kludhi, owi!
kr̥di hegnutor n̥smę wídn̥tbos: kr̥di ághnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tbhjos:
hner, potis, howjom-r̥ wl̥nehm ner, potis, owjom-r̥ wl̥̄nām
swebę gwermom wéstrom kwr̥nūdi”. sebhei gwhormom westrom kwr̥neuti”.
Howjom-kwe wl̥neh ne esti. Owjom-kwe wl̥̄nā ne esti.
Tod kékluwos howis hegrom bugét. Tod kékluwos owis agrom bhugét.
Proto-Aryan (IE IIIa), ca. 2500 BC Proto-Greek (IE IIIa), ca. 2500 BC
Awis aķwās-ka. Owis ekwoi-kwe.
Awis, kasja wr̥̄nā na āst, Ówis, kweho wl̥̄nā ne ēst,
akwans spaķát, ekwons spekét,
aikam gr̥úm wagham wághantm̥, oiwom kwhr̥um wokhom wekhontm̥,
aikam-ka magham bharam, oiwom-kwe megām phorom,
aikam-ka dhghámanm̥ āķu bharantm̥. oiwom-kwe khthómonm̥ ōku phérontm̥.
Awis nu áķwabhjas áwaukat: Ówis nu ékwophos éweukwet:
“Ķr̥di ághnutai mai, “Kr̥di ákhnutoi moi,
aķwans aģantam wīrám wídn̥tai”. ekwons ágontm̥ wīróm wídn̥tei”.
Áķwās tu áwawkant: “Ķrudhí avi! Ékwoi tu éwewekwont: “Kluthi, owi!
ķr̥d ághnutai n̥smái wídn̥tbhjas: kr̥d ágnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tphos:
nar, patis, awjam-r̥ wr̥̄nām anér, potis, owjom-r̥ wl̥̄nām
swabhi gharmam wastram kr̥nauti”. sephei kwhermom westrom kwr̥neuti”.
Awjam-ka wr̥̄nā na asti. Owjom-kwe wl̥̄nā ne esti.
Tat ķáķruwas awis aģram ábhugat. Tot kékluwos owis agrom éphuget.
51
Proto-Celtic (ca. 1000 BC) Proto-Italic (ca. 1000 BC)

Owis ekwoi-kwe. Owis ekwoi-kwe.
Owis, kwesjo wlānā ne est, Owis, kwesjo wlānā ne est,
ekwōs spekét, ekwōs spekét,
oinom barúm woxom wéxontam, oinom grāwúm woxom wéxontem,
oinom-kwe megam borom, oinom-kwe megam φorom,
oinom-kwe dxoniom āku berontam. oinom-kwe xomonem ōku φerontem.
Owis nu ékwobos weukwét: Owis nu ékwoφos weukwét:
“Kridi áxnutor mai, “Kordi axnutor mei,
ekwōs ágontom wīróm wídanti”. ekwōs ágontom wīróm wídentei”.
Ekwoi tu wewkwónt: “Kludi, owi! Ekwoi tu wewkwónt: “Kluþi, owi!
kridi áxnutor ansméi wídantbjos: kordi axnutor ensméi wídentφos:
ner, φotis, owjom-ar wlānām ner, potis, owjom-or wlānām
sebi gwormom westrom kwarneuti”. seφei ghormom westrom kworneuti”.
Owjom-kwe wlānā ne esti. Owjom-kwe wlānā ne esti.
Tod kéklowos owis agrom bugét. Tud kékluwos owis agrom φugít.
Pre-Proto-Germanic (ca. 1000 BC) Proto-Balto-Slavic (ca. 1000 BC)

Awiz exwaz-xwe. Awis eķwōs-ke.
Awiz, hwes wulnō ne est, Awis, kesja wilnā ne est,
ehwanz spexét, eķwas speķét,
ainan karún wagan wéganðun, ainan grun waģan wéģantun,
ainan-xwe mekon baran, ainan-ke meģan baran,
ainan-xwe gúmanan āxu béranðun. ainan-ke ģumanan ōķu bérantun
Awiz nu éxwamaz weuxwéð: Awis nu eķwamas wjaukét:
“Hurti ágnuðai mei, “Ķirdi ágnutei mei,
exwanz ákanðun werán wítanðī”. eķwans ágantun wirán wíduntei”.
Exwaz tu wewxwant: “Hludi, awi! Eķwōs tu wjaukunt: “Ķludi, awi!
hurti áknuðai unsmí wítunðmaz: ķirdi ágnutei insméi wídūntmas:
ner, faþiz, awjan-aur wulnōn ner, patis, awjam-ir wilnān
sibī warman wesþran hwurneuþi”. sebi gormom westran kirnjautĭ”.
Awjan-xwe wulnō ne isti. Áwjam-ke wilnā ne esti.
Þat héxluwaz awiz akran bukéþ. Ta ķéķluwas awis agram bugít.
Translation: « The Sheep and the Horses. • A sheep that had no wool • saw horses, • one pulling
a heavy wagon, • one carrying a big load, • and one carrying a man quickly. • The sheep said to
the horses: • “My heart pains me, • seeing a man driving horses”. • The horses said: “Listen,
sheep, • our hearts pain us when we see this: • a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep •
into a warm garment for himself. • And the sheep has no wool”. • Having heard this, the sheep
fled into the plain. »

1. Introduction
1.7.1. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
I. NORTH-WEST OR EUROPE’S INDO-EUROPEAN
The North-West Indo-European dialect continuum, also Europe’s Indo-European, was

spoken in the European Subcontinent in the centuries on either side of 2500 BC,
evolving into the Pre-Celtic, Pre-Italic, Pre-Latin (probably within Pre-Italic), Pre-
Germanic, Pre-Baltic, Pre-Slavic (or Pre-Balto-Slavic) IE dialects, among others. Its
original common location is usually traced back to some place to the East of the Rhine, to
the North of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains, to the South of Scandinavia and to
the East of the Eastern European Lowlands or Russian Plain, not beyond Moscow.
The Corded Ware complex

of cultures traditionally
represents for many scholars
the arrival of the first
speakers of Northern Dialects
in central Europe, coming
from the Yamna culture. The
complex dates from about
3200-2300 BC. The Globular
Amphorae culture may be Europe ca. 3200-2300 BC . The Germanic homeland is
usually traced back to Jutland and southern
slightly earlier, but the Scandinavia; present-day Germany was the
relation between these homeland for Celtic and Italic; the Eastern zone
corresponds to Balto-Slavic. Beekes (1995).
cultures remains unclear.
NOTE. According to Adrados (1998), “[o]ne has to distinguish, in this huge geographical space,
different locations. We have already talked about the situation of Germans to the West, and by
their side, Celtic, Latin and Italic speakers; Balts and Slavs to the East, the former to the North of
the later. See, among others, works by Bonfante (1983, 1984), about the old location of Baltic and
Slavic-speaking communities. Isoglosses of different chronology let us partially reconstruct the
language history. Note that the output obtained with Phonetics and Morphology match up
essentially those of Porzig, who worked with Lexica”.
53
Kortlandt (1989), also considers that “[i]t is possible that the speakers of Italo-Celtic must be
assigned to the Globular Amphora culture, and that Germanic grew out of a later component of the
Corded Ware horizon (…) The Indo-Europeans who remained after the migrations became
speakers of Balto-Slavic. If the speakers of the other satem languages can be assigned to the
Yamnaya horizon and the western Indo-Europeans to the Corded Ware horizon, it is attractive to
assign the ancestors of the Balts and the Slavs to the Middle Dnieper culture [an eastern extension
of the Corded Ware culture, of northern Ukraine and Belarus]. If the origin of this culture “is to be
sought in the Sredny Stog, Yamnaya and Late Tripolye cultures” and this phase is “followed by a
middle period where the classic Corded Ware amphorae and beakers appear” (Mallory 1989: 248),
the course of events corresponds nicely with the development of a satem language which was
drawn into the western Indo-European sphere of influence”. Similarly, Adrados (1980) about the
dialectal situation of Slavic (under a linguistic point of view): “To a layer of archaisms, shared or
not with other languages (…) Slavic added different innovations, some common to Baltic. Some of
them are shared with Germanic, as the oblique cases in -m and feminine participle; others with
Indo-Iranian, so satemization, Ruki sound law (more present in Slavic than in Baltic) (…) Most
probably, those common characteristics come from a recent time, from secondary contacts
between IE III B [=Northern IE] (whose rearguard was formed by Balto-Slavs) and A [=Southern
IE] (in a time when Greeks were not in contact anymore, they had already migrated to Greece)”.
On the archaeological quest for the Urheimat, Mallory & Adams (2006) make a complete
summary of the different frameworks and models used. About the Retrospective Method, still
favoured by many linguists, it is the “method where one examines those archaeological cultures
that must have been associated with different Indo-European language groups and attempts to
work backwards to the ‘proto-culture’. The unit of analysis here is the so-called ‘archaeological
culture’, a classification device employed by archaeologists to deal with similar and geographically
confined material culture and behaviour (…) Many of the language groups of Europe, i.e. Celtic,
Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic, may possibly be traced back to the Corded Ware horizon of northern,
central, and eastern Europe that flourished c. 3200-2300 BC. Some would say that the Iron Age
cultures of Italy might also be derived from this cultural tradition. For this reason the Corded
Ware culture is frequently discussed as a prime candidate for early Indo-European”.
Italic (with Latin), Celtic and Germanic are usually classified within a common West
Indo-European nucleus. Balto-Slavic, on the other hand, is usually placed somewhere
outside that West IE core, but always in close contact with it, as a North-West Indo-
European dialect. Linguists have pointed out language contacts of Italic with Celtic,

1. Introduction
Celtic with Germanic, and Germanic with Balto-Slavic. Southern dialectal isoglosses
affect Balto-Slavic and Tocharian, and only partially Germanic and Latin.
NOTE 1. Celtic too shares isoglosses with Southern dialects, according to Meier-Brügger (2003):
“Celtic contacts with eastern Indo-Europe are ancient. Compare the case, among others, of relative
pronouns, which in Celtic, contrarily to the Italic *kwo-/*kwi-, is represented by *Hi̯o-, a
characteristic that it shares with Greek, Phrygian, Indo-Iranian and Slavic”. Even though
classifications of early proto-languages may vary depending on different criteria, they all have a
known common origin, which is generally easier to reconstruct than their dialectal groupings. For
example, if we had only some texts of Old French, Old Spanish and Old Portuguese, Mediaeval
Italian and Modern Romanian and Catalan, then Vulgar Latin (ca. 200 AD) – i.e. the features of
the common language spoken by all Romance speakers, not the older, artificial, literary Classical
Latin (ca. 100 BC) still less Old Latin (ca. 700 BC) – could be easily reconstructed, but the dialectal
groups not. In fact, the actual groupings of the Romance languages are controversial, even
knowing well enough Archaic, Classic and Vulgar Latin, and the history of Romance languages.
Hence the difficulties in reconstructing and grouping individual North-West IE dialects, but the
certainty in reconstructing a common North-West or Europe’s Indo-European language using raw
linguistics, better explained if combined with archaeological data.
NOTE 2. On the inclusion of Pre-Latin IE within West Indo-Europe, against it there are some
archaeological and linguistic theories (see Szemerényi, Colin Renfrew; v.s. for J.P. Mallory);
Polomé (1983) & Schmidt (1984) say innovations common to Celtic and Germanic (later than
those common to Celtic, Latin and Germanic), come from a time when Latin peoples had already
migrated to the Italian peninsula. On the unity of Proto-Italic and Proto-Latin, Adrados (1998):
“dubious is the old unity scheme, no doubt only partial, between Latin and Osco-Umbrian, which
has been rejected by famous Italian linguists, relating every coincidence to recent contacts. I am
not so sure about that, as the common innovations are big; cf. Beeler 1966, who doesn’t however
dispel the doubts. Obviously, according to the decision taken, there are different historical
consequences. If one thinks that both linguistic groups come from the North, through the Alps (cf.
Tovar 1950), from the end of the 2nd millennium, a previous unity can be proposed. But authors
like Devoto (1962) or Szemerényi (1962) made Latin peoples come from the East, through Apulia”.
There has been a continued archaeological and (especially) linguistic support by mainstream IE
studies to the derivation of Italic (and Latin) from a West Indo-European core, even after critics to
the old Italo-Celtic concept (C. Watkins Italo-Celtic Revisited, 1963, K.H. Schmidt Latein und
Keltisch, 1986); see Porzig (1954), Dressler (1971), Tovar (1970), Pisani (1974), Lehmann (1974),
Bonfante (1983, 1984), Beekes (1995), Adrados, Bernabé, Mendoza (1998), etc.; on the
archaeological question, see Ghirshman (1977), Thomas (1984), Gimbutas (1985), Harall (1995),…
55
Evolution of the reconstructed laryngeals of Proto-Indo-European in Europe’s Indo-

European include these vowel colourizations and compensatory lengthenings:
• PIE *H1, the neutral laryngeal: *h1a→a, *h1e→e, *h1o→o; *ah1→ā, *eh1→ē, *oh1→ō.
• PIE *H2, the a-colouring laryngeal: *h2a→a, *h2e→a, *h2o→a; *ah2→ā, *eh2→ā.
• PIE *H3, the o-colouring laryngeal: h3e→o, h3o→o; eh3→ō, oh3→ō.
• Often, but not always, interconsonantal H → a; as, *ph2tḗr → patḗr (cf. PII pitr).
• PIH *r̥H→r̥̄, *l̥H→l̥̄, *n̥H→n̥̄, *m̥H→m̥̄; also, iH→ī, uH→ū.
• PIH *H before consonants → EIE Ø; cf. PIE *h1dent-, EIE dentis (cf. PGk
odōnts), “tooth”; PIE *h2stér-, EIE stḗr (cf. PGk astḗr), etc.
NOTE. The question is often made the other way round in IE studies, i.e. “according to these
vowels reconstructed for North-West Indo-European, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, which
combination of laryngeal+vowel or vowel+laryngeal could make them all fit into a common
mother-language?” For clarity purposes, Common PIE is taken in this book as example for the
phonology of early dialects, but enough certainty in vocalism (for language revival purposes) is to
be found only in EIE, PGk and PII; exact regularity or congruence of a common Proto-Indo-
European phonology is neither necessary nor searched for, as there are many variations in the
laryngeal theories proposed by scholars, who reconstruct from just one (Szemerényi) to eight
(Puhvel) or nine (Adrados); a general reconstruction of three laryngeals is used here for its
simplicity and wide acceptance today. For more on this see Appendix II.3, The Laryngeal Theory.
A. GERMANIC
The Germanic languages

form one of the branches
of the Indo-European
language family. The
largest Germanic
languages are English and
German, with ca. 340 and
some 120 million native
speakers, respectively.
Other significant languages Spread of Germanic languages today.
include Low Germanic dialects (like Dutch) and the Scandinavian languages.

1. Introduction
Their common ancestor is Proto-Germanic, probably still spoken in the mid-1st

millennium B.C. in Iron Age Northern Europe, since its separation from an earlier Pre-
Proto-Germanic, a dialect of Europe’s Indo-European branch dated ca. 1500-500 BC.
The succession of archaeological horizons suggests that before their language
differentiated into the individual Germanic branches the Proto-Germanic speakers lived
in southern Scandinavia and along the coast from the Netherlands in the west to the
Vistula in the east around 750 BC. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the
Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman
Empire from the 2nd century.
NOTE. A few surviving
inscriptions in a runic script
from Scandinavia dated to ca.
200 are thought to represent a
later stage of Proto-Norse;
according to Bernard Comrie, it
represents a Late Common
Germanic which followed the
“Proto-Germanic” stage. Several
historical linguists have pointed
Expansion of Germanic tribes 1200 BC - 1 AD.
towards the apparent material
and social continuity connecting the cultures of the Nordic Bronze Age (1800-500 BCE) and the
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BCE - 1 CE) as having implications in regard to the stability and later
development of the Germanic language group. Lehmann (1977) writes “Possibly the most
important conclusion based on archeological evidence with relevance for linguistic purposes is the
assumption of 'one huge cultural area' which was undisturbed for approximately a thousand years,
roughly from 1500-500 BC Such a conclusion in a stable culture permits inferences concerning
linguistic stability, which are important for an interpretation of the Germanic linguistic data”.
Also, on setting the upper boundary of a comprehensive description of Proto-Germanic grammar,
Lehmann (2005) wrote: “a grammar of Proto-Germanic must be a description of the language
from approximately 2500 BC to the beginning of the common era”.
The earliest evidence of the Germanic branch is recorded from names in the 1st century
by Tacitus, and in a single instance in the 2nd century BC, on the Negau helmet. From
roughly the 2nd century AD, some speakers of early Germanic dialects developed the
Elder Futhark. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited to personal names, and
57
difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed
by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the 4th century. Later, Christian
priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic tongue
began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters, but in
Scandinavia, runic alphabets remained in common use throughout the Viking Age.
The so-called Grimm’s law is a set of statements describing the inherited Europe’s
Indo-European stops as they developed in Pre-Proto-Germanic. As it is presently
formulated, Grimm’s Law
consists of three parts,
which must be thought of
as three consecutive
phases in the sense of a
Negau helmet. It reads (from right to left):
chain shift: harikastiteiva\\\ip, “Harigast the priest”.
• PIE voiceless stops change into PGmc. voiceless fricatives: p→f, t→θ, k→x, kw→xw.
• PIE voiced stops become PGmc. voiceless stops: b→p, d→t, g→k, gw→kw.
• PIE voiced aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced
stops: bh→b, dh→d, gh→g, gwh→gw,g,w.
Verner’s Law addresses a category of exceptions, stating that unvoiced fricatives are
voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable: PGmc. s→z, f→v, θ→ð; as, EIE bhratēr
→ PGmc. brōþēr, “brother”, but EIE mātḗr → PGmc. mōðēr “mother”.
NOTE 1. W. P. Lehmann (1961) considered that Jacob Grimm’s “First Germanic Sound Shift”, or
Grimm’s Law and Verner's Law, which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for a
good many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic, were Pre-Proto-Germanic, and that the
“upper boundary” was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically the
first. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch accent comprising “an alternation of
high and low tones” as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths
of the word's syllables.
The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the “lower
boundary” was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, PIE woid-á >,
Goth. wait, “knows” (the > and < signs in linguistics indicate a genetic descent). Antonsen (1965)
agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not

1. Introduction
dropped: Gmc. ékwakraz ... wraita, “I wakraz ... wrote (this)”. He says: “We must therefore
search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic”.
NOTE 2. Sometimes the shift produced allophones (consonants that were pronounced
differently) depending on the context of the original. With regard to original PIE k and kw, Trask
(2000) says that the resulting PGmc. x and xw were reduced to h and hw in word-initial position.
Consonants were lengthened or prolonged under some circumstances, appearing in some
daughter languages as geminated graphemes. Kraehenmann (2003) states that Proto-Germanic
already had long consonants, but they contrasted with short ones only word-medially. Moreover,
they were not very frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels.
The phonemes b, d, g and gw, says Ringe (2006) were stops in some environments and fricatives
in others.
Effects of the aforementioned sound laws include the following examples:
• p→f: EIE pods “foot”, PGmc. fōts; cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz.
• t→þ,ð: EIE tritjós “third”, PGmc. þriðjaz; cf. Goth. þridja, O.N. þriðe, OE. þridda,
O.H.G. dritto.
• k→x,h: EIE kwon “dog”, PGmc. xunðaz; cf. Goth. hunds, O.N. hundr, O.E. hund,
O.H.G. hunt.
• kw→xw,hw: EIE kwos “what, who”, Gmc. hwoz; cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe,
O.E. hwā, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G. hwër.
• b→p: EIE werbō “throw”, Gmc. werpō; cf. Goth. wairpan, O.S. werpan, O.N. verpa,
O.E. weorpan, M.L.G., Du. werpen, Ger. werfen.
• d→t: EIE dekm̥ “ten”, Gmc. tehun; cf. Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, O.Fris.
tian, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zehan.
• g→k: EIE gelu “ice”, Gmc. kaldaz; cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, O.H.G. kalt.
• gw→kw: EIE gwīwós “alive”, Gmc. kwi(k)waz; cf. Goth. kwius, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwic,
O.H.G. quec.
• bh→b: EIE bhrātēr “brother”, Gmc. brōþēr; cf. Goth. bróþar, O.N. brōþir, O.E.
brōþor, O.H.G. bruoder.
• dh→d: EIE dhworis “door”, Gmc. duriz; cf. Goth. daúr, O.N. dyrr, O.E duru, O.H.G.
turi.
59
• gh→g: EIE ghansis “goose”, Gmc. gansiz; cf. Goth gansus, O.N. gās, O.E. gōs,
O.H.G. gans.
• gwh→gw/g/w: EIE gwhormos “warm”, Gmc. warmaz; cf. O.N. varmr, O.E. wearm,
O.H.G. warm. EIE gwhondos “fight”, Gmc. gandaz; cf. Goth. gunþs, O.N. gandr,
O.E. gūþ, O.H.G. gund.
A known exception is that the

voiceless stops did not become
fricatives if they were preceded
by PIE s., i.e. sp, st, sk, skw.
Similarly, PIE t did not become
a fricative if it was preceded by
p, k, or kw. This is sometimes
treated separately under the
Germanic spirant law.
EIE vowels: a,o→a; EIE

ā,ō→ō. PGmc. had then short i,
u, e, a, and long ī, ū, ē, ō, ǣ?
NOTE 1. Similar mergers
happened in the Slavic languages,
but in the opposite direction. At the Germanic dialects in Europe. The line
time of the merge, the vowels dividesWestern from Northern dialects.
probably were [ɒ] and [ɒ:] before their timbres differentiated into maybe [ɑ] and [ɔ:].
NOTE 2. PGmc. ǣ and ē are also transcribed as ē1 and ē2; ē2 is uncertain as a phoneme, and only
reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative method because
whereas all probable instances of inherited EIE ē (PGmc. *ē1) are distributed in Gothic as ē and
the other Germanic languages as ā, all the Germanic languages agree on some occasions of ē (e.g.
PGmc. hē2r → Goth.,O.E.,O.N. hēr, “here”). Krahe treats ē2 (secondary ē) as identical with ī. It
probably continues EIE ei or ēi, and it may have been in the process of transition from a
diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-Germanic period. Gothic makes no orthographic
and therefore presumably no phonetic distinction between ē1 and ē2. The existence of two Proto-
Germanic [e:]-like phonemes is supported by the existence of two e-like Elder Futhark runes,
Ehwaz and Eihwaz.

1. Introduction
B. LATIN
The Romance languages,

a major branch of the
Indo-European language
family, comprise all
languages that descended
from Latin, the language
of the Roman Empire.
Romance languages have
some 800 million native
Regions where Romance languages are spoken, either speakers worldwide, mainly
as mother tongue or as second language.
in the Americas, Europe, and
Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through the world. The largest
languages are Spanish and Portuguese, with about 400 and 200 million mother tongue
speakers respectively, most of them outside Europe. Within Europe, French (with 80
million) and Italian (70 million) are the largest ones. All Romance languages descend
from Vulgar Latin, the language of soldiers, settlers, and slaves of the Roman Empire,
which was substantially different from the Classical Latin of the Roman literati. Between
200 BC and 100 AD, the expansion of the Empire, coupled with administrative and
educational policies of Rome, made Vulgar Latin the dominant native language over a
wide area spanning from the Iberian Peninsula to the Western coast of the Black Sea.
During the Empire’s decadence and after its collapse and fragmentation in the 5th
century, Vulgar Latin evolved independently within each
local area, and eventually diverged into dozens of
distinct languages. The oversea empires established by
Spain, Portugal and France after the 15th century then
spread Romance to the other continents — to such
an extent that about two thirds of all Romance
speakers are now outside Europe.
Latin is usually classified, along with Faliscan, as an

The Duenos (O.Lat. duenus, Lat.
Italic dialect. The Italic speakers were not native to
buenus) Inscription in Old Latin,
ca. 6 th century BC.
61
Italy, but migrated into the Italian Peninsula in the course of the 2nd millennium BC, and
were apparently related to the Celtic tribes that roamed over a large part of Western
Europe at the time. Archaeologically, the Apennine culture of inhumations enters the
Italian Peninsula from ca. 1350 BC, east to west; the Iron Age reaches Italy from ca. 1100
BC, with the Villanovan culture (cremating), intruding north to south. Before the Italic
arrival, Italy was populated primarily by non-Indo-European groups (perhaps including
the Etruscans). The first settlement on the Palatine hill dates to ca. 750 BC, settlements
on the Quirinal to 720 BC, both related to the Founding of Rome. As Rome extended its
political dominion over Italy, Latin became dominant over the other Italic languages,
which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the 1st century AD.
Italic is usually divided into:
• Sabellic, including:
o Oscan, spoken in south-
central Italy.
o Umbrian group:
 Umbrian.
 Volscian.
 Aequian.
 Marsian.
 South Picene.
• Latino-Faliscan, including:
o Faliscan, spoken in the area
around Falerii Veteres, north
of the city of Rome.
o Latin, spoken in west-central
Italy. The Roman conquests
eventually spread it Iron Age Italy, ca 800 BC. In central Italy,
Italic languages. In southern and north-
throughout the Roman western Italy, other Indo-European languages.
Empire and beyond. Venetic, Sicanian and Sicel were possibly IE.
The ancient Venetic language, as revealed by its inscriptions (including complete

sentences), was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes even

1. Introduction
classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western Indo-
European branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an
independent IE language.
Phonetic changes from EIE to Latin include: bh→f/b, dh→f/b, gh→h/f, gw→w/g,
kw→kw/k, p→p/kw.
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from

Umbrian and Faliscan inscriptions dating to the 7th
century BC. The alphabets used are based on the Old
Italic alphabet, which is itself based on the Greek
alphabet. The Italic languages themselves show minor
influence from the Etruscan and somewhat more from
the Ancient Greek languages.
Oscan had much in common with Latin, though there

are also some differences, and many common word-
groups in Latin were represented by different forms;
as, Lat. uolo, uelle, uolui, and other such forms from
PIE wel-, will, were represented by words derived
from gher-, desire, cf. Osc. herest, “he wants, desires”
as opposed to Lat. uult (id.). Lat. locus, “place” was
absent and represented by Osc. slaagid.
In phonology, Oscan also shows a different evolution,

as EIE kw→ Osc. p instead of Lat. kw (cf. Osc. pis, Lat. Forum inscription in Latin,
written boustrophedon.
quis); EIE gw → Osc. b instead of Latin w; EIE medial bh,
dh → Osc. f, in contrast to Lat. b or d (cf. Osc. mefiai, Lat. mediae); etc.
NOTE. A specimen of Faliscan appears written round the edge of a picture on a patera: “foied
vino pipafo, cra carefo”, which in Old Latin would have been “hodie vinom bibabo, cras carebo”,
translated as “today I will drink wine; tomorrow I won't have any” (R. S. Conway, Italic
Dialects). Among other distinctive features, it shows the retention of medial f which in Latin
became b, and evolution of EIE gh→f (fo-, contrast Lat. ho-).
Hence the reconstructed changes of North-West Indo-European into Proto-Italic:
• Voiced labiovelars unround or lenite: gw→g/w, gwh→gh.
63
• Voiced aspirates become first unvoiced, then fricativize: bh→ph→ɸ→f; dh→th→θ;

gh→kh→x.
NOTE. About PIE intervocalic gh → Ita. x, linguists (see Joseph & Wallace 1991) generally
propose that it evolves as Faliscan g or k, while in Latin it becomes glottal h, without a change of
manner of articulation. Picard (1993) rejects that proposal citing abstract phonetic principles,
which Chela-Flores (1999) argues citing examples of Spanish phonology.
• EIE s → Ita. θ before r (cf. Ita. kereθrom, Lat. cerebrum); unchanged elsewhere.
Up to 8 cases are found; apart from the 6 cases of Classic Latin (i.e. N-V-A-G-D-Ab),
there was a Locative (cf. Lat. proxumae viciniae, domī, carthagini; Osc. aasai, Lat. “in
ārā” etc.) and an Instrumental (cf. Columna Rostrata Lat. pugnandod, marid, naualid,
etc; Osc. cadeis amnud, Lat. “inimicitiae causae”; Osc. preiuatud, Lat. “prīuātō”, etc.).
About forms different from original Genitives and Datives, compare Genitive (Lapis
Satricanus:) Popliosio Valesiosio (the type in -ī is also very old, Segomaros -i), and Dative
(Praeneste Fibula:) numasioi, (Lucius Cornelius Scipio Epitaph:) quoiei.
C. CELTIC
The Celtic languages

are the languages
descended from Proto-
Celtic, or “Common
Celtic”, an Indo-
European proto-
language.
During the 1st

millennium BC,
especially between the 5th
and 2nd centuries BC they
were spoken across
Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples: maximal
Europe, from the southwest
expansion (ca. 200 BC) and modern “Celtic nations” and
of the Iberian Peninsula Celtic-speaking territories.
and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper

1. Introduction
Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today, Celtic languages are now limited
to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the peninsula of Brittany in France.
The distinction of Celtic into different sub-families probably occurred about 1000 BC.
The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the La
Tène culture, and the Hallstatt culture.
Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences
between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the
Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting
most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group – except for Celtiberian,
which is Q-Celtic.
NOTE. There are two
competing schemata of
categorization. One
scheme, argued for by
Schmidt (1988) among
others, links Gaulish
with Brythonic in a P-
Celtic node, leaving
Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The
difference between P
and Q languages is the
treatment of EIE kw,
which became *p in the
Hallstatt core territory (ca. 800 BC) and its influence (ca. 500
P-Celtic languages but BC); and La Tène culture (ca. 450) and its influence (ca. 50
*k in Goidelic. An BC). Some major Celtic tribes have been labeled.
example is the Cel. verbal root kwrin- “to buy”, which became Welsh pryn-, but O.Ir. cren-.
The other scheme links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while
Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the ‘P-
Celtic’ sound change of [kw] to [p] occurred independently or regionally. The proponents of the
Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages,
including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic [m] to [β̃], a
nasalized voiced bilabial fricative (an extremely rare sound), etc. There is, however, no assumption
that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common “Proto-Continental Celtic” ancestor.
65
Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually consider Celtiberian the first branch to split
from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.
Known PIE evolutions into Proto-Celtic include:
• Consonants: p →ɸ→h→Ø in initial and intervocalic positions. Cel. ɸs→xs, ɸt→xt

NOTE. EIE p was lost in Proto-Celtic, apparently going through the stages ɸ (perhaps in Lus.
porcos, v.i.) and h (perhaps attested by the toponym Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before
being lost completely word-initially and between vowels. EIE sp- became Old Irish s and
Brythonic f; while Schrijver (1995) argues there was an intermediate stage sɸ- (in which ɸ
remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and
Brythonic), McCone (1996) finds it more economical to believe that sp- remained unchanged in
PC, that is, the change p to ɸ did not happen when s preceded.
• Aspirated: dh→d, bh→b, gh→x, gwh→gw; but gw→b.

• Vowels: ō → ā, ū (in final syllable); ē→ī; EIE u-w → Cel. o-w.
• Diphthongs: āi→ai, ēi→ei, ōi→oi; āu→au, ēu,ōu→ou.
• Sonorants: l̥→la, li (before stops); r̥ → ar, ri (before stops); m̥ → am; n̥ → an.
Italo-Celtic refers to the hypothesis that Italic and Celtic dialects are descended from a
common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, at a stage post-dating Proto-Indo-European. Since
both Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic date to the early Iron Age (say, the centuries on either
side of 1000 BC), a probable time frame for the assumed period of language contact
would be the late Bronze Age, the early to mid 2nd millennium BC. Such grouping is
supported among others by Meillet (1890), and Kortlandt (2007).
NOTE. One argument for Italo-Celtic was the thematic Genitive in i (dominus, domini). Both in
Italic (Popliosio Valesiosio, Lapis Satricanus) and in Celtic (Lepontic, Celtiberian -o), however,
traces of PIE gentivie -osjo have been discovered, so that the spread of the i-Genitive could have
occurred in the two groups independently, or by areal diffusion. The community of -ī in Italic and
Celtic may be then attributable to early contact, rather than to an original unity. The i-Genitive has
been compared to the so-called Cvi formation in Sanskrit, but that too is probably a comparatively
late development.
Other arguments include that both Celtic and Italic have collapsed the PIE Aorist and Perfect
into a single past tense, and the ā-subjunctive, because both Italic and Celtic have a subjunctive
descended from an earlier optative in -ā-. Such an optative is not known from other languages, but
the suffix occurs in Balto-Slavic and Tocharian past tense formations, and possibly in Hitt. -ahh-.

1. Introduction
D. SLAVIC
The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages), a group of closely related
languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of the Indo-European language family,
have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central
Europe, and in the northern part of Asia. The largest languages are Russian and Polish,
with 165 and some 47 million speakers, respectively. The oldest Slavic literary language
was Old Church Slavonic, which later evolved into Church Slavonic.
There is much debate whether Pre-Proto-Slavic branched off directly from Europe’s
Indo-European in 2000 BC, or whether it passed through a common Proto-Balto-Slavic
stage which had necessarily split apart before 1000 BC in its two main sub-branches.
The original homeland of the

speakers of Proto-Slavic remains
controversial too. The most ancient
recognizably Slavic hydronyms (river
names) are to be found in northern
and western Ukraine and southern
Belarus. It has also been noted that
Proto-Slavic seemingly lacked a
maritime vocabulary.
The Proto-Slavic language secession

from a common Proto-Balto-Slavic is
Historical distribution of the Slavic
estimated on archaeological and languages. The larger shaded area is the
glottochronological criteria to have Prague-Penkov-Kolochin complex of cultures
of the 6th to 7th centuries, likely
occurred between 1500-1000 BC. corresponding to the spread of Slavic-
speaking tribes of the time. The smaller
Common Slavic is usually shaded area indicates the core area of Slavic
river names, dated ca. 500 AD.
reconstructible to around 600 AD.
By the 7th century, Common Slavic had broken apart into large dialectal zones.
Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over
a large territory – which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-
speaking territories. Written documents of the 9th, 10th & 11th centuries already show
some local linguistic features.
67
NOTE. For example the Freising monuments show a language which contains some phonetic
and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian
dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word krilatec).
In the second half of the ninth

century, the dialect spoken north of
Thessaloniki became the basis for the
first written Slavic language, created by
the brothers Cyril and Methodius who
translated portions of the Bible and
other church books. The language they
recorded is known as Old Church
Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic is not
identical to Proto-Slavic, having been
recorded at least two centuries after the
breakup of Proto-Slavic, and it shows
features that clearly distinguish it from
Proto-Slavic. However, it is still
reasonably close, and the mutual
intelligibility between Old Church
Slavonic and other Slavic dialects of
Page from Codex Zographensis (10 th 11 th
those days was proved by Cyril’s and c. AD) in Old Church Slavonic.
Methodius’ mission to Great Moravia and Pannonia. There, their early South Slavic
dialect used for the translations was clearly understandable to the local population which
spoke an early West Slavic dialect.
As part of the preparation for the mission, the Glagolitic alphabet was created in 862
and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos Evangeliar –
a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings – , the Psalter,
and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. The language and the alphabet were taught at
the Great Moravian Academy (O.C.S. Veľkomoravské učilište) and were used for
government and religious documents and books. In 885, the use of the O.C.S. in Great
Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin. Students of the two apostles, who
were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old

1. Introduction
Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian Empire, where it was taught and Cyrillic
alphabet developed in the Preslav Literary School.
Vowel changes from North-West Indo-European to Proto-Slavic:
 EIE ī, ei → Sla. i1; EIE i →*i → Sla. Ь; EIE u → *u → Sla. ъ; EIE ū → Sla. y.
 EIE e → Sla. e; EIE ē → Sla. ě1;
 EIE en, em → Sla. ę; EIE an, on; am, om →*an; *am → Sla. ǫ.
 EIE a, o → *a → Sla. O; EIE ā, ō → *ā → Sla. a; EIE ai, oi → *ai → Sla. ě2.

reduced *ai (*ăi/*ui) → Sla. i2; EIE au, ou → *au → Sla. u.
NOTE 1. Apart from this simplified equivalences, other evolutions appear (see Kortlandt’s From
Proto-Indo-European to Slavic at <http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf>):
o The vowels i2, ě2 developed later than i1, ě1. In Late Proto-Slavic there were no differences in
pronunciation between i1 and i2 as well as between ě1 and ě2. They had caused, however, different
changes of preceding velars, see below.
o Late Proto-Slavic yers ь, ъ < earlier i, u developed also from reduced EIE e, o respectively.
The reduction was probably a morphologic process rather than phonetic.
o We can observe similar reduction of ā into *ū (and finally y) in some endings, especially in
closed syllables.
o The development of the Sla. i2 was also a morphologic phenomenon, originating only in
some endings.
o Another source of the Proto-Slavic y is *ō in Germanic loanwords – the borrowings took
place when Proto-Slavic no longer had ō in native words, as EIE ō had already changed into *ā.
o EIE a (from PIE ə) disappeared without traces when in a non-initial syllable.
o EIE eu probably developed into *jau in Early Proto-Slavic (or during the Balto-Slavic
epoch), and eventually into Proto-Slavic ju.
o According to some authors, EIE long diphthongs ēi, āi, ōi, ēu, āu, ōu had twofold
development in Early Proto-Slavic, namely they shortened in endings into simple *ei, *ai, *oi,
*eu, *au, *ou but they lost their second element elsewhere and changed into *ē, *ā, *ō with
further development like above.
NOTE 2. Other vocalic changes from Proto-Slavic include *jo, *jъ, *jy changed into *je, *jь, *ji;
*o, *ъ, *y also changed into *e, *ь, *i after *c, *ʒ, *s’ which developed as the result of the 3rd
palatalization; *e, *ě changed into *o, *a after *č, *ǯ, *š, *ž in some contexts or words; a similar
change of *ě into *a after *j seems to have occurred in Proto-Slavic but next it can have been
modified by analogy.
69
On the origin of Proto-Slavic consonants, the following relationships are found:
• EIE p → Sla. p; EIE b, bh → Sla. b.

• EIE t → Sla. t; EIE d, dh → Sla. d.
• EIE k, kw → Sla. K (palatalized *kj → Sla. s); EIE g, gh, gw, gwh → Sla. g (palatalized
(*gj, *gjh → Sla. z)
• EIE s → Sla. s; before a voiced consonant EIE [z] → Sla. z; before a vowel when
after r, u, k, i, probably also after l → Sla. x.
• EIE word-final m → Sla. n (<BSl. *n).
• EIE m̥ → Sla. im, um; EIE n̥ → Sla. in, un; EIE l̥ → Sla. il, ul; EIE r̥ → Sla. ir, ur.
• EIE w → Sla. v (<BSl. *w); EIE j → Sla. j.
In some words the Proto-Slavic x developed from other PIE phonemes, like kH, ks, sk.
E. BALTIC
The Baltic languages are a

group of related languages
belonging to the IE
language family, spoken in
areas extending east and
southeast of the Baltic Sea
in Northern Europe.
The language group is

often divided into two sub-
groups: Western Baltic,
containing only extinct
languages as Prussian or
Galindan, and Eastern
Baltic, containing both
extinct and the two living
languages in the group,
Lithuanian and Latvian.

1. Introduction
While related, Lithuanian, Latvian, and particularly Old Prussian differ substantially
from each other and are not mutually intelligible.
The oldest Baltic linguistic record is the Elbinger lexicon of the beginning of the 14th
century AD. IT contains 802 Old Prussian equivalents of Old Middle German words. The
oldest Baltic text is Old Prussian as well; it comes from the middle of the 14th century AD
and includes only eleven words. The first Old Lithuanian and Old Latvian texts come
from the 16th century and appear already in book form, and were translations of a
catechism and the Lord’s Prayer.
Baltic and Slavic share so many similarities that many linguists, following the lead of
such notable Indo-Europeanists as August Schleicher and Oswald Szemerényi, take these
to indicate that the two groups separated from a common ancestor, the Proto-Balto-
Slavic language, dated ca. 1500-500 BC, depending on the different guesstimates.
NOTE 1. For those guesstimates, “Classical glottochronology” conducted by Czech Slavist M.
Čejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to -910±340 BCE, Sergei Starostin in 1994 dates it to
1210 BCE, and “recalibrated glottochronology” conducted by Novotná & Blažek dates it to 1400-
1340 BCE. This agrees well with Trziniec-Komarov culture, localized from Silesia to Central
Ukraine and dated to the period 1500–1200 BCE.
NOTE 2. Until Meillet’s Dialectes indo-européens of 1908, Balto-Slavic unity was undisputed
among linguists – as he notes himself at the beginning of the Le Balto-Slave chapter, “L’unité
linguistique balto-slave est l’une de celles que personne ne conteste”. Meillet’s critique of Balto-
Slavic confined itself to the seven characteristics listed by Karl Brugmann in 1903, attempting to
show that no single one of these is sufficient to prove genetic unity. Szemerényi in his 1957 re-
examination of Meillet’s results concludes that the Balts and Slavs did, in fact, share a “period of
common language and life”, and were probably separated due to the incursion of Germanic tribes
along the Vistula and the Dnepr roughly at the beginning of the Common Era.
A new theory was proposed in the 1960s by V. Ivanov and V. Toporov: that the Balto-
Slavic proto-language split from the start into West Baltic, East Baltic and Proto-Slavic.
In their framework, Proto-Slavic is a peripheral and innovative Balto-Slavic dialect which
suddenly expanded, due to a conjunction of historical circumstances. Onomastic
evidence shows that Baltic languages were once spoken in much wider territory than the
one they cover today, and were later replaced by Slavic.
NOTE. The most important of these common Balto-Slavic isoglosses are:
71
o Winter’s law: lengthening of a short vowel before a voiced plosive, usually in a closed syllable.
o Identical reflexes of PIE syllabic sonorants, usually developing i and u before them.
Kuryłowicz thought that *uR reflexes arose after PIE velars, and also notable is also older
opinion of J.Endzelīns and R. Trautmann according to whom *uR reflexes are the result of
zero-grade of morphemes that had EIE o → PBSl. *a in normal-grade. Matasović (2008)
proposes following internal rules after EIE syllabic R → BSl. *əR: 1) *ə→*i in a final syllable;
2) *ə→*u after velars and before nasals; 3) *ə→*i otherwise.
o Hirt’s law: retraction of PIE accent to the preceding syllable closed by a laryngeal.
o Rise of the Balto-Slavic acute before PIE laryngeals in a closed syllable.
o Replacement of PIE genitive singular of thematic nouns with ablative.
o Formation of past tense in *-ē (cf. Lith. pret. dãvė, “he gave”, O.C.S. imperfect bě, “he was”)
o Generalization of the IE neuter to- stem to the nominative singular of masculine and
feminine demonstratives instead of IE so- pronoun, so, sā, tod → BSl. tos, tā, tod.
o Formation of definite adjectives with a construction of adjective and relative pronoun; cf.
Lith. geràsis, “the good”, vs. gẽras, “good”; O.C.S dobrъjь, “the good”, vs. dobrъ, “good”.
Common Balto-Slavic innovations include several other prominent, but non-exclusive isoglosses,
such as the satemization, Ruki, change of PIE o → BSl. *a (shared with Germanic, Indo-Iranian
and Anatolian) and the loss of labialization in PIE labiovelars (shared with Indo-Iranian,
Armenian and Tocharian). Among Balto-Slavic archaisms notable is the retention of traces of an
older PIE accent. ‘Ruki’ is the term for a sound law which is followed especially in BSl. and Aryan
dialects. The name of the term comes from the sounds which cause the phonetic change, i.e. PIE s
→ š / r, u, K, i (it associates with a Slavic word which means ‘hands’ or ‘arms’). A sibilant [s] is
retracted to [ʃ] after i,u,r, and after velars (i.e. k which may have developed from earlier k, g, gh).
Due to the character of the retraction, it was probably an apical sibilant (as in Spanish), rather
than the dorsal of English. The first phase (s → š) seems to be universal, the later retroflexion (in
Sanskrit and probably in Proto-Slavic as well) is due to levelling of the sibilant system, and so is
the third phase - the retraction to velar [x] in Slavic and also in some Middle Indian languages,
with parallels in e.g. Spanish. This rule was first formulated for IE by Holger Pedersen.
Baltic and Slavic show a remarkable amount of correspondence in vocabulary too; there are at
least 100 words exclusive to BSl., either being a common innovation or sharing the same semantic
development from a PIE root; as, BSl. *lēipā, “tilia” → Lith. líepa, O.Prus. līpa, Ltv. liẽpa; Sla.
*lipa; BSl. *rankā, “hand” → Lith. rankà, O.Prus. rānkan, Ltv. rùoka; Sla. *rǭkà (cf. O.C.S. rǫka).
BSl. *galwā́, “head” → Lith. galvà, O.Prus. galwo, Ltv. galva; Sla. *golvà (cf. O.C.S. glava).

1. Introduction
F. FRAGMENTARY DIALECTS
MESSAPIAN
Messapian (also known as Messapic) is an extinct Indo-European language of south-

eastern Italy, once spoken in the regions of Apulia and Calabria. It was spoken by the
three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii. The
language, a centum dialect, has been preserved in about 260 inscriptions dating from the
6th to the 1st century BC. It became extinct after the Roman Empire conquered the region
and assimilated the inhabitants.
There is a hypothesis that Messapian was an Illyrian language. The Illyrian languages
were spoken mainly on the other side of the Adriatic Sea. The link between Messapian
and Illyrian is based mostly on personal names found on tomb inscriptions and on
classical references, since hardly any traces of the Illyrian language are left.
NOTE. Some phonetic characteristics of the language may be regarded as quite certain:
o PIE short *o→a, as in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras.
o PIE final *m→n, as in aran.
o PIE *nj→nn, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazohonnes vs. the Illyrian praenomen
Dazonius; the Messapian genitive Dazohonnihi vs. Illyrian genitive Dasonii, etc.
o PIE *tj→tth, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazetthes vs. Illyrian Dazetius; the Messapian
genitive Dazetthihi vs. the Illyrian genitive Dazetii; from a Dazet- stem common in Illyrian
and Messapian.
o PIE *sj→ss, as in Messapian Vallasso for Vallasio, a derivative from the shorter name Valla.
o The loss of final *-d, as in tepise, and probably of final *-t, as in -des, perhaps meaning “set”,
from PIE *dhe-, “set, put”.
o The change of voiced aspirates in Proto-Indo-European to plain voiced consonants: PIE

*dh→d, as in Messapian anda (< PIE *en-dha- < PIE *en-, “in”, compare Gk. entha); and PIE
*bh→b, as in Messapian beran (< PIE *bher-, “to bear”).
o PIE *au→ā before (at least some) consonants: Bāsta, from Bausta.
o The form penkaheh – which Torp very probably identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio – a
derivative of the Proto-Indo-European numeral *penkwe, “five”.
o If this last identification be correct it would show, that in Messapian (just as in Venetic and
Ligurian) the original labiovelars (*kw,* gw, *gwh) were retained as gutturals and not converted
73
into labials. The change of o to a is exceedingly interesting, being associated with the
northern branches of Indo-European such as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not
appearing in any other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek Aphrodite appears in the
form Aprodita (Dat. Sg., fem.).
o The use of double consonants which has been already pointed out in the Messapian
inscriptions has been very acutely connected by Deecke with the tradition that the same
practice was introduced at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town
Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M).
VENETIC
Venetic is an Indo-European language that was spoken in ancient times in the Veneto
region of Italy, between the Po River delta and the southern fringe of the Alps. It was a
Centum dialect.
The language is attested by over 300 short inscriptions dating between the 6th century
BC and 1st century. Its speakers are identified with the ancient people called Veneti by the
Romans and Enetoi by the Greek. The inscriptions use a variety of the Northern Italic
alphabet, similar to the Old Italic alphabet. It became extinct around the 1st century when
the local inhabitants were assimilated into the Roman sphere.
NOTE. The exact relationship of Venetic to other Indo-European languages is still being
investigated, but the majority of scholars agree that Venetic, aside from Liburnian, was closest to
the Italic languages. Venetic may also have been related to the Illyrian languages, though the
theory that Illyrian and Venetic were closely related is debated by current scholarship.
Interesting parallels with Germanic have also been noted, especially in pronominal forms:
Ven. ego, “I”, acc. mego, “me”; Goth. ik, acc. mik; but cf. Lat. ego, acc. me.
Ven. sselboisselboi, “to oneself”; O.H.G. selb selbo; but cf. Lat. sibi ipsi.
Venetic had about six or even seven noun cases and four conjugations (similar to Latin). About
60 words are known, but some were borrowed from Latin (liber.tos. < libertus) or Etruscan. Many
of them show a clear Indo-European origin, such as Ven. vhraterei (< PIE *bhreh2terei), “to the
brother”.
In Venetic, PIE stops *bh→f, *dh→f, *gh→h, in word-initial position (as in Latin and Osco-
Umbrian), but to *bh→b, *dh→d, *gh→g, in word-internal intervocalic position, as in Latin. For
Venetic, at least the developments of *bh and *dh are clearly attested. Faliscan and Osco-Umbrian
preserve internal *bh→f,* dh→f, *gh→h.

1. Introduction
There are also indications of the developments of PIE initial *gw→w-, PIE *kw→kv and PIE initial
*gwh→f in Venetic, all of which are parallel to Latin, as well as the regressive assimilation of PIE
sequence p...kw... → kw...kw... (e.g. penkwe → *kwenkwe, “five”, perkwu → *kwerkwu, “oak”), a
feature also found in Italic and Celtic (Lejeune 1974).
LIGURIAN
The Ligurian language was spoken in pre-Roman times and into the Roman era by an
ancient people of north-western Italy and south-eastern France known as the Ligures.
Very little is known about this language (mainly place names and personal names
remain) which is generally believed to have been Indo-European; it appears to have
adopted significantly from other IE languages, primarily Celtic (Gaulish) and Latin.
Strabo states “As for the Alps... Many tribes (éthnê) occupy these mountains, all Celtic
(Keltikà) except the Ligurians; but while these Ligurians belong to a different people
(hetero-ethneis), still they are similar to the Celts in their modes of life (bíois).”
LIBURNIAN
The Liburnian language is an extinct IE language which was spoken by the ancient
Liburnians in the region of Liburnia (south of the Istrian peninsula) in classical times. It
is usually classified as a Centum language. It appears to have been on the same Indo-
European branch as the Venetic language; indeed, the Liburnian tongue may well have
been a Venetic dialect.
NOTE. No writings in Liburnian are known, though. The grouping of Liburnian with Venetic is
based on the Liburnian onomastics. In particular, Liburnian anthroponyms show strong Venetic
affinities, with many common or similar names and a number of common roots, such as Vols-,
Volt-, and Host- (<PIE *ghos-ti-, “stranger, guest, host”). Liburnian and Venetic names also share
suffixes in common, such as -icus and -ocus.
These features set Liburnian and Venetic apart from the Illyrian onomastic province, though this
does not preclude the possibility that Venetic-Liburnian and Illyrian may have been closely
related, belonging to the same Indo-European branch. In fact, a number of linguists argue that
this is the case, based on similar phonetic features and names in common between Venetic-
Liburnian on the one hand and Illyrian on the other.
Liburnia was conquered by the Romans in 35 BC, and its language was eventually
replaced by Latin, undergoing language death probably very early in the Common Era.
75
LUSITANIAN
Lusitanian or
Lusatian (so
named after the
Lusitani or
Lusitanians) was
a Paleohispanic
IE language
known by only
five inscriptions
and numerous
toponyms and
Iberian Peninsula
theonyms. The ca. 200 BC.
language was
spoken before the
Roman conquest
of Lusitania, in
the territory
inhabited by Lusitanian tribes, from Douro to the Tagus river in the western area of the
Iberian Peninsula, where they were established already before the 6th c. BC.
Their language is usually considered a Pre-Celtic (possibly Italo-Celtic) IE dialect, and

it is sometimes associated with the language of the Vettones and with the linguistic
substratum of the Gallaeci and Astures, based on archaeological findings and
descriptions of ancient historians.
NOTE. The affiliation of the Lusitanian language within a Pre-Celtic (or Italo-Celtic) IE group is
still debated. There are those who endorse that it is a Celtic language, a theory largely based upon
the historical fact that the only Indo-European tribes that are known to have existed in Portugal at
that time were Celtic tribes. The apparent Celtic character of most of the lexicon —anthroponyms
and toponyms — may also support a Celtic affiliation. There is a substantial problem in the Celtic
theory however: the preservation of PIE initial *p-, as in Lusitanian pater or porcom, meaning
“father” and “pig”, respectively. The Celtic languages had lost that initial *p- in their evolution;
compare Lat. pater, Gaul. ater, and Lat. porcum, O.Ir. orc. However, it does not necessarily

1. Introduction
preclude the possibility of Lusitanian being Celtic, because of the supposed evolution of PIE initial
*p → *ɸ → *h → Cel. Ø, so it might have been an early Proto-Celtic (or Italo-Celtic) dialect that split
off before the loss of p-, or when p- had become *ɸ - (before shifting to h- and then being lost); the
letter p of the Latin alphabet could have been used to represent either sound.
F. Villar and R. Pedrero relate Lusitanian with the Italic languages. The theory is based on
parallels in the names of deities, as Lat. Consus, Lus. Cossue, Lat. Seia, Lus. Segia, or Marrucinian
Iovia, Lus. Iovea(i), etc. and other lexical items, as Umb. gomia, Lus. comaiam, with some other
grammatical elements.
II. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN IN ASIA: TOCHARIAN
Tocharian or Tokharian is one of the most obscure branches of the group of Indo-
European languages. The name of the language is taken from people known to the Greek
historians (Ptolemy VI, 11, 6) as the Tocharians (Greek Τόχαροι, “Tokharoi”).
NOTE. These are sometimes identified with the Yuezhi and the Kushans, while the term
Tokharistan usually refers to 1st millennium Bactria. A Turkic text refers to the Turfanian language
(Tocharian A) as twqry. F. W. K. Müller has associated this with the name of the Bactrian
Tokharoi. In Tocharian, the language is referred to as arish-käna and the Tocharians as arya.
Tocharian consisted of two languages; Tocharian A (Turfanian, Arsi, or East Tocharian)

and Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian). These languages were spoken roughly
from the 6th to 9th century centuries; before they became extinct, their speakers were
absorbed into the expanding Uyghur tribes. Both languages were once spoken in the
Tarim Basin in Central Asia, now the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.
Note. Properly speaking, based on the tentative interpretation of twqry as related to Tokharoi,
only Tocharian A may be referred to as Tocharian, while Tocharian B could be called Kuchean (its
native name may have been kuśiññe), but since their grammars are usually treated together in
scholarly works, the terms A and B have proven useful.
Tocharian is documented in manuscript fragments, mostly from the 8th century (with a
few earlier ones) that were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets and Chinese paper,
preserved by the extremely dry climate of the Tarim Basin. Samples of the language have
been discovered at sites in Kucha and Karasahr, including many mural inscriptions.
Tocharian A and B were not intercomprehensible. The common Proto-Tocharian

language must have preceded the attested languages by several centuries, probably
dating to the 1st millennium BC.
77
1.7.2. SOUTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
I. GREEK
Ancient Greek dialects by 400 BC

after R.D. Woodard (2008).
Greek is an Indo-European branch with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today,

Modern Greek is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia
(especially in the FYROM), Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey.
The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have
developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions, and their first
appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The ancient
Greeks themselves considered there to be three major divisions of the Greek people, into
Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and
distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain
dialect, and Cyprian, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and

1. Introduction
language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological and linguistic

investigation.
Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula

since 2000 BC. The earliest evidence of this is
found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC.
The later Greek alphabet is unrelated to Linear B,
and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet;
with minor modifications, it is still used today.
Mycenaean is the most ancient attested form of

the Greek branch, spoken on mainland Greece and
on Crete in the 16th to 11th centuries BC, before the
Dorian invasion. It is preserved in inscriptions in
Linear B, a script invented on Crete before the 14th Linear B has roughly 200 signs,
divided into syllabic signs with
century BC. Most instances of these inscriptions are
phonetic values and logograms
on clay tablets found in Knossos and in Pylos. The with semantic values.
language is named after Mycenae, the first of the palaces to be excavated.
The tablets remained long undeciphered, and every conceivable language was
suggested for them, until Michael Ventris deciphered the script in 1952 and proved the
language to be an early form of Greek. The texts on the tablets are mostly lists and
inventories. No prose narrative survives, much less myth or poetry. Still, much may be
glimpsed from these records about the people who produced them, and about the
Mycenaean period at the eve of the so-called Greek Dark Ages.
Unlike later varieties of Greek, Mycenaean probably had seven grammatical cases, the
nominative, the genitive, the accusative, the dative, the instrumental, the locative, and
the vocative. The instrumental and the locative however gradually fell out of use.
NOTE. For the Locative in *-ei, compare di-da-ka-re, ‘didaskalei’, e-pi-ko-e, ‘Epikóhei’, etc (in
Greek there are syntactic compounds like puloi-genēs, ‘born in Pylos’); also, for remains of an
Ablative case in *-ōd, compare (months’ names) ka-ra-e-ri-jo-me-no, wo-de-wi-jo-me-no, etc.
Proto-Greek, a southern PIE dialect, was spoken in the late 3rd millennium BC, roughly
at the same time as North-West Indo-European and Proto-Indo-Iranian, most probably
in the Balkans. It was probably the ancestor of Phrygian too, and possibly that of Ancient
79
Macedonian, Dacian, Thracian, and arguably Armenian. The unity of Proto-Greek

probably ended as Hellenic migrants, speaking the predecessor of the Mycenaean
language, entered the Greek paeninsula around the 21st century BC. They were then
separated from the Dorian Greeks, who entered the peninsula roughly one millennium
later, speaking a dialect that in some respects had remained more archaic.
NOTE. For Pelasgian and other Greek substrates as IE, some have cited different phonological
developments in words like τύμβος (tumbos < PIE *dhmbhos) or πύργος (purgos < PIE *bhrghos).
Proto-Greek was affected by a late Satemization trend, evidenced by the (post-

Mycenaean) change of labiovelars into dentals before e (e.g. kwe → te “and”).
The primary sound changes from (laryngeal) PIE to Proto-Greek include:
• Aspiration of PIE intervocalic *s → PGk h.

NOTE. The loss of PIE prevocalic *s- was not completed entirely, famously evidenced by sus
“sow”, dasus “dense”; sun “with”, sometimes considered contaminated with PIE *kom (cf. Latin
cum) to Homeric / Old Attic ksun, is possibly a consequence of Gk. psi-substrate (See Villar).
• De-voicing of voiced aspirates: *bh→ph, *dh→th, *gh→kh, *gwh→kwh.

• Dissimilation of aspirates (Grassmann’s law), possibly post-Mycenaean.
• PIE word-initial *j- (not *Hj-) is strengthened to PGk dj- (later Gk. ζ-).
• Vocalization of laryngeals between vowels and initially before consonants, i.e. *h1→e,
*h2→a, *h3→o.
NOTE. The evolution of Proto-Greek should be considered with the background of an early
Palaeo-Balkan Sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between
individual languages. The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by
prosthetic vowels is shared by the Armenian language, which also shares other phonological and
morphological peculiarities of Greek, vide infra.
• The sequence CRHC (where C = consonant, R = resonant, H = laryngeal) becomes

PIE CRh1C → PGk CRēC; PIE CRh2C → PGk CRāC; PIE CRh3C → PGk CRōC.
• The sequence PIE CRHV (where V = vowel) becomes PGk CaRV.
NOTE. It has also been proposed by Sihler (2000) that Vkw→ukw; cf. PIE *nokwts, “night” → PGk
nukwts → Gk. nuks/nuxt-; cf. also *kwekwlos, “circle” → PGk kwukwlos → Gk. kuklos; etc.
Later sound changes between Proto-Greek and the attested Mycenaean include:

1. Introduction
o Loss of final stop consonants; final m→n.

o ̥ am, and n̥→an, before resonants; otherwise both were nasalized
Syllabic m→
m̥/n̥→ã→a.
o loss of s in consonant clusters, with supplementary lengthening, e.g. esmi→ēmi.
o creation of secondary s from clusters, ntja→nsa. Assibilation ti→si only in
southern dialects.
o Mycenaean i-vocalism and replacement of double-consonance -kw- for -kwkw-.
NOTE. On the problematic case of common Greek ἵππος (hippos), horse, derived from PIE and
PGk ekwos, Meier-Brügger (2003): “the i-vocalism of which is best understood as an inheritance
from the Mycenaean period. At that time, e in a particular phonetic situation must have been
pronounced in a more closed manner, cf. di-pa i.e. dipas neuter ‘lidded container fror drinking’ vs.
the later δέρας (since Homer): Risch (1981), O. Panagl (1989). That the i-form extended to the
entire Greek region may be explained in that the word, very central during Mycenaean rule of the
entire region (2nd millennium BC), spread and suppressed the e-form that had certainly been
present at one time. On the -pp-: The original double-consonance -ku-̯ was likely replaced by -
kwkw- in the pre-Mycenaean period, and again, in turn by -pp- after the disappearance of the
labiovelars. Suggestions of an ancient -kwkw- are already given by the Mycenaean form as i-qo (a
possible *i-ko-wo does not appear) and the noted double-consonance in alphabetic Greek. The
aspiration of the word at the beginning remains a riddle”.
Other features common to the earliest Greek dialects include:
• The PIE dative, instrumental and locative cases were syncretized into a single dative.
• Dialectal nominative plural in -oi, -ai fully replaces Late PIE common *-ōs, *-ās.
• The superlative on -tatos (<PIE *-tṃ-to-s) becomes productive.
• The peculiar oblique stem gunaik- “women”, attested from the Thebes tablets is
probably Proto-Greek; it appears, at least as gunai- also in Armenian.
• The pronouns houtos, ekeinos and autos are created. Use of ho, hā, ton as articles is
post-Mycenaean.
• The first person middle verbal desinences -mai, -mān replace -ai, -a. The third
singular pherei is an analogical innovation, replacing the expected PIE *bhéreti, i.e.
Dor. *phereti, Ion. *pheresi.
• The future tense is created, including a future passive, as well as an aorist passive.
• The suffix -ka- is attached to some perfects and aorists.
81
• Infinitives in -ehen, -enai and -men are also common to Greek dialects.
II. ARMENIAN
Armenian is an Indo-European
language spoken in the Armenian
Republic , as well as in the region
of Nagorno-Karabakh, and also
used by ethnic Armenians in the
Diaspora.
Armenian has been traditionally

regarded as a close relative of
Phrygian, apparently closely
related to Greek, sharing major
isoglosses with it. The Graeco-
Armenian hypothesis proposed a
close relationship to the Greek
language, putting both in the Distribution of ethnic Armenians in the 20 th c.
larger context of Paleo-Balkans languages – notably including Phrygian, which is widely
accepted as an Indo-European language particularly close to Greek, and sometimes
Ancient Macedonian –, consistent with Herodotus’ recording of the Armenians as
descending from colonists of the Phrygians.
NOTE. That traditional linguistic theory, proposed by Pedersen (1924), establishes a close
relationship between both original communities, Greek and Armenian, departing from a common
subdialect of IE IIIa (Southern Dialect of Late PIE). That vision, accepted for a long time, was
rejected by Clackson (1994) in The linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek, which,
supporting the Graeco-Aryan linguistic hypothesis, dismisses that the coincidences between
Armenian and Greek represent more than those found in the comparison between any other IE
language pair. Those findings are supported by Kortlandt in Armeniaca (2003), in which he
proposes an old Central IE continuum Daco-Albanian / Graeco-Phrygian / Thraco-Armenian.
Adrados (1998), considers an older Southern continuum Graeco-[Daco-]Thraco-Phrygian /
Armenian / Indo-Iranian. Olteanu (2009) proposes a Graeco-Daco-Thracian language.
The earliest testimony of the Armenian language dates to the 5th century AD, the Bible
translation of Mesrob Mashtots. The earlier history of the language is unclear and the

1. Introduction
subject of much speculation. It is clear that Armenian is an Indo-European language, but

its development is opaque.
NOTE. Proto-Armenian sound-laws are
varied and eccentric, such as IE *dw- yielding
Arm. k-, and in many cases still uncertain. In
fact, that phonetic development is usually
seen as *dw- to erk-, based on PIE numeral
*dwo-, “two”, a reconstruction Kortlandt
(ibidem) dismisses, exposing alternative
etymologies for the usual examples.
PIE voiceless stops are aspirated in

Proto-Armenian, a circumstance that
gave rise to the Glottalic theory, which
postulates that this aspiration may have
been sub-phonematic already in Proto-
Indo-European. In certain contexts, these
aspirated stops are further reduced to w,
h or zero in Armenian – so e.g. PIE *p’ots, Armenian manuscript, ca. 5 th -6 th c.
into Arm. otn, Gk. pous, “foot”; PIE *t’reis, Arm. erek’, Gk. treis, “three”.
The reconstruction of Proto-Armenian being very uncertain, there is no general

consensus on the date range when it might have been alive. If Herodotus is correct in
deriving Armenians from Phrygian stock, the Armenian-Phrygian split would probably
date to between roughly the 12th and 7th centuries BC, but the individual sound-laws
leading to Proto-Armenian may have occurred at any time preceding the 5th century AD.
The various layers of Persian and Greek loanwords were likely acquired over the course
of centuries, during Urartian (pre-6th century BC) Achaemenid (6th to 4th c. BC; Old
Persian), Hellenistic (4th to 2nd c. BC Koine Greek) and Parthian (2nd c. BC to 3rd c. AD;
Middle Persian) times.
Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and
Latin, but the modern language (like Modern Greek) has undergone many
transformations. Interestingly enough, it shares with Italic dialects the secondary IE
suffix *-tjōn, extended from *-ti-, cf. Arm թյուն (t’youn).
83
III. INDO-IRANIAN
The Indo-Iranian or Aryan language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch
of the Indo-European family of languages. It consists of two main language groups, Indo-
Aryan and Iranian, and probably Nuristani; Dardic is usually classified within the Indic
subgroup.
The contemporary Indo-Iranian languages form therefore the second largest sub-
branch of Indo-European (after North-West Indo-European), with more than one billion
speakers in total, stretching from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) to East
India (Bengali and Assamese). The largest in terms of native speakers are Hindustani
(Hindi and Urdu, ca. 540 million), Bengali (ca. 200 million), Punjabi (ca. 100 million),
Marathi and Persian (ca. 70 million each), Gujarati (ca. 45 million), Pashto (40 million),
Oriya (ca. 30 million), Kurdish and Sindhi (ca. 20 million each).
Map of the
Sintashta-
Petrovka
culture
(red), its
expansion
into the
Andronovo
culture
during the
2 nd
millennium
BC, showing
the overlap
with the
BMAC in the
south. The
location of
the earliest
chariots is
shown in
purple.
Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the bearers of the Andronovo

culture and their homeland with an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural
River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east – where the Indo-Iranians took over the
area occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture –, and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush

1. Introduction
on the south. Historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian

languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC, preceding both the Vedic and Iranian
cultures. A Two-wave model of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed (see Burrow
1973 and Parpola 1999), strongly associated with the chariot.
Aryans spread into the Caucasus, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia, as well as into
Mesopotamia and Syria, introducing the horse and chariot culture to this part of the
world. Sumerian texts from EDIIIb Ngirsu (2500-2350 BC) already mention the ‘chariot'
(gigir) and Ur III texts (2150-2000 BC) mention the horse (anshe-zi-zi). They left
linguistic remains in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one “Kikkuli the
Mitannian”. Other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the
gods they swore by in treaties; these remains are found in the archives of the Mitanni's
neighbors, and the time period for this is about 1500 BC.
The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is
that the First Wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus
and later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the
Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages
spread from ca. 1500 BC to ca. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the
subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established
several powerful kingdoms and principalities in the region, from eastern Afghanistan to
the doorstep of Bengal.
The Second Wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave. The Iranians would take over all of
Central Asia, Iran, and for a considerable period, dominate the European steppe (the
modern Ukraine) and intrude north into Russia and west into central and eastern Europe
well into historic times and as late as the Common Era. The first Iranians to reach the
Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic
affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a
western branch of the Central Asian Sakas, and the Sarmatian tribes.
The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the Persian plateau from ca. 800
BC, and the Achaemenids replaced Elamite rule from 559 BC. Around the first
millennium of the Common Era, the Iranian Pashtuns and Baloch began to settle on the
eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern
85
Pakistan in what is now the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, displacing
the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area.
The main changes separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Late PIE include:
• Early Satemization trend:

o Loss of PIE labiovelars into PII plain velars: *kw→k , *gw→g, *gwh→gh .
o Palatalization of PII velars in certain phonetic environments: *k→ķ, *g→ģ, *gh→ģh.
• Loss of laryngeals: *HV→a, *VH→ā. Interconsonantal *H → i, cf. *ph2tḗr → PII pitr.
NOTE. A common exception is the Brugmann’s law. For those linguists who consider the
laryngeal loss to have occurred already in Late PIE, Aryan vocalism is described as a collapse of
PIE ablauting vowels into a single PII vowel; i.e. *e,*o→a; *ē,*ō→ā.
• Grassmann’s law, Bartholomae’s law, and the Ruki sound law were complete in PII.
NOTE. For a detailed description of those Indo-Iranian sound laws and the “satemization”
process, see Appendix II. For Ruki sound law, v.s. Baltic in §1.7.1.
• Sonorants are generally stable in PII, but for the confusion *l/*r, which in the oldest
Rigveda and in Avestan gives a general PIE *l̥ → PII r̥, as well as l→r.
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the
voiced sibilant *z; among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of PIE voiced aspirates.
A. IRANIAN
Current distribution of
Iranian dialects.

1. Introduction
The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian subfamily, with an estimated
150-200 million native speakers today, the largest being Persian (ca. 60 million),
Kurdish (ca. 25 million), Pashto (ca. 25 million) and Balochi (ca. 7 million).
Proto-Iranian dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early
second millennium BC, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve
separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern
Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia. The oldest Iranian language known,
Avestan, is mainly attested through the Avesta, a collection of sacred texts connected to
the Zoroastrian religion.
Linguistically, the Old Iranian languages are divided into two major families, the
Eastern and Western group, and several subclasses. The so-called Eastern group includes
Scythian, even though the Scyths lived in a region extending further west than the
Western group. The northwestern branch included Median, and Parthian, while the
southwestern branch included Old Persian.
B. INDO-ARYAN
The Indo-Aryan or
Indic languages are a
branch of the Indo-
Iranian subfamily with
a total number of
native speakers of more
than 900 million. The
largest languages in
terms of native
speakers are
Hindustani (about 540
million), Bangali
(about 200 million),
Punjabi (about 100
million), Marathi
87
(about 90 million), Gujarati (about 45 million), Nepali (about 40 million), Oriya (about
30 million), Sindhi (about 20 million) and Assamese (about 14 million).
The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in the
ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism
known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age as the
Rigveda, but the only evidence is a number of loanwords.
In the 4th c. BC, the Sanskrit language was codified and standardised by the
grammarian Panini, called “Classical Sanskrit” by convention. Outside the learned sphere
of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve and, in medieval times,
diversified into various Middle Indic dialects.
C. NURISTANI
The recent view is to classify Nuristani as an independent branch of the Indo-Iranian

language family, instead of the the Indic or Iranian group. In any event, it would seem
they arrived in their present homeland at a very early date, and never entered the
western Punjab of Pakistan.
1.7.3. OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS OF EUROPE
I. ALBANIAN
Albanian is spoken by over 8

million people primarily in
Albania, Kosovo, and the
Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, but also by
smaller numbers of ethnic
Albanians in other parts of the
Balkans, along the eastern
coast of Italy and in Sicily, as
well other emigrant groups.
The Albanian language has

no living close relatives among the Albanian dialects Gheg, Tosk. Communities of
Arbëreshë- and Arvanitika-speakers

1. Introduction
modern IE languages. There is no consensus over its origin and dialectal classification,
although some scholars derive it from Illyrian, and others claim that it derives from
Thracian.
While it is considered established that the Albanians originated in the Balkans, the
exact location from which they spread out is hard to pinpoint. Despite varied claims, the
Albanians probably came from farther north and inland than would suggest the present
borders of Albania, with a homeland concentrated in the mountains.
NOTE. Given the overwhelming amount of shepherding and mountaineering vocabulary as well
as the extensive influence of Latin, it is more likely the Albanians come from north of the Jireček
line, on the Latin-speaking side, perhaps in part from the late Roman province of Dardania from
the western Balkans. However, archaeology has more convincingly pointed to the early Byzantine
province of Praevitana (modern northern Albania) which shows an area where a primarily
shepherding, transhumance population of Illyrians retained their culture.
The period in which Proto-Albanian and Latin interacted was protracted and drawn out
over six centuries, 1st c. AD to 6th or 7th c. AD. This is born out into roughly three layers of
borrowings, the largest number belonging to the second layer. The first, with the fewest
borrowings, was a time of less important interaction. The final period, probably
preceding the Slavic or Germanic invasions, also has a notably smaller amount of
borrowings. Each layer is characterized by a different treatment of most vowels, the first
layer having several that follow the evolution of Early Proto-Albanian into Albanian; later
layers reflect vowel changes endemic to Late Latin and presumably Proto-Romance.
Other formative changes include the syncretism of several noun case endings, especially
in the plural, as well as a large scale palatalization.
A brief period followed, between 7th c. AD and 9th c. AD, that was marked by heavy
borrowings from Southern Slavic, some of which predate the o→a shift common to the
modern forms of this language group. Starting in the latter 9th c. AD, a period followed of
protracted contact with the Proto-Romanians, or Vlachs, though lexical borrowing seems
to have been mostly one sided – from Albanian into Romanian. Such a borrowing
indicates that the Romanians migrated from an area where the majority was Slavic (i.e.
Middle Bulgarian) to an area with a majority of Albanian speakers, i.e. Dardania, where
Vlachs are recorded in the 10th c. AD. This fact places the Albanians at a rather early date
89
in the Western or Central Balkans, most likely in the region of Kosovo and Northern
Albania.
References to the existence of Albanian as a distinct language survive from 14th c. AD,
but without recording any specific words. The oldest surviving documents written in
Albanian are the Formula e Pagëzimit (Baptismal formula), Un’te paghesont’ pr’emenit
t’Atit e t’Birit e t’Spirit Senit, “I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and
the Holy Spirit”, recorded by Pal Engjelli, Bishop of Durres in 1462 in the Gheg dialect,
and some New Testament verses from that period.
II. PALEO-BALKAN LANGUAGES
A. PHRYGIAN
The Phrygian language was the IE

language spoken by the Phrygians, a
people that settled in Asia Minor
during the Bronze Age. It survived
probably into the 6th century AD,
when it was replaced by Greek
Ancient historians and myths

sometimes did associate Phrygian
with Thracian and maybe even
Armenian, on grounds of classical Phrygian region and expanded Kingdom.
sources. Herodotus recorded the Macedonian account that Phrygians migrated into Asia
Minor from Thrace (7.73). Later in the text (7.73), Herodotus states that the Armenians
were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the same in the time of Xerxes I. The
earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite,
depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn, Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal
to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells him:
“Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of him, and he reigns
over all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well beside my own, for a
Trojan nurse brought me up at home”. Of Trojan, unfortunately, nothing is known.

1. Introduction
Phrygian is attested by two corpora, one,

Palaeo-Phrygian, from around 800 BC and later,
and another after a period of several centuries,
Neo-Phrygian, from around the beginning of the
Common Era. The Palaeo-Phrygian corpus is
further divided geographically into inscriptions
of Midas-city, Gordion, Central, Bithynia, Pteria,
Tyana, Daskyleion, Bayindir, and “various”
(documents divers). The Mysian inscriptions
show a language classified as a separate Phrygian
dialect, written in an alphabet with an additional
letter, the “Mysian s”. We can reconstruct some
words with the help of some inscriptions written
with a script similar to the Greek one.
Ancient historians and myths sometimes did

associate Phrygian with Thracian and maybe
even Armenian, on grounds of classical sources. Phrygian inscription in
Herodotus recorded the Macedonian account that Midas City.
Phrygians migrated into Asia Minor from Thrace (7.73). Later in the text (7.73),
Herodotus states that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the
same in the time of Xerxes I. The earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn,
Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells him
“Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of him, and he reigns
over all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well beside my own, for a
Trojan nurse brought me up at home”. Of Trojan, unfortunately, nothing is known.
Its structure, what can be recovered from it, was typically Indo-European, with nouns
declined for case (at least four), gender (three) and number (singular and plural), while
the verbs are conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person and number.
Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek and Armenian, as in Phryg. eberet,
probably corresponding to PIE *é-bher-e-t (cf. Gk. epheret).
91
A sizable body of Phrygian words are theoretically known; however, the meaning and
etymologies and even correct forms of many Phrygian words (mostly extracted from
inscriptions) are still being debated.
Phrygian words with possible PIE origin and Graeco-Armenian cognates include:
• Phryg. bekos, “bread”, from PIE *bheh3g-; cf. Gk. phōgō, “to roast”.
• Phryg. bedu, “water”, from PIE *wed-; cf. Arm. get, “river”.
• Phryg. anar, “husband”, “man”, PIE *h2ner-, “man”; cf. Gk. aner-, “man, husband”.
• Phryg. belte, “swamp”, from PIE root *bhel-, “to gleam”; cf. Gk. baltos, “swamp”.
• Phryg. brater, “brother”, from PIE *bhreh2ter-; cf. Gk. phrāter-.
• Phryg. ad-daket, “does, causes”, from PIE stem *dhē-k-; cf. Gk. ethēka.
• Phryg. germe, “warm”, from PIE *gwher-mo-; cf. Gk. thermos.
• Phryg. gdan, “earth”, from PIE *dhghom-; cf. Gk. khthōn.
NOTE. For more information on similarities between Greek and Phrygian, see
Neumann Phrygisch und Griechisch (1988).
B. ILLYRIAN
The Illyrian languages are a

group of Indo-European
languages that were spoken in
the western part of the
Balkans in former times by
ethnic groups identified as
Illyrians: Delmatae, Pannoni,
Illyrioi, Autariates, Taulanti.
The main source of

authoritative information
about the Illyrian language Roman provinces in the Balkans, 2 nd century AD: A.
Spalatum (Split); 1. Raetia; 2. Noricum; 3. Pannonia;
consists of a handful of 4. Illyricum; 5. Dacia; 6. Moesia; 7. Tracia.
Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of Illyrian
anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms. Some sound-changes and other

1. Introduction
language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian languages, but because
no writings in Illyrian are known, there is not sufficient evidence to clarify its place
within the Indo-European language family aside from its probable Centum nature.
NOTE. A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language has been proposed for about a
century, but remains an unproven hypothesis. The theory is based on classical sources,
archaeology, as well as onomastic considerations. Messapian material culture bears a number of
similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian
equivalents. A relation to the Venetic language and Liburnian language, once spoken in
northeastern Italy and Liburnia respectively, is also proposed. A grouping of Illyrian with the
Thracian and Dacian language in a “Thraco-Illyrian” group or branch, an idea popular in the first
half of the 20th century, is now generally rejected due to a lack of sustaining evidence, and due to
what may be evidence to the contrary. Also, the hypothesis that the modern Albanian language is a
surviving Illyrian language remains very controversial among linguists.
B. THRACIAN
Excluding Dacian, whose status as a Thracian language is disputed, Thracian was

spoken in what is now southern Bulgaria, parts of Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia,
Northern Greece – especially prior to Ancient Macedonian expansion –, throughout
Thrace (including European Turkey) and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western Asiatic
Turkey). Most of the Thracians were eventually Hellenized (in the province of Thrace) or
Romanized (in Moesia, Dacia, etc.), with the last remnants surviving in remote areas
until the 5th century AD.
NOTE. As an extinct language with only a few short inscriptions attributed to it (v.i.), there is
little known about the Thracian language, but a number of features are agreed upon. A number of
probable Thracian words are found in inscriptions – most of them written with Greek script – on
buildings, coins, and other artifacts. Some Greek lexical elements may derive from Thracian, such
as balios, “dappled” (< PIE *bhel-, “to shine”, Pokorny also cites Illyrian as possible source),
bounos, “hill, mound”, etc.
C. DACIAN
The Dacian language was an Indo-European language spoken by the ancient people of
Dacia. It is often considered to have been either a northern variant of the Thracian
language, or closely related to it.
93
There are almost no written documents in Dacian. Dacian used to be one of the major
languages of South-Eastern Europe, stretching from what is now Eastern Hungary to the
Black Sea shore. Based on archaeological findings, the origins of the Dacian culture are
believed to be in Moldavia, being identified as an evolution of the Iron Age Basarabi
culture.
It is unclear
exactly when the
Dacian language
became extinct,
or even whether
it has a living
descendant. The
initial Roman
conquest of part
of Dacia did not
put an end to the
Theoretical scenario: the
language, as free Albanians as a migrant
Dacian people
Dacian tribes
such as the Carpi may have continued to speak Dacian in Moldavia and adjacent regions
as late as the 6th or 7th century AD, still capable of leaving some influences in the forming
of Slavic languages.
According to the hypothesis of Hasdeu (1901), a branch of Dacian continued as the

Albanian language. A refined version of that hypothesis considers Albanian to be a Daco-
Moesian Dialect that split off before 300 BC, and that Dacian became extinct.
NOTE. The arguments for this early split before 300 BC include:
o Inherited Albanian words (e.g. PIE *mātēr → Alb. motër) shows the evolution PIE *ā → Alb. o,
but all the Latin loans in Albanian having an ā (<PIE *ā) shows Lat. ā → Alb. a. Therefore, the
transformation happened and ended before the Roman arrival in the Balkans.
o Romanian substratum words shared with Albanian show a Rom. a that corresponds to Alb. o
when the source for both sounds is an original common ā (cf. mazãre/modhull<*mādzula,

1. Introduction
“pea”; raţã/rosë<*rātja: “duck”); therefore, when these words had the same common form in
Pre-Romanian and Proto-Albanian the transformation PIE *ā → Alb. o had not started yet.
The correlation between these two facts could indicate that the split between Pre-Romanian (the
Dacians later Romanized) and Proto-Albanian happened before the Roman arrival in the Balkans.
E. PAIONIAN
The Paionian language is the poorly attested language of the ancient Paionians, whose
kingdom once stretched north of Macedon into Dardania and in earlier times into
southwestern Thrace.
Classical sources usually considered the Paionians distinct from Thracians or Illyrians,
comprising their own ethnicity and language. Athenaeus seemingly connected the
Paionian tongue to the Mysian language, itself barely attested. If correct, this could mean
that Paionian was an Anatolian language. On the other hand, the Paionians were
sometimes regarded as descendants of Phrygians, which may put Paionian on the same
linguistic branch as the Phrygian language.
NOTE. Modern linguists are uncertain on the classification of Paionian, due to the extreme
scarcity of materials we have on this language. However, it seems that Paionian was an
independent IE dialect. It shows a/o distinction and does not appear to have undergone
Satemization. The Indo-European voiced aspirates became plain voiced consonants, i.e. *bh→b,
*dh→d, *gh→g, *gwh→gw; as in Illyrian, Thracian, Macedonian and Phrygian (but unlike Greek).
F. ANCIENT MACEDONIAN
The Ancient Macedonian language was the tongue of the Ancient Macedonians. It was
spoken in Macedon during the 1st millennium BC. Marginalized from the 5th century BC,
it was gradually replaced by the common Greek dialect of the Hellenistic Era. It was
probably spoken predominantly in the inland regions away from the coast. It is as yet
undetermined whether the language was a dialect of Greek, a sibling language to Greek,
or an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to
Thracian and Phrygian languages.
Knowledge of the language is very limited because there are no surviving texts that are
indisputably written in the language, though a body of authentic Macedonian words has
been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the 5th
95
century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150 words and 200
proper names. Most of these are confidently identifiable as Greek, but some of them are
not easily reconciled with standard Greek phonology. The 6,000 surviving Macedonian
inscriptions are in the Greek Attic dialect.
The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella in
1986, dated to between mid to early 4th century BC, has been forwarded as an argument
that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek. Before the
discovery it was proposed that the Macedonian dialect was an early form of Greek,
spoken alongside Doric proper at that time.
The Pella katadesmos, is a katadesmos (a curse, or magic spell) inscribed on a lead

scroll, probably dating to between 380 and 350 BC. It was found in Pella in 1986
NOTE. Olivier Masson thinks that “in contrast with earlier views which made of it an Aeolic
dialect (O.Hoffmann compared Thessalian) we must by now think of a link with North-West Greek
(Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote). This view is supported by the recent discovery at Pella of a
curse tablet which may well be the first ‘Macedonian’ text attested (...); the text includes an adverb
“opoka” which is not Thessalian”. Also, James L. O’Neil states that the “curse tablet from Pella
shows word forms which are clearly Doric, but a different form of Doric from any of the west
Greek dialects of areas adjoining Macedon. Three other, very brief, fourth century inscriptions are
also indubitably Doric. These show that a Doric dialect was spoken in Macedon, as we would
expect from the West Greek forms of Greek names found in Macedon. And yet later Macedonian
inscriptions are in Koine avoiding both Doric forms and the Macedonian voicing of consonants.
The native Macedonian dialect had become unsuitable for written documents.”
From the few words that survive, a notable sound-law may be ascertained, that PIE
voiced aspirates *dh, *bh, *gh, appear as δ (=d[h]), β (=b[h]), γ (=g[h]), in contrast to
Greek dialects, which unvoiced them to θ (=th), φ (=ph), χ (=kh).
NOTE. Since these languages are all known via the Greek alphabet, which has no signs for voiced
aspirates, it is unclear whether de-aspiration had really taken place, or whether the supposed
voiced stops β, δ, γ were just picked as the closest matches to express voiced aspirates PIE *bh, *dh,

1. Introduction
*gh. As to Macedonian β, δ, γ = Greek φ, θ, χ, Claude Brixhe[ (1996) suggests that it may have been
a later development: The letters may already have designated not voiced stops, i.e. [b, d, g], but
voiced fricatives, i.e. [β, δ, γ], due to a voicing of the voiceless fricatives [φ, θ, x] (= Classical Attic
[ph, th, kh]). Brian Joseph (2001) sums up that “The slender evidence is open to different
interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really possible”, but cautions that “most likely,
Ancient Macedonian was not simply an Ancient Greek dialect on a par with Attic or Aeolic”. In this
sense, some authors also call it a “deviant Greek dialect”.
• PIE *dhenh2-, “to leave”, → A.Mac. δανός (δanós), “death”; cf. Attic θάνατος (thánatos).
PIE *h2aidh- → A.Mac.*ἄδραια (aδraia), ‘bright weather’, Attic αἰθρία (aithría).
• PIE *bhasko- → A.Mac. βάσκιοι (βáskioi), “fasces”. Compare also for A.Mac. ἀϐροῦτες
(aβroûtes) or ἀϐροῦϝες (aβroûwes), Attic ὀφρῦς (ophrûs), “eyebrows”; for Mac.
Βερενίκη (Βereníkē), Attic Φερενίκη (Phereníkē), “bearing victory”.
o According to Herodotus (ca. 440 BC), the Macedonians claimed that the Phryges
were called Brygoi (<PIE *bhrugo-) before they migrated from Thrace to Anatolia
ca. 1200 BC.
o In Aristophanes’ The Birds, the form κεϐλήπυρις (keβlēpyris), “red-cap bird”, shows
a voiced stop instead of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate, i.e. Macedonian
κεϐ(α)λή (keβalē) vs. Greek κεφαλή (kephalē), “head”.
• If A.Mac. γοτάν (γotán), “pig”, is related to PIE *gwou-, “cow”, this would indicate that
the labiovelars were either intact (hence *gwotán), or merged with the velars, unlike
the usual Gk. βοῦς (boûs).
NOTE. Such deviations, however, are not unknown within Greek dialects; compare Dor. γλεπ-
(glep-) for common Gk. βλεπ- (blep-), as well as Dor. γλάχων (gláchōn) and Ion. γλήχων
(glēchōn) for Gk. βλήχων (blēchōn).
• Examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: PIE
*genu- → A.Mac. κάναδοι (kánadoi), “jaws”; PIE *gombh- → A.Mac. κόμϐους
(kómbous), “molars”.
o Compared to Greek words, there is A.Mac. ἀρκόν (arkón) vs. Attic ἀργός (argós);
the Macedonian toponym Akesamenai, from the Pierian name Akesamenos – if
Akesa- is cognate to Greek agassomai, agamai, “to astonish”; cf. also the Thracian
name Agassamenos.
97
1.7.4. ANATOLIAN LANGUAGES
The Anatolian languages are a group

of extinct Indo-European languages,
which were spoken in Anatolia for
millennia, the best attested of them
being the Hittite language.
The Anatolian branch is generally

considered the earliest to split off the
Proto-Indo-European language, from
a stage referred to either as Middle
PIE or “Proto-Indo-Hittite” (PIH),
typically a date ca. 4500-3500 BC is
assumed. Within a Kurgan
framework, there are two possibilities
of how early Anatolian speakers could
have reached Anatolia: from the The approximate extent of the Hittite Old
Kingdom under Hantili I (ca. 1590 BC) in
north via the Caucasus, and from the darkest. Maximal extent of the Hittite Empire
ca. 1300 BC is shown in dark color, the
west, via the Balkans. Egyptian sphere of influence in light color.
NOTE. The term Indo-Hittite is somewhat imprecise, as the prefix Indo- does not refer to the
Indo-Aryan branch in particular, but is iconic for Indo-European (as in Indo-Uralic), and the -
Hittite part refers to the Anatolian language family as a whole.
Attested dialects of the Anatolian branch are:
• Hittite (nesili), attested from ca. 1800 BC to 1100 BC, official language of the Hittite
Empire.
• Luwian (luwili), close relative of Hittite spoken in Arzawa, to the southwest of the
core Hittite area.
• Palaic, spoken in north-central Anatolia, extinct around the 13th century BC, known
only fragmentarily from quoted prayers in Hittite texts.
• Lycian, spoken in Lycia in the Iron Age, most likely a descendant of Luwian, extinct in
ca. the 1st century BC. A fragmentary language, it is also a likely candidate for the
language spoken by Trojans.

1. Introduction
• Lydian, spoken in Lydia, extinct in ca. the 1st century BC, fragmentary.
• Carian, spoken in Caria, fragmentarily attested from graffiti by Carian mercenaries in
Egypt from ca. the 7th century BC, extinct ca. in the 3rd century BC.
• Pisidian and Sidetic (Pamphylian),
fragmentary.
• Milyan, known from a single inscription.
There were likely other languages of the

Anatolian branch that have left no written
records, such as the languages of Mysia,
Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
Anatolia was heavily Hellenized following the

conquests of Alexander the Great, and it is
generally thought that by the 1st century BC the
native languages of the area were extinct.
Hittite proper is known from cuneiform tablets

and inscriptions erected by the Hittite kings and
written in an adapted form of Old Assyrian Hittite pictographic writing
cuneiform orthography. Owing to the predominantly syllabic nature of the script, it is

difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of some Hittite sounds.
NOTE. The script known as “Hieroglyphic Hittite” has now been shown to have been used for
writing the closely related Luwian language, rather than Hittite proper. The later languages Lycian
and Lydian are also attested in Hittite territory.
The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified – partly on linguistic and partly on
paleographic grounds – into Old Hittite, Middle Hittite and New or Neo-Hittite,
corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite Empire, ca. 1750-
1500 BC, 1500-1430 BC and 1430-1180 BC, respectively.
Luwian was spoken by population groups in Arzawa, to the west or southwest of the
core Hittite area. In the oldest texts, e.g. the Hittite Code, the Luwian-speaking areas
including Arzawa and Kizzuwatna were called Luwia. From this homeland, Luwian
speakers gradually spread through Anatolia and became a contributing factor to the
99
downfall, after circa 1180

BC, of the Hittite Empire,
where it was already widely
spoken. Luwian was also
the language spoken in the
Neo-Hittite states of Syria,
such as Milid and
Carchemish, as well as in
the central Anatolian
kingdom of Tabal that
flourished around 900 BC.
Luwian has been preserved
in two forms, named after Luwian use according to inscriptions found
the writing systems used: Cuneiform Luwian and Hieroglyphic Luwian.
For the most part, the immediate ancestor of the known Anatolian languages, Common
Anatolian (the Late Proto-Anatolian dialect spoken ca. 2500) has been reconstructed on
the basis of Hittite. However, the usage of Hittite cuneiform writing system limits the
enterprise of understanding and reconstructing Anatolian phonology, partly due to the
deficiency of the adopted Akkadian cuneiform syllabary to represent Hittite sounds, and
partly due to the Hittite scribal practices.
NOTE 1. This especially pertains to what appears to be confusion of voiceless and voiced dental
stops, where signs -dV- and -tV- are employed interchangeably different attestations of the same
word. Furthermore, in the syllables of the structure VC only the signs with voiceless stops are
generally used. Distribution of spellings with single and geminated consonants in the oldest extant
monuments indicates that the reflexes of PIE voiceless stops were spelled as double consonants
and the reflexes of Proto-Indo-European voiced stops as single consonants. This regularity is the
most consistent in in the case of dental stops in older texts; later monuments often show irregular
variation of this rule.
NOTE 2. For a defence of Etruscan as an IE language, classified within the Anatolian branch, see
Adrados (2005) at <http://emerita.revistas.csic.es/index.php/emerita/article/viewArticle/52>.
Known changes from Middle PIE into Common Anatolian include:
• Voiced aspirates merged with voiced stops: *dh→d, *bh→b, *gh→g.

1. Introduction
• Voiceless stops become voiced after accented long-vowel or diphthong: PIH *wēk-
→ CA wēg-(cf. Hitt. wēk-, “ask for”); PIH *dheh1ti, “putting” → CA dǣdi (cf. Luw.
taac- “votive offering”).
• Conditioned allophone PIH *tj- → CA tsj-, as Hittite still shows.
• PIH *h1 is lost in CA, but for *eh1→ǣ, appearing as Hitt., Pal. ē, Luw., Lyc., Lyd. ā;
word-initial *h2→x, non-initial *h2→h; *h3→h.
NOTE 1. Melchert proposes that CA x (voiceless fricative) is “lenited” to h (voiced fricative)

under the same conditions as voiceless stops. Also, word-initial *h3 is assumed by some scholars to
have been lost already in CA.
NOTE 2. There is an important assimilation of laryngeals within CA: a sequence -VRHV-

becomes -VRRV-; cf. PIH *sperh1V- → Hitt. isparr-, “kick flat”; PIH *sun-h3-V- → Hitt. sunna-,
“fill”, Pal. sunnuttil-, “outpouring”; etc.
• PIH sonorants are generally stable in CA. Only word-initial *r̥ has been
eliminated. Word-initial *je- shows a trend to become CA e-, but the trend is not
complete in CA, as Hittite shows.
• Diphthong evolved as PIH *ei → CA long ę; PIH *eu → CA ū. PIE *oi, *ai, *ou, *au,
appear also in CA.
NOTE. Common Anatolian preserves PIE vowel system basically intact. Some cite the merger of
PIH *o and (controversial) *a as a Common Anatolian innovation, but according to Melchert that
merger was secondary shared innovation in Hittite, Palaic and Luwian, but not in Lycian. Also, the
lengthening of accented short vowels in open syllables cannot be of Common Anatolian, and
neither can lengthening in accented closed syllables.
• The CA nominal system shows an archaic productive declension in *-i, *-u. There
are only two grammatical genders, animate and inanimate.
• Hittite verbs are inflected according to two general verbal classes, the mi- and the
hi-conjugation.
NOTE. Rose (2006) lists 132 hi-verbs and interprets the hi/mi oppositions as vestiges of a
system of grammatical voice, i.e. “centripetal voice” vs. “centrifugal voice”. Additionally, the Hittite
verbal system displays two voices (active and mediopassive), two moods (indicative and
imperative), and two tenses (present and preterite), two infinitive forms, one verbal substantive, a
supine, and a participle.
101
1.8. MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
1.8.1. Modern Indo-European (MIE) is therefore a set of grammatical rules – including

its writing system, noun declension, verbal conjugation and syntax –, designed to
systematize the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European dialect North-West Indo-European
– described (v.s.) as the last IE dialect continuum (spoken in Europe for some centuries
within the time frame 3000-2000 BC) – to adapt it to modern communication needs.
Because such PIE dialects were spoken by prehistoric societies, no genuine sample texts
are available, and thus comparative linguistics – in spite of its 200 years’ history – is not
(and will not be) in the position to reconstruct exactly their formal languages (the one
used by learned people at the time), but only approximately how the spoken, vulgar
languages were like, i.e. the proto-languages that later evolved into the different attested
Indo-European dialects and languages.
NOTE. Reconstructed languages like Modern Hebrew, Modern Cornish, Modern Coptic, Modern
Prussian or Modern Indo-European may be revived in their communities without being as easy, as
logical, as neutral or as philosophical as the million artificial languages that exist today, and
whose main aim is to be supposedly ‘better’, or ‘easier’, or ‘more neutral’ than other artificial or
natural languages they want to substitute. Whatever the sociological, psychological, political or
practical reasons behind the success of such ‘difficult’ and ‘non-neutral’ natural languages instead
of ‘universal’ ones, what is certain is that if somebody learns Hebrew, Cornish, Coptic, Prussian or
Indo-European (or Latin, Gothic, Greek, Sanskrit, etc.), whatever the changes in the morphology,
syntax or vocabulary that could follow (because of, say, ‘better’ or ‘purer’ or ‘easier’ language
systems recommended by their language regulators), the language learnt will still be the same, and
the effort made won’t be lost in any possible case. That cannot be said of personal inventions.
1.8.2. We deemed it worth it to use the Proto-Indo-European reconstruction for the

revival of a complete modern language system, because of the obvious need for a
common language within the EU, to substitute the current deficient linguistic policy.
This language system, called European or European language (eurōpājóm), is mainly
based on the features of the European or Northwestern IE dialects, whose speakers – as
we have already seen – remained in close contact for some centuries after the first Late
PIE migrations, and have influenced each other in the last millennia within Europe.
NOTE. As Indo-Europeanist F. López-Menchero (2008) puts it, “there are ‘three (Late) Proto-
Indo-European languages’ which might be distinguished today:

1. Introduction
1) The actual Proto-Indo-European language and its early dialects, spoken by prehistoric peoples
of Eurasia in the Neolithic and Bronze Age, some millennia ago;
2) the reconstructed Late Proto-Indo-European language system, which has been studied by IE
scholars using the linguistic, archaeological and historical data available, and which is (and will
remain) imperfect by nature, based on more or less certain hypotheses and schools of thought; and
3) the modern Indo-European language systems (European, Hellenic, Aryan) which, being based
on the later, and trying to come near to the former, are neither one nor the other, but modern
languages systematized to be used in the modern world”.
NOTE 2. In that sense, some critics have considered the so-called “Indo-European language
revival” to be different from (and thus not comparable to) other language revivals, like – as they
put it – Hebrew or Cornish, because of the ‘obvious differences that will exist between that ancient
North-West Indo-European language and the Modern Indo-European or European language’. It is
important to note that, even though there is a general belief that Modern Hebrew and Ancient
Hebrew are the same languages, among Israeli scholars there have been continued calls for the
“Modern Hebrew” language to be called “Israeli Hebrew” or just (preferably) “Israeli”, due to the
strong divergences that exist – and further develop with its use – between the modern language
spoken in Israel and its theoretical basis, the Ancient Hebrew of the Tanakh, its contents (and
language variations) having being compiled probably between 450-200 BC, i.e when the language
was being substituted by Aramaic. On that interesting question, Prof. Ghil’ad Zuckermann
considers that “Israelis are brainwashed to believe they speak the same language as the prophet
Isaiah, a purely Semitic language, but this is false. It's time we acknowledge that Israeli is very
different from the Hebrew of the past”. He points out to the abiding influence of modern Indo-
European dialects – especially Yiddish, Russian and Polish –, in vocabulary, syntax and phonetics,
as imported by Israel's founders. The same could certainly be said of Cornish and other language
revivals, and even of some death languages with a continued use, like the Modern Latin language
used by the Catholic Church, which is not comparable to the Classical Latin used by Cicero, not to
talk about the real, Vulgar Latin used by the different peoples who lived in the Roman Empire.
1.8.3. Late Proto-Indo-European features that are common to early PIE dialects
(mainly North-West IE, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian), like nominal and verbal
inflection, morphology and syntax, make it possible for PIE to be proposed as
Dachsprache for an Indo-European International Auxiliary Language project.
Obviously, French, German, Spanish, Hindustani, Chinese, and other natural and
artificial languages proposed to substitute English dominance, are only supported by
their cultural or social communities, whereas IE native speakers make up the majority of
103
the world’s population, being thus the most ‘democratic’ choice for a language spoken
within international organizations and between the different existing nations.
NOTE 1. Because Modern Indo-European (a revived North-West IE proto-language) has other
sister dialects that were spoken by coeval prehistoric communities, languages like Modern
Hellenic (a revived Proto-Greek) and Modern Aryan (a revived Proto-Indo-Iranian) can also be
used in the regions where they are currently spoken in the form of their surviving dialects, as those
proto-languages were not much more different from North-West IE than Swedish from Danish, or
Spanish from Portuguese. They might also serve as linguae francae for closely related languages
or neighbouring regions, i.e. Aryan for Asia, Hellenic for and Armenian-speaking territories.
Anatolianism (Turkish Anadoluculuk) asserts that Turks descend from the indigenous
population of ancient Anatolia, based on historical and genetic views. Supported by Turkish
intellectuals in the 20th century, it became essential to the process of nation-building in Turkey,
but was substituted by the Pan-Turkic nationalism Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had discouraged before
his death. If accepted again, Turks could embrace their historical culture by adopting Modern
Anatolian (a revived Common Anatolian, “cousin dialect” of EIE, PGk. and PII) as a modern
second language for Turkey, which shares close historical and cultural ties with Europe and Asia.
NOTE 2. The terms Ausbausprache-Abstandsprache-Dachsprache were coined by Heinz Kloss

(1967), and they are designed to capture the idea that there are two separate and largely
independent sets of criteria and arguments for calling a variety an independent “language” rather
than a “dialect”: the one based on its social functions, and the other based on its objective
structural properties. A variety is called an ausbau language if it is used autonomously with
respect to other related languages. This typically means that it has its own standardized form
independent of neighbouring standard languages, like (in this hypothetical future) Modern Indo-
European in Europe and the Americas, Modern Aryan in Asia. This often involves being taught in
schools, and being used as a written language in a wide variety of functions, possibly including that
of an official national language. In contrast, varieties that are abstand languages are those that are
only spoken and typically only used in private contexts.
Dachsprache means a language form that serves as standard language for different dialects, even
though these dialects may be so different that mutual intelligibility is not possible on the basilectal
level between all dialects, particularly those separated by significant geographical distance. So e.g.
the Rumantsch Grischun developed by Heinrich Schmid (1982) as such a Dachsprache for a
number of quite different Romansh language forms spoken in parts of Switzerland; or the Euskara
Batua, “Standard Basque”, and the Southern Quechua literary standard, both developed as
standard languages for dialect continua that had historically been thought of as discrete languages

1. Introduction
with many dialects and no “official" dialect. Standard German and standard Italian to some extent
function in the same way. Perhaps the most widely used Dachsprache is Modern Standard Arabic,
which links together the speakers of many different, often mutually unintelligible Arabic dialects.
Hence a Standard Indo-European, which might take rules from Late Proto-Indo-European
reconstruction and the Modern Indo-European rules presented here, would be the wide
Dachsprache necessary to encompass (i.e. to serve as linguistic umbrella for) the modern revival of
early PIE dialects.
NOTE 3. Our proposal is different from the Hebrew language revival, but we think that:
a) The reconstruction of a common Late PIE (laryngeal?) phonology, nominal or verbal

inflection system results at best mainly in abstract formulae or vague approximations – following
the dissertation of Mallory & Adams (v.s. § 1.1.8) –; they are very useful for a Standard Indo-
European Dachsprache, but the reconstruction unfortunately does not have enough certainty to be
used for a common, modern revived language. Reconstructions of early PIE dialects, on the other
hand, result in approximations with strong statistical confidence, offering a practical system for
common West European, Greek and Indo-Iranian phonetics and inflection system, but they lack
enough data on their oldest morphology, syntax and vocabulary, which were obscured by later
innovations. Therefore, reconstructions of Late PIE and early PIE dialects complement each other.
b) Where Zionism had only some formal writings, with limited vocabulary, of an ancient
language already dead centuries before their latest sacred texts were compiled (ca. 200 BC), and
their people expelled from Israel (in 70 AD), Pro-Europeanism and Indo-Europeanism have PIE
and its early dialects (EIE, PGk and PII) with a continued history of use in Eurasia and hundreds
of living dialects, and other very old dead dialects attested, so that their modern revival can be
considered ‘less artificial’. Thus, even if Europeans had tablets dating from 2000 BC in some
dialectal predominant formal EIE language (say, from Pre-Germanic or Pre-Celtic IE), the current
North-West Indo-European reconstruction should probably still be used as the main source for
Indo-European language revival in the European Union. Just taking a look at Mycenaean
inscriptions and its difficult phonetic decipherment is enough to realize how little EIE
reconstruction would change if writings were found.
c) The common culture and religion was probably the basis for the Hebrew language revival in
Israel. Proto-Indo-European, whilst the mother tongue of some prehistoric tribe with an own
culture and religion, spread into different peoples, with different cultures and religions. There was
never a concept of “Indo-European community” after the migrations. However, Indo-European
languages are spoken today by the majority of the population – in the world and especially within
Europe –, and its early dialects spread into two main communities, EIE and PGk in Europe, PII in
105
South Asia. It is therefore possible to speak them as natural, cultural and national common
languages, what may be a significant advantage of IE as IAL over any other natural language.
Also, blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich

(1774-1824), a Roman Catholic Augustinian
nun, stigmatic, mystic, visionary and ecstatic,
had revelations about the Confusion of Tongues
(Genesis 11:1-9): “Upon Heber who, as we have
said, took no part in the work, God cast His
eyes; and amid the general disorder and
corruption, He set him and his posterity apart
as a holy nation. God gave him also a new and
holy language possessed by no other nation,
that thereby his race should be cut off from
communication with all others. This language
was the pure Hebrew, or Chaldaic [=NW
Semitic]. The first tongue, the mother tongue, Gustave Doré's Confusion of Tongues
spoken by Adam, Sem, and Noe, was different, and it is now extant only in isolated dialects. Its
first pure offshoots are the Zend, the sacred tongue of India, and the language of the Bactrians
[=early Indo-Iranian dialects]. In those languages, words may be found exactly similar to the
Low German of my native place [=any modern EIE regional dialect]. The book that I see in
modern Ctesiphon [=Greek colony, site of church councils of the Church of the East], on the
Tigris, is written in that language [=a PGk dialect]”. Her visions receive particular veneration
from Traditional Catholics, and this one refers clearly to the three “isolated dialects” (PII, EIE and
PGk) derived directly from the confounded divine tongue – which some have since identified as
the common Proto-Indo-European language – spoken until ca. 3000-2500 BC according to
Biblical chronology and archaeological findings of the great temple towers (ziggurats) of ancient
Sumer. For the Catholic Catechism, the Genesis “uses figurative language, but affirms a primeval
event”, see <http://www.catholic.com/library/Adam_Eve_and_Evolution.asp>.
1.8.4. Modern Indo-European words to complete the lexicon of North-West Indo-

European, in case that no common PIE form is found, are to be loan-translated from
present-day North-West IE languages. Common loan words from sister dialects can also
be loan-translated or taken as (proto-language) loan words.
NOTE 1. Even though the vocabulary reconstructible for early PIE languages is indeed wider
than the common Proto-Indo-European lexicon, a remark of Mallory & Adams (2006) regarding

1. Introduction
reconstructible Common PIE words is interesting: “Yet we know that our reconstructed lexicon
falls far short of the full language, e.g. we can reconstruct ‘eye’ and ‘eyebrow’ but not ‘eyelash’. We
can most easily gain an impression of what may be missing when we consider modern ethno-
botanical studies. In Proto-Indo-European we can offer about thirty-two plant names and an
additional twenty-six tree names. In contrast, Brent Berlin examined the languages of ten
traditional farming societies and found that the average number of botanical taxa reported in each
language was 520. If we were to treat such comparisons at face value this would suggest that we
are recovering only about 11 per cent of the probable botanical lexicon known to the Proto-Indo-
Europeans. Or compare, for example, the fact that we can reconstruct only a few terms relating to
the horse in Proto-Indo-European; in English this semantic field includes horse, pony, nag, steed,
prancer, dobbin, charger, courser, colt, foal, fielly, gelding, hack, jade, crock, plug, and many more
terms, including the many specific terms describing the colour of the horse, e.g. bay, chestnut,
sorrel, pinto. There is no reason to suspect that PIE did not behave similarly”.
NOTE 2. For examples of loan translations from modern EIE languages, cf. from Latin
aquaeduct (Lat. aquaeductus → MIE aqāsduktos) or universe (Lat. uniuersus<*oin(i)-uors-o-
<*oino-wṛt-to- → MIE oinówṛstos ‘turned into one’); from English, like software (from Gmc.
samþu-, warō → MIE somtúworā); from French, like ambassador (from Cel. amb(i)actos → MIE
ambhíagtos ‘public servant’); or chamber (from O.Lat. camera, from PGk. kamárā, ‘vault’ →
MIE kamarā); from Russian, like bolshevik (MIE belijówikos); etc.
Modern loan words from sister or cousin IE dialects can be either loan-translated or directly
taken as loan words, depending on the nature of the individual words:
o Loan words should be taken directly in MIE from forms which are found only in one proto-
language or restricted to southern dialects; as e.g. Gk. photo, which should be taken directly
as loan word pháwotos, from PGk phawots, gen. phawotós, as Gk. φῶς (<φάϝος), φωτός, in
compound phawotogṛphjā, photography, derived from IE root bhā-, shine, which could
be loan-translated as MIE *bháwotos, from *bhawotogṛbhjā, but without having a
meaning for extended bha-wes-, still less for bha-wot-, in North-West Indo-European or
even Proto-Indo-European, as it is only found in Ancient Greek dialects. Compare also MIE
skhol, from Lat. schola, taken from Gk. σχολή (<PGk. skhol), spare time, leisure,
tranquility, borrowed from Greek with the meaning “school”, which was in O.Gk. σχολεῖον
(scholeíon), translated as PGk. skholehjom (<PIE *-esjo-m), from IE root segh-, which could
also be loan-translated as MIE *sghol or even more purely (and artificially) *sgholesjom,
none of them being Proto-Indo-European or common Indo-European terms. Examples from
Indo-Iranian include wasākáranas, bazaar, from O.Ira. vahacarana, “sale-traffic”,
bazaar, which could also be translated as proper MIE *wesāqólenos, from PIE roots wes-
107
and qel-; or katúrangam, chess, from Skr. caturaŋgam (which entered Europe from Pers.
shatranj) a bahuvrihi compound, meaning “having four limbs or parts”, which in epic poetry
often means “army”, possibly shortened from katurangabalam, Skr. caturaŋgabalam, lit.
“four-member force”, “an army comprising of four parts”, could be loan-translated as MIE
*qatúrangom and *qaturangobelom, from roots qetwṛ-, ang- and bel-.
o Loan words and loan translations might also coexist in specialized terms; as, from PIE
*h1rudhrós, red, PGk eruthrós, in common loan eruthrókutos, erythrocyte, proper MIE
rudhrós, in rudhr (ésenos) kētjā, red (blood) cell; cf. also MIE mūs, musós, mouse,
muscle, PGk mūs, muhós, in loan muhokutos, myocyte, for muskosjo kētjā, muscle cell.
1.8.5. The adjective eurōpājós, m. European, comes from the Greek noun Eurōpā.
NOTE. Gk. Eurōpā is from unknown origin, even though it was linked with Homer’s epithet for
Zeus euruopā, from *hurú-oqeh2 “far-seeing, broad”, or *h1urú-woqeh2 “far-sounding” (Heath,
2005). Latinate adj. europaeus, which was borrowed by most European languages, comes from
Gk. adj. eurōpaíos, in turn from PGk eurōpai-jós < PIE *eurōpeh2-jós → MIE eurōpā-jós. For the
evolution PIH *-eh2jo- → PGk *-aijo-, cf. adjective formation in Gk. agor-agoraíos, Ruigh (1967).
The name of the European language system is eurōpājóm, inanimate, because of the
oldest IE dialects, those which had an independent name for languages used the neuter.
NOTE. Compare Gk. n.pl. Ἑλληνικά (hellēniká), Skr. n.sg. संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), O.H.G. diutisc,
O.Prus. prūsiskan, etc.; cf. also in Tacitus Lat. uōcābulum latīnum.
In most IE languages, the language is also referred to as “language” defined by an
adjective, whose gender follows the general rule of concordance; as in MIE f. eurōpāj
dṇghwā, European language.
NOTE. Cf. Lat. latīna lingua, Gk. ελληνική γλώσσα, O.H.G. diutiska sprāhha (Ger. Deutsche
Sprache), O.Prus. prūsiskai bilā, O.C.S. словѣньскыи ѩзыкъ (slověnĭskyi językŭ), etc.
1.8.6. Because the term Indo-European is common today to refer to the reconstructed
language, we decided to use that traditional name to describe the Proto-European
language, as a way to familiarize the reader with the European language system as a
natural, dead language, and to distinguish it clearly from other language inventions.
NOTE. However, when speaking in European, sindhueurōpājóm, “Indo-European”, pr̅mo-
sindhueurōpājóm, “Proto-Indo-European”, Eurōpās sindhueurōpājóm, “Europe’s Indo-
European”, should refer to the theoretical linguistic concepts, to the ancient reconstructed
dialects, while eurōpājóm, “European”, should be preferred for the modern language, just like
Israeli is probably the most suited name to refer to Modern Hebrew.

2. LETTERS AND SOUNDS
2.1 THE ALPHABETS OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
2.1.1. Indo-European does not have an old writing system to be revived with. In the
regions where PIE speakers dwelled four thousand years ago, caves and stones probably
still keep some ancient pictographic writings, composed of logograms (graphemes) that
represent a morpheme or a whole word, as did Egyptian hieroglyphic logographs.
2.1.2. The Indo-European dialects have adopted different alphabets during the last
millennia, and all of them should be usable today – although the main alphabet for
today’s European Union is clearly the Latin one. This is a summary table of Proto-Indo-
European phonemes and their regular corresponding letters in MIE alphabets: Greek,
Latin, Cyrillic, Perso-Arabic and (alphasyllabary) Devanāgarī.
A. VOWELS AND VOCALIC ALLOPHONES
Phoneme Greek Latin Persian Armenian Cyrillic Devan.
[a] Αα Aa Աա Аа अ
[e] Εε Ee Եե Ee ए
[o] Οο Oo Ոո Оо ओ
[] Ᾱᾱ Āā ‫ﺍ‬ Աա Āā आ
[] Ē ε̄ Ēē Էէ Ēē ऐ
[] Ωω Ōō Ոո Ōō औ
[i] Ιι Ii Իի Ии इ
[] Ῑῑ Īī ‫ی‬ Իի Ӣӣ ई
[u] Υυ Uu Ււ Уу उ
[] Ῡῡ Ūū ‫و‬ Ււ Ӯӯ ऊ
[r̥] Ρρ Rr ‫ﺭ‬ Ռռ Рр ऋ (ॠ)

[l̥] Λλ Ll ‫ل‬ Լլ Лл ऌ(ॡ)
[m̥] Μμ Mm ‫م‬ Մմ Мм म
[n̥] Νν Nn ‫ن‬ Նն Нн ण
NOTE. The underdot diacritic might be used to mark the sonorants, as Ṛ ṛ, Ḷ ḷ, Ṇ ṇ, Ṃ ṃ; usually,
however, sonorants appear between consonants, so it is not necessary to mark them, v.i.
B. CONSONANTS AND CONSONANTAL SOUNDS
Phoneme Greek Latin Persian Armenian Cyrillic Devan.
[p] Ππ Pp ‫پ‬ Պպ Пп प
[b] Ββ Bb ‫ﺏ‬ Բբ Бб ब
[bh] Βη βη Bh bh ‫ﺏﻌ‬ Բհ բհ Бх бх भ
[t] Ττ Tt ‫ﺕ‬ Տտ Тт त
[th] Θθ Th th ‫ﺕﻌ‬ Թթ Тх тх थ
[d] Δδ Dd ‫ﺩ‬ Դդ Дд द
[dh] Δη δη Dh dh ‫ﺫ‬ Դհ դհ Дх дх ध
[k] Κκ Kk ‫ک‬ Կկ Кк क
[kh] Χχ Kh kh ‫کﻌ‬ Քք Кх кх ख
[g] Γγ Gg ‫گ‬ Գգ Гг ग
[gh] Γη γη Gh gh ‫گﻌ‬ Գհ գհ Гх гх घ
[kw] Ϙϙ Qq ‫ﻕ‬ Քք Къ къ क
[gw] Γγ γγ Cc ‫ﻍ‬ Ղղ Гъ гъ ग
[gwh] Γγη γγη Ch ch ‫ﻍﻌ‬ Ղհ ղհ Гъх гъх घ
[h] Ηη Hh ‫ﻩ‬ Հհ Хх ह
[j] Ι ι (J j) Jj ‫ی‬/‫ژ‬ Յ յ, Ի ի Йй/Јј य

[w] Ϝϝ Ww ‫ﻭ‬ Ււ У у (W w) व
[r] Ρρ Rr ‫ﺭ‬ Ռռ Рр र
[l] Λλ Ll ‫ل‬ Լլ Лл ल
[m] Μμ Mm ‫م‬ Մմ Мм म
[n] Νν Nn ‫ن‬ Նն Нн न
[s] Σσς Ss ‫ﺱ‬ Սս Сс स
2.1.2. The Latin Alphabet used for Modern Indo-European is similar to the English,
which is in turn borrowed from the Late Latin abecedarium. We also consider some
digraphs part of the alphabet, as they represent original Proto-Indo-European sounds, in
contrast to those digraphs used mainly for transcriptions of loan words.

2. Letters and Sounds
NOTE. The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from the Greek alphabet and did not
at first contain the letter G. The letters Y and Z were introduced still later, about 50 BC.
The names of the consonants in Indo-European are as follows - B, be (pronounced

bay); Bh, bhe (bhay); C, ce (gway); Ch, che (gwhay); D, de (day); Dh, dhe (dhay); F,
ef; G, ge (gay); Gh, ghe (ghay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N, en; P, pe; Q, qu; R,
er; S, es; T, te; V, ve; W, wa; X, eks; Z, zet.
2.1.3. The Latin character C originally meant [g], a value always retained in the
abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). That was probably due to Etruscan
influence, which copied it from Greek Γ, Gamma, just as later Cyrillic Г, Ge.
NOTE 1. In early Latin C came also to be used for [k], and K disappeared except before in a few
words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds
[g] and [k]. This defect was later remedied by forming (from C, the original [g]-letter) a new
character G. Y and Z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur mainly in loan
words in Modern Indo-European.
NOTE 2. In Modern Indo-European, C is used (taking its oldest value) to represent the Indo-
European labiovelar [gw] in PIE words, while keeping its different European values – [k], [ts], [s],
[θ], [ʃ], etc. – when writing proper names in the different modern IE languages.
2.1.4. The Latin [w] semivowel developed into Romance [v]; therefore V no longer
adequately represented [w] and the Latin alphabet had to develop an alternative letter.
Modern Indo-European uses V mainly for loan words, representing [v], while W is left
for the consonantal sound [w].
NOTE. V originally denoted the vowel sound [u] (Eng. oo), and F stood for the sound of
consonant [w] (from Gk. ϝ, called digamma). When F acquired the value of our [f], V came to be
used for consonant [w] as well as for the vowel [u].
2.1.5. The letter I stood for the vowel [i], and was also used in Latin (as in Modern
Greek) for its consonant sound [j]. J was originally developed as a swash character to end
some Roman numerals in place of I; both I and J represented [i], [iː], and [j]. In MIE, J
represents the semivowel [j]. In the Latin script, Y is used to represent the vowel [y] in
foreign words.
NOTE. That [j] value is retained in English J only in foreign words, as Hallelujah or Jehovah.
Because Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [ɡ]) that came to be
represented as I and J, English J (from French J), as well as Spanish, Portuguese or Italian J have
111
sound values quite different from [j]. Romanisation of the sound [j] from different writing systems
(like Devanagari) as Y – which originally represented in Latin script the Greek vowel [y] –, due to
its modern value in English, French or Spanish, has spread a common representation of [j] as Y in
Indo-European studies, while J is used to represent other sounds.
2.1.6. The consonant cluster [ks] was in Ancient Greece written as X (Chi) in Western
Greek, Ξ (Xi) in Eastern Greek dialects. In the end, X was standardized as [kh] ([x] in
modern Greek), while Ξ represented [ks]. In the Latin script, the X stands for [ks], as in
English or Latin, whereas in the Cyrillic alphabet it stands for [h] (and aspiration), as
well as for [x] in foreign words.
NOTE. The Etruscans took over X from Old Western Greek, therefore it stood for [ks] in
Etruscan and then in Latin, and also in most languages which today use an alphabet derived from
the Roman, including English. Cyrillic X was taken with its standard Greek value [x], but is also
used as [h] in those languages that need it; as, Macedonian, and Bulgarian and Serbian dialects.
2.1.7. As in Ancient and Classic Greek, in the Greek alphabet X stands for [kh], Φ for
[ph], and Θ for [th].
NOTE. Because of its use in Modern Greek, they also represent (mainly foreign) [x], [f] and [θ].
2.1.8. Ē represents [ɛː] in the Greek alphabet, because Η was originally used in most
Greek dialects to represent the sound [h], and it is therefore used with this value in IE
writings, as well as to mark aspirated phonemes.
NOTE. For more on the problem of historical Eta and its representation in the modern Greek
alphabet, see <http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode_aitch.html>.
2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS
2.2.1. The Vowels are short [a], [e], [i], [o], [u], written a, e, i, o, u, and long [], [],
[], [], [], written ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, respectively. The other sounds are Consonants.
The Modern Indo-European Diphthongs proper are [ei̯], [oi̯], [ai̯], written ei, oi, ai,
and [eu̯], [ou̯], [au̯], written eu, ou, au. In these diphthongs both vowel sounds are
heard, one following the other in the same syllable.
NOTE. For the so-called long diphthongs [i̯], [i̯], [i̯], written ēi, ōi, āi, and [u̯], [u̯], [u̯],
written ēu, ōu, āu, which remained only in Indo-Iranian, Greek and partly in Baltic languages,
Schulze (1885) interpreted a regular correspondence of the type āi/ā/ī, which came respectively
from the full grade of the long diphthong, the full grade before consonant (where the second

element was lost), and the zero-grade (a contraction of schwa with the semivowel). Martinet
(1953) proposed that laryngeals were behind those long diphthongs.
In any case, in the languages in which they are retained, long diphthongs have not a longer
duration than normal diphthongs; phonologically they are equivalent, as Vedic and Greek metric
shows. After Adrados (1995), “The difference, therefore, is not on the duration of the group, but on
the relative duration of their components; in other words, for example ei and ēi have the same
phonological duration (they are long, as opposed to a brief vowel), but in ei both elements have
approximately the same duration, whereas in ēi the duration of i is perceptibly shorter than e.
Because of that, the name ‘long first element diphthongs’ is more appropriate to refer to these
phonemes”. Cf. Allen (1976) for an analysis of these diphthongs.
Strictly speaking, phoneticians do not consider the so-called rising diphthongs, [je],
[jo], [ja], [j], [j], [j], nor [we], [wo], [wa], [w], [w], [w], as diphthongs proper,
but rather sequences of glide and vowel.
NOTE. Whilst most Indo-Europeanists differentiate between sequences of approximant and
vowel (rising diphthongs) from true falling diphthongs in their transcriptions, i.e. writing [je]
(from [i]+[e]) but [ei] or [ei̯] (from [e]+[i]), some use a different approach, considering all of them
combinations of vowel plus glide or glide plus vowel, i.e. writing [je] and [ej], or [i̯e] and [ei̯].
Therefore, there are no real triphthongs. The formations usually called triphthongs are
[jei̯], [joi̯], [jai̯], [jeu̯], [jou̯], [jau̯], as well as [wei̯], [woi̯], [wai̯], [weu̯], [wou̯], [wau̯]; and
none can be named strictly triphthong, as there is a consonantal sound [j] or [w] followed
by a diphthong. The rest of possible formations are made up of a diphthong and a vowel.
2.2.2. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants are
pronounced with vocal cords vibration, as opposed to voiceless consonants, where the
vocal cords are relaxed.
a. The voiced consonants are [b], [d], [g], [gw], [l], [r] and [ɾ], [m], [n], [z], [j], [w].
b. The voiceless consonants are [p], [t], [k], [kw], [s].
c. The digraphs bh, dh, gh and ch represent the Indo-European voiced aspirates
proper, i.e. [bh], [dh], [gh], [gwh], whereas ph, th, and kh represent voiceless aspirates
[ph], [th], [kh], mostly confined to words of Greek origin, as well as foreign [ɸ], [θ] and
[x], respectively.
113
d. The consonants [r], [l], [m], [n], and the semivowels [j] and [w], can function both as
consonants and vowels, i.e. they can serve as syllabic border or center.
NOTE. There is a clear difference between the vocalic allophones of the semivowels and those of
the sonants, though: the first, [i] and [u], are very stable as syllabic center, while [r̥], [l̥], [m̥], [n̥],
aren’t, as they cannot be pronounced more opened. Hence the big differences in their evolution,
depending on the individual dialects.
2.2.3. The Mutes are classified as follows:
voiceless voiced aspirated

labials p b bh
dentals t d dh
velars k g gh
labiovelars kw gw gwh
Labialized velars or Labiovelars [kw] (written q), [gw] (written c), [gwh] (written ch), are
pronounced like [k], [g], [gh] respectively, but with rounded lips.
NOTE 1. German Neogrammarians reconstructed a fourth series of phonemes, the voiceless
aspirates *ph, *th, *kh, to explain some irregularities in the outputs of the voiceless row. Most Indo-
Europeanists reject this fourth independent row of phonemes, and findings of Indo-Iranian,
Armenian and Greek have been explained as 1) expressive in origin, 2) contact of a voiceless with a
laryngeal phoneme, and 3) effect of a prior s. For support of the fourth row, cf. Szemerényi (1985).
NOTE 2. The modern mainstream Proto-Indo-European reconstruction, that accepts only these
two rows of velars as the most logical PIE phonetic system, has been confronted with the question
of the actual existence of the groups [kw], [gw], and [ghw], different from (and similar or identical
in their dialectal outputs to) labialized [kw], [gw], and [gwh]. A distinction between both is often
found, though, whether an independent row of palatalized velars is accepted or not; as, kwōn,
dog, ekwos, horse, ghwer-, wild, kweidos, white, kwet-, cook (cf. O.Ind. kwathati), tekw-,
run, etc. which might be found reconstructed as *qōn, *eqos, *cher-, etc. For a defence of such
unified forms, see e.g. Jussi Halla-aho at <http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/slavi/vk/halla-
aho/problems.pdf>.
2.2.4. The so-called Liquids are l, which represents the alveolar lateral approximant [l],
an r, pronounced in PIE and in most modern IE languages (at least occasionally) as
alveolar trill [r], today often allophonic with an alveolar tap [ɾ], particularly in unstressed
positions. These sounds are voiced.

NOTE. About Indo-European r and l, cf. Ban’czerowski (1968).
For foreign words, the group rh represents an [h] sound coming just after the [ɾ],
mainly in words of Greek origin. Other groups include rr, the alveolar trill [r], and its
aspirated counterpart rrh. The palatal lateral approximant [ʎ] shall be represented as lj.
2.2.5. The Nasals are labial [m], written m, and dental [n], written n. These are voiced.
The velar nasal [ŋ] – as ng in English sing – could have existed in IE as allophone of [n]
before velars.
NOTE. Erhart (1970) reconstructs three nasals, N, M1 and M2, this one a fricative seminasal
with which he explains the results of alternating m and w in some suffixes and roots; as, -ment-/-
went-, men-/wen-, etc. It was left unexplained, though, under which conditions did it change.
The palatal nasal [ɲ] of foreign words (similar to the [n] sound in English onion or
canyon) is represented by the pair nj.
2.2.6. The Fricatives are voiceless [s] and voiced [z], z being usually the output of s
before voiced consonants.
NOTE. [z] was already heard in Late Proto-Indo-European, as a different pronunciation
(allophone) of [s] before voiced consonants, as can be clearly seen in PIE nizdos (for nisdos),
nest, which comes from PIE roots ni-, down, and zero-grade -sd- of sed, sit. Because of that it is
preferred to write s for [z] in MIE.
It is also possible to write voiceless and voiced pairs from foreign words: labiodentals, f
and v; dorsal voiceless h and [x], written kh; and postalveolar [ʃ] as sh and [ʒ] as zh.
Possible groups include ks, ts, dz, tsh (for [tʃ]), dzh (for [dʒ]), etc.
2.2.7. The Semivowels are usually written j, and w. These are voiced.
NOTE. Some authors make a distinction between consonantal [j], [w], and vocalic [i], [u].
Actually, however, both appear as TIT and EYE (where T = consontant, E = vowel, I = i,u, Y = j,w),
and never as TYT or EIE. Against it, see Schmitt-Brandt (1967) and Szemerényi (1985) and
Mayrhofer (1986).
2.2.8. Gemination appears in phonemes whose duration is long enough to be perceived

– their implosion and explosion, both audible – as distributed in two syllables. They
existed in PIE: in stops, as appās, attās (and tātā), dad, pappājō, eat, or kakkājō,
shit; in nasals, as anna-, ammā (and mammā), mother, mum; in liquids, as bōullā,
buble; and in the sibilant, as kussō, kiss.
115
NOTE. They appear mostly in words of expressive origin, children vocabulary, onomatopoeia,
etc., which makes it more likely that PIE inherited gemination as an expressive resource, different
from its central phonological system; a resource that was retained for a long time by most IE
languages as a recurrent possibility.
2.2.10. A synoptic table of the Proto-Indo-European phonetic system:
Labials Coronals Palatovelars Velars Labiovelars Gutturals

Voiceless p t kj k kw
Aspirated ph th kh
Voiced b d gj g gw
Aspirated bh dh gjh gh gwh
Nasals m n
Fricatives s,z h, *H
Liquids r,l
Approximant w j
NOTE 1. The existence of a distinctive row of PIE ‘satemizable’ velars, the so-called palatovelars,
has been the subject of much debate over the last century of IE studies. Today a majority of
modern scholars support only two types of velars in Late PIE – generally Velars and Labiovelars,
although other solutions have been proposed, see Appendix II.2.
Palatovelars could be found in PII, though, and are to be represented with Ķ ķ, Ģ ģ, Ģh ģh.
The support of German Neogrammarians to the ‘palatals’ in Proto-Indo-European, as well as its

acceptance in Brugmann’s Grundriß and Pokorny’s Wörterbuch, extended the distinction to many
(mainly etymological) works, which didn’t deal with the phonological reconstruction problem
directly. As Adrados (2005) puts it, about the standard [=Brugmannian] theories nowadays,
“Indo-Europeanists keep working on a unitary and flat PIE, that of Brugmann’s reconstruction. A
reconstruction prior to the decypherment of Hittite and the study of Anatolian! This is but other
proof of the terrible conservadurism that has seized the scientific discipline that is or must be
Indo-European linguistics: it moves forward in the study of individual languages, but the general
theory is paralised. It is sad when our students go to Germany and come back brainwashed”.
NOTE 2. The cover symbol *H, traditionally *ə, stands for the uncertain Late PIE ouput of the
(for Middle PIE) reconstructed laryngeal phonemes h1, h2, h3, which had evolved differently
already by the time when Late PIE and Proto-Anatolian were independent languages. There is no

consensus as to what these phonemes were like, or how many of them (if any) survived into Late
PIE, but it is widely accepted that PIH *h2 was probably uvular or pharyngeal, and that *h3 was
labialized. Commonly cited possibilities are ʔ, ʕ, ʕw and x, χ~ħ, xw. See Appendix II.3.
2.3. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS
2.3.1 The following pronunciation scheme is substantially that used by the common
Europe’s Indo-European speakers in ca. 2500 BC, when the laryngeal phonemes had
already disappeared, having coloured following vowels, and lengthened preceding ones.
NOTE. MIE cannot permit dialectal phonetic differences, whether vocalic or consonantal – like
Grimm’s Law effects in PGmc. consonants, already seen –, because a homogeneous pronunciation
system is especially needed when targeting a comprehensible common language. Some differences
exist in sister dialects Hellenic, Aryan and Anatolian, though.
2.3.2. Vowels:
ā as in father a as in idea
ē as in they e as in met
ī as in meet i as in chip
ō as in note o as in pot
ū as in rude u as in put
NOTE 1. Following the mainstream laryngeals’ theory, Proto-Indo-Hittite knew only two vowels,
*e and *o, while the other commonly reconstructed vowels were earlier combinations with
laryngeals. Thus, short vowels PIE a < *h2e; e < *(h1)e; o < *h3e, *(h1)o; long vowels ā < *eh2; ē <
*eh1; ō < *eh3, *oh. The output of *h2o in Late PIE was either a or o, after the different schools.
Short and long vowels  and  were just variants of the semivowels PIH *j and *w.
NOTE 2. The sonants may have been lengthened too (usually from older sequences of sonant +
laryngeal, or because of compensatory lengthenings), especially in the conjugation of verbs, giving
thus [r̥], [l̥], [m̥], [n̥], written as r̅, l̅, m̅, n̅. The semivowels can also have a prolonged
pronunciation, giving allophones ij and uw. For more details on this see § 2.7.2.
2.3.3. Falling Diphthongs and equivalents in English:
i as in vein u e (met) + u (put)

i as in oil u as ow in know
i as in Cairo u as ou in out
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2.3.4. Consonants:
1. b, d, h, l, m, n, are pronounced as in English. n

might also be pronounced as guttural ŋ]
[ when it is
There are several ways followed by another guttural, as in Eng. sing or bank.
to generate breathy-
voiced sounds: 3. p, k, t are plain as in Romance, Slavic or Greek
1. To hold the vocal

languages, not aspirated as in English; t is never
cords apart, so that they pronounced as sh, as in English oration or creation.
are lax as they are for
4. g always as in get. It had two dialectal
[h], but to increase the
volume of airflow so that pronunciations, the common simple velar and the
they vibrate loosely. ‘eastern’ (later generalized in PII) palatovelar.
2. To bring the vocal Compare the initial consonants in garlic and gear,
cords closer together whispering the two words, and it will be observed
along their entire length
that before e and i the g is sounded farther forward in
than in voiceless [h], but
not as close as in the mouth (more ‘palatal’) than before a or o. That is
modally voiced sounds what we represent as ģ, similar to ķ, pronounced as k
such as vowels. This
in key, compared to c in cold.
results in an airflow
intermediate between [h] 5. c is pronounced similar to [g] but with rounded
and vowels, and is the
lips. Compare the initial consonant in good with get
case with English
intervocalic [h]. to feel the different articulation. The voiceless q is
similar to [k] but pronounced with rounded lips; as c
3. To constrict the
glottis, but separate the in cool, compared to c in car.
arytenoid cartilages that 6. bh, dh, gh, ch are uncertain in sound, but the
control one end. This
results in the vocal cords recommended pronunciation is that of the
being drawn together for Hindustānī’s “voiced aspirated stops” bh, dh, gh, as
voicing in the back, but they are examples of living voiced aspirates in an
separated to allow the
Indo-European language (see note to the left).
passage of large volumes
of air in the front. This is 7. The voiceless aspirated ph, kh, th, frequently of
the situation with
Hellenic origin, are pronounced very nearly like
Hindustani.
English word-initial p, k, t, as in pen, ten, Ken. Their
sound is also described as equivalent to p+h, t+h,

k+h, i.e. to the corresponding mutes with a following breath, as in loop-hole, hot-house,
block-house.
8. j as the sound of y in yes, never the common English [dʒ], as j in join; w as w in will.
9. Indo-European r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue (still
common today in many IE languages), as in Scottish English curd. Another
pronunciation is common today among modern IE languages, and was possibly heard in
PIE, the alveolar tap [ɾ], pronounced like the intervocalic t or d in American or Australian
English, as in better.
10. s is voiceless as in sin, but there are situations in which it is voiced, depending on
the surrounding phonemes. Like the aforementioned [r], modern speakers will probably
pronounce [s] in slightly different ways, but this should not usually lead to
misunderstandings, as there are no proper IE roots with original [z] or [ʃ], even though
the former appeared in some phonetic environments, v.s.
11. Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of
the combination are distinctly articulated.
12. Regarding foreign sounds:
o kh might represent [x], whether strong, with ‘ach-laut’, such as kh in Russian

Khrushenko, or ch Chanukah, or soft, with ‘ich-laut’, such as ch in German
Kirche or Lichtenstein. Also, th might be pronounced as English th in thing,
and dh as th in this.
o z, v, f, sh, are pronounced as in English.
o zh is pronounced as s in English leisure.
o tsh corresponds to English ch in chain, and tzh to j in jump.
2.4. SYLLABLES
2.4.1. In many modern languages, there are as many syllables in a word as there are
separate vowels and diphthongs. This is not exactly so in Modern Indo-European. It
follows, indeed, this rule too:
swe-sōr, sister, skrei-bhō, write, ne-wā, new, ju-góm, yoke.

NOTE. The semivowels are always written j and w. So in trejes, three, newos, new, dṇghwās
[‘dn̥gh-ws], languages, etc.
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2.4.2. Indo-European has also consonant-only syllables. It is possible to hear similar

sound sequences in English cattle or bottom, in German Haben, in Czech hlt, Serbian
srpski, etc. In this kind of syllables, it is the vocalic sonant [r̥], [l̥], [m̥], or [n̥] –
constrained allophones of [r], [l], [m], [n] –, the one which functions as syllabic centre,
instead of a vowel proper:
kṛ-di, heart, wḷ-qos, wolf, de-kṃ, ten, nō-mṇ, name.
NOTE 1. Words derived from these groups, represented TRT (where T = consonant, R = sonant),
are unstable and tend to add auxiliary vowels before or after the sonants, i.e. T°RT or TR°T.
Because of that, their evolutions differ greatly in modern IE languages. For example, dṇghwā,
language, evolved as [‘dən-ghwa:] into PGmc. tung(w)ō, and later English tongue or German
Zunge, while in archaic Latin it was pronounced dingwa, and then the initial d became l in Classic
Latin, written lingua, which is in turn the origin of Modern English words “linguistic” and
“language”. For wḷqos (cf. Ved. vṛkas < PII wṛkas), it evolved either as [‘wəl-kwos], later into
PGmc. *wulxwaz (cf. O.H.G. wolf) or BSl. *wilkas (cf. O.C.S. vьlkъ) or as [‘wlə-kwos], which gave
Common Greek *wlukwos (cf. Gk. lykos), Ita. *wlupos (cf. Lat. lupus).
NOTE 2. Apart from the common scheme TRT, another, less stable scheme has been proposed
for a common PIE, a certain TRE (where E = vowel); as, PIE *gw°nā, for MIE cenā, woman, or
*k°rwos, for kerwos, deer, etc. – conventionally, the symbol ° under the sonant is placed before it
in these schemes. Nevertheless, it is commonly accepted that Late PIE dialects did in fact add an
auxiliary vowel to this sequence at early times, probably before the first dialectal split: as early
Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic dialects show, vocalization of TRE had already happened when TRT
hadn’t still been vocalized, i.e. T°RE > TERE. Also, many dialects show a common vocalization in
[a] for the sonant in some TERE groups, while showing different outputs (even non-vocalization)
for TRT. Therefore, even if this theory might make some irregularities fit into a common Late (or
Middle) PIE sound, it is not applicable to those early PIE dialectal words, whose vocalization
might be inferred using the comparative grammar. Some TRE groups persisted in early IE dialects,
though, often from older sequences that included laryngeals, and they are kept in MIE.
2.4.3. In the division of words into syllables, these rules apply:
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel or diphthong; as ne-wos, me-

dhjos, etc.

2. Combinations of two or more consonants (other than the vocalic ones) are regularly
separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined to the preceding vowel; as
ok-tōu, eight, pen-qe, five, etc. but a-gros, field, sqa-los, squalus.
3. In compounds, the parts are usually separated; as a-pó-sta-tis, distance, from apo
+ statis; or am-bhí-qo-los, servant, from ambhí + qolos.
2.4.4. The semivowels [j], [w] are more stable than sonants when they are syllable
centres, i.e. [i] or [u]. However, when they are pronounced lento, they give the
allophones (or allosyllables) ij, uw. Examples of alternating forms in PIE include
médhijos (cf. Lat. medius), and medhjos (cf. O.Ind. mádhjas or Gk. μέσσος); dwōu,
two (cf. Goth. twai, Gk. δω-,), and duwōu (cf. O.Ind. duva, Gk. δύω < *δύϝω, Lat. duo).
2.5. QUANTITY
2.5.1. Syllables are distinguished according to the length of time required for their
pronunciation. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, long and short.
NOTE. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the
end of the syllable. Such distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are
purely natural, a long syllable requiring more time for its pronunciation than a short one.
2.5.3. A syllable is long usually,
a. if it contains a long vowel; as, mā-tḗr, mother, kē-lā-jō, hide,
b. if it contains a diphthong; as, lai-wós, left, oi-nos, one,
c. if it contains any two non-syllabic consonants (except a mute followed by l or r);

as, pneu-sō, breathe strongly, tmā-mi, cut.
2.5.4. A syllable is short usually,
a. if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, pel-

nis, skin, or e-í-mi, go,
b. if it contains a vocalic sonant; as, qṛ-mis, worm, cṃ-tis, march.
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2.6. ACCENT
2.6.1. There are stressed as well as unstressed words. The last could indicate words that
are always enclitic, i.e., they are always bound to the accent of the preceding word, as -
qe, and, -ṛ, for; while another can be proclitics, like prepositions.
2.6.2. The oldest PIE was a stress language in which syllable strength was chiefly a
matter of pitch differences and, presumably, of intensity (loudness).
NOTE. Following Gąsiorowski, “[i]n this respect it was similar to Spanish or Polish, but not to
English with its emphatic ‘expiratory’ stress (…) It thus stood close to the borderline between
stress systems and pitch accent systems. Indeed, some linguists have attributed pitch accent
contrasts to PIE on the strength of accentual correspondences between Balto-Slavic and Greek.
However, scholars such as Jerzy Kuryłowicz and – more recently – Paul Kiparsky have
convincingly argued that such contrasts arose independently in the branches in question. The best
evidence for the original location of stress in PIE comes from Vedic (Classical Sanskrit developed
its own stress system, similar to that of Latin). The location of pitch accent in Classical Greek
(especially in Greek noun paradigms) also reflects the PIE stress pattern. There are, to be sure,
some specifically Greek constraints on the distribution of pitch accents, but in the environments
where such restrictions do not apply, Greek usually agrees with Vedic. In the Germanic languages
the original location of stress is sometimes reconstructible thanks to the phonetic ‘fingerprints’ of
Verner’s Law. Germanic spectacularly bears out the testimony of Vedic and Classical Greek.
Finally, the evolution of pitch-accent systems in Balto-Slavic makes most sense if we adopt the
stress system reconstructed on the basis of Vedic, Greek and Germanic as its starting-point”.
2.6.4. The Stress is free, but that does not mean anarchy. On the contrary, it means that
each non-clitic word has an accent and only one accent, and one has to know – usually by
way of practice – where it goes. Its location depended on the inflectional type to which a
given word belonged.
NOTE. Indo-European stress is (at least partly) unpredictable. Rather, it is lexical: it comes as
part of the word and must be memorized, although orthography can make stress unambiguous for
a reader, and some stress patterns are ruled out. Otherwise homophonous words may differ only
by the position of the stress, and it is thus possible to use stress as a grammatical device.
2.6.5. Adjectives are often stressed on the ending, especially if they are derivatives; as,
ghḷtnós, golden, from ghḷtom, gold, ṇgnōtós, unknown, from gnōskō, know.
Nevertheless, nouns and adjective might be stressed on any syllable.

NOTE. There are some accent rules to be followed in the declension of nouns and in the
conjugation of verbs, which will be later studied.
2.7. VOWEL CHANGE
2.7.1. Vowel Change was common in Proto-Indo-European. In many words the vowel
varies because of old alternating forms that gave different derivatives.
NOTE. With the creation of zero-grade stems, vocalization appears, as the original radical vowels
disappear and new ones are added. That happens, for example, in root bhṛ- [bhr̥], carry, (cognate
with English bear), which can be reconstructed from IE languages as bher-, bhor- or bhṛ-. The
same can be said of the semivowels [j] and [w] when they are syllable edges, being syllable centres
[i] and [u] in zero-grades.
So for example in o-grade domos, house, which gives dómūnos, lord, as Lat.
dominus, Skr. dámūnas; but full grade root dem-, which gives demspóts, master, lord,
later despot, as Gk. δεσπότης (despótēs), Skr. dampati, Av. dəṇg patōiš, (with fem.
demspotnjā).
NOTE. The forms attested in Indo-Iranian (and maybe Greek) come from i-stem potis, probably
derived from the original Late PIE form dems-póts, cf. ghósti-pots, guest, as Lat. hospēs,
hospitis, O.Russ. gospodь<*-ostьpot-; compare, for an original PIE ending -t in compounds, Lat.
sacerdōs < MIE sákrodhots, O.Ind. devastút-, “who praises the gods”, etc. The compound is
formed with pot-, lord, husband, and pot-njā, mistress, lady.
2.7.2. Different vocalizations appeared in IE dialects in some phonetic environments,

especially between two occlusives in zero-grade, impossible to pronounce without adding
a vowel; as e.g. skp-, which evolved as Lat. scabo or Got. skaban.
NOTE. Although the dialectal solutions to such consonantal groups aren’t unitary, we can find
some general PIE timbres. As a, i with a following dental (especially in Gk. and BSl.) or u, also
considered general, but probably influenced by the context, possibly when in contact with a labial,
guttural or labiovelar.
2.7.3. Sometimes different reconstructions might account for some vowel differences; a
for o, as *lawō for lowō, wash; a vocalic sonant for a or e plus sonant, as *Sṃos for
Samos, summer, or *kṛwos for kerwos, deer, etc.
NOTE. Different reconstructions might be equally valid, depending on the criteria employed.
Sometimes different PIE language stages have to be taken into account; as, for root neqt-, night, a
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common PIH full-grade *neqts is reconstructible, according to Hitt. nekut; however, Late PIE
dialects show that an o-grade noun was later generalized; cf. O.Gk. nuks, nuktós, O.Lat. nox,
noctis, for an old PIE consonant stem *noqts. The newer i-stem noqtis was the general Late PIE
(and later also PII, EIE) form, cf. O.Ind. nakti, Gmc. naxti, Sla. notjь, Bal. nakti.
The phonological reconstruction of Late PIE includes generally the Schwa

Indogermanicum, uncertain in sound, which usually stands for an older laryngeal *h2. In
North-West IE, PIE reconstructed *ə usually appears as a; as, statis, standing post,
from zero-grade *sth2- of root stā- (<steh2-) stay; or patḗr, from older *ph2tér-.
NOTE. Other examples are a-stems in *-ī/-jə, from older *-ih2, and neuter plural in *-ə<*-h2.
2.8. CONSONANT CHANGE
2.8.1. Regarding Consonant Change, different reconstructions might appear, too; as, for
ghortos, garden, enclosure, later town (cf. Gmc. gardan, Lat. hortus, Gk. khortos, Phry.
-gordum, O.Ir. gort, Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Alb. garth, etc.), some would
reconstruct an alternative *ghordhos, so that both forms (in -t- and -dh-) fit perfectly
into the schemes of dialectal phonological laws.
2.8.2. The so called s-Mobile (mobile pronounced as in Latin, it is a neuter adjective)

refers to the phenomenon of alternating word pairs, with and without s before initial
consonants, in stems with similar or identical meaning. This “moveable” prefix s- is
always followed by another consonant. Typical combinations are with voiceless stops
(s)p-, (s)t-, (s)k-, with liquids and nasals, (s)l-, (s)m-, (s)n-; and rarely (s)w-.
NOTE. Examples include (s)ten-, compare O.Ind. stánati, Gk. sténō, O.Eng. stenan, Lith. stenù,
O.Sla. stenjo, and without s- in O.Ind. tányati, Gk. Eol. ténnei, Lat. tonare, O.H.G. donar, Cel.
Tanaros (name of a river). For (s)pek-, cf. O.Ind. spáśati, Av. spašta, Gk. skopós (<spokós), Lat.
spektus, O.H.G. spehon, without s- in O.Ind. páśyati, Alb. pashë. For (s)ker-, cf. O.Ind. ava-,
apa-skara-, Gk. skéraphos, O.Ir. scar(a)im, O.N. skera, Lith. skiriù, Illyr. Scardus, Alb. hurdhë
(<*skṛd-), without s- in O.Ind. kṛnáti, Av. kərəntaiti, Gk. keíro, Arm. kcorem, Alb. kjëth, Lat.
caro, O.Ir. cert, O.N. horund, Lith. kkarnà, O.Sla. korŭcŭ, Hitt. kartai-, and so on.
Such pairs with and without s are found even within the same dialect, as Gk. (s)tégos,
“roof”, (s)mikrós, “little”, O.Ind. (s)tṛ, “star”, and so on.
NOTE. Some scholars believe it was a prefix in PIE (which would have had a causative value),
while others maintain that it is probably caused by assimilations of similar stems – some of them

beginning with an s-, and some of them without it. It is possible, however, that the original stem
actually had an initial s, and that it was lost by analogy in some situations, because of phonetic
changes, probably due to some word compounds where the last -s of the first word assimilated to
the first s- of the second one. That helps to explain why both stems (with and without s) are
recorded in some languages, and why no regular evolution pattern may be ascertained: so for
example in wḷqons spekjont, they saw wolves, becoming wḷqons ‘pekjont. See Adrados
(1995).
2.8.3. Before a voiced or aspirated voiced consonant, s was articulated as voiced, by way
of assimilation; as, nisdos [‘niz-dos], nest, misdhom [‘miz-dhom], meed, salary, or
osdos [‘oz-dos], branch. When s forms a group with sonants there is usually
assimilation, but such a trend was sometimes reversed by adding a consonant; as Lat.
cerebrum (<Ita. kereθrom), from kersrom [‘kerz-rom], brain.
NOTE. Related to the later assimilation of [s] into [z] between vowels, they became very unstable
in some IE dialects, showing sometimes rhotacism; as, snusós, daughter-in-law, cf. Lat. nurus,
O.H.G. snur; or genos, race, stock, kind, cf. Lat. genus, generis (<*geneses).
2.8.4. Similarly, the manner of articulation of an occlusive usually depends on its

environment. Thus, voiced stops turn voiceless in final position; as, pods, foot, gives
voiceless O.Ind. pāt, qid gives O.Ind. cit, agtós gives voiceless Gk. ακτος (aktos) or Lat.
actus. The same happens with voiced aspirates, as in legh-, lie (cognate to Eng. log),
giving Gk. λεκτρον (lektron), Lat. lectus, O.H.G. Lehter. Voiceless occlusives become
voiced before voiced consonants; as, zero-grade ped- in Gk. επιβδα (epi-bd-a).
2.8.5. A sequence of two dentals, such as -tt-, -dt-, -tdh-, -ddh-, etc. was eliminated in
all Indo-European dialects, but the process of this suppression differed among branches;
Vedic Sanskritshowing little change, some others an intermediate -sT-, and others -ss- or
-s-. Compounds were not affected by this trend; as, kréd-dhēmi, believe.
NOTE. This trend began probably in Late PIE, and thus all IE speakers knew such evolutions,
which we sum up into a common intermediate stage -st-, -sdh-, etc., which was followed in some
early IE dialects, and probably known to the rest of them. See the section Conventions Used in this
Book for more on this question. For phonetic changes in Aryan dialects, see Appendix II.
Examples in MIE are e.g. forms derived from PIE root weid-, know, see, which gave
verb widējō, cf. Lat. vidēre, Goth. witan, O.C.S. vidě
ti, Lith. pavydéti; p.p. wistós,
seen, from wid-tó-, (cf. O.Ind. vitta-, but Av. vista-, O.Pruss. waist, O.Sla. veš tъ, or
125
Gmc. wīssaz, Lat. vīsus, O.Gk. ϝιστος, O.Ir. rofess, etc.); noun wistis, sight, vision, from
wid-ti-, cf. Goth wizzi, Lat. vīsiō; Greek wistōr, wise, learned man, from wid-tor, cf.
Gk. ἵστωρ<*ϝίστωρ (wístōr), PGk wistorjā, history, from Gk. ἱστορία (historía); Imp.
wisdhi! know!, from wid-dhí, cf. O.Ind. viddhí, O.Gk. ϝίσθι, O.Lith. veizdi, and so on.
2.9. PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY
2.9.1. Indo-European words may show a variable orthography, although a unified one
should be strongly encouraged.
2.9.1. Vowel Changes that influence the way MIE is written include the alternating PIE
forms that gave different frozen derivatives.
A vowel change that should not affect MIE orthography is what many reconstruct as
PIE [ə] or schwa, generally evolved as North-West IE a; as, PIH *ph2tér- → PIE *pətér- →
EIE patér-, father; PIH *bhh2tis → PIE *bhətis → EIE bhatis, appearance; PIH *anh2mos
→ PIE *anəmos → EIE ánamos, breath, and so on.
NOTE. This Late PIE reconstructed schwa (see §2.2.1) is important for the different vocalism of
EIE, PII and PGk; cf. MIE patér- with Aryan pitár-, or MIE ánamos with Hellenic ánemos.
2.9.2. Consonant Changes that should not affect MIE orthography, already seen,
include voiced sibilants, as nisdos [‘niz-dos], kersrom [‘kerz-rom]; and voiceless
occlusives, as pods [pots], agtós [ak-‘tos], leghtrom [‘lek-trom], -pd- [bd].
NOTE. Although the accuracy of some allophones in PIE is certain, for practical reasons the
phonetically correct notation is therefore avoided in favour of the phonemically correct notation.
Changes that usually affect how MIE is written include commonly reconstructed
variants, as egh-, ek-, outside, out, from; and doubious cognates, as necr-, dark, and
neqt-, night, maybe from a common PIH suffixed *negw-, to dawn.
2.9.3. About semivowels, as a general exception, they are not written when the
semivowel is the last sound of the first word in a compound; e.g., for triathlom (from
tri-, three, and Gk. athlon, “contest”), triathlon, we won’t write *trjathlom;
sindhueurōpājóm, and not *sindhweurōpājóm; etc.
NOTE. In Modern Indo-European, compounds may be written with and without hyphen, as in
the different modern Indo-European languages. Nevertheless, the older, not hyphenated version is
preferred for formal writings; as, sindhu-eurōpājóm for sindhueurōpājóm, compare Eng.

Indo-European, Ger. Indoeuropäisch, Fr. Indo-européen, It., Sp. indoeuropeo, Gal.-Pt. Indo-
européu, Cat. indoeuropeu, Du. Indo-Europees, Pol. indoeuropejski, Lit. indoeuropiečių, Ir. Ind-
‫ یی‬, Hin. िहन्द-यूरोपीय, etc.

Eorpach, Russ. индоевропейский, Gk. ινδοευρωπαϊκή, Ira. ‫اپوراودنه‬
2.9.4. The vocallic allophones [r̥], [l̥], [m̥], [n̥] may be written, as in Latin
transliterations of Sanskrit texts, as ṛ, ḷ, ṃ, and ṇ, to help the reader clearly identify the
sonants; therefore, alternative writings ṇmṛtós, inmortal, kṃtóm, hundred, wodṛ,
water, etc. are also possible.
2.9.5. An Apostrophe is used to mark the ommited letter of a contraction in word-final
position, usually in elisions at the end of imperative verbs, especially in spoken language;
as cemj’ for cemje, come here; or takej’ for takēje, shut up.
2.9.6. An Acute Accent is written over the vowel or semivowel in the stressed syllable,
except when stress is on the second to last syllable (or paenultima) and in monosyllabic
words. Accented long vowels and sonants are represented with special characters. The
weak vowel of a possible diphthong is also accented; so in eími [e-‘i-mi], I go, and not
*eimi, pronounced [‘ei-mi] if left unaccented.
2.9.7. The forms with the copulative -qe, and, and disjunctive -w, or, are usually
written by adding it to the preceding word, as in Latin -que, but with a hyphen.
2.9.8. The capital letters are used at the beginning of the following kinds of words:
a. the names of days, months, seasons and public holidays; as, Jānwārjos, January,
Samos, summer, Newos Atnos, New Year, etc.
b. the names of people and places, including stars and planets; as, Sāwel, Sun,
Aleksanṓr, Alexander, Deiwos, God, Sindhu, Indus (river),
Teutiskolondhom, Germany (cf. O.H.G. Diutisk-lant<*þeudiska-landam), etc.
NOTE. In old IE languages demonyms were not written in capital letters; as, Eurṓpā,
eurōpājós; Angljā or Angljolondhom, England (cf. O.E. Engla-land, “land of the Angles”),
but angljós, English; Hispānja, Spain, but hispānós, Spanish; teutiskós, German; and so on.
c. people’s titles, as Prōbhastṓr, Professor, Kelomnelis, Colonel, Rēgtṓr, rector,
d. Skeuros, North, Déksinā, South, Áusteros, East, Éperom, West, and their
derivatives.
127
NOTE. Germanic Nertros, lower, later North, from ner-, lower, bottom, and Suntos, “of the
Sun”, later South, possibly from alternative root Sun- of Sāwel, sun; Gmc. West comes probably
from the same root as wespros, evening.
e. in official or well-established place names; as Plátejā, the Square, etc.
2.10. KINDRED FORMS
Compare the following Europe’s Indo-European words and their evolution in Germanic
and Latin, with their common derivatives in Modern English.
EIE PGmc. O.Eng. Latin English (Lat.)

patḗr, father faðer fæder pater father (paternal)
septṃ, seven sibun seofon septem seven (September)
trebhō, dwell þurp- þorp trabs/trabēs thorp (trabecula)
globjō, hold, clench klupjō clyppe globus clip (globe)
bhrātēr, brother brōþēr brōþor frāter brother (fraternal)
bherō, carry berō bere ferō bear (infer)
wertō, turn werþō weorþe uertō worth (versus)
trejes, three þrejez þrēo trēs three (trinity)
dekṃ, ten texan ten,tien decem ten (decimal)
edmi, eat et- ete edō eat (edible)
dhēmi, do, make dōmi dōm faciō (<dha-k-) do (factor)
dhersō, be adroit dersō dearr festus (<dhers-t-) dare (manifest)
leuk-, light leux- lēoh- lūc- light (lucid)
kṛd-, heart xert- heort- cord- heart (core)
augō, increase aukō eacie augeō eke (augment)
gn-, know kunnō cunne (g)nōtus can (notice)
ghostis, guest gastiz gæst, giest hostis guest (hostile)
bhergh-, mountain burg- beorg fortis (<forctus)? barrow (force)
leiq-, leave leixw- læne līqu- lend (relic)
qi-/qo-, what, who hwi- / hwo- hwi- qui- / quo- why/what (quote)
cemjō, come kwemjō -cwem- ueniō come (venue)
cīwós, alive kwi(k)waz cwic uīuus quick (vivacity)
leghús, light lextaz līht, lēoht leuis light (levity)
chormos, warm warmaz wearm formus warm (furnace)

3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS
3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3.1.1. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including
Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
3.1.2. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea; as, Klewopatrā, Cleopatra,
dānus, river, dhworis, door, wṛdhom, word.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called
Common.
NOTE. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea. A Collective Noun is the name of a
group or a class.
3.1.3. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality; as, patrjóm, parental, leukós,
bright, kartús, hard, grṇdhís, grown.
NOTE 1. A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a
verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert.
NOTE 2. Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being
formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any common name can still be so
used. Thus, Regeinā Elísabet II, Queen Elizabeth II, (cf. Gk. Ελισ(σ)αβετ, from Hebrew Eli-
sheva, “God is an oath”), distinguishes this Elizabeth from other Elizabeths, by the attribute
expressed in the name Regeinā, Queen.
3.1.4. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing or idea without
either naming or describing it: as, egṓ, I, tewós, thine, wejes, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
3.1.5. A Verb is a word capable of asserting something: as, bherō, I carry, bear; bhāti,
it shines.
NOTE. In English the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore
supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may,
by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion; as, wīrós bhilis (esti), the
man is good (decent), unlike bhilis wīrós, the good man; or autom dwenos (esti), the car is
good (efficient), unlike dwenos autom, the good car. In the infancy of language there could have
been no other means of asserting, as the verb is comparatively of late development.
3.1.6. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or
attribute: as, per, in front, epi, near, antí, opposite.
NOTE. These same functions are often performed in Indo-European by cases of nouns, pronouns
and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences.
3.1.7. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and
some other word or words in the same sentence; as, e.g., ad, at, to, dē, from upwards,
kom, with, ek(sí), outside, upo, under, and so on.
3.1.8. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without

affecting their grammatical relations: as, -qe, and; -w, or, -ma, but, -r, for.
3.1.9. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of
speech; as, alā! hello!; ō! O (vocative); wai! alas (grief); ha ha! (laughing sound), or
older kha kha! as in khákhatnos, laugh; ha! (surprise); etc.
NOTE. Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned,
and so have a grammatical connection like other words.
3.2. INFLECTION
3.2.1. Indo-European is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the form

of a word to show its grammatical relations.
NOTE. Some modern Indo-European languages, like most Germanic and Romance dialects,
have lost partly or completely their earliest attested inflection systems – due to different
simplification trends –, in nominal declension as well as in verbal conjugation.
3.2.2. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the
beginning, but oftener in its termination:
bhabhā, the or a bean, snichwós, of the snow, reidhō, I ride, idhi! go!
3.2.3. Terminations of inflection had possibly originally independent meanings which

are now obscured. They probably corresponded nearly to the use of prepositions,
auxiliaries and personal pronouns in English.

3. Words and their Forms
Thus, in ghórdejos, of the barley (Gen.), the termination is equivalent to “of the”; in
deikō, I show (Indicative), and dikóm, I showed (Aorist), the change of vowel grade
and accent signifies a change in the aspect.
3.2.4. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or
mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:
(tu) déikesi, (thou) show; doike, he showed; (gí)gnṓsketi, he knows, gégona, I

knew (see Verbal Inflection for Reduplication and its meaning).
3.2.5. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns and Participles to denote gender,
number and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number and person is called
Conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.
NOTE. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly
stem-formations made by derivations.
3.2.6. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections are not inflected, and
together form the group of the so-called Particles.
3.3. ROOT, STEM AND BASE
3.3.1. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of
compounds (e.g. somo-patōr, “of the same father”, sibling, mṇ-dōmi, commit), it
cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.
NOTE. According to Mallory & Adams (2006): “To the root might be added a variety of suffixes
to create a stem and then finally the case endings depending on number and perhaps gender. In
some cases, the so-called root-nouns, there are no suffixes before the case ending. Using R for
‘root’, S for ‘stem-creating suffix’, and E for ‘case-number-ending’, we might establish the formula
for an inflected word in Proto-Indo-European as R-(S)-E”.
Thus the stem pater- denotes father; patḗr, Nominative, means a father or the father,
as the Subject or Agent of an action; patér (or pater) is the Vocative, as in O father!;
patérṃ is the means to a father or to the father, as the Direct Object; patrós is the
Genitive and indicates of a father or of the father, and so on.
131
NOTE. In inflected languages like Indo-European, words are built up from Roots, which at a very
early time were possibly used alone to express ideas. Roots are then modified into Stems, which,
by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various
forms of derivatives and compounds, is called stem-building. The whole of this process is
originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms
capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.
3.3.2. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component
parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is
common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred languages; cf. for
stā-, stand, reduplicated present sí-stā-mi, I stand, noun stā-men-, place for
standing, zero-grade p.p. sta-tós, placed, standing, or noun sta-tis, erection, standing.
For example, the root of verb spekjō, look, is spek-, which does not necessarily mean
to look, or I look, or looking, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of looking, and
possibly cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations.
3.3.3. The Stem may be the same as the root; as, dō-, give, dakru, tear; but it is more
frequently formed from the root.
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel; as, from athematic root verb dā-, divide,
common derivative dai-mai, divide up, distribute.
2. By the addition of a simple suffix; as, from root dā-, divide, derivative dā-mos,
people, people’s division, cf. Dor. Gk. δημος, O.Ir. dām, Hitt. da-ma-a-iš.
NOTE. Some suffixes probably conveyed an earlier underlying meaning, e.g. the suffix -trom
tends to indicate an instrument, as arā-trom, plough, from a verb arājō, plough, while kinship
names tend to have the suffix -er or -ter, cf. swes-ōr, sister, bhrā-tēr, brother.
3. By two or more of these methods; from the same root, suffixed derivative dai-tis,
time, period, cf. Gmc. tīÞ, Arm ti, as well as Gk. δαιτύς, O.Ind. dātu-.
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the

language, which we will see in the corresponding chapters.
3.3.4. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, chorm- in
chormos, warm, eus- in eusō, burn; cou- in cōus, cow,etc.

a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many
The masculine functions as consonant stems of nouns (as eghṛ, boundary). If,
the negative term in the however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not
opposition, i.e. when the
appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
gender is not defined, the
masculine is used. This is a inflectional termination. Thus the stem of nócodos, naked,
grammatical utility, one that is nocod-; that of ceri, mountain, is cer-.
is only relevant for
concordance, and which has 3.3.5. Inflectional terminations are modified differently by
to do with the evolution of the combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem,
language and its inflection.
and the various forms of Declension and Conjugation are so
The earliest PIE had
probably no distinction of developed.
gender; when the inanimate
appeared, it was marked by 3.4. GENDER
a different inflection, and the
animates remained as the 3.4.1. The Genders distinguished in Modern Indo-
negative term in the European are three: Masculine, Feminine (both are referred
opposition. After that,
probably at the same time as
to as Animate) and Neuter or Inanimate.
the thematic declension (in - 3.4.2. The gender of Indo-European nouns is either
e/o) appeared, the feminine
was differentiated from the
natural or grammatical.
remaining animates, with a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object
marks like the different stem
vowel (usually -a) or vowel denoted: bhrātēr (m.), brother; cenā (f.), woman, wife.
length (as -ī, -ū). Therefore,
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex
the feminine is the positive
term of the opposition within where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown in the
the animates, because when
form of the adjective joined with the noun: as swādús
we use it we reduce the
spectrum of the animates to noqtis (f.), a pleasant night; mṛghús kanmṇ (m.), brief
the feminine, while the song. The gender of the adjective is simply a gender of
masculine still serves as the
negative (non-differentiated) concordance: it indicates to which noun of a concrete
term for both, the general gender the adjective refers to.
and the animates, when used
in this sense, i.e. when not
differentiating the masculine
from the other genders.
133
NOTE 2. Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender. For example, wolgos
(m.), (common) people, or teutā, people (of a nationality).
3.4.3. The neuter or inanimate gender differs from the other two in inflection, not in the
theme vowel. The gender of the animates, on the contrary, is usually marked by the
theme vowel, and sometimes by declension, vocalism and accent.
3.4.4. The neuter does not refer to the lack of sex, but to the lack of liveliness or life.
Sometimes, however, animates can be designated as inanimates and vice versa.
While the distinction between masculine and feminine is usually straightforward,

sometimes the attribution of sex is arbitrary; thus, different words for parts of the body
are found feminine, as nāsis, nose, kanmā, leg; masculine, as kolsos, neck, armos,
arm, upper arm; and neuter, as kaput, head, or genu, knee.
3.4.5. The animate nouns can have:
a. An oppositive gender, marked:
I. by the lexicon, as in patḗr/mātḗr, father/mother, bhrātēr/swesōr,

brother/sister, sūnús/dhugtēr, son/daughter;
II. by the stem ending, as in general ekwos/ekwā, horse/mare, or the rare

wlqos/wlqīs, wolf/she-wolf, djēus/djewja, sky(-god)/sky-goddess;
III. by both at the same time, as in swekros/swekrús, father-in-law-mother-in-

law, wīrós/cenā, man-woman, regs/regeinā, king-queen.
b. An autonomous gender, that does not oppose itself to others, as in nāus (f.), ship,
pods (m.), foot, egnis (m.), fire, owis (f.), sheep, jewos (n.) or legs (f.), law.
c. A common gender, in nouns that are masculine or feminine depending on the

context; as, cōus, cow or bull, deuks, leader, ghostis, foreigner.
d. An epicene gender, which, although being masculine or feminine, designates both

sexes; as, médodiks, doctor, nawāgós, sailor, nemots, enemy, setis, visitor.
3.4.6. The gender of a noun can thus be marked by the stem vowel (or sometimes by
inflection), or has to be learnt: it is a feature of a word like any other. In its context,
concordance is a new gender mark; a masculine noun has a masculine adjective, and a

feminine noun a feminine adjective. However, not all adjectives differentiate between
masculine and feminine, a lot of them (those in -i-s, -u-s, -ēs, -ōn, and some thematic in
-os) are masculine and feminine: only the context, i.e. the noun with which they agree,
helps to disambiguate them. This happens also in nouns with a common gender.
3.4.7. Most endings do not indicate gender, as in patḗr and mātḗr. Only by knowing
the roots in many cases, or from the context in others, is it possible to determine it. Some
of the suffixes determine, though, totally or partially if they are masculine or feminine.
These are the following:
1. -os marks masculine when it is opposed to a feminine in -ā or -ī/-ja, as in

ekwos/ekwā, deiwos/deiwā, god/goddess, etc. This happens also in adjectives in the
same situation, as in newos/newā, bheronts/bherontja. In isolated nouns, -os is
generally masculine, but some traces of the old indistinctness of gender still remained in
Late PIE, as in the names of trees (among others). In adjectives, when the ending -os is
not opposed to feminine, concordance decides.
2. -ā marks the feminine in oppositions of nouns and adjectives. It is usually also

feminine in isolated nouns, in the first declension. But there are also some masculines in
-ā; as, sloughā, servant, cf. O.Sla. slŭga, Lith. slauga “service”, O.Ir. sluag, “army
unit”, etc.
3. -ī/-ja (<*-ih2), although feminine in Late PIE, shows remains of its old Abstract-
Collective value, as neuter plural. It appears in nouns, adjectives and pronouns.
4. Roots ending in long vowels -ī and -ū are always feminines.
3.5. GENERAL RULES OF GENDER
3.5.1. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains are
masculine:
patḗr, father, Góralos, Charles, Reinos, the Rhine, Áusteros, south wind, Magjos,
May, Urales, the Urals.
NOTE. For Uralisk Cerja, Ural Mountains, cf. Russ. Ура́льские го́ры (Uralskiye gory).
a. A few names of Rivers ending in -ā (as Wolgā), and many Greek names ending in -
ē(s), which usually corresponds to IE -ā, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain,
generally retaining their oldest attested IE gender in MIE.
135
b. Some names of Mountains are feminines or neuter: as, Alpes (f. pl.), the Alps.
3.5.2. Names of Female beings, of many Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, Gems,
Animals, and abstract Qualities, are feminine:
mātḗr, mother, Djówiljā, Julia, Frankjā, France, Rōmā, Rome, bharwos,

pinetree, saniprijós, sapphire (Gk. sáppheiros, ult. from Skr. sani-priyaḥ, lit. “sacred
to Saturn”), aqamarin, aquamarine, wērā, true.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine: as, Kṛsnomontis,

Montenegro; or neuter, as, Jugtóm Regnom, United Kingdom, Swjoregnom,
Kingdom of Sweden, Finnlondhom, Finland.
b A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termination; as,
kṃtaurjom (n.), centaury, úpolos (m.), opal.
NOTE. The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the terminations, according to
the rules given under the different declensions.
3.5.3. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words
quoted merely for their form, are neuter: porētum, drive, “wétānom smeughtum”,
“smoking prohibited”; gummi, gum.
NOTE 2. Eng. gum comes from O.Fr. gomme, from L.Lat. gumma, from Lat. gummi, from Gk.
kommi, from Coptic kemai, hence MIE loans Lat. gummi, or PGk. kommi.
3.5.4. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives and Participles are declined in MIE in two
Numbers, singular and plural – Late PIE had also possibly a dialectal dual – and up to
eight cases, Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive and Oblique - which is found
subdivided into combinations of Dative, Locative, Instrumental and Ablative.
NOTE 1. European dialects show around six cases, but most of the oldest attested ones (PII, PGk,
Ita.) and Balto-Slavic show remains of up to eight original cases. Even though the situation has
evolved differently due to migrations and linguistic contacts, linguists generally agree that the
most securely reconstructed are the nominative, vocative, accusative, and genitive of the singular
and plural. Traditional theories maintain that the original common PIE situation is a complex
system of eight noun cases. On the contrary, a five-case system is for other scholars the oldest
situation (of Middle PIE, as Anatolian dialects apparently show), later changed by Late PIE by way
of merging or splitting the five original cases. An eight-case system would have been, then, an
innovation of individual dialects, just as the phonetic satemization. It is thus a general opinion

that already in Late PIE both trends (split and convergence of Obliques) coexisted. In this MIE
Grammar we follow the general, oldest trend, i.e. an eight-case inflection system, due to the
findings in North-West IE.
NOTE 2. In the number we use singular and plural, and not dual, not only because of its doubtful
existence in IE II and the objections to its reconstruction for Late PIE, but because it is also more
practical in terms of modern Indo-European languages.
I. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
II. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
III. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb. It is used also with many
prepositions.
IV. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the
Objective with the preposition of.
V. The Obliques might be found as:
a. The Dative, the case of the Indirect Object. It may usually be translated into English
by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
b. The Locative, the place where.
c. The Instrumental, the thing with.
d. The Ablative, usually the Objective with from, by, with, in or at. It is often found
with prepositions.
NOTE. The oblique cases appear in the English pronoun set; these pronouns are often called
objective pronouns; as in she loves me (accusative), give it to me (dative) or that dirt wasn’t wiped
with me (instrumental), where me is not inflected differently in any of these uses; it is used for all
grammatical relationships except the genitive case of possession and a non-disjunctive nominative
case as the subject.
3.6. VOWEL GRADE
3.6.1. The vowel grade or Ablaut is normally the alternation between full, zero or
lengthened grade vocalism. Proto-Indo-Eropean had a regular ablaut sequence that
contrasted the five usual vowel sounds called Thematic, i.e. e/ē/o/ō/Ø. This means that
in different forms of the same word, or in different but related words, the basic vowel, a
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short e, could be replaced by a long ē, a short o or a long ō, or it could be omitted

(transcribed as Ø).
NOTE. The term Ablaut comes from Ger. Abstufung der Laute, ‘vowel alternation’. In Romance
languages, the term Apophony is preferred.
3.6.2. When a syllable had a short e, it is said to be in the “e grade”; when it had no
vowel, it is said to be in the “zero grade”, when in o, in “o grade”, and they can also be
“lengthened”. The e-grade is sometimes called “full grade”.
A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the
following different case forms of EIE patḗr, father, and ṇpatōr, fatherless.
Ablaut grade EIE Greek (translit.) Case

e-grade or full grade pa-ter-ṃ πα-τέρ-α pa-tér-a Accusative
lengthened e-grade pa-tḗr πα-τήρ pa-tḗr Nominative
zero-grade pa-tr-ós πα-τρ-ός pa-tr-ós Genitive
o-grade ṇ-pá-tor-ṃ ἀ-πά-τορ-α a-pá-tor-a Accusative
lengthened o-grade ṇ-pa-tōr ἀ-πά-τωρ a-pá-tōr Nominative
NOTE. Another example of the common Ablaut is t-stem nepot-, grandson, which gives
lengthened grade Nominative, nep-ōts, full-grade Genitive nép-ot-os, and zero-grade feminine
nep-t-is, grand-daughter. The study of declensions and practice with vocabulary should help the
reader learn such special genitives.
3.6.3. Synoptic table of common examples of different vowel grades:
Vowel Grade Full (F) Zero (Ø) Lengthened (L)

e/o - Ø - ē/ō dom- dm- dōm-
je/jo - i - jē/jō djeu- diw- djēu-
we/wo - u - wē/wō kwon- kun- kwōn
ei/oi/ai - u/i - ēi/ōi/āi bheid- bhid- bhēid-
eu/ou/au - u/i - ēu/ōu/āu bheud- bhud- bhēud-
au/ai - u/i - āu/āi pau- pu- pāu-
ā/ē/ō - a - ā/ē/ō stā- sta- stā-
ēi/ōi - ū/ī - ēi/ōi pōi pī pōi

3.6.4. There are also some other possible vowel grade changes, as a-grade, i-grade and
u-grade, which usually come from old root endings, rather than from systematized
phonetic changes.
NOTE. It seems that the alternation full-grade/zero-grade in PIH was dependent on the accent.
Compare klewos/klutós, eími/imés, patérṃ/patrós, etc., where the unstressed morpheme
loses its vowel. This happens only in the oldest formations, though, as Late PIE had probably lost
this morphological pattern, freezing such older alternations and creating a new (more stable)
vocabulary without changes in vowel grade.
3.7. WORD FORMATION
3.7.1. Word Formation refers to the creation of new words from older ones. Indo-
European scholars show an especial interest in Derivational Affixes (most commonly
Suffixes), i.e. morphemes that are attached to a base morpheme, such as a Root or a
Stem, to form a new word. The main affixes are as follows.
3.7.2. Athematic suffixes:
a. The most simple is the zero-ending, i.e. full-grade root nouns like dem-s (Gk. des-
), house, in consonant, as neq-t-s (Hitt. nekuz), night, or men-s (Av. maz-), mind, in -
r, as ghes-ōr (Hitt. kiššar), hand, with apophony, Ac. ghes-er-ṃ (Hitt. kiššeran),
Loc. ghes-r-i (Hitt. kišri, Gk. kheirí), with ending -n, as or-ōn (Hitt. ḫara[š], stem
ḫaran-, from PIH *h3or-o-, cf. O.H.G. aro, Eng. erne, Gk. or-n-[is]), eagle. Common
examples include regs, as Lat. rex, Cel. ri, Gmc. rīh, Skr. rāt, cōus, as Lat. bou, Cel.
bó, Gmc. ko, Skr. gáu/go, mūs, Lat. mūs, Gk. μῦς, Gmc. mūs, Sla. mys, Skr. mū, etc.
b. Also, the stem r/n, with -r- in ‘strong’ cases (Nom-Acc.) and -n- in the Obliques, is
well represented in Anatolian; see Variable Nouns in the next chapter for more on these
so-called heteroclites.
c. An old stem in -u- appears e.g. in the words gon-u, knee, dor-u, wood, and oj-u,
lifetime, cf. Av. zānū, dārū, āiiū, Skr. jnu, dru, yu, Gk. góny, dóry, ou(kí), “no”, etc.
Apophonic variants are found as full-grade genu-, deru-, eju-, cf. Hitt. genu-, Lat.
genu-, Sla. dérw-o, Gk. ai(w)-eí, etc., and as zero-grade gn-eu, dr-eu, j-eu-, as in
Goth. kniu, Av. yaoš, Hitt. ganu-t, etc. Such zero-grades are found within Declension,
in Composition (cf. Skr. jñu-bādh-, “kneeled”, Gk. dru-tómos, “timber-cutter”), and in
Derivation, as e.g. ju-wen-, vigorous, young (cf. Skr. yuván-, Lat. iuuen-is).
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d. A suffix -it-, which refers to edible substances, as mel-it, honey (cf. Gk. mélit-,
Hitt. milit, Luw. mallit, Gmc. mil-), sep-it, wheat (cf. Hitt. šeppit, Gk. álphit), etc.
3.7.3. Feminine and Abstract (Collectives):
a. A general PIH suffix *-(e)h2 is found in Feminine, as in senā, old (<seneh2, cf. Gk.
hénē, Skr. śanā-, Lith. senà), swekrús, mother-in-law (<swekrúh2-, cf. O.Sla. svekrŭ,
Lat. socrus, O.H.G. swigar), in Abstract Collectives, as in Gk. tom, cut, or neur,
rope made from sinew (cf. neurom, Eng. neuron), etc., and in the Nom.-Acc. Neuter
singular of the collective that functions as Nom.-Acc. Plural (cf. Skr. yug, Gk. zygá,
Lat. iuga, Goth. juka, “jokes”, Hitt. -a, Pal. -a/-ā, etc.).
b. The Feminine and Abstract Collective PIH *-ih2 gives two alternative phonetic
outputs in Late PIE, represented *-jə and (contracted) *-ī, written and pronounced as
MIE -ja (not to be confused with general -jā, from PIH *-jeh2) and -ī; cf. Skr. dev
(Gen. dḗvyās), “goddess”, etc.
NOTE. According to Mallory & Adams (2006), “[t]he fact that Proto-Indo-European also forms
collectives in *-h2- (e.g. the Hittite collective alpa, ‘group of clouds’ from a singular alpeš, ‘cloud’)
has suggested that this was its original use and that it later developed the specifically feminine
meaning”. Abstract nouns are usually built in PIE with suffix -tāt; as, kommoinitts,
community, solwotāts, totality, áiwotāts, eternity, etc.
3.7.4. Thematic Suffixes, the most abundant affixes found in PIE Nominal and
Adjectival derivation:
a. A simple -o-, which appears in some primary and secondary old formations, as
wḷqo-s, wolf, ṛtko-s, bear, neuters jug-ó-m, joke, werg-o-m, work, adjectives sen-
o-, old, new-o-, new, etc.
NOTE. The Distinction into primary and secondary is not straightforward, unless there is an
older root attested; compare e.g. PIE ekw-os, horse, which has been deemed a derivation from
PIH h1ek-, “quick”, the root behind adjective ōkús.
Accented -ó- is deemed a secondary suffix which marks the possession of the base, as
well as adjectives in -ó- with lengthened grade root, cf. PIE cjā, bow’s string, as Skr.
jyá, but cjos, bow (< “that has a bow’s string”), as Gk. biós, or *swekrós (>swekros),
father-in-law, from swekrús, mother-in-law, *deiwós (>deiwos), from djēus, etc.
b. About the Root Grade, o-grade roots are found in two thematic types, barytone
Action Nouns (cf. Gk. tomos, “slice”), and oxytones Agent Nouns and Adjectives (cf.

Gk. tomós, “who cuts, acute”), both from PIE tem-, cut; zero-grade in neuters jug-
óm, joke, from jeug-, join, and in second elements of compounds like ni-sd-os, nest,
from sed, sit, or newo-gn-ós, “newborn”, as Gk. neognós.
c. Adjectival suffixes -jo- and -ijo- have a relational sense, as in cow-jós, “of a
cow/ox”, from cow-, cow, ox, as in Av. gaoya-, Skr. gavyá or gávya, Gk. hekatóm-
boios, “that costs a hundred cows”, Arm. kogi (<cow-ijo-), “derived from the cow”,
O.Ir. ambuæ (<ṇ-cow-ijo-, as in Skr. ágos, Gk. aboúteō), “man without cows”, or e.g.
patr-jós, paternal, ped-jós, “of the foot”, etc. As a nominal suffix, cf. Lat. ingenium,
officium, O.Ir. cride, setig, Skr. vairya, saujanya, Sla. stoletie, dolia, etc.
d. Verbal adjectives in -tó- (Ind.-Ira. -nó-), with zero-grade verbal root, are common
in secondary derivation, as in klu-tós, heard, famous, from kleu-, hear, cf. Skr. śrutá-
, Av. sruta-, Gk. klytós, Lat. in-clitus, M.Ir. rocloth, O.H.G. Hlot-, Arm. lu, etc. They
were incorporated to the Verbal inflection as participles and gerunds. For nouns in -to-
, -no-, -ti(j)-o-, -ni(j)-o-, -tu(w)-o-, -nu(w)-o-, etc. cf. Skr. svápn(i)ya, prāvīnya,
Lat. somnium, dominium, O.Ir. blíad(a)in, Sla. sunie, cozarenie, etc.
e. Common thematic suffixes include -nó-, -ro-, -mo-, and diminutives in -ko-, -lo-,
-isko-, etc. which may also be participial, ordinal or adjectival (from nouns)
lengthenings. They are usually preceded by a vowel, as in -e/onó-, -e/oro-, and so on.
Compare for example from cher-, warm, adjective chor-mos, warm, cf. Gmc.
warmaz, Lat. formus, Skr. gharmá, Av. garəma-, Gk. thermós, Toc. A. särme, Phryg.
Germiai, Arm. jerm, Alb. zjarm. -bhó- gives names of animals, as e.g. Gk. éribhos, kid.
f. A secondary suffix -tero-/-toro- marks the opposition of two notions, and is found
in Anatolian (cf. Hitt. nun-taras, Adv. gen. “from now”), ál-teros, “the other (of two)”
(cf. Goth. anþar, Skr. ántaras, Lat. alter, etc.) opposed to a simple “other”, aljos (cf.
Skr. anyás, Lat. alius, Gk. állos, Goth. aljis). This suffix is also found in some syntactic
formations, as Gk. deksiós – aris-terós, skaiós – deksi-terós, both meaning “right-left”
(Benveniste 1948).
g. The suffix -wó- is particularly found in words for “alive”, as cī-wó- (cf. Skr. jīvás,
Lat. uīuos, O.Ir. béo, Welsh buw, Goth. qius) and “dead”, as mṛ-wó- (cf. O.Ir. marb,
Welsh marw, and also Lat. mortuos, Sla. mĭrtvŭ, where the -t- was possibly inserted
influenced by mṛ-tó-, “mortal”).
141
h. There are some instrumental suffixes, as -tro-, -tlo-, -klo-, -dhro-, -dhlo-, as Lat.
-trum, -c(u)lum, -brum, -bulum, etc.; e.g. arā-trom, plough, cf. Gk. árotron, Lat.
aratrum, O.Ir. arathar, Welsh aradr, Arm. arawr, Lith. árklas, etc.; also, Gk. báthron,
O.Ind. bharítram, Goth. fōdr, etc.
i. Other common suffixes (also participial) are -men-, -mon-, -mn-, with secondary -
mn-to-, -men-o-, -men-t- (and -wen-, v.s.), etc., cf. Lat. augmentum, or Goth.
hliumant, equivalent to O.Ind. śrómatam, both meaning “reputation”, from kleu-,
hear, and so on.
NOTE. Detailed information on Proto-Indo-European word morphology with dialectal examples
is in Appendix III.3, and online at <http://dnghu.org/indoeuropean_noun_morphology.pdf>.
3.8. COMPOUND WORDS
3.8.1. Nominal Compositum or nominal composition is the process of putting two or

more words together to form another word. The new word, called a Compound Word, is
either a Noun or an Adjective, and it does not necessarily have the same meaning as its
parts.
3.8.2. The second term of a Compound Word may be
a) a Noun (Gk. akró-polis, “high city, citadel”)
b) an Adjective (Gk. theo-eíkelos, “similar to the gods”) or
c) a Noun adapted to the adjectival inflection (Gk. arguró-tozos, “silver arc”)
NOTE. Sometimes a suffix is added (cf. Gk. en-neá-boios, “of nine cows”), and the Compound
Noun may have a different gender than the second term (cf. Lat. triuium, “cross roads”, from trēs
and uia).
3.8.3. The first term is a Pure Stem, without distinction of word class, gender or
number. It may be an Adverb, a Numeral (Gk. trí-llistos, “supplicated three times”, polú-
llistos, “very supplicated”) or a Pronoun (cf. O.Ind. tat-puruṣa, “that man”), as well as a
Nominal-Verbal stem with Nominal (Gk. andra-phónos, “who kills a man”), Adjetival
(Gk. akró-polis), or Verbal function (Gk. arkhé-kakos, “who begins the evil”), and also
an Adjective proper (Gk. polú-tropos, “of many resources”).
3.8.4. Usually, the first term has zero-grade, cf. O.Ind. ṇr-hán, Gk. polú-tropos, Lat.
aui-(caps), etc. Common exceptions are stems in -e/os, as Gk. sakés-palos, “who shakes
the shield” (Gk. sákos, “shield”), and some suffixes which are substituted by a

lengthening in -i, cf. Gk. kudi-áneira, “who glorifies men” (Gk. kudrós), Av. bərəzi-
čaxra-, “of high wheels” (Av. bərəzant-).
In Thematic stems, however, the thematic -e/o appears always, as an o if Noun or
Adjective (Gk. akró-polis), as an e if Verb (Gk. arkhé-kakos).
3.8.5. The first term usually defines the second, the contrary is rare; the main
Compound types are:
A. Formed by Verbs, cf. O.Ind. ṇr-hán, Gk. andra-phónos (Gk. andro- is newer) Lat.
auceps, O.Sla. medv-ĕdĭ, “honey-eater”, bear, and also with the second term defining the
first, as Gk. arkhé-kakos.
B. Nominal Determiners (first term defines the second), with first term Noun (cf. Gk.
mētro-pátōr, “mother’s father”, Goth. þiudan-gardi, “kingdom”), Adective (cf. Gk.
akró-polis, O.Sla. dobro-godŭ, “good time”, O.Ir. find-airgit, “white plant”, Lat. angi-
portus, “narrow pass”), or Numeral (cf. Lat. tri-uium, from uia, Gk. ámaza, “chariot
frame”, from ázōn).
C. Adjectival Determiners (tatpuruṣa- for Indian grammarians), with first term Noun
(cf. Gk. theo-eíkelos, Goth. gasti-gods “good for the guests”), Adverb (cf. O.Ind. ájñātas,
Gk. ágnotos, “unknown”, phroudos, “who is on its way”, from pró and odós).
D. Possessive Compounds (bahu-vrihi-, “which has a lot of rice”, for Indian
grammarians), as in Eng. barefoot, “(who goes) with bare feet”, with the first term Noun
(cf. Gk. arguró-tozos, O.Sla. črŭno-vladŭ, “of black hair”), Adjective (cf. Lat. magn-
animus, “of great spirit”), Adverb (cf. O.Ind. durmans, GK. dus-menḗs, “wicked”).
The accent could also distinguish Determiners from Possessives, as in O.Ind. rāja-
putrás, “a king’s son”, from O.Ind. rajá-putras, “who has a son as king, king’s father”.
3.9. NAMES OF PERSONS
The use of two-word compounds for personal names was common in PIE; as,
Suklewos, of good fame, with cognates found in poetic diction, cf. Gk. Eukleḗs, and Skr.
Suśráva-, or Illyr. Vescleves-.
NOTE. The use of two-word compound words for personal names is common in IE languages.
They are found in in Ger. Alf-red, “elf-counsel”, O.H.G. Hlude-rīch, “rich in glory”, O.Eng. God-
gifu, “gift of God” (Eng. Godiva), Gaul. Orgeto-rix, “king who harms”, Gaul. Dumno-rix, “king of
the world”, Gaul. Epo-pennus, “horse’s head”, O.Ir. Cin-néide (Eng. Kennedy) “ugly head”, O.Ind.
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Asva-ghosa, “tamer of horses”, O.Ind. Asvá-medhas, “who has done the horse sacrifice”, O.Pers.
Xša-yāršā (Gk. Xérxēs) “ruler of heroes”, O.Pers. Arta-xšacā, “whose reign is through
truth/law”, Gk. Sō-krátēs, “good ruler”, Gk. Mene-ptólemos, “who faces war”, Gk. Hipp-archus,
“horse master”, Gk. Cleo-patra, Pátro-klos, “from famous lineage”, Gk. Arkhé-laos, “who governs
the people”, O.Sla. Bogu-milŭ, “loved by god”, Sla. Vladi-mir, “peaceful ruler”, from volodi-
mirom, “possess the world”; etc. Individual names may further be modified through the use of
suffixes to form hypocorisms.
Other area in which it is suspected the retention of ancient Proto-Indo-European

personal names is the use of animal names or numerals, composed of one stem; as
Wḷqos, wolf, cf. O.Ir. Olc, O.Eng. Wulf, Gk. Lukos, Skr. Vŕka; or, Qétwṛtos, fourth, cf.
Lat. Quārta, Lith. Keturai, Russ. Četvertoj, Gk. Tetartíōn.
NOTE. The word for ‘name’ and possible Indo-European names can be found in Beekes (1987),
Markey (1981), Pinault (1982), Schmitt (1973), and Watkins (1970).
Further, the syntactical indication of the father’s name also dates from Proto-Indo-
European, whether by adding the name of the father in the genitive, in the sense of ‘son
of X’, or by adding a possessive adjective that is derived from the name of the father.
NOTE 1. An example of the former is Hadubrand Heribrandes suno; an example of the later is
Myc. a-re-ku-tu-ru-wo e-te-wo-ke-re-we-i-jo, i.e. Alektruwōn Etewoklewehijos, “Alektruwōn, son
of Etewoklewēs”, or Russ. Nikolaj Sergejevich. Patronymics ending in -ios (later -ius) led to what
is called the nomine gentile in Rome, cf. Gaius Iulius Caesar with Gaius = praenomen <
individual name, Iulius = nomen gentile < patronymic and Caesar = cognomen.
When considering the giving of names to individuals, one departs generally from the
basis of the free men.
NOTE. Whereas the man is addressed using the individual name, a simple ‘oh woman’ suffices in
the case of woman. “The woman is treated more as a typus, the man as an individual”.
Wackernagel (1969) makes clear that the same forms of address were adopted for interactions
with the gods. To say that the Indo-Europeans were not very different from the Romans and
Greeks would not likely be too far from the mark. In Rome, women generally carried only the
nomen gentile, cf. Cornelia, Julia, etc. In the case of the Greeks, most names of women are simply
feminine forms of masculine names of individuals, e.g. Myc. a-re-ka-sa-da-ra, i.e Aleksandrā
(corresponding to Aleks-anōr, “who fights off men”), Hom. Andromákhē, from Andrómakhos,
“who fights with men”, etc. (Meier-Brügger 2003).

4. NOUNS
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS
4.1.1. Declension is made by adding terminations to different stem endings, vowel or

consonant. The various phonetic changes in the language have given rise to the different
declensions. Most of the case-endings, as shown in this Modern Indo-European
grammar, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are generally declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with
them, but they have some peculiarities of inflection which will be later explained.
4.1.2. Nouns and adjectives are inflected in four regular Declensions, distinguished by
their final phonemes – characteristic of the Stem –, and by the opposition of different
forms in irregular nouns. They are numbered following Graeco-Latin tradition: First or
a-Declension, Second or o-Declension, Third or i/u-Declension, Fourth or Consonant
Declension, and the variable nouns.
NOTE. The Second or o-Declension is also the Thematic Declension, opposed to the rest – and
probably older in the evolution of PIE nominal inflection –, which form together the Athematic
Declension.
Decl. Stem ending Nominative Genitive

1. ā (ja/ī, ē, ō) -Ø -s
2. e/o (Thematic) m., f.-s, n.-m -os, -osjo
3. i, u and Diphthong m., f.-s, n.-Ø -eis, -eus; -jos, -wos
4. Sonants & Consonants -s, -Ø -(e/o)s
(5) Heteroclites -Ø, -r -(e)n
The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending; if a
vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
NOTE. Most Indo-Europeanists tend to distinguish at least two major types of declension for the
oldest PIE, Thematic and Athematic. Thematic nominal stems are formed with a suffix -o- (in
vocative -e), and the stem does not undergo ablaut. The Athematic stems are more archaic, and
they are classified further by their ablaut behaviour: acro-dynamic, protero-dynamic, hystero-
dynamic and holo-dynamic, after the positioning of the early PIE accent in the paradigm. For
more on this, see Beekes (1995) and Meier-Brügger (2003).
4.1.3. The following are General Rules of Declension:
a. The Nominative singular for animates ends in -s when the stem endings are i, u, ī, ū,
Diphthong, Occlusive and Thematic (-os), or -Ø in ā, Sonant and s; while in the plural -
es is general, -s for those in ā, and -os for the Thematic ones.
b. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m or -ṃ (after

consonant), the Accusative plural in -ns or -ṇs.
c. The Vocative singular for animates is always -Ø, and in the plural it is identical to the
Nominative.
d. The Genitive singular is common to animates and inanimates, it is formed with -s: -
s, -es, -os. A very old alternative possibility is extended -os-jo. The Genitive plural is
formed in -ōm, and in -ām in a-stems.
e. The Obliques singular end usually in -i: it can be -i, -ei, -ēi, -oi, -ōi or -āi, and their
extensions. In the plural, there are two series of declensions, Instr. -bhis/-mis (from Sg.
-bhi), Dat.-Abl. -bhos/-mos (PII -bhjas) as well as (BSl. and PII) Loc. in -su, Gk. -si.
NOTE. Meier-Brügger (2003) considers that “[e]vidence seems to indicate that while the dative
and ablative plural were marked with *-mos, the instrumental plural was marked with *-bhi” in
PIH, and similarly Mallory & Adams (2006) differentiate for the oldest PIE declension a Dat. -
mus, instrumental -bhi, and Abl. -bh(j)os. Comparison shows an Ins. Sg. -bhi, (cf. Gk. -phi, Myc -
pi, and also Arm. Ins. marb), BSl. -mi (cf. Lith. akmenimì, O.C.S. kamenĭmĭ) and for North-West
IE dialects a division between Italic+Celtic and Germanic+Balto-Slavic Plural forms: Celtic shows
traces of an Instrumental -bhis (cf. O.Ir. Dat.-Loc.-Inst.-Abl. cridib, and in Graeco-Aryan O.Ind.
sūnúbhis, Av. bāzubīs, Arm. srtiwkh), Italic and Celtic show a Dat.-Abl. -bhos (cf. Celtiberian
Dat.-Loc.-Inst.-Abl. arecoraticubos, Lat. matribus, Osc. luisarifs), while Balto-Slavic shows Inst. -
mis (cf. Lith. sunumìs, O.C.S. synumĭ), Dat.-Abl. -mos (cf. O.C.S. synŭmŭ, Lith. sūnùms,
sūnùmus), and Germanic shows a Dat.-Abl.-Inst. -m-. Also, Indo-Iranian -bhjas (<*-bhjos),
according to Meier-Brügger, “can thus be regarded as a cross between the instrumental *-bhi and
the dative/ablative *-mos”. Even if some might consider these data enough to draw conclusions
about a well-differentiated common PIH plural declension system, we think it is more appropriate
to maintain in MIE the (conservative) reconstructible North-West IE West/East dialectal

4. Nouns
differentiation, i.e. Dat.-Abl. -bhos/-mos (PII -bhjas), and Instr. -bhis/-mis, without using any
of those assimilation theories proposed, as e.g. PIE Inst. *-m- → dialectal *-bh-.
f. Inanimates have a syncretic form for Nom.-Ac.-Voc. -Ø in Athematic, or -m in

Thematic. The plural forms end in -ā in thematics and -a in athematics.
NOTE. About the nominative/accusative neuter plural, Meier-Brügger states: “in terms of
content, the idea of a collective mass is certainly dominant. Therefore, the collective suffix (=
athematic *-h2- and thematic *-e-h2-) is used, no ending (zero) added (…) The understanding of
the neuter plural as collective explains the ancient IE characteristic, observable in isolated cases,
of combination of the neuter plural and the singular of a verb (…)”.
g. All Animates have the same form in the plural for Nom.-Voc., in -es.
4.1.4. The so-called Oblique cases – opposed to the Straight ones, Nom.-Acc.-Voc –, are
Genitive and the Obliques proper, i.e. Dative, Locative, Instrumental and Ablative. IE
languages show an irregular Oblique declension system.
NOTE. Sanskrit or Avestan had 8 cases, Anatolian and Italic dialects show up to 8 (cf. Osc. Loc.
aasai for Lat. ‘in ārā’, or Ins. cadeis amnud for Lat. ‘inimicitiae causae’, preiuatud for Lat.
‘prīuātō’, etc.), while Latin shows six and a semisystematic Locative notion; Balto-Slavic shows
seven, Mycenaean at least six cases, while Koiné Greek and Proto-Germanic had five.
Nominal Desinences (Summary)
Singular Plural
Animates Inanimates Animates Inanimates
NOM. -s, -Ø -es
ACC. -m -m, -Ø -ns -, -Ø
VOC. -e, -Ø -es
GEN. -os, -osjo -om
DAT. -ei -bhos/-mos
LOC. -i -su
INS. -ē, -bhi -eis; -bhis/-mis
ABL. -ed, -os -bhos/-mos, -om
147
4.2. FIRST DECLENSION
4.2.1. FIRST DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. They are usually Animate nouns and end in ā (or jā), and rarely in ja/ī, ē, and ō.
Those in ā are very common, generally feminine in nouns and always in adjectives, and
they are used to make feminines in the adjectival Motion. Those in ja/ī are rare,
generally feminine, and etymologically identical to the Neuter plural in Nom.-Acc.-Voc.
Those in ō and ē are feminine only in lesser used words.
NOTE. The entire stem could have been reduced to MIE a (hence a-Declension), because this is
the origin of the whole PIE stem system in PIH, the ending *-(e)h2. See §3.7.3.
2. MIE First Declension corresponds loosely to the Latin First Declension (cf. Lat. rosa,
rosae, or puella, puellae), and to the Ancient Greek Alpha Declension (cf. Gk. χώρᾱ,
χώρᾱς, or τῑμή, τῑμῆς).
a-Declension Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -Ø
ACC. -m -Ø
VOC. -Ø
GEN. -s
DAT. -i
LOC. -i
INS. -Ø, -bhi/-mi
ABL. -d, (-s)
NOTE. This declension in ā, older *-eh2, is usually reconstructed in the Singular as from older
PIH Nom.-Vocc. *-eh2, Acc. *-eh2m, Gen.(-Abl.) *-eh2os, Dat. *-eh2ei, Loc. *-eh2i, Ins. *-eh2eh1 or *-
eh2bhi, Abl. *-eh2ed; as, Dat. *h1ekweh2ei → ekwāi.
3. It is therefore identical to those nouns in r, n, s of the Fourth Declension, but for

some details in vocalism: the Gen. has an -s and not -es/-os; the difference between
Nom. and Voc. is that of -ā and -a. The zero-grade of the Nom.-Acc.-Voc. in ja/ī stems is
different from the Gen. in -jā.

4. Nouns
4.2.2. FIRST DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES
1. Nominative Singular in -Ø; as, ekwā, mare, deiwā, goddess, patrjā, fatherland,
adj. cowij, bovine.
Examples of ja/ī include potnja/potnī, lady, mistress, djewja/djewī, (sky) goddess.

NOTE. Even though ja/ī was known to Late PIE speakers, those are rarely seen in North-West
IE, and consequently they are usually MIE -jā; as, MIE potnjā.
Those in ē, ō, also rare, make the Nominative in -s; as, bhidhēs, from Lat. fides (but
cf. O.Lat. fidis), trust, spekjēs, species, etc.
2. Accusative Singular in -m; as, ekwām, patrjām, potnjam/potnīm, spekjēm.
3. Vocative Singular in -Ø. It is normally identical to the Nominative, but

disambiguation could happen with distinct vowel grades, i.e. Nom. in -ā, Voc. in -a.
4. Genitive Singular in -s; as, ekwās, patrjās, spekjēs.
The theme in ja/ī produces a Genitive Singular in -ās; as, potnjās.
5. Dative-Ablative Singular in -āi, ekwāi, patrjāi.

NOTE. It comes probably from an older PIE general Dat. *-ei ending; as, *h1ekweh2-ei → ekwāi.
There is also a form -ei for themes in ē and in ja/ī.
6. Locative in -āi; as, ekwāi, patrjāi.
7. Instrumental in -Ø, -ā-bhi/-ā-mi; as, ékwābhi, pátrjāmi.
f. ekwā adj. f. cowij f. potnja/potnī f. spekjē-

NOM. ekwā cowij potnja/potnī spekjēs
ACC. ekwām cowijm potnjam/potnīm spekjēm
VOC. ekw cowij potnja/potnī spekjē
GEN. ekwās cowijs potnjās spekjēs
DAT. ekwāi cowiji potnjāi spekjei
LOC. ekwāi cowiji potnjāi spekjei
INS. ékwābhi cowijbhi potnjā spekjē
ABL. ekwād cowijd potnjās spekjēd
149
4.2.3. THE PLURAL IN THE FIRST DECLENSION
1. The following table presents the plural paradigm of the a-Declension.
NOM. -s
ACC. -ns
VOC. -s
GEN. -m
DAT.-ABL. -bhos/-mos
LOC. -su
INS. -bhis/-mis
NOTE. The Plural is reconstructed as from PIH Nom.-Vocc. *-eh2s, Acc. *-eh2ns (<*-eh2-m-s),
Gen.(-Abl.) *-eh2om, Dat.-Abl. *-eh2bh(j)os, Loc. *-eh2su, Ins. *-eh2bhis; as, *h1ekweh2es → ekwās.
2. The Nominative-Vocative Plural in -s: ekwās, patrjās, cowijs.
3. The Accusative Plural in -ms: ekwāns, patrjāns.
4. The Genitive Plural in -m: ekwām, patrjām.
5. The Dative and Ablative Plural in -bhos, -mos, and -bhjos; as, ékwābhos,
ékwāmos.
6. The Locative Plural in -su (also PGk -si); as, ékwāsu, pátrjāsu.
6. The Instrumental Plural in -bhis, -mis; as, ékwābhis, ékwāmis.
NOTE. The Obliques have also special forms Gk. -āisi, -ais, Lat. -ais; as, Lat. rosīs<*rosais.
f. ekwā f. cowij f. potnja

NOM. ekwās cowijs potnjas/potnīs
ACC. ekwāns cowijns potnjans/potnīns
VOC. ekwās cowijs potnjas/potnīs
GEN. ekwām cowijm potnjm
DAT. ékwābhos cowijmos pótnjabhjos
LOC. ékwāsu cowijsu pótnjasu
INS. ékwābhis cowijmis pótnjabhis
ABL. ékwābhos cowijmos pótnjabhjos

4. Nouns
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION
4.3.1. SECOND DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in e/o, and they are usually called
Thematic. They can be animates and inanimates, as well as adjectives. The inanimates
have an ending -m only in Nom.-Acc.-Voc. The animates, with a Nominative in -s, are
generally masculine in nouns and adjectives, but there are also feminine nouns and
animate adjectives in -os, probably remains of the old indistinctness of declension.
NOTE. The o-Declension is probably very recent in PIE – even though it happened already in
PIH, before the Proto-Anatolian split – and that’s why it is homogeneous in most IE dialects. As
Mallory & Adams (2006) say, “[t]he o-stems were the most productive form of declension. By this
is meant that through time, especially at the end of the Proto-Indo-European period and into the
early histories of the individual Indo-European languages, the o-stems appeared to proliferate and
replace other stem types. In Vedic Sanskrit, for example, they constitute more than half of all
nouns. High productivity is often interpreted as evidence that the o-stems are a later declensional
form than many of the other stems. Highly productive forms are ultimately capable of replacing
many other forms as they provide the most active model by which speakers might decline a form”.
2. MIE Second Declension is equivalent to the Second Declension in Latin (cf. Lat.
dominus, dominī, or uinum, uinī), and to the Omicron Declension in Greek (cf. Gk.
λόγος, λόγου, or δῶρον, δῶρου).
o-Declension Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -os
ACC. -om -om
VOC. -e
GEN. -os, -osjo
DAT. -ōi
LOC. -oi
INS. -ō
ABL. -ōd
151
NOTE 1. This model could have been written without the initial vowel -o-, because the probable
origin of this vowel is the ending vowel of some thematic stems, while other, primitive athematic
stems were reinterpreted, and an -o- was added to their stems by way of analogy. So, this
paradigm could be read Nom. -s, Acc. -m, Gen. -s, -sjo, -so, and so on.
NOTE 2. The thematic declension is usually reconstructed in the Singular as from older PIH
Nom. *-os, Voc. *-e, Acc. *-om (neu. Nom.-Voc.-Acc. *-om), Gen. *-os, Dat. *-ōi (<*-o-ei), Loc. *-
oi, Ins. *-oh1, Abl. *-ōd (<-o-ed); as, Dat. *wl̥kwo-ei → wḷqōi, Abl. *wl̥kwo-ed → wḷqōd.
4.3.2. SECOND DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES
1. Nominative Singular Animate in -os; as in wḷqos, wolf, dómūnos, lord, wīrós,

man, adj. cīwós, alive.
2. Accusative Singular Animate in -om; as in wḷqom, dómūnom, cīwóm.
3. Vocative Singular Animate in -e; as in wḷqe, dómūne, cīwé.
5. The Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Sg. Inanimate in -om; as in jugóm, yoke, adj. newom, new.
4. Genitive Singular in -os, -osjo, also -e/oso, -ī; as in wḷqosjo, jugós, dómūnī.
NOTE. The original Genitive form -os is rare, as the Genitive had to be distinguished from the
Nominative. This disambiguation happens by alternatively lengthening the ending, as -os-jo (or
e/os-o) or changing it altogether, as in -ī.
6. Dative Singular in -ōi: wḷqōi, dómūnōi, newōi, jugṓi.

7. Locative Singular in -oi: wḷqoi, dómūnoi, newoi, jugói.
8. Instrumental Singular in -ō: wḷqō, dómūnō, newō, jugṓ.
9. The Ablative Singular is formed in -ōd: wḷqōd, cīwṓd, jugṓd.
m. wḷqo- n. jugó-
NOM. wḷqos jugóm
ACC. wḷqom jugóm
VOC. wḷqe jugom
GEN. wĺqosjo jugós
DAT. wḷqōi jugṓi
LOC. wḷqoi jugói
INS. wḷqō jugṓ
ABL. wḷqōd jugṓd

4. Nouns
4.5.3. THE PLURAL IN THE SECOND DECLENSION
1. The Thematic Plural system is usually depicted as follows:
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -ōs, (-oi)
ACC. -ons -ā
VOC. -ōs, (-oi)
GEN. -ōm
DAT.-ABL. -obhos/-omos
LOC. -oisu
INS. -ōis
NOTE. The Animate Plural is reconstructed as PIH Nom.-Voc. *-ōs (<*-o-es), Acc. *-ons (<*-o-
m-s), Gen.(-Abl.) *-m (<*-o-om), Dat.-Abl. *-o(i)bh(j)os/-omos, Loc. *-oisu (<*-o-eis-su), Ins. *-
is (<*-o-eis); as,*wl̥kwo-es → wḷqōs. Inanimates have a Nom.-Voc.-Acc in *-oh2 (or *-eh2)
evolved as -ā in most dialects. A Nom.-Voc. (pronominal) ending -oi is also found.
2. The Nominative-Vocative Animate Plural in -ōs; as, wḷqōs, dómūnōs, wīrṓs.
3. The Accusative Animate Plural in -ons; as, wḷqons, dómūnons, cīwóns.
4. The Nom.-Voc.-Acc. Inanimate Plural usually in -ā; as, jug, cīw.
5. The Genitive Plural in -ōm; as, wḷqōm, dómūnōm, cīwṓm, jugṓm.
6. For the Obliques Plural, Dat.-Abl. wḷqomos, Loc. wīrṓisu, Ins. jugṓis.
m. wlqo- n. jugo-
NOM. wḷqōs jug
ACC. wḷqōms jug
VOC. wḷqōs jug
GEN. wḷqōm jugṓm
DAT. wĺqobhos jugómos
LOC. wĺqōisu jugóisu
INS. wḷqōis jugṓis
ABL. wĺqobhos jugómos
153
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION
4.4.1. THIRD DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. Third Declension nouns end in i, u (also ī, ū) and Diphthong.
2. This declension usually corresponds to Latin nouns of the Third Declension in -i (cf.
Lat. ciuis, ciuis, or pars, partis), and of the Fourth Declension in -u (cf. Lat. cornū,
cornūs, or portus, portūs).
i/u-Declension Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -s
ACC. -m -Ø
VOC. -Ø
GEN.-ABL. -s
DAT. -ei
LOC. -Ø, -i
INS. -ī/-ū, -ē, (-bhi/-mi)
NOTE 1. The so-called common, basic or athematic paradigm, the hypothetically oldest
attainable PIE noun declension system, is reconstructed in the Singular as Nom. *-Ø, *-s, Acc. *-m,
Voc. *-Ø, Gen.(-Abl.) *-(é/o)s, Dat. *-ei, Loc. *-Ø, *-i, Ins. *-(é)h1, Abl. *-(e)d. This was a paradigm
common to the i/u and Consonant declension (v.i.), and it was probably inherited (and innovated)
by the first and second declensions.
NOTE 2. Reduplication or combination with the alternating endings -i, -ei/-oi and -u, -eu/-ou,
was a common resort in the attested dialects that distinguished Dat. and Loc. in this declension, as
in -i-ei, -ei-ei, -eu-ei, and so on, to differentiate similar forms.
3. The animates in i and u are masculine or feminine (indifferent to the distinction in

adjectives); those in ī and ū, always feminine.
4. The -s can indicate Nominative and Genitive: the distinction is made through the
full-grade of the vowel before the declension, i.e. Type I (older) Gen. -ei-s (or oi-s) for i,
-eu-s (or ou-s) for u; Type II (newer) in -(e)i-os, -(e)u-os.
NOTE. The Vocative of the animates is the same as the Nom.-Acc.-Voc. of the inanimates.

4. Nouns
4.4.2. IN I, U
1. Nominative Singular Animate in -s; as in owis, sheep, noqtis, night, ghostis, guest,
sūnús, son, egnis, fire, pṛtus, ford, swḗdhus, custom; adj. swādus, pleasant.
2. Accusative Singular Animate in -m; as in owim, noqtim, ghostim, sūnúm.
3. Vocative Singular Animate in -Ø, or full -ei, -eu; owi, sūnéu/sūneu, swēdhu.
NOTE. Full vocalism helps differentiate animates (in -ei, -eu) from inanimates (in -i, -u).
4. The Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Singular Inanimate in -Ø; as in mari, sea, kṛdi, heart, peku,
cattle, deru, wood, medhu, mead, adj. swādu.
5. Type I Genitive Singular in -eis, -eus, also -ois, -ous; as, ghosteis, mareis,
sūnéus, swēdheus, adj. swādeus.
Type II in -(e)jos, -(e)wos; as, owjos, noqtjos, kṛdejós, swḗdhewos, pékewos.

NOTE. Some -ei-, -eu- genitives were remade into the newer -(e)jo-, -(e)wo-; as, old dreus,
pṛtéus, owéis, egnéis, pekéus, into MIE dérewos, pṛtwos, owjos, egnjos, pékewos.
6. Dat. Sg. in -ei, usually full -ei-ei, -eu-ei; as, ghóstejei, pékewei.
NOTE. For a Dat. Sg. in -ei, pure stem or full ending plus -i, cf. Gk. -seï (<*-t-ej-i?), O.C.S. kosti.
7. Loc. Sg. in -ei, -eu, usually lengthened -ēi, -ēu, -ewi; as, noqtēi, sunḗu.
8. Ins. -ī, -ū (<*-h1), in -ē (<*-eh1) following the Gen., or -bhi/-mi: pṛtū, pṛtwē.
NOTE. The Obliques show weak stems (root ablaut and accent shift) in old root nouns, v.i.
Type I Type II
f. ghosti- m. sūnu- n. mari- f. noqti- m. pṛtu- n. peku-
NOM. ghostis sūnús mari noqtis pṛtus peku
ACC. ghostim sūnúm mari noqtim pṛtum peku
VOC. ghosti sūnéu mari noqtei pṛtu peku
GEN. ghosteis sūnéus mareis noqtjos pṛtwos pékewos
DAT. ghóstejei sūnéwei márejei nóqtejei pṛtewei pékewei
LOC. ghostēi sūnḗu marēi noqtēi pṛtēu pékewi
INS. ghostī sūnewē marī noqtī pṛtwē pekū
ABL. ghosteis sūnéus mareis noqtjos pṛtwos pékewos
155
THE STRONG TYPE
Its inflection is similar to the consonant stems, and they have no alternating vowels
before the declension; ī and ū are substituted before vowel by -ij, -uw. They are always
feminine, and they cannot be inanimates nor adjectives. They are mostly PIE roots (in *-
iH, *-uH), and found mainly in Indo-Iranian.
f. bhrū- f. sū- f. dhī- f. wḷqī-

NOM. bhrūs sūs dhīs wḷqīs
ACC. bhrūm sūm dhīm wĺqīm
VOC. bhrū sū dhī wḷqī
GEN. bhruwós suwós dhijós wḷqijós
DAT. bhruwéi suwéi dhijéi wḷqijéi
LOC. bhruwí suwí dhijí wḷqijí
INS. bhrūbhí sūbhí dhībhí wḷqībhí
ABL. bhruwós suwós dhijós wḷqijós
4.4.3. IN DIPHTHONG
1. There are long diphthongs āu, ēu, ōu, ēi, which sometimes present short vowels.
NOTE. Other endings that follow this declension, as ā, ē, ō are probably remains of older
diphthongs. Therefore, these can all be classified as Diphthong endings, because the original stems
were formed as diphthongs in the language history.
cōu- m. djēu- f. nāu-

NOM. cōus djēus nāus
ACC. cōm djēm/dijḗm nāum
VOC. cou djeu nau
GEN. cous diwós nawós
DAT. cowéi diwéi nawéi
LOC. cowí djewi/diwí nawí
INS. coū djeū naū
ABL. cous diwós nawós

4. Nouns
In zero grade Genitives there are forms with -i- or -ij- or -u- or -uw-, depending on the
diphthongs.
NOTE 1. Some secondary formations – especially found in Greek – are so declined, in -eus, -
euos as in Av. bāzāus, Arm.,Gk. Basileus, possibly from PIE -āus (Perpillou, 1973) but Beekes
(2007) considers it Pre-Greek.
NOTE 2. Stang’s law governs the word-final sequences of a vowel + semivowel j or w + nasal,
simplified in PIE so that semivowels are dropped, with compensatory lengthening of a preceding
vowel, i.e. VwM,VjM → VːM; as, djēm, not *djewm̥; cōm, not *gwowm̥, cōns, not *gwown̥s, etc.
A similar trend is found with laryngeals, *Vh₂m > VːM; as, sūm, also attested as suwṃ, etc.
4.4.4. THE PLURAL IN THE THIRD DECLENSION
1. The following table depicts the general plural system, common to the Fourth
Declension.
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -es
ACC. -ns -a
VOC. -es
GEN. -om
DAT.-ABL. -bhos/-mos
LOC. -su
INS. -bhis/-mis
NOTE. A general Accusative Plural ending -ns (-ṇs after consonant) is usually reconstructed for
Late PIE, because e.g. with the -u- stem PIE *-u-ns, descendents in early IE languages show *-uns,
*-ūns, *-ūs; cf. Goth. sununs, O.Ind. sūnū́n, Gk. υἱυνς, Lith. sū́nus, O.C.S. syny, Lat. manūs. See H.
Rix (FS Risch 1986 p. 586-590). Most scholars also posit an original, older *-ms form (a logical
accusative singular -m- plus the plural mark -s), but they usually prefer to reconstruct the attested
-ns, thus (implicitly) suggesting an intermediate phase common to all proto-languages in a Late
PIE stage, i.e. PIH *-ms → Late PIE *-ns. For a PIH *-ms, cf. maybe Hitt. -uš (Ottinger 1979), but
Lyc -s (<*-ns?). To be consistent with decisions taken elsewhere in this grammar (as e.g.
reconstructed PIE -TT- as MIE intermediate -sT-, see §2.8.5), the intermediate, attested -ns is the
conservative choice, whereas *-ms is just a quite certain hypothesis about its origin.
157
2. Unlike in the Singular, in which only some Nominatives have an -s, in Nom.-Voc.
Plural the -s is general, and there is always one fix-grade vowel, e. So, the opposition
Singular-Plural in -s/-es is actually Ø/e.
3. The Nom.-Voc. Plural Animate is made in -es, in full-grade -ei-es for i, -eu-es for u,
and -ijes, -uwes, for ī, ū; as ówejes, sūnewes, pŕtewes, bhruwes.
4. The Accusative Plural Animate is in -ns: owins, sūnúns, pṛtuns, cōns.
5. Nom.-Voc. Acc. Plural Inanimate in -a: pekwa, marja, swādwá.

NOTE. The Athematic inanimate plural ending commonly represented by -a corresponds to an
older collective *-h2, which sometimes lengthened the preceding vowel (i or u) instead; as, for
Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Pl. *triH, three, cf. Skr. trī, Lat. trī, Ir. trī, but Gk. tría; see §3.7.3.
6. Gen. Pl. in -om (Type I usually in full -ei-om, -eu-om); as, ghóstejom, pṛtwom.
NOTE. The -m of the Acc. sg. Animate, Nom.-Acc.-Voc. sg. Inanimate and this case could
sometimes be confused. It was often disambiguated with the vocalic grade of the Genitive, full or
lengthened, as the singular is always Ø.
7. For the Obliques Plural, cf. Dat.-Abl. ówibhos, sūnumos, nóqtimos; Loc.
sūnusu, nóqtisu, Ins. sūnubhis, ówimis, máribhis.
NOTE. In the plural, as in the singular, the Genitive and the Obliques are made with the weak
form (vowel change and accent shift), if it hadn’t been replaced. This rule, common to the fourth
declension, affects the oldest nouns; as, Nom. owis, Gen. oweis, but remade Nom. owis, Gen.
owjos; old pertus, pṛteus, but remade pṛtus, pṛtwos; n. kerd, kṛdés, new kṛdi, kṛdejós.
Type I Type II Diphth.

f. owi- m. sūnu- f. noqti- n. peku- m. cou-
NOM. ghóstejes sūnewes nóqtejes pekwa cowes
ACC. ghostins sūnúns noqtins pekwa cōns
VOC. ghóstejes sūnewes nóqtejes pekwa cowes
GEN. ghóstejom sūnewom noqtjom pékwom cowom
DAT. ghóstibhos sūnumos nóqtibhos pékumos coubhos
LOC. ghóstisu sūnusu nóqtisu pékusu cousu
INS. ghóstibhis sūnumis nóqtibhis pékumis coubhis
ABL. ghóstibhos sūnumos nóqtibhos pékumos coubhos

4. Nouns
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION
4.5.1. FOURTH DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. The Stem of Nouns of the Second Declension ends in Consonant or Sonant, i.e. -n, -r,
-s, Occlusive (especially -t), and rarely -l, -m. The inflection of animates is essentially the
same as that of the Second or Thematic Declension.
2. Nouns of the Fourth Declension in MIE correspond to Latin nouns of First

Declension in -r (cf. Lat. magister, magistrī), and Third Declension in consonant (cf.
Lat. prīnceps, prīncipis, phoenīx, phoenīcis, cōnāmen, cōnāminis, etc.), and to the
Ancient Greek Labial and Velar declension (cf. Gk. Ἄραψ, Ἄραβος, or Φρύξ, Φρυγός).
The Nominative ending is -s (with Occlusive, -m, -l), but there is also a Nominative Sg.
with pure stem vowel (desinence -Ø and lengthened ending vowel), so that the full-grade
Vocative is differentiated. And there is no confusion in Nom./Gen., as -s has a different
vowel grade (Nom. -s, Gen. -és or -os).
Consonant-Declension Paradigm
Occlusive, -m, -l -r, -n, -s

NOM. -s -Ø (long vowel)
ACC. -ṃ
VOC. -Ø -Ø (full grade)
GEN.-ABL. -os
DAT. -ei
LOC. -i, -Ø
INS. -ē, -bhi/-mi
NOTE. Beside the usual Loc. ending -i there was also the bare stem without ending. Such
unmarked (‘flat’) locatives are widely encountered in modern languages (cf. Eng. next door,
home), and in PIE they are well-attested in n-stems, but are rare in other consonant stems.
3. Inanimates have pure vowel stems with different vowel grades. In nouns there
should be no confusion at all, as they are different words, but neuter adjectives could be
mistaken in Nominative or Vocative Animate. Distinction is thus obtained with vocalism,
as in Animate -ōn vs. Inanimate -on, Animate -ēs vs. Inanimate -es (neuter nouns in -s
are in -os).
159
4.5.2. IN OCCLUSIVE, M, L
1. Nominative Sg. Animate in -s; as, pods, foot, regs, king, preks, plea, bhurghs,
watch-tower, adj. bélowents, strong.
NOTE. The Nom. of some stems are often reconstructed in long vowel; as, pōds, rēgs, prēks.
Such forms were probably levelled due to the loss of the Nom. ending -s in some dialects, v.i.
2. Accusative Singular Animate in -ṃ; as, podṃ, regṃ, bhurghṃ, bélowentṃ.
NOTE. Forms in m make the accusative by lengthening the root vowel, *Vmm > *Vːm, as a
consequence of Stang’s Law (v.s.); as, Nom. doms, house, Acc. dōm (<*dom-ṃ), cf. Arm. tun or
Gk. δῶ, or Nom. dhghōm, earth, Acc. dhghōm (<*dhghom-ṃ), cf. Skr. kṣām. Root nouns like
these ones are quite old in the language history, and are therefore rare in Late PIE dialects, which
had usually replaced them by newer derived nouns; as, MIE domos, house, or dhghṃós, earth.
3. Vocative Singular Animate in -Ø; a sin pod, reg, bhurgh, bélowent.
4. The Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Singular Inanimate in -Ø; as somṇt, body, or adj. bheront.
5. Genitive Singular in –os; as, pedos, rēgos, bhurghos, bélowentos, bhérontos.
NOTE. Older root nouns made the Genitive-Ablative often in -s, -és, i.e. Ablaut and Accent on
stem vowel; as, for strong Nom. doms, weak Gen. dems or dmés, for strong Nom. dhghōm,
Gen. dhghmés or (probably already in Late PIE) metathesized ghdhmés. They appear in Late
PIE dialects mainly frozen in compounds; as, dems in demspots (v.s.), because most of them
were reinterpreted; as, Nom. pods, Gen. pedés, into a newer paradigm pods, pedos.
6. Dative Singular in -ei: pedei, rēgei, bhurghei, bhérontei.
7. Locative Singular in -i: pedi, rēgi, bhurghi, bélowenti.
m. pod- f. prek- f. bhurgh- n. bheront-

NOM. pods preks bhurghs bheront
ACC. podṃ prekṃ bhurghṃ bheront
VOC. pod prek bhurgh bheront
GEN. pedos prēkos bhurghos bherontos
DAT. pedei prēkei bhurghei bherontei
LOC. pedi prēki bhurghi bheronti
INS. pedmi prēkbhi bhurghmi bherontbhi
ABL. pedos prēkos bhurghos bherontos

4. Nouns
4.5.3. IN R, N, S
1. Nominative Singular Animate in -Ø with lengthened vowel; as in mātḗr (also

mtēr), mother, elōr, swan, kwōn, dog, Osēn, autumn, adj. juwōn, young.
NOTE. For those in n, a Nom. without -n is alternatively reconstructed; as, kwō (cf. Skr. śvā).
Stems in s don’t show a systematic vowel lengthening; as, opos, work, nebhos, cloud,
ōs, mouth, mōs, character, spes, hope, etc. Adjectives usually end in -es; as, sugenḗs,
well-born, of good stock (cf. Gk. eugenḗs, O.Ind. sujanāḥ).
2. Accusative Sg. Animate in -m; as in māterṃ, élorṃ, kwonṃ, júwonṃ, óposṃ.
3. Voc. Sg. An. in -Ø with full vowel; as mātér, élor, kúon, juwon, opos, sugenés.
4. The Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Singular Inanimate in -Ø; as in nōmṇ, name, genos, kin.
The adjectives in -s have a neuter in -es; as, sugenés.
5. Genitive Singular in -os, usually with an e, not an o, as the final stem vowel; as,
éleros, nomenos, bhugenos, júwenos, nébheses, géneses, ópesos, ēsos,
spēsos; but cf. zero-grade in old stems, as mātrós, kunos, and also o, as mosós.
NOTE. Old root nouns made the Genitive in -és, with Ablaut and Accent shift; as, kunés. For
mātḗr, patḗr, bhrātēr, apart from standard Gen. mātrós, patrós, bhrātros, older Gen. -és),
alternative mātŕs, patŕs, bhrātṛs, existed in PIE; as, O.Ind. mātúr.
6. Dative Singular in -ei, mātréi, élerei, kunei, júwenei, ópesei, sugenesei.

7. Locative Singular in -i: mātrí, éleri, kuni, júweni, ópesi, sugenesi.
8. Instrumental Singular in -ē or -bhi/-mi: mātṛmí, élerbhi, patrē, kunmi,
júwenbhi, ópesbhi, sugenesbhi.
m. kwon- f. pater- n. genes- n. nomṇ- adj. sugenes-

NOM. kwōn patḗr genōs nōmṇ sugenḗs
ACC. kwonṃ paterṃ genōs nōmṇ sugenesṃ
VOC. kwon patér genōs nōmṇ sugenés
GEN. kunos patrós génesos nómenos sugeneses
DAT. kunei patréi génesei nómenei sugenesei
LOC. kuni patrí génesi nómeni sugenesi
INS. kunmi patṛbhí génesmi nómenbhi sugenesmi
ABL. kunos patrós génesos nómenos sugeneses
161
4.5.4. THE PLURAL IN THE FOURTH DECLENSION
With a paradigm common to the Third Declension, here are some inflected examples.
m. pod- f. prek- m. kwon- f. māter- n. genes-

NOM. podes prekes kwones māteres génesa
ACC. podṇs prekṇs kwonṇs māterṇs génesa
VOC. podes prekes kwones māteres génesa
GEN. pedom prēkom kunom mātróm génesom
DAT. pedmos prēkbhos kunmos mātṛbhós génesbhos
LOC. pedsu prēksu kunsu mātṛsú génesu
INS. pedmi prēkmi kunmi mātṛbhís génesbhis
ABL. pedmos prēkmos kunmos mātṛbhós génesbhos
4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS
4.6.1. Many nouns vary in Declension, and they are called Heteroclites.
4.6.2. Heteroclitic forms are isolated and archaic, given only in Inanimates, as remains
of an older system, well attested in Anatolian.
4.6.3. They consist of one form to mark the Nom.-Acc.-Voc, and another for the
Obliques, usually r/(e)n; as, ghēsṛ/ghésenos, hand, gutṛ/gútenos, throat,
kowṛ/kówenos, cavern, ūdhṛ/ū́dhenos, udder, bhemṛ/bhémenos, thigh,
wedhṛ/wédhenos, weapon, gutṛ/gútenos, throat, kowṛ/kówenos, cavern, etc.
4.6.4. Different paradigms are also attested:
• Opposition r/(e)n- (legthened); as, jeqṛ/jeqóneros, liver,

NOTE. For PIE jeqṛ, cf. Ved. yákṛt, Gk. hēpar, Lat. iecur, Av. yākarə, and compare its Obl. Skr.
yakn-ás, Gk. hḗpat-os<*hēpn̥t-, Lat. iecinoris.
• Alternating with other suffixes; as, gheimṛ/gheims/ghjiems, winter,

skīwṛ/kīwōn/skinōn, shinbone, later column, wēsṛ/wēsṇtós, spring,
wedṛ/wédenos/wodā, water, swepṛ/swopnos, dream.
• Formed from the consonant r or n of the heteroclite; as, pāwṛ/pūr/puōn,
fire, nomṛ/nómeros/nómenos, precision, number, Gk. skōr (gen. skatos),
Hitt. šakkar (gen. šaknaš), Lat. -scerda, “shit”.

4. Nouns
4.6.5. The Heteroclites follow the form of the Genitive Singular when forming the
Obliques. That is so in the lengthening before declension, vocalism, and in the accent too.
4.7. VOCALISM BEFORE THE DECLENSION
4.7.1. The Predeclensional vowel is that which precedes the ending, even the Ø ending;
i.e., we say that Nom. patḗr has a long predeclensional vowel; that the Vocative patér
has a full one, and that patréi has it Ø. Other example of the three possibilities is the
alternating pod, ped and -pd-.
NOTE. The vocalic changes in timbre and grade aren’t meaningful by themselves, they are
multifunctional: they can only have meaning in a specific declension, and it is not necessarily
always the same. They are thus disambiguating elements, which help distinguish homophones,
i.e., words that sound alike.
Changes in vocalism, as we have already explained, happens mainly in PIE roots, and is
found in Late PIE dialects only in words that were not remade into the new declension
paradigm, i.e. the standard fixed vowel grade and accent.
NOTE. The lengthening of the predeclensional vowel in r/n/s stems has been explained
(Szemerényi's law) as a consequence of an older (regular PIE) Nom. -s ending; as, *ph2tér-
s→*ph2tḗr, *kwon-s→*kwōn, etc. Cf. e.g. the evolution PIE pod-s (PII pads) → Skr. pāt.
4.7.2. Two kinds of nominal inflection have no alternating stem vowel: that in i, u, and
that of the participles of Reduplicates.
4.7.3. Stems in r and n had two possibilities, both with a Nom. sg. in -Ø and lengthened
vowel.
1. Nom. with lengthened vowel, Acc., Voc. with full vowel, and Gen. -Ø. The timbre can
be e or o, depending on the words.
a. In r, as in Nom. mātḗr, Acc. māterṃ, Voc. mātér, Gen. mātrós.
b. In n, as in Nom. kwōn/kuwṓn, Acc. kwonṃ/kuwonṃ, Voc. kuon/kuwon, Gen.

kunós/kunés.
2. Sometimes, the Genitive had a full grade, as the Accusative and the Vocative. This
grade is redundant, not necessary for the disambiguation of the Genitive from the
Nominative. There were different timbres e and o, sometimes o in Nom.-Acc.-Voc., and
e in Gen., sometimes o in Acc.-Voc.-Gen. and e in Obl.
163
4.7.4. There was usually the same vocalism in nouns ending in Occlusive.
An exception is made in the adjectives and participles in -nt, which present full vowel
in Nom.-Acc.-Voc., and zero-grade in the Genitive; as, Nom. bheronts, Acc.
bherontṃ, Voc. bherṇtós.
NOTE. There are remains of what seems to be an old alternating vocalism in monosyllabics. The
variants dem/dom, ped/pod, neqt/noqt, etc. suggest an original (i.e. IE II) paradigm Nom.
pod-s, Acc. pod-ṃ, Gen. ped-ós. This is, again, mostly irrelevant for Modern Indo-European, in
which both alternating forms may appear in frozen vocabulary, either with o or e; as, i-declension
noqtis, night.
4.7.5. Stems in s do not present a zero-grade. Animates, as already said, oppose a

lengthened-vowel Nominative to the other cases, which have full vowel, i.e., Nom. -ēs,
rest -es, Nom. -ōs, rest -os.
4.7.6. We know already what happens with stems in i, u, which have two general
models or types:
Type I. In i, Nom. -i-s, Acc. -i-m, Voc. -ei or -i, Gen. -ei-s (or -oi-s).
In u, Nom. -u-s, Acc. -u-m, Voc. -eu or -u, Gen. -eu-s (or -ou-s).
Type II. In i, Nom. -i-s, Acc. -i-m, Voc. -ei or -i, Gen. -(e)i-os.
In u, Nom. -u-s, Acc. -u-m, Voc. -eu or -u, Gen. -(e)u-os.

NOTE. This is an inversion of the general paradigm: the Nom.-Acc.-Voc. has zero-grade (i, u)
but for some Voc., the Gen. Ø or full (ei, eu). Distinction is obtained through alternating forms; as
in Voc., in which the ending -ei distinguishes it from Neuters in -i; or with changes of Gen. e/o.
4.7.7. Those in Long Diphthong alternate the diphthong (or long vowel) with j or w,
which represents the Ø-grade; as in djēus, djēm, diwós; or nāu-s, naw-ós. Uniform
vocalism (i.e., no vowel change) is the general rule, though.
NOTE. These diphthongs reflect an older situation, of a vowel plus a laryngeal, and they are
probably related to nouns in a, and also to those in e and o.
4.7.8. Stems in ā usually maintain an uniform vocalism: Nom.-Voc. -ā, Acc. -ām, Gen.
-ās. But those in ja/ī may alternate Nom.-Voc. -ja/-ī, Gen. -jās.

4. Nouns
NOTE. There are also remains of -a in Voc. (and even Nom.), as well as -ai, cf. Gk. γυναι (gunai,
an example also found in Armenian), and other forms in -ai in Latin (as rosae<-*rosai), Old
Indian and other IE dialects. Those in ē and ō show also traces of alternating phonetic changes.
4.7.9. Neuter stems distinguish the Nom.-Acc.-Voc. forms by having a predeclensional

vowel, normally Ø (the ending is also Ø, but for thematic stems), as generally in nouns in
i, u, r, n and Occlusive; as kṛdi, madhu, nōmṇ. There are exceptions, though:
1. Nouns with lengthened or full vowel; as, PGk. udōr for MIE wedṛ;
2. Nouns in s cannot have -Ø-, they have -o- in nouns, -e- in adjectives; as, genōs,
sugenḗs.
3. Finals e/o have a uniform predeclensional vowel, normally o, plus Nom.-Acc.-Voc

ending -m.
In the Oblique cases, neuters are declined like the animates.
NOTE. There are no Neuters Sg. in -, but for those which became common plural nouns, as e.g.
Nom. Sg. Bubljā, The Bible, lit.“the books”, from Gk. bubliom, book.
4.8. VOCALISM IN THE PLURAL
4.8.1. Vocalism in the Plural is generally the same as in the Singular. In the straight
cases, Nom.-Acc.-Voc. have full vowel grade (there is no Nominative with lengthened
vowel), and the Gen. is in the zero-grade.
There are also some special situations:
1. There are examples of full vowel in Nom.-Voc.; as, i, u stems in -ei-es and -eu-es; r
stems in in -er-es, -or-es; n stems in -en-es, -on-es; s stems in -es-es.
2. Sometimes, the vowel timbre varies; as, akmōn/ákmenes, (sharp) stone, which
give Lith. akmuö/akmenes and Sla. *kāmōn/kāmenes, cf. O.C.S. kamy/kamene.
3. There are some Ø-grades, as Gk. óies, and analogical forms, as Gk. kúnes, Lat.
carnes.
4.8.2. The Ø-grade, an exception in the Nom.-Voc., is usual in Accusative Plural in i, u

stems; as in derivatives with forms -i-ns, -u-ns.
As a general rule, then, the Plural has a full vowel: ákmenes, māteres, etc.
165
4.8.3. In consonant declension, Inanimates in s have a Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Pl. -es- in the

whole inflection (but Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Sg. in -os); the other stems are in -Ø.
4.8.4. The old vocalism of the Genitive Plural was Ø. The full grade is often found,
though, especially in stems in n and often r; as, ákmenom, júwenom, élerom. Cf.
also mātróm, or māterom. Type I i, u stems also show full grade in -ei-om, -eu-om.
To sum up, Nominative Plural is usually opposed to Nominative Singular, while

Genitive and Accusative tend to assimilate Singular and Plural. When these are the same,
full vowel is found in the Accusative, and Ø in the Genitive.
4.8.5. In the Obliques Plural, the zero-grade in the predeclensional syllable was very
common, whether it has the Genitive vocalism or the full one; as, kwōn/kunsí. This Ø-
grade is also found in r stems, as in patrós, patṛbhós. And so in i, u, stems too, in
Nom. and Acc. Sg., while e is otherwise found (in Nom. Pl., and sometimes in Gen. Sg.
and Pl.). The Obliques Plural have Ø; as, egnibhos, ówisu, ghóstibhis, etc. Indeed
those with a lengthened Genitive form had it also in the plural; as, rēgbhis, prēksu.
Where there was a distinction straight/oblique stem, the Oblique Plural stem is that of
the Nom. Sg. Animate or Nom.-Acc.-Voc. Sg. Inanimate; and when, in any of them, there
was a distinction between full- and Ø-grade, they take the last. An example of Animates
is ped-, which gives Nom. pods, Gen. pedés (remade pedos) Obl. Pl. pedbhís.
In Inanimates it happens with s stems which have -os in Nom.-Acc. and -es in the
other cases; as in genōs, génesi, genesbhos. And in Heteroclites that oppose an -n in
the cases that are not Nom.-Acc.-Voc. with r, s or Ø.
4.9. ACCENT IN DECLENSION
4.9.1. Just like vocalic grades, the accent was used (normally redundantly) to oppose
the Straight cases (Nom.-Acc.-Voc.) to the Oblique ones.
NOTE. This is one of the worst reconstructed parts of the oldest PIE, as each dialect developed
its own accent system. Only Vedic Sanskrit, Greek and Balto-Slavic dialects appear to have more or
less retained traces of the oldest accent system, and even these have undergone different
systematizations, which obscure the original situation. See §2.6.
4.9.2. PIE Stress paradigms can be classed as Static or Mobile.

4. Nouns
In a Static paradigm, the stress of each inflected form was fixed on the same syllable of
the stem; as, Nom. wḷqos, Gen. wḷqosjo.
NOTE. Thematic nouns and adjectives were always of the static type; so were some common old
athematic paradigms, as well as those Late PIE athematics that were remade as Static.
In a Mobile paradigm, the stress fell on the stem in some forms (usually the strong
ones) and on the inflectional ending in others (usually the weak ones).
NOTE. Mobile stress was common among nouns belonging to athematic classes, especially when
the stem ended in a consonant or was simply identical with the root (root nouns).
4.9.2. In monosyllabics, the oldest Mobile paradigm is clearly observed:
Nom. pōds, Acc. pōdṃ, Gen. pedés, remade (Static) pedos.
Nom. kwōn, Acc. kwonṃ, Gen. kunés, remade (Static) kunos.

NOTE. Even if the accent shift of the mobile paradigm was changed, remade declensions
maintained the weak forms for the Oblique cases. According to Gąsiorowski, “[i]t is worth
observing that in mobile paradigms the location of stress has an effect on vowel quality.
Unstressed syllables may have so-called zero vocalism (where, in the absence of *e or *o glides,
liquids or nasals take over their function as syllabic segments). A shift of stress may also lead to
syncope, so that a vowel disappears altogether (as in *drous, leaving a consonant cluster. When
neither syncope nor consonant syllabification seems possible, an unstressed vowel remains but *e
is preferred to *o in this position (*pedós vs. *pódṃ). The result is a system involving complex
alternations (so that the stem *kwon- may also be realised as *kuwōn, *kun- with a vocalised glide
or *kwṇ- with syllabic [n]).
As complex systems are difficult to learn, many of the irregularities visible in the table tended to
be levelled out already in PIE times. Static paradigms, with their immobilised stress and
completely predictable forms, expanded at the cost of mobile declensions. This process was similar
to the spread in English of regular plurals in -(e)s: horses (Old English hors), hares (OE haran),
cows (OE cy), sons (OE suna) etc.; only a handful of odd archaic plurals remain (oxen, men, geese,
deer, sheep) to show that English once had a number of declensions.
4.9.3. In polysyllabics, there is e.g. mātḗr, mātrós, etc., but also mātḗr, mātŕs (cf.
O.Ind. mātúr), patŕs (cf. Skr. pitúr), bhrātṛs (cf. Skr. bhartuḥ), and so on.
1. Stems in i, u, had probably originally a root accent in Nom.-Acc., and a Genitive with
accent on declension, as in the rest of examples.
167
2. For those in ā the oldest system is not clearly reconstructed.
3. The Vocative could be distinguished with the accent. The general rule is that it is
unstressed, but for the beginning of a sentence; in this case, the stress is on the first
syllable, to differentiate it from the Nominative, with accent on declension.
NOTE. Stress is thus related to the intonation of the sentence. Gąsiorowski states “[i]t seems that
in the vocative case of PIE nouns the main stress was invariably word-initial even in those static
declensions that had paradigmatically enforced stress on some other syllable. This seems to mean
that PIE vocatives had a characteristic falling intonation”.
4.9.4. In the Plural system, Straight cases had the stress of the straight cases in the
singular, and the Obliques shared the stress of the Genitive, when it was opposed to the
Nom.-Acc; as in patṛbhós, pedmós, mātṛbhís, etc.
4.10. NUMBER DEVELOPMENTS: THE DUAL
4.10.1. While Singular and Plural are relatively fixed values, the dual has proven to be
unstable; it is found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Cel.
NOTE. Generally speaking, the rise and decline of the dual may be directly investigated in
individual IE languages, e.g. in Greek, in which the dual is a fixed component of the language,
while it is missing altogether in Ionic and Lesbian. The origins of the dual might be found in two
word types: the personal pronoun and terms for paired body parts (as ‘ears’, ‘eyes’, ‘breasts’, etc.).
It is uncertain whether the dual was an old category that gradually disappeared, or more likely a
recent (Late PIE) development that didn’t reach all IE dialects. See Meier-Brügger (2003).
4.10.2. The formations vary depending on the stems.
The Nom.-Acc.-Voc. is made:
• Stems in a: in -āi for ā; in -ī for ja/ī.

• Stems in o: Animate in -ōu (alternating -ō/-ōu); Inanimate in -oi.
• Stems in i, u: Animates and Inanimates in -ī, -ū.
• Consonant stems: in -e (not general).
NOTE. The endings are usually summed up as a common PIE *-h1(e), *-(i)h1.
The Obliques were still less generalized, the system being reconstructed as follows:
Gen. -ous, Dat.-Abl. -bhos/-mos, Loc. -ou, Ins. -bhis/-mis.

5. ADJECTIVES
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES
5.1.1. In Proto-Indo-European, the noun could be determined in three different ways:

with another noun, as in “stone wall”; with a noun in Genitive, as in “the father’s house”;
or with an adjective, as in “paternal love”. These are all possible in MIE too, but the
adjective corresponds to the third way, i.e., to that kind of words – possibly derived from
older Genitives – that are declined to make it agree in case, gender and number with the
noun they define.
5.1.2. The adjective is from the older stages like a noun, and even today Indo-European
languages have the possibility to make an adjective a noun (as English), or a noun an
adjective (stone wall). Furthermore, some words are nouns and adjectives as well:
wersis, male, can be the subject of a verb (i.e., a noun), and can determine a noun.
Most stems and suffixes are actually indifferent to the opposition noun/adjective. Their
inflection is common, too, and differences are usually secondary. This is the reason why
we have already studied the adjective declensions; they follow the same inflection as
nouns.
5.1.3. However, since the oldest reconstructible PIE language there were nouns
different from adjectives, as PIE wḷqos or pods, and adjectives different from nouns, as
rudhrós, solwos, etc. Nouns could, in turn, be used as adjectives, and adjectives be
nominalized.
NOTE. There were already in IE II some trends of adjective specialization, with the use of
suffixes, vocalism, accent, and sometimes inflection, which changed a noun to an adjective and
vice versa.
5.2. THE MOTION
5.2.1. In accordance with their use, adjectives distinguish gender by different forms in
the same word, and agree with the nouns they define in gender, number and case. This is
the Motion of the Adjective.
5.2.2. We saw in § 3.4 that there are some rare cases of Motion in the noun. Sometimes
the opposition is made between nouns, and this seems to be the older situation; as,
patḗr/mātḗr, bhrātēr/swesōr.
But an adjective distinguishes between masculine, feminine and neuter, or at least

between animate and neuter (or inanimate). This opposition is of two different kinds:
a. Animates are opposed to Inanimates by declension, and also vocalism and accent; as,
-os/-om, -is/-i, -nts/-nt, -ēs/-es.
b. The masculine is opposed to the feminine, when it happens, by the stem vowel; as, -
os/-ā, -nts/-ntja, -us/-wja.
The general system may be so depicted:
Animates Inanimates
Masculine Feminine Neuter
1. -os -ā -om
2. -is -is -i
3. -nts -ntja -nt
4. -ēs -ēs -es
5. -us -wja -u
NOTE. The masculine-feminine opposition is possibly new to Late PIE; IE II – as the Anatolian
dialects show – had probably only an Animate-Inanimate opposition. The existence of this kind of
adjectives is very important for an easy communication, because e.g. adjectives in ā are only
feminine (unlike nouns, which can also be masculine). An o stem adjective followed by an -s in
Nom. Sg. is animate or masculine, never feminine only, whilst there are still remains of feminine
nouns in -os.
5.2.3. Compare the following examples:
1. For the so-called thematic adjectives, in -os, -ā, -om, cf. somós, -, -óm, equal,
rudhrós, -, -óm, red, wolós, -, -óm, willing, kserós, -, -óm, dry, etc. But note the
root accent in newos, -ā, -om, new, solwos, -ā, -om, whole, kaikos, -ā, -om, blind,
lajos, -ā, -om, fat, etc.

5. Adjectives
NOTE. Most adjectives have o-stem, among them verbal adjectives and compound adjectives, cf.
diwós, heavenly, klutós, heard, famous. The corresponding feminine forms feature PIE ā.
2. For adjectives in -us, -wja/-wī, -u, cf. ēsús, -wjá, -ú, good, mṛghús, -wjá, -ú,
short, leghús, -wjá, -ú, light, ōkús, -wjá, -ú, swift. With root accent, cf. swādus, -
wja, -u (Southern IE swādús, -w, -ú), pleasant, mḷdus, -wja, -u, soft, tṇghus, -wja, -
u, fat, tṇus, -wja, -u, thin, tṛsus, -wja, -u, dry, dhṛsus, -wja, -u, bold, etc.
NOTE. On the original stress of PIE *swādus, see the so-called Erlangen School Ablaut system,
e.g. Lubotsky (1987) at <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/2667/1/299_021.pdf>
and Frazier (2006) at <http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/819-0406/819-FRAZIER-0-0.PDF>.
3. For adjectives in -is, -i, cf. grṇdhís, -í, grown, lēnis, -i, weak, moinis, -i, obliged,
muttis, -i, speechless, ṇwidis, -i, ignorant, etc.
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALIZATION
5.3.1. The specialization of adjectives from nouns is not absolute, but a matter of grade:
1. Stems in -nt are usually adjectives, but they were also assimilated to the verbal
system and became (Present) Participles.
2. Words in -ter are nouns, and adjectives are derived usually in -trjós and others.
3. Nouns in -ti have adjectives in -tjós, or -tikós, usually with an ethnic meaning.
4. Sometimes distinction is made with alternating vowels: neuters in -om and
adjectives in -ḗs, -és.
The accent is normally used to distinguish thematic nouns in -os with adj. in -ós
(mainly -tós, -nós).
NOTE. There are sometimes secondary processes that displace the accent from an adjective to
create a noun; cf. Gk. leukós, “white”, léukos, “white spot”. These correlations noun-adjective were
often created, but from some point onward the derivation of adjectives was made with suffixes like
-ment- (-went-), -jo-, -to-, -no-, -iko-, etc. There are, however, abundant remains of the old
identity between noun and adjective in Late PIE. For adjectival suffix -jo- and -ijo-, cf. istarniya-
‘central’ (<ištarna ‘between’), Ved. dámiya- ‘domestic’, gávya- ‘pertaining to cows’, Lat. ēgregius
‘outstanding’ (<ē grege ‘out of the herd’) etc. Other endings are dealt with as participles, v.i.
5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
5.4.1. In Proto-Indo-European, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison:

the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative.
171
5.4.2. The adjective in its natural or ‘positive’ state may be made comparative and
superlative by the addition of suffixes.
5.4.3. The Comparative, a difference of grade between two compared values, is
generally formed by adding the Primary Comparative suffix -jos- to the root; as, from
sen-os, sen-jos (Lat. senior), older, from mag-nos, mag-jos, bigger (Lat. maior), etc.
NOTE. The form -jos varies allophonically with -ijos, cf. new-jos, new-ijos, newer. According
to Meier-Brügger, “[*-ijs] replaces [*-jos] in nominative singular masculine and feminine forms
with the structure KV.K- and KVR.K-; whereas, according to rules of phonetics, *-jos- is expected
in forms with three or more syllables”.
The suffix -(t)er-o- is the basis for the Secondary Comparative forms; as, from upo,
up, upon, up-er-o- (cf. O.Ind. úpar-a-) beneath, nearer.
NOTE. The suffix -(t)ero- is the –o- adjective form of adverbs ending in -(t)ṛ and -(t)er; as,
sup, under, sup-er-, over, and sup-er-o-, found above; pro, at the front, forward, and pró-ter-
o-, toward the front, earlier. Adverbs and adjectives that were derived from them were capable of
marking relative contrast, e.g. in the case of opposites or selection from a pair; cf. from sem-, one,
sṃ-ter-o, the other of two in a unity, v.i.
5.4.4. The Superlative marks the highest grade among two compared values. The same
suffix (with the ablaut -is-) is the base for common PIE -is-tos,-is-ṃos; as, senistos,
oldest, magisṃos, biggest (Lat. maximus<*magisemos), newistos, newest, etc.
Superlative of the Secondary Comparative is made in -ṃo-; as, uper-ṃo-, súp-mos
(Lat. summus), from ṇdherós, underly, ṇdh-ṃos (Lat. infimus, Skr. ádhamas), from
entós, inside, ent-ṃos, (Lat. intimus), innermost.
NOTE. Dialectal Superlative suffixes include O.Ind. -tṃo- (cf. Skr. -tama-), and Gk. -tṃ-to- (cf.
Gk. tato); -ṃo- appears in other PIE adjectives, but it took usually the Superlative degree.
These suffixes -jo-, -tero-, and -is-to-, had probably an original nominal meaning.
NOTE. Thus, the elongations in -jos had a meaning; as in Latin, where iuniores (<*jun-jos-es)
and seniores (<*sen-jos-es) were used for groups of age; or those in -teros, as mātérterā ‘aunt on
the mother’s side’, ekwteros ‘mule’. Forms like *jun-jos-es were not common in PIE, although
indeed attested in different dialects; adjectival suffixes -jós, -istós are added to the root (in e-
grade) without the initial suffixes, while -teros and -ṃos are added with the suffixes. Cf. O.Ir. sír,
cp. sía<sējós, ‘longus, longior’; lán (plēnus cf. lín ‘numerus’), cp. lia<plējós (Lat ploios, Gk.
pléos); cf. Lat. ploirume, zero-grade Lat. maios, O.Ir. mía. So, for júwenos we find Umb. cp.

5. Adjectives
jovie<jowjē-s, O.Ir. óac ‘iuuenis’, óa ‘iunior’; óam ‘iuuenissimus’, O.Ind. yúva(n)- (yū́naḥ), cp.
yávīyas-, sup. yáviṣṭa-ḥ.
5.5. NUMERALS
5.5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERALS
Modern Indo-European Numerals may be classified as follows:
I. Numeral Adjectives:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, oinos, one; dwōu, two.
2. Ordinal Numbers, adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardinals, and
answering the question which in order? as, pr̅wos, first; ónteros, second.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, semli, one
at a time; dwisni, two by two.
II. Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often? as, dwis, twice, tris, thrice.
5.5.2. CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
1. These two series are as follows, from one to ten:
Cardinal Eng. Ordinal Eng.

1. oinos, oinā, oinom one pr̅wos, pr̅mos first
2. dwōu, dwāi, dwoi two ónteros (dwóteros) second
3. trejes, trja, trísores three tritjos third
4. qétwṛes four qétwṛtos fourth
5. penqe five penqtos fifth
6. s(w)eks six sekstos sixth
7. septṃ seven séptṃos seventh
8. oktōu eight oktowos eighth
9. newṇ nine néwṇos ninth
10 dekṃ ten dékṃtos, dékṃos tenth
NOTE 1. From root oi-, PII ai-kas (<*oi-k-os), CAn ei-kos, PGk oi-wos. For pr̅wos, first, cf.
O.Ind. pūrva-, O.C.S. prŭvŭ. For pr̅mos, cf. Gk.Dor. pratos (<*prā-wo-to<*prā-mo-), Lith.
pìrmas, O.Eng. forma, or Goth. fruma, Lat. prīmus (<*pri-isamos<*pr̅(w)isṃos, Pael. prismu).
173
NOTE 2. The Ordinals were formed by means of the thematic suffix -o-, which caused the
syllable before the ending to have zero grade. The newer suffix -to- was the most productive in
Late PIE. For internal reconstruction in PIH, Late PIE and early dialects, see Szemerényi (1970).
2. The forms from eleven to nineteen were usually formed by placing the number and
then dekṃ, ten. Hence Modern Indo-European uses the following system:
Cardinal Ordinal
11. óinodekṃ óinodekṃtos
12. dwṓdekṃ dwṓdekṃtos
13. tréjesdekṃ tréjesdekṃtos
14. qétwṛes-dekṃ qétwṛes-dékṃtos
15. penqe-dekṃ penqe-dékṃtos
16. seks-dekṃ seks-dékṃtos
17. septṃ-dekṃ septṃ-dékṃtos
18. oktōu-dekṃ oktōu-dékṃtos
19. newṇ-dekṃ newṇ-dékṃtos
NOTE. Eleven and twelve were already fossilized collocations in O.Lat., O.Ind. (áikadaķṃ),
O.Gk. (sémdekṃ); also Gmc. and BSl. óinoliqa, “one left”, dwṓliqa, “two left”, with ordinals
óinoliqtos, dwṓliqtos. For a frozen thirteen, cf. Skr. trayodaśa, Lat. trēdecim (<*trēsdecem).
3. The tens were normally formed with the units with lengthened vowel/sonant and a
general -kṃta (<*h1kṃth2<*dkṃth2?), “group of ten”.
Cardinal Ordinal
20. (d)wīkṃtī (d)wīkṃtṃos
30. trkṃta trkṃtṃos
40. qetwr̅kṃta qetwr̅kṃtṃos
50. penqḗkṃta penqḗkṃtṃos
60. sékskṃta sekskṃtṃos
70. septkṃta septkṃtṃos
80. oktṓkṃta oktṓkṃtṃos
90. newn̅kṃta newṇkṃtṃos
100. kṃtóm kṃtémtṃos

5. Adjectives
4. The hundreds are made as compounds of two numerals, like the tens, but without
lengthened vowel. The thousands are made of the numerals plus the indeclinable tū́sṇti:
Cardinal Ordinal
200. dwikṃtós dwikṃtémtṃos
300. trikṃtós trikṃtémtṃos
400. qetwṛkṃtós qetwṛkṃtémtṃos
500. penqekṃtós penqekṃtémtṃos
600. sekskṃtós sekskṃtémtṃos
700. septṃkṃtós septṃkṃtémtṃos
800. oktōkṃtós oktōkṃtémtṃos
900. newṇkṃtós newṇkṃtémtṃos
1000. smīghslī/tū́sṇtī smghslitos/tū́sṇtitos
2000. dwōu/dwāi/dwoi smīghslī/tū́sṇtī ónteros smghslitos/tū́sṇtitos
3000. trejes/trja/trísores smīghslī/tū́sṇtī tritjos smghslitos/tū́sṇtitos
4000 qétwṛes smīghslī/tū́sṇtī qétwṛtos
NOTE. For thousand, adj. smīghslī (<*sṃ-ih2+ghsl-ih2), cf. Lat. n. mille, (n. pl) mi(l)lia, Gk.
khīl(l)ioi (<*ghsl-i-o-), Gk. khīl(l)ioi, i-stems gh(e)sl-i- of ghesl-o-, as in PII sṃ-gheslo-m, cf.
Skr. n. sa-hásra-, Av. ha-zaŋra. For Eastern EIE tū́sṇtī, (<*tus-kṃt-i-?, “fat hundred”), cf. Gmc.
þūsund-i, pl. þūsundjōs Bal. tūksunt-i, O.Prus. tūsimtons, Toch. tumame, Sla. *tɨ̄ sǭt-j-ā.
5. The other numerals are made similar to the tens, with the units in first place; as,
oinā-wīkṃtī, f. twenty-one; m. qétwṛes-trīkṃta, thirty-four.
NOTE. For the simple type oinos-wīkṃtī, cf. Skr. éka-viṅśati (in compounds where the unit
could be inflected); with copulatives, cf. Lat. unus et uiginti, Bret. unan-warn-ugent, Ger.
einundzwanzig, Du. eenentwintig, Fris. ienentweintich, Da. enogtyve, etc.
Numbers beyond 100 usually have the copulative -qe; as, kmtóm qétwṛes-qe.
NOTE. The normal order of composite numerals is unit+tens, and there was a natural tendency
to follow a ‘unit+ten+hundred+…’, e.g. RV cátuḥ-śata- (<qetwṛes-kmtóm), one hundred and
four; nevertheless, an order ‘(large numbers)+hundred+unit-ten’ prevailed in all dialects, usually
with a copulative particle; as, śatám ekám ca (=kmtóm oinom-qe), one hundred and one.
Only the last member signals the ordinal; as, oinā-wīkṃtṃos, twenty-first,
trikṃtós trja-trkṃtṃos-qe, f. three hundred thirty-third.
175
NOTE. Cf. Skr. ékaviṅśa-, Lat. unus et vicensimus, Ger. einunzwanzigste, etc.
6. Numerals were often inserted as prefixes of possessive compound forms, cf. the type
Gk. tri-pod-, tripod. As first members, numbers 1-4 had a special zero-grade form: sṃ-,
one-; dwi-, two-, tri-, three-, and also q(a)tur-, four-.
5.5.3. DECLENSION OF CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
Of the Cardinals only oinos, dwōu, trejes (and dialectally qétwṛes), are declinable.
a. The declension of oinos, -ā, -om has often the meaning of certain, a, single, alone;
as, oinā dinā, a certain day. Also, as a simple numeral, to agree with a plural noun of
singular meaning. The plural occurs also in phrases like oinōs álterōs-qe, one party
and the other one (the ones and the others).
The root sem-, in semos, one, refers the unity as a whole, found in adj. somós, equal.
NOTE. Gk., Arm., Toch., show an old N. m. sems, A. sēm, N.-A. n. sem (G.-Ab. smes, D. smei,
L. sem(i), I. smē), and f. smja/ī (A. smja/īm, G.-Ab. smjās, D. smjāi, L. smjā(i), I. smjā).
c. The inflection of d(u)wōu, two, is irregular, connected to issues concerning the dual:
mas. fem. neu.

N.-A.-V. d(u)wōu d(u)wāi d(u)woi
GEN. dwous
DAT.-ABL. dwobhos/dwomos
LOC. dwou
INS. dwobhis/dwomis
NOTE. Apparently an older n./f. dwoi was separated into a newer Late PIE f. dwāi. Also, PIE
ambhōu, both, is inflected like dwōu.
c. The inflection of trejes, three, is mostly a regular i-stem one:
m. f. n.
NOM.-VOC. trejes trija/trī trísores
ACC. trins trijans/trīns trísores
GEN. trijom
DAT.-ABL. tribhos/trimos
LOC. trisu
INS. tribhis/trimis

5. Adjectives
d. smīghslī/tū́sṇtī, thousand, functions as an indeclinable neu. adjective:

smīghslī modōis, in a thousand ways; kom tū́sṇtī wīrṓis, with a thousand men.
dwāi smīghslī penqekṃtós trejesdekṃ-qe cenām, (Acc. f.) to 3513 women.
NOTE. PIE plural nouns neu. smīghslī/tū́sṇtī, are old abstract (collectives) in -ja/ī (<*-i-h2),
etymologically identical to neuter plurals in Nom.-Acc.-Voc. -a; therefore, unlike feminine nouns
of the first declension in -ja/ī (an innovation in Late PIE), their stems follow the old neuter plural
declension in i, of the same type as trja/trī (which is nevertheless a PIE feminine). As, specific
plural smīghslijom/tū́sṇtijom cenām, of thousands of women. From *sṃ-ih2-ghsl-ih2, giving
smīghslī, smīghslja, both Lat. *mīl(l)i and mīlia “might be postulated as free forms within the
same synchronic structure” J. Gvozdanović (1992) against a starting point *-ij (E. Hamp, 1968).
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the o and ā declensions, and are regularly declined.
6.3.2. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses:
a. Numbers 11-13 have no gender or flexion; as, m., f., n. óinodekṃ, dwṓdekṃ,
tréjesdekṃ; numbers above 20 have gender and flexion; as, f. oinā-sékskṃta, f.
dwāi-wīkṃtī, n. trísores-qetwr̅kṃta, n. oinom-wīkṃtī putlā, Acc. 21 children.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands first, the next
second, etc., and the ‘ten’ is last, as in German; as, smīghslī/tū́sṇtī septṃkṃtós
qetwṛes-sékskṃta-qe, 1764.
c. PIE had no special words for million, billion, trillion, etc. They were expressed by
multiplication. In MIE they are formed with common loan million, from Lat. mille, “one
thousand”; as, smīghsljōn, million, dwīghsljōn, billion, trīghsljōn, trillion, etc.
d. A common expression in PIE is the adverbial use of the accusative singular neuter of
the ordinal; as, pr̅wom, firstly; ónterom, secondly, etc.
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in
the denominator. The neuter is generally used for sustantivized ordinals, or the feminine
with noun ‘part’; as, n. dwōi séptṃā (or f. dwāi septṃāi pṛtes) two-sevenths; n.
trísores oktowā, three-eighths.
When the numerator is one, it is usually omitted: tritjom, one-third; qetwṛtom, one-
fourth, and so on.
NOTE. Indo-Iranian exhibits an old trend omit the parts in which it is divided, if only one is left;
as, dwāi pṛtes, two-thirds (“two parts”), trja pṛtes, three-fourths.
177
The compositional PIE sēmi-, half-, is combined with ordinals to express cardinals
plus half; as, sēmi-tritjos, two and a half, i.e. “having a half of the third (item)”.
NOTE. For MIE half, a loan from Lat. adj. dwismedhjos, noun dwismedhjom, “divided
medially”, could be used; however, proper forms meaning divided in two are reconstructed from
multiplicatives, v.i.
f. In Approximatives, the old disjunctive use of numerals was made by collocations of

adjacent cardinals in ascending order, e.g. penqe seks septṃ, five, six, or seven. In
MIE, a common IE penqe-septṃ (or penqe septṃ-we), six or seven, is also possible.
g. Time periods are made with compounds:
For years, as dwiatnjom, a period of two years, triatnjom, qetwṛatnjom,

smīghsliatnjom, millenium, etc.
For days, as dwidjówijom, a period of two days, tridjówijom, qetwṛdjówijom.
For months, as dwimēnstris, a period of two months, bimester, trimēnstris,

trimester, qetwṛmēnstris, seksmēnstris, semester, etc.
NOTE. For month names, a compound with mēns-riis followed; as, Septṃmēnsris,
september, Oktōmēnsris, october, etc.
5.5.4. DISTRIBUTIVES
1. Distributive Numerals are number words which express group membership. They are
used mainly in the sense of so many apiece or on each side, and also in multiplications.
They answer to the question how many of each? how many at a time?
2. The oldest formations are collocations of geminated cardinals, with both members
inflected; as, semos-semos, oinos-oinos, each one, penqe-penqe, each five, etc.
NOTE. For this kind of distributives, cf. Gk. tri tri, O.Ind., éka- eka-, Zor. Pahl. ēk ēk, Pers. das
das, Parth. Sogd. ‘yw ‘yw, Arm. tasn tasn, Toch. A sam sam, B ṣeme ṣeme, okt okt, ñu ñu; also in
Hittite iterated groups, in place of distributives, 1-aš 1-aš, 1-an 1-an. Even in nouns, cf. Lat. alteros
alterom, each other, O.Ind. díve díve, each day; Myc. we-te we-te, each year; etc. etc.
3. Some PIE distributives were formed with adj. suffix -(s)no-, and abstract/collective
suffix -ī; as, dwīsnī, two at a time, two each, trisnī, qátrusnī.
NOTE. For this formation e.g. dwīsnī, cf. Lat. bīnī, Gmc. *twiznaz (<dwisnōs, cf. O.N.
tvenner, O.H.G. zwirnēn, O.Eng. twīn, Du. twijn), Russ. dvójni, Lith. dvynù, Arm. krkin, Lyc.

5. Adjectives
kbisñni. Also, it is believed that oi-no- was originally the first member of that series (remember
dialectal oi-wos, oi-kos), meaning “singleness, unity”, before replacing sem-. Distributives for
higher numerals were later expressed in EIE languages using a word that meant ‘each’, as, Eng.
each, Fr. chaque, Alb. kaa, Bret. cach, etc.
4. Distributives can be used to express percentage; as, twenty percent, dekṃ-dekṃ

dwōu, “two for each ten”, kṃtóm-kṃtóm wīkṃtī, “twenty for each hundred”.
5.5.5. NUMERAL ADVERBS
1. The so-called Numeral Adverbs are a ditinctive class of adverbs which specifically
answer the question qoti, how many times? how often?
2. The most common ones are formed with zero-grade and a lengthening in -s; as,
semli, once, dwis, twice, tris, thrice, and qatrus (<*qətwṛ-s), four times.
NOTE. For EIE semli, cf. O.Lat. semol, Umb. sumel, Goth. simble, O.H.G. simlē, O.Ir. amal; for
the expected *sṃni-, maybe Hitt. šani. In PII, it is formed as sṃkŕt, from PIE -qṛt, v.i.; in PGk,
sṃ-pṇqus, alone, cf. Gk. hapaks, Hitt. pa-an-ku-uš, L. cūnctus. For the rest, e.g. tris, cf. Lat. ter,
Myc. ti-ri-se-roe (<Tris-(h)ḗrōhei), Gk. tris, O.Ind. triḥ, Goth. driror, O.Ir. thrí, Luv. tarisu, Lyc.
trisu. Higher numbers are found in Lat. and maybe behind Hitt. 3-iš, 10-iš, 20-iš, 30-iš, etc.
3. Some old compounds are also found in -ki.

NOTE. A certain reconstruction is nevertheless difficult; cf. Hitt. -an-ki, Gmc. zwis-ki, Gk. -ki,
Indian *-ki (cf. Sogd. -ky, Yaghnobi īki īki, “one by one, one each”, Chorasmian -c); maybe also in
Arm. erkics. Variant Gk. -kis, Hitt. -kis are probably due to an assimilation to the type dwis,
twice, twofold. For higher numbers, probably an innovation, cf. Greek numeral adverbs in -a-kis,
and Hittite in -an-ki, maybe from a common PIE *-ṇki.
4. A system of simple collocations is used, placing the cardinal number before a noun
meaning ‘time’; as, penqe qŕtewes, five times, oktōu qŕtewes, eight times, and so on.
NOTE. For m. qṛtus, time, cf. O.Ind. -kṛtwaḥ (<qŕt-wṇt-ṃ, see Hollifield 1984), Bal. *kar̃t-a-,
Sla. *kortŭ, O.Ir. cruth, O.Welsh pryd. For (rare) compounds, viz. *sṃ-kwṛt, ‘once’, cf. O.Ind. sa-
kṛt, Av. ha-kərət, also in Umb. trioper, ‘three times’, Osc. petiropert, ‘four times’.
5.5.6. MULTIPLICATIVES
1. Multiplicatives like single, double, triple, etc. which answer the question how many
fold?, had a variety of compounds for the first numerals.
179
3. The oldest PIE multiplicatives found were Collectives, made in -jo-, -t- and -k-; as,
óinokos, single, sole, unique, dwojós, two-fold, group of two, duad, trejós, three-fold,
triad, penqstís, group of five, dekḿts, group of ten, decade.
NOTE. For North-West common óinokos, cf. Gmc. *ainagas (cf. Goth ainahs, O.N. einga,
O.Eng. anga, O.Sax. enag, O.H.G. einac), O.C.S. inokŭ, Lat. unicus (<*oine-kos? or *oino-ikos?);
suffix -kois also found in O.Ind. -śáḥ, Gk. -kás, Hitt. -kaš. For PIE dwojós, cf. RV tvayá-, trayá,
Myc. duwojo-/dwojo-, Gk. doiós, O.H.G. zwī, g. zwīes, Lith. dvejì, trejì, O.C.S. dĭvojĭ, trojĭ, O.Ir.
trēode. Apart from -jo-, common PIE collectives are found in -t-, usually -ti-, as penq-s-tis,
group of five, fist, cf. O.Ind. paṇktí-, Av. sastí-, xsvasti-, O.C.S. pęstĭ, -tĭ, Lith. -t-, -ti-, Gmc.
funxstiz (cf. Goth. fūst) O.Ir. bissi, O.Welsh bys, but also -ts, as, dekḿ-ts, Gk. δεκάς, Lat.
*dekents>*dekients, spreading *j-ṇts as new formant, into Gk. πεντάς, then τριάς, etc. Lat.
*quinquens>quinquiens, then triēns, etc; cf. e.g. neuter plurals wīkṃtī (interpreted as dual), “a
group of two decades, double decads”, twenty, trīkṃta, “triple decads”, thirty, and so on.
4. Proportional or Relative numerals express how many times more (or less) one thing
is than another; they are made as follows:
a. in -plós, as sṃplós, simple, dwiplós, two-fold, double, twice as much, twice as
large, triplós, three-fold, triple.
NOTE. For dwi-plos, cf. Lat. duplus, Hom. Gk. f. acc. diplḗn (<dwi-pl-m) Umbr. dupla, Goth.
twei-fls, O.H.G. zvī-fal, “doubt”, O.Ir. dīabul, maybe Av. bi-fra-, “comparison”, Lyc. B dwiplẽ.
sṃ-plos is found in Gk. ἁ-πλός, Lat. simplus, tri-plos is found in Gk. τριπλοῦς, Lat. triplus, Umb.
tripler. For -plos (cf. Arm. -hal), a connection with PIE pel-, fold, is usually assumed.
b. in -pḷks, as, dwipḷks, “with two folds”, duplex, tripḷks, “with three folds”.
NOTE 2. For pḷk-, also reconstructed as from root pel-, cf. Lat. -plicare, Gk. plekō <*pl-ek, ‘to
fold’. For dwipḷks, cf. Lat. duplex, Gk. δίπλαξ, Umbr. tuplak.
c. with verbal adjective -pḷtós, folded, is used to denote something divided in n parts;
as, dwipḷtós, an object folded in two.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. -plasio-<*-platio-<*pḷt-jo-s, a derivative that could express ‘belonging to the
class of objects folded in two’ (Gvozdanović, 1992); maybe also here i-stem O.Ir. trilis<*tripḷtis?
For dwipḷtós, cf. Gk. διπλάσιος, Ger. zwifalt. A similar form is in Gmc. *poltos, fold.
d. with suffix -dhā, as dwidhā, two-fold, divided in two parts.

NOTE. cf. Skr. duví-dha, dve-dha, Gk. διχθά (<*δι-θα), and maybe also (with the meaning “half”)
O.N. twēdi, O.Eng. twǣde, O.H.G. zwitaran, O.Ir. dēde, Hitt. dak-ša-an.

6. PRONOUNS
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS
6.1.1. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are divided into the following
seven classes:
1. Personal Pronouns: as, egṓ, I.
2. Reflexive Pronouns: as, se, himself.
3. Possessive Pronouns: as, ṇserós, our.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, so, this, that.
5. Relative Pronouns: as, jos, who.
6. Interrogative Pronouns: as, qis? who?
7. Indefinite Pronouns: as, qis, anyone.
6.1.2. Pronouns have a special declension.
6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
6.2.1. The Personal pronouns of the first person are egṓ, I, wejes, we; of the second
person, tū, thou, juwes, you. The personal pronouns of the third person - he, she, it,
they - are wanting in Indo-European, an anaphoric (or even a demonstrative) being used
instead.
NOTE. IE III had no personal pronouns for the third person, like most of its early dialects. For
that purpose, a demonstrative was used instead; as, from ki, id, cf. Anatolian ki, Gmc. khi-, Lat.
cis-, id, Gk. ekeinos, Lith. sis, O.C.S. si, etc. It is this system the one used in Modern Indo-
European; although no unitary form was chosen in Late PIE times, the general pattern (at least in
the European or North-Western dialects) is obvious.
6.2.2. Since every finite verb form automatically indicates de ‘person’ of the verb, the
nominal pronoun forms are already adquately marked.
In comparison with the Orthotonic forms, often stregthened by particles, the special
Enclitic forms feature the minimal word stem and may be used in multiple cases.
6.2.3. The Personal (Non-Reflexive) Pronouns are declined as follows:

1st PERSON
Singular eg-, me- Plural we-, no-

Orthotonic Enclitic Orthotonic Enclitic
NOM. eg(h)óm, egṓ, I wejes, ṇsmés, we
ACC. mewóm, me me ṇsmé, nōns, us nos
GEN. mene, of me moi ṇseróm, of us nos
DAT. meghei, meghjom moi ṇsméi, nosbhos nos
LOC. mei ṇsmí, nosi
INS. mojo nosbhis
ABL. med ṇsméd
2nd PERSON
Singular tu-, te- Plural ju-, we-

Orthotonic Enclitic Orthotonic Enclitic
NOM. tū, tu, thou juwes, jusmés, you
ACC. tewóm, thee t(w)e jusmé, wōns, you wos
GEN. tewe; of thee t(w)oi wesróm, of you wos
DAT. tebhei, tebhjo t(w)oi jusméi, wosbhos wos
LOC. t(w)ei jusmí, wosi
INS. t(w)ojo wosbhis
ABL. t(w)ed jusméd
NOTE. 1) For 1st P. Nom. eghóm (<*egh2-óm), emphatic from egṓ (<*eg-óh2), cf. O.Ind. ahám,
Av. azəm, Hom.Gk. εγων, Ven. ehom. 2) Enclitics moi, mei, and t(w)oi, t(w)ei, are found in
Gen., Dat. and Loc., but they are deliberately specialized in this table. 3) 1st P. Dat. often found
reconstructed as mebhi/mebhei, following the 2nd P. tebhei/tebhi. 4) -es endings in Nom. pl.,
ṇsmés, (j)usmés (<*juswés?) attested in Att.-Ion. Gk. and Gothic. 5) An older ju(s)wes is
behind the generally reconstructed Nom. jūs. 6) Zero-grade forms in jus- are also found as us-
(from wes-? cf. Goth. izwis<*uswes?). 7) Possibly Accusatives jusmé<*jusmēn<*jusmens, and
ṇsmé<*ṇsmēn<*ṇsmens. 8) Probably Acc. Pl. *nos-m-s→nōns and *wos-m-s→wōns. 8) Gen.
nsom, wsom, is also attested. 9) Osc.-Umb., O.Ind. variant (orthotonic) series of Acc. Sg. in -
m, as mēm(e), twēm, tewem, usóm, s(w)ēm. Dual forms (in *-h1) are in Nom. for the 1st P. wē
or nō, for the 2nd P. wō. For detailed etymologies, see Appendix III.2.3 or online at <dnghu.org>.

6. Pronouns
For the Personal Pronouns of the third person singular and plural, the anaphoric i- is
used. See §6.5 for more details on its use and inflection.
a. The plural wejes is often used for the singular egṓ; the plural juwes can also be so
used for the singular tū. Both situations happen usually in formal contexts.
b. The forms nseróm, wesróm, etc., can be used partitively:
óinosqisqe ṇseróm, each one of us.
wesróm oljom, of all of you.
c. The genitives mene, tewe, ṇseróm, wesróm, are used objectively:
es mnāmōn ṇseróm, be mindful of us.
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
6.3.1. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the accusative and the oblique cases to refer to the
subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; as, se lubhḗjeti, he/she loves
himself/herself; sewe bhāmi, I talk about (of) me, and so on.
a. In the first and second persons, the oblique cases of the personal pronouns were later
commonly used as Reflexives: as, me widējō for se widējō, I see myself; nos
perswādḗjomos for se perswādḗjomos, we persuade ourselves, etc.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used only in this sense,
the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined:
se, -self
ACC. se, myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

GEN. sewe, soi, of myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
DAT. sebhei, soi, to myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
LOC. sei, in/with myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
ABL. swed, by/from/etc. myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
NOTE. Particular IE languages show an old swoi and swe, cf. Gk. Lesb. ϝε. According to J.T.
Katz precisely this swe is regarded as ancient and se as secondary. In contrast, G.E. Dunkel
connects se/soi, which he considers more ancient, with the demonstrative pronoun so.
183
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
6.4.1. From the bases of the personal pronouns, the oldest Possessive Pronouns seem to
have been (e)mos, mine, ṇsmós, ours, t(e)wos, thine, usmós, yours, s(e)wos.
NOTE. So e.g. in Gk. emós (<emós), ammos, sós, ummos, hos, Av. ma-, θwa-, O.Ind. tva-.
Variants exist in twos/tewós (as Gk. teϝós, Lat. tuus), swos/sewós (as Gk. heϝós, Lat. suus).
6.4.2. The common Late PIE Possessives were formed from the same bases with
suffixes -(i)join the singular, -(t)ero- in the plural; as, méwijos, menjos, my,
ṇserós, our, téwijos, thy, userós, your, séwijos.
NOTE. For such common PIE forms, similar to the genitives of the personal pronouns (v.s.), cf.
Gk. ēméteros (<ṇsmé-tero-), uméteros (<usmé-tero-), O.Lat. noster (<nos-tero-) uoster (<wos-
tero-), Goth. unsara-, (<ṇs-ero-), izwara- (<wesw-ero-?), etc. all used as possessive pronouns; for
the singular, cf. Lat. meus, O.C.S. mojĭ, Goth meina-, etc. O.Ind. madīya-, tvadīya, etc. were
formed from the ablatives mad, tvad, etc., while possessives mamaka-, asmāka-, jusmāka-, were
made from the genitives. See Szemerényi (1970), Adrados (1998), Meier-Brügger (2003).
6.4.3. Possessives are declined like adjectives of the first type, in -os, -ā, -om.
NOTE. PIE s(e)wos, séwijos, are only used as reflexives, referring to the subject of the
sentence. For a possessive of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a
demonstrative (anaphoric) must be used. Thus, paterṃ séwijom chenti, (he/she/it) kills his
[own] father; but paterṃ esjo chenti, (he/she/it) kills his [somebody (m.) else’s] father.
6.4.4. Other forms are the following:

a. A possessive qosjos, -ā, -om, whose, is formed from the genitive singular of the
relative or interrogative pronoun qo- (v.i.). It may be either interrogative or relative in
force according to its derivation, but is usually the former.
b. The Reciprocals one another, each other, were expressed like the distributives (v.s.);
as, oinos oinos, álteros álteros, aljos aljos, onjos onjos, etc. For example,
álteros álterosjo prō autons énkonti, they drive each other’s cars (one drives the
car of the other),
aljōs aljons lubhḗjonti, they love each other (the ones love the others).
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. ‘1-aš 1-an ku-w-aš-ki-it’, “one killed the other continuously”, O.Ind. anyonya-,
Av. aniiō.aniia-, Chor. nywny, Lat. alterius alterum; oinos álterom, as in Latin unus alterum,
Eng. one another, Ger. einander, etc. Reciprocity is one of the principal meanings of middle voice

6. Pronouns
forms in Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, and also in Latin -r forms, therefore assumed to have been
inherited from the proto-language (cf. Hirt 1934, Georgiev 1935). For mutually, each other,
reciprocally, an adv. mistós (<*mit-to-), Ø-grade from meit-, change, exists; cf. O.Ind. mithás,
Goth. missō, Lat. mūtuum, O.Ir. mis-, mith, Bal. *meit-u-, O.C.S. мьсть, mьstā; e.g. Goth. ‘ni
liugid iswis misso’, “do not lie to one another”.
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS
6.5.1. Anaphora is an instance of an expression referring to another, the weak part of

the deixis. In general, an anaphoric is represented by a pro-form or some kind of deictic.
They usually don’t have adjectival use, and are only used as mere abbreviating
substitutes of the noun.
NOTE. Old anaphorics are usually substituted in modern IE dialects by demonstratives.
They are usually integrated into the pronoun system with gender; only occasionally
some of these anaphorics have been integrated into the Personal Pronouns system in
Indo-European languages.
6.5.2. Modern Indo-European has a general Anaphoric pronoun, is, ja, id, an old
demonstrative pronoun with basis on PIE root i- with ablaut ei-.
NOTE. PIE root i- is also the base for common PIE relative jo-. Demonstrative is, ja/ī, id, with
anaphoric value, “he/she/it”, in Italic (e.g. Lat. is, ea, id), Germanic (e.g. O.H.G. ir, er/iz, ez),
Baltic (e.g. Lith. jìs/jì), Greek (e.g. Cypriot ín), Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skr. ay-ám, iy-ám, i-d-ám).
6.5.3. The other Demonstrative pronoun, so, sā, tod, functions as anaphoric too, but
tends to appear leading the sentence, being its origin probably the relative. They are also
used for the second term in comparisons.
NOTE. Demonstrative so, sā, tod is also widely attested in Celtic (e.g. O.Ir. -so/-d), Italic (e.g.
Lat. is-te, is-ta, is-tud), Germanic (e.g. Goth. sa, sō, þata, O.Eng. sē, sēo, þæt, O.H.G. der, die,
daz), Baltic (e.g. Lith. tàs, tà), Slavic (e.g. O.C.S. tŭ, ta, to), Alb. ai, ajo, Gk. ho, hē, tó, Indo-Iranian
(e.g. Skr. sá, s, tát), Toch B se, sā, te, Arm. ay-d, Hitt. ta. Modern IE languages have sometimes
mixed both forms to create a single system, while others maintain the old differentiation.
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
6.6.1. The function of Demonstrative pronouns, deixis, includes an indication of

position in relation to the person speaking. It is possible to express a maximum of four
(generally three) different degrees of distance; as, I-deixis (here, near the speaker), thou-
185
deixis (there, near the person addressed), that-deixis (there, without a particular spatial
reference), yonder-deixis (yonder, over there).
6.6.2. The Demonstrative Pronouns so, this, that, and is, this one, that one, “the (just
named)”, are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either
with nouns, as Adjectives, or alone, as Pronouns, and are so declined:
so, sā, tod, this, that
Singular Plural
m. n. f. m. n. f.
NOM. so sā toi tāi
tod tā
ACC. tom tām tons tāns
GEN. tosjo tesjās toisom tāsom
DAT. tosmōi tesjāi toibhos/toimos tābhos/tāmos
LOC. tosmi tesjāi toisu tāsu
INS. toi tesjā tōis tābhis/tāmis
ABL. tosmōd tesjās toibhos/toimos tābhos/tāmos
NOTE. Different variants are observed in the attested dialects: 1) Nom. so is also found as sos
in Old Indian, Greek and Gothic, and as se in Latin (cf. Lat. ipse). 2) Nom. sā is found as sja/sī in
Gothic and Celtic. 3) Nom. Pl. tāi is general, while sāi is restricted to some dialects, as Attic-Ionic
Greek, possibly (Meier-Brügger) from original f. *tā and m. *to. However, linguists like Beekes or
Adrados reconstruct the Nominative form in s- as the original Proto-Indo-European form. 4) The
Instrumental singular forms are difficult to reconstruct with the available data.
is, ja, id, this one, that one
Singular Plural
m. n. f. m. n. f.
NOM. is ja/ī ejes jās
id ī/ja
ACC. im jam/īm ins jāns
GEN. esjo esjās eisom
DAT. esmōi esjāi eibhos/eimos
LOC. esmi esjāi eisu
INS. ei esjā eibhis/eimis
ABL. esmōd esjās eibhos/eimos

6. Pronouns
NOTE. Some emphatic forms exist; as, ejóm for is, idóm for id; ijóm for ja.
6.6.2. Distance degrees in Demonstratives might be classified as follows: kos, kā, kod
(also ghei-ke, ghāi-ke, ghod-ke), I-deixis, “this here”, oisos, oisā, oisom, thou-
deixis, “this there”, general so, tod, sā, that-deixis; elne, elnā, elnod, yonder-deixis.
6.6.3. Deictic particles which appear frequently with demonstrative pronouns include -
ke/-ko-, here; -ne-/-no-, there; -wo-, away, again.
NOTE. For PIE i-, se-, he, cf. Lat. is, O.Ind. saḥ, esaḥ, Hitt. apā, Goth. is, O.Ir. (h)í; for (e)ke,
ghei-(ke), se-, te-, this (here), cf. Lat. hic (<*ghe-i-ke), Gk. ουτος, O.Ind. ay-am, id-am, esaḥ,
Hitt. kā, eda (def.), Goth. hi-, sa(h), O.Ir. sin, O.Russ. сей, этот; for oi-se, is-te, ene, this
(there), cf. Lat. iste, Gk. οιος (<*oihos), O.Ind. enam (clit.); for el-ne, that, cf. Lat. ille (<el-ne),
ollus (<ol-nos), Gk. εκεινος, O.Ind. a-sau, u-, Goth. jains. Common derivatives kei, here (Loc.
from ke), num-ke, now (from nū, now), or i-dhei, there, tom-ke, then (from tom, then). See
Appendix III.2.2 for more information.
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
6.7.1. INTRODUCTION
1. There are two forms of the Interrogative-Indefinite Pronoun in Modern Indo-

European, and each one corresponds to a different class in our system, qi- (with ablaut
qei-) to the Substantive, and qo- to the Adjective pronouns.
SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE
qis bhéreti? who carries? qos wīrós bhéreti? what man carries?
qid widḗjesi? what do you see? qom autom widḗjesi? which car do you see?
NOTE. In the origin, qi-/qo- was possibly a noun which meant “the unknown”, and its
interrogative/indefinite sense depended on the individual sentences. Later both became pronouns
with gender, thus functioning both as (orthotonic) interrogatives or (enclitic) indefinites
(Szemerényi, 1970). The form qi- is probably the original independent form (compare the degree
of specialization of qo-, further extended in IE dialects), for which qo- could have been originally
the o-grade form (Beekes 1995, Adrados 1998). The Substantive Interrogative pronoun in PIE was
qi-, whereas qo- was used to fill adjectival functions (Meier-Brügger, 2003), hence MIE
Substantive-qi and Adjective-qo. Some IE dialects have chosen the o-stem only, as Germanic,
while some others have mixed them together in a single paradigm, as Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic or
187
Italic. Cf. Gmc. khwo- (cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe, O.E. hwā, Dan. hvo, O.Fris. hwa,
O.H.G. hwër), Lat. qui, quae, quod; quis, quid, Osc. pisi, Umb. púí, svepis, Gk. tis, Sktr. kaḥ, Av.
ko, O.Pers. čiy, Pers. ki, Phryg. kos, Toch. kus/kŭse, Arm. ov, inč’, Lith. kas, Ltv. kas, O.C.S. kuto,
Rus. kto, Pol. kto, O.Ir. ce, cid, Welsh pwy, Alb. kush, Kam. kâča; in Anatolian, compare Hitt. kuiš,
Luw. kui-, Lyd. qi-, Lyc. tike, and Carian kuo.
2. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun qis? who?, qid? what?, is declined like i-:
Singular Plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
NOM. qis qejes
qid qī/qja
ACC. qim qins
GEN. qesjo qeisom
DAT. qesmei qeibhos/qeimos
LOC. qesmi qeisu
INS. qī qeibhis/qeimis
ABL. qesmōd qeibhos/qeimos
NOTE. PIE -qe, and, is derived from this root and was originally a modal adverb meaning “as,
like”; e.g. patḗr mātḗr-qe, father like mother. Szemerényi (1970). Similarly, jois probably
behind Hit. -ya.
3. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qos? qā? who (of them)?, qod? what kind of?
what one?, is declined throughout like the Relative:
Singular Plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
NOM. qos qā qoi qās
qod qā
ACC. qom qām qons qāns
GEN. qosjo qoisom
DAT. qosmōi qoibhos/qoimos
LOC. qosmi qoisu
INS. qoi qoibhis/qoimis
ABL. qosmōd qoibhos/qoimos

6. Pronouns
4. The Indefinite Pronouns qi-/qo-, any one, any, are declined like the corresponding
Interrogatives.
SUBSTANTIVE qis, anyone; qid, anything
ADJECTIVE qos, qā, qod, any
5. PIE had other interrogative or relative particle, me-/mo-.

NOTE. It survived in Celtic (e.g. Bret ma, may, “that”), Anatolian (Hit. masi, “how much”), and
Tocharian (Toch. A mänt, “how”).
6.7.2. COMPOUNDS
1. The pronouns qi- and qo- appear in different combinations:
a. The forms can be repeated, as in substantive qisqis, anyone, qidqid, anything, or

adjective qāqos, qāqā, qāqod, whoever.
NOTE. For this use, similar to the distributive ones, e.g. EIE qāqos, whoever, Gaul. papon, O.Ir.
cāch, O.C.S. kakй, Lith. kók(i)s, and also Gk. εκατερος, εκαστος, O.Ind. pratieka, Hitt. kuissa,
Goth. ainhvaþaruh; for qisqis, anyone, cf. Gk. τις, οστις, O.Ind. kim kid, kacit, kaścana, kopi,
Hitt. kuis kuis, kuis-as kuis, Lat. quisquis, quīlĭbĕt, quīvis, Goth. hvazuh, hvarjizuh, Arm. in-č.
Other common PIE forms include (sol)wos, all, cf. Gk. ολοι, O.Ind. visva, sarva, Hitt. hūmant-,
O.Ir. u(i)le; enis, certain, cf. Gk. ενιαυτον, O.Ind. ekaścana Lat. quīdam; álteros, ónteros, the
other, from aljos, onjos, some other, etc.
b. In some forms the copulative conjunction -qe is added to form new pronouns,
usually universals; as, qiskomqe, qisimmoqe, whoever. Indefinites itaqe, and also,
toqe, also, joqe, and.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. τις αν, τις εαν, O.Ind. yaḥ kaś cit, yo yaḥ, yadanga, Hitt. kuis imma, kuis imma
kuis, kuis-as imma (kuis), Lat. quiscumque, Goth. sahvazuh saei, Ger. wer auch immer, O.Ir. cibé
duine, Russ. кто бы ни;
c. Some forms are made with prefixes, like (substantive) edqis, some(one) among
many, edqid, something, (adjective) edqos, edqā, edqod, whether, some. Other forms
with suffixes; as, qéjespejoi, some.
189
NOTE. For (ed)qis, cf. Gk. τις, O.Ind. anyatama, Hitt. kuis ki, Lat. ecquis, quis, aliquis, Goth.
hvashun, Russ. edvá, O.Ir. nech, duine. For qéjespejoi cf. Gk. οιτινες, O.Ind. katipaya, Hitt. kuis
ki, Russ. несколько.
d. The negatives are usually composed with negation particles, usually ne; as, neqis,
nobody, neqid, nothing, neqom, never; but neqos, someone.
NOTE. For neqis, nobody, no one, cf. Gk. ουδεις, O.Ind. na kaḥ, Hitt. UL kuiski, Goth. (ni)
hvashun, Gaul. nepon, O.Ir. ní aon duine, Lat. nec quisquam, Russ. никто.
e. It is also found as in compound with relative jo-; as, josqis, anyone, jodqid,
anything, cf. Gk. hóstis hótti, Skr. yás cit, yác cit.
f. With identity or oppositive forms; as, qidpe, indeed, aljodhei, elsewhere.
2. There are compounds with numerals; as, ghei-sem, exactly so, in this one way.
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. ki-ššan, ‘thus, in the following way’, from ghei-sem, “in this one way, exactly
so”, also found in eni-ššan, ‘thus, in the manner mentioned’, apeni-ššan, ‘thus, in that way’, etc.
For ne-oinom, “no one”, none, not any, cf. Eng. none, Ger. nein, maybe Lat. nōn. Also, Latin loan
nūllus (<ne-oinolos, “not any”), none, null.
3. Reflexives are found in jota sei, alike, nearly, sweike, thus, swāi, so, etc.
6.7.3. CORRELATIVES
1. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs have corresponding

demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite forms in Proto-Indo-European.
Such parallel forms are called Correlatives, and some are shown in the following table:
Demonstrative Relative Interrogative

so, sā, tod jos, jā, jod qis? qid?, qos? qā? qod?
this, that who, which who?, what? which?
ita jota qota?
so so how?
tālis jālis qālis?
so constituted as of what sort?
tām jām qām?
that way which way how, in what way?

6. Pronouns
tom, tod jom qom? qod?

then when when?
idhei, tor jodhei qor? qodhei?
here, there where where?
toi joi qoi?qote?
thither whither whither?
totrōd jomde qomde? qotrōd?
from there wherefrom from which?
totjos jotjos qotjos?
so many as many how many?
toti joti qoti?
so often as often how often?
twṇtos jwṇtos qwṇtos?
so much/large as much/large how much/large?
to(s)jos josjo qosjos?
of whom/which whose pertaining to whom/what?
íteros jóteros qóteros?
(an)other which (of two) which (of two)?
tori jori qori?
therefore wherefore why?
NOTE. Latin (c)ibī, (c)ubī is frequently reconstructed as a conceivable PIE *ibhi, *qobhi, but it is
not difficult to find a common origin in PIE i-dhei, qo-dhei for similar forms attested in different
IE dialects; cf. Lat. ubī, Osc. puf, O.Ind. kuha, O.Sla. kude, etc. Relative forms in italics are
reconstructed following the general paradigm; some relatives were made with the interrogative
qo-, mainly used with this value in Anatolian and Northern IE, especially in the Western core; as,
int. qām? how, in what way? and rel. qām, which way, cf. Lat. quam, Arm. k’an, v.i. For more
information, see Appendix III.2.1 and <http://dnghu.org/indoeuropean_pronouns.pdf>.
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
6.8.1. There are two general pronominal stems used as relative pronouns, one related to
the anaphorics (jo-), and one to the interrogative-indefinites (qi-/qo-).
191
NOTE. The interrogative pronoun is also used as indefinite in all IE languages. In some it is used
additionally as relative, without differentiation in Anatolian, with it in Italic (e.g. Lat. quo-
opposed to quis), Tocharian, later Celtic and Germanic; the other group, comprising Aryan, Greek,
Phrygian and Slavic kept using the PIE relative pronoun jo- (<*Hjo-), from the anaphoric root i-;
cf. Gk. hós, hē, ho, Skr. yás, yā, yad, Av. ya-, Phryg. ios, Sla. i-že, Cel. io, Goth ja-bai, maybe Hitt.
ya, Toch. A yo. Despite Szemerényi (1970), who considers it mainly a Southern innovation, only
Proto-Italic shows no traces of the common PIE relative, and because of that it is generally
considered lost in that branch, not an innovation of the others; hence its specialized use in MIE.
Relatives qi-/qo- are found in Anat., Bal., Toch., Lat. and Gmc. It is used for indirect
interrogatives, cf. O.H.G. ni weistu hwaz ih sagen thir, ‘you don’t know what I say to you’; and for
indefinites, cf. Lat. pecuniam quis nancitor habeto, ‘fortune, who acquires it own it’.
6.8.2. MIE general Relative Pronoun jos, jā, jod, the o-stem derivative from i-, is
inflected like so, sā, tod.
6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS
6.9.1. Identity pronouns are those generally called intensifiers or emphatic pronouns,
expressions like Eng. ‘x-self’ (himself, herself, myself, oneself, etc.), Ger. selbst, selber,
Lat. ipse, Ita. stesso or Russ. sam.
Proto-Indo-European formations that function as identity pronouns stem from a

common epe, self; as, se epse, s(w)el (e)pe, -self.
NOTE. cf. Hitt. apāsila, O.Lat. sapsa, sumpse, ipse, Goth. silba, O.Ir. fessin, fadessin (>féin),
Russ. сам.
6.9.2. Oppositive pronouns are usually derived from suffix -tero-; as, qóteros? which
of two? íteros, another, álteros, the other one, próteros, first (of two).
NOTE. For qóteros, cf. Lat uter, O.Eng. hwæðer (Eng. whether), Lith kataràs, OCS koteryjĭ,
Gk. póteros, Skr. katará-; from this word is common Latin loan ‘neuter’, MIE neqóteros,
“neither one nor the other”. For sṇterí, missing, cf. Gmc. *sun-dr- (e.g. Ger. sonder), Gk ατερ,
O.Ind. sanutar, from sṇi, apart, cf. Lat. sine, “without”, O.Sla. svene, O.Ir. sain, “different”.
6.9.3. Adjectival pronouns include identity as well as oppositive pronouns; as, somós,
the same, or aljos, onjos, the other.
NOTE. Such nominal forms, properly categorized as vaguely belonging to the field of pronuns,
receive pronominal inflection. For adj. somós, equal, same, cf. Gmc. *samaz, Gk. ὁμός, ὁμοῦ,
ὁμαλός, Skr. samaḥ, Av. hama, O.C.S. самъ, O.Ir. som.

7. VERBS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.1.1. VOICE, MOOD, TENSE, PERSON, NUMBER
1. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
2. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, Tense, Person and
Number.
3. The Voices are two: Active and Middle (or Middle-Passive).
4. The Moods were up to five: Indicative (plain statement of objective fact) and
Imperative (commands) are the oldest ones, while the Optative (intentions or hoped for
action) is from Late PIE, and still more recent the Subjunctive (potentiality, possibility);
an Injunctive (perhaps mild commands or prohibitions) is also reconstructed.
5. The General Tenses are three, viz.:
a. The Present.
b. The Past or Preterite.
c. The Future.
NOTE. The Future Stem is generally believed to have appeared in Late PIE, not being able to
spread to some dialects before the general split of the proto-languages; the distinction between a
Present and a Future tense, however, is common to all IE languages.
6. The Aspects were up to three:
a. For continued, not completed action, the Present.
b. For the state derived from the action, the Perfect.
c. For completed action, the Aorist.

NOTE 1. There is some confusion on whether the Aorist (from Gk. αοριστος, “indefinite or
unlimited”) is a tense or an aspect. This reflects the double nature of the aorist in Ancient Greek.
In the indicative, the Ancient Greek aorist represents a combination of tense and aspect: past
tense, perfective aspect. In other moods (subjunctive, optative and imperative), however, as well
as in the infinitive and (largely) the participle, the aorist is purely aspectual, with no reference to
any particular tense. Modern Greek has inherited the same system. In Proto-Indo-European, the
aorist was originally just an aspect, but before the split of Late PIE dialects it was already spread as
a combination of tense and aspect, just as in Ancient Greek, since a similar system is also found in
Sanskrit.
NOTE 2. The original meanings of the past tenses (Aorist, Perfect and Imperfect) are often
assumed to match their meanings in Greek. That is, the Aorist represents a single action in the
past, viewed as a discrete event; the Imperfect represents a repeated past action or a past action
viewed as extending over time, with the focus on some point in the middle of the action; and the
Perfect represents a present state resulting from a past action. This corresponds, approximately, to
the English distinction between “I ate”, “I was eating” and “I have eaten”, respectively. Note that
the English “I have eaten” often has the meaning, or at least the strong implication, of “I am in the
state resulting from having eaten”, in other words “I am now full”. Similarly, “I have sent the
letter” means approximately “The letter is now (in the state of having been) sent”. However, the
Greek, and presumably PIE, perfect, more strongly emphasizes the state resulting from an action,
rather than the action itself, and can shade into a present tense.
In Greek the difference between the present, aorist and perfect tenses when used outside of the
indicative (that is, in the subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive and participles) is almost
entirely one of grammatical aspect, not of tense. That is, the aorist refers to a simple action, the
present to an ongoing action, and the perfect to a state resulting from a previous action. An aorist
infinitive or imperative, for example, does not refer to a past action, and in fact for many verbs
(e.g. “kill”) would likely be more common than a present infinitive or imperative. In some
participial constructions, however, an aorist participle can have either a tensal or aspectual
meaning. It is assumed that this distinction of aspect was the original significance of the Early PIE
“tenses”, rather than any actual tense distinction, and that tense distinctions were originally
indicated by means of adverbs, as in Chinese. However, it appears that by Late PIE, the different
tenses had already acquired a tensal meaning in particular contexts, as in Greek, and in later Indo-
European languages this became dominant.
The meanings of the three tenses in the oldest Vedic Sanskrit, however, differs somewhat from
their meanings in Greek, and thus it is not clear whether the PIE meanings corresponded exactly
to the Greek meanings. In particular, the Vedic imperfect had a meaning that was close to the
Greek aorist, and the Vedic aorist had a meaning that was close to the Greek perfect. Meanwhile,
the Vedic perfect was often indistinguishable from a present tense (Whitney 1924). In the moods
other than the indicative, the present, aorist and perfect were almost indistinguishable from each
other. The lack of semantic distinction between different grammatical forms in a literary language
often indicates that some of these forms no longer existed in the spoken language of the time. In

7. Verbs
fact, in Classical Sanskrit, the subjunctive dropped out, as did all tenses of the optative and
imperative other than the present; meanwhile, in the indicative the imperfect, aorist and perfect
became largely interchangeable, and in later Classical Sanskrit, all three could be freely replaced
by a participial construction. All of these developments appear to reflect changes in spoken Middle
Indo-Aryan; among the past tenses, for example, only the aorist survived into early Middle Indo-
Aryan, which was later displaced by a participial past tense.
7. There are four IE Verbal Stems we will deal with in this grammar:
I. The Present Stem, which gives the Present with primary endings and the Imperfect
with secondary endings.
II. The Aorist Stem, always Past, with secondary endings, giving the Aorist, usually in
zero-grade, with dialectal augment and sometimes reduplication.
III. The Perfect Stem, giving the Perfect, only later specialized in Present and Past.
IV. The Future Stem, an innovation of Late PIE.

NOTE. From the point of view of most scholars, then, from this original PIE verbal system, the
Aorist merged with the Imperfect Stem in Balto-Slavic, and further with the Perfect Stem in
Germanic, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian dialects. The Aorist, meaning the completed action, is then
reconstructed as a third PIE tense-aspect, following mainly the findings of Old Indian, Greek, and
also – mixed with the Imperfect and Perfect Stems – Latin.
8. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
9. The Numbers in Modern Indo-European are two: Singular and Plural, and it is the
only common class with the name. It is marked very differently, though.
NOTE. The reconstructed Dual, as in nouns, whether an innovation or (unlikely) an archaism of
Late Proto-Indo-European dialects, is not systematized in MIE, due to its limited dialectal spread
and early disappearance
7.1.2. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS
1. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the
Indo-European Verb:
A. Verbal Nouns existed in Proto-Indo-European, but there is no single common

prototype for a PIE Infinitive, as they were originally nouns which later entered the
195
verbal conjugation and began to be inflected as verbs. There are some successful
infinitive endings, though, that will be later explained.
NOTE 1. It is common to most IE languages that a special case-form (usually dative or

accusative) of the verbal nouns froze, thus entering the verbal inflection and becoming infinitives.
Although some endings of those successful precedents of the infinitives may be reproduced with
some certainty for PIE, the (later selected) dialectal case-forms may not, as no general pattern is
found.
NOTE 2. A common practice in Proto-Indo-European manuals (following the Latin tradition) is

to name the verbs conjugated in first person present, e.g. esmi, I am, for the verb es-, to be, or
bherō (probably from an older Athematic bhermi), I carry, for the verb bher-, to carry.
B. The Participles are older adjectives which were later included in the verbal
inflection.
I. The oldest known is the Present Participle, in -nt-.
II. The Perfect Participle, more recent, shows multiple endings, as -wes-/-wos-.
III. Middle Participles, an innovation in Late PIE, end in -meno-, -mṇo-; and also
some in -to-, -no-, -lo-, -mo-, etc.
C. The Gerund and the Absolutive, not generalized in Late PIE, indicated possibility
or necessity.
2. The Participles are used as follows:
A. The Present Participle has commonly the same meaning and use as the English
participle in -ing; as, bheronts, calling, sont, being.
NOTE. Some questions about the participles are not easily conciled: in Latin, they are formed
with e ending for stems in -i-; in Greek, they are formed in o and are consonantal stems. Greek, on
the other hand, still shows remains of the thematic vowel in participles of verba vocalia -ājont-, -
ējont-, etc. Latin doesn’t.
B. The Perfect Participle has two uses:
I. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle; as, tegtós,

sheltered, klaustós, closed, and often has simply an adjective meaning.
II. It is used with the verb es-, to be, to form the static passive; as, gnōtós esti, it is
known.

7. Verbs
NOTE. The static passive is a new independent formation of many Indo-European dialects, not
common to Late PIE, but a common resource of North-West Indo-European, easily loan translated
from Romance, Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages into Modern Indo-European as auxiliary
verb to be + perfect participle.
C. The Gerundive is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or

propriety (ought or must); as, awisdhíjendhos esti, he must be heard.
NOTE. The verb is usually at the end of the sentence, as in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit. In Hittite,
it is behind the particles (up to seven in succession). In Old Irish it was either at the beginning of
the sentence or in second place after a particle. For more on this, see PIE Syntax.
7.1.3. VOICES
1. In grammar, Voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a verb
and its arguments. When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to
be in the Active. When the subject is the patient or target of the action, it is said to be in
the Passive.
2. The Active and Middle (or Mediopassive) Voices in Modern Indo-European generally
correspond to the active and passive in English, but:
a. The Middle voice often has a reflexive meaning. It generally refers to an action
whose object is the subject, or an action in which the subject has an interest or a special
participation:
gnāskai (only middle), I am born.
wéstijontoi, they dress (themselves), they get dressed.

NOTE. This reflexive sense could also carry a sense of benefaction for the subject, as in the
sentence “I sacrificed a goat (for my own benefit)”. These constructions would have used the active
form of “sacrificed” when the action was performed for some reason other than the subject’s
benefit.
b. The Mediopassive with Passive endings (in -r) is reserved for a very specific use in
Modern Indo-European, the Dynamic or Eventive passives; as
moiros píngetor, the wall is being painted, someone paints the wall, lit. “the wall
paints (+ impersonal mark)”.
stoighōs péwontor, streets are being cleaned, someone cleans the streets.
197
NOTE 1. The dynamic passive usually means that an action is done, while the static or stative
passive means that the action was done at a point in time, that it is already made. The last is
obtained in MIE (as usually in Germanic, Romance and Balto-Slavic dialects) with a periphrasis,
including the verb es, be. Following the above examples:
moiros pigtósi esti, the wall (is) [already] painted.
stoighōs pūtṓs senti, the streets (are) cleaned.

i The infix -n is lost outside the Present Stem; thus, the Participle is not pingtós, but pigtós.
Nevertheless, when the n is part of the Basic Stem, it remains. See the Verbal Stems for more
details on the Nasal Infix.
NOTE 2. The Modern Indo-European Passive Voice endings (in -r) are older Impersonal and
PIE Middle Voice alternative endings, found in Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, Germanic, Indo-Iranian
and Anatolian, later dialectally specialized for the passive in some of those dialects. The concepts
underlying modern IE Passives are, though, general to the Northern dialects (although differently
expressed in Germanic and Balto-Slavic), and therefore MIE needs a common translation to
express it. For the stative passive, the use of the verb es-, to be, is common, but dynamic passives
have different formations in each dialect. The specialized Mediopassive dialectal endings seems
thus the best option keeping thus tradition and unity, v.i.
c. Some verbs are only active; as, esmi, be, edmi, eat, or dōmi, give.
d. Many verbs are middle in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called
Deponents; as, keimai, lie, lay; séqomai, follow, etc.
7.1.4. MOODS
1. While the oldest PIE had possibly only Indicative and Imperative, a Subjunctive and
an Optative were added in Late Proto-Indo-European, both used in the Present, Perfect
and Aorist. Not all dialects, however, developed those new formations further.
2. The Imperative is usually formed with a pure stem, adding sometimes adverbial or
pronominal elements.
3. Some common Subjunctive marks are the stem endings -ā, -ē, and -s, but it is more
usually formed with the opposition Indicative Athematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic, or
Indicative Thematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic with lengthened vowel.

7. Verbs
4. The Optative is differentiated from the Subjunctive by its characteristic suffix -jē/-ī;
in thematic Tenses it is -oi, i.e. originally the same Subjunctive suffix added to the
thematic vowel -o-.
5. The Moods are used as follows:
a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations.
b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and
various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by
means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; sometimes by the (rare)
Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in
prohibitions.
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the Subjunctive
could be used instead.
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement

of another verb.
7.1.5. TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB
1. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding
tenses in English:
a. Of continued action,
I. Present: bherō, I bear, I am bearing, I do bear.
II. Imperfect: bheróm, I was bearing.
III. Future: bhersjō, I shall bear.
b. Of completed action or the state derived from the action,
IV. Perfect: (bhé)bhora, I have borne.
V. Aorist: (é)bheróm, I bore.

NOTE. Although the Aorist formation was probably generalized in Late PIE, Augment is a
dialectal feature only found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., Arm and Phryg. The great success of that particular
augment (similar to other additions, like Lat. per- or Gmc. ga-) happened apparently later in the
Southern proto-languages. Vedic Sanskrit clearly shows that Augment was not obligatory, and for
Proto-Greek, cf. Mycenaean do-ke/a-pe-do-ke, Myc. qi-ri-ja-to, Hom. Gk. πριατο, etc.
199
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB
7.2.1. THE VERBAL STEMS
1. The Forms of the verb may be referred to four basic Stems, called (1) the Present, (2)
the Aorist, (3) the Perfect and (4) the Future.
NOTE. There are some characteristic forms of each stem, like the suffix -n- or -sko, which give
mostly Present stems. Generally, though, forms give different stems only when opposed to others.
2. The different stems are used in the verbal conjugation as follows:
STEMS WHERE USED
Present Present and Imperfect (Active and Middle)

Aorist Aorist (Active and Middle)
Perfect Perfect
Future Future and Conditional
NOTE. Following Meier-Brügger (2003), “The actual verbal stem is in use either as the present
stem, the aorist stem, or the perfect stem. The terms present, aorist and perfect all indicate aspect,
which is a grammatical dimmension. The aorist stem indicates the perfective aspect. The present
stem indicates the imperfective aspect. The perfect stem indicates a sort of resultative aspect (…)
The present, aorist, or perfect stem forms the basis of the tempus-modus stem, which serves in the
expression of the categories of tempus and modus, and is created through the addition of tempus-
modus suffixes:
Suffixes Athematic Thematic
Present -Ø- -e- + -Ø- = -e- in alternance with -o- + -Ø- = -o-
Subjunctive -e- in alternance with -o- -e- + -e- = -ē- in alternance with -o- + -o- = -ō-
Optative -jeh1- in ablaut with -ih1- -o- + -ih1- = -oi-
The stem with the suffix -Ø- is automatically the indicative stem. In the present and aorist
systems, the injunctive and the imperative are both formed from, and attributed to, the indicative
stem. With his use of the indicative stem, the speaker indicates that he attributes validity to the
contents of his statement. Stems that are marked with the addition of -e- (in alternance with –o-)
indicate the subjunctive; while those featuring the suffix -jeh1- (ablaut -ih1-) indicate the optative”.

7. Verbs
3. There are some monothematic verbs, as esmi, to be, or edmi, eat – supposedly
remains of the oldest PIE. And there are also some traces of recent or even nonexistent
mood oppositions. To obtain this opposition there are not only reduplications,
lengthenings and alternations, but also vowel changes and accent shifts.
4. Most Late PIE verbs are built with a series of derivational suffixes that alter the root
meaning, creating Denominatives and Deverbatives. The first are derived from nouns
and adjectives; as, torsējō, dry, “make dry”, from ters-, dry, or newājō, make new,
from new-, new. The last are derived from verbs, as widējō, see, from weid-.
NOTE. It is not clear whether these Deverbatives – Causatives, Desideratives, Intensives,
Iteratives, etc. – are actually derivatives of older PIE roots, or are frozen remains, formed by
compounds of older PIE independent verbs added to other verbs, the ones regarded as basic.
5. Reduplication is another common resource; it consists of the repetition of the root,

either complete or abbreviated; as, sisdō, sit down, settle down, from sed-, sit,
gígnōskō, know, from gnō-, mímnāskō, remember, from men-, think, etc.
6. Thematic e/o has no meaning in itself, but it helps to build different stems opposed
to athematics. Thus, It can be used to oppose a) Indicative Athematic to Subjunctive
Thematic, b) Present Thematic to Imperfect Athematic, c) Active to Middle voice, etc.
Sometimes an accent shift helps to create a distinctive meaning, too.
7. Stems are inflected, as in the declension of nouns, with the help of vowel grade and
endings or desinences.
7.2.2. VERB-ENDINGS
1. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
I. The Stem. This is either the root or a modification or development of it.
II. The Ending or Desinence, consisting of:
a. The signs of Mood and Tense.
b. The Personal Ending.
So e.g. the root bher-, carry, lengthened as thematic future verb-stem bher-sje/o-,
will carry, and by the addition of the personal primary ending -ti, becomes the
meaningful bhér-sje-ti, he will carry.
201
NOTE. The ending -ti, in turn, consists of the (probably) tense-sign -i and the personal ending of
the third person singular, -t (Adrados 1996).
2. Verbal endings can thus define the verb Stem, Tense and Mood:
DESINENCES WHERE USED
Primary active Present Indicative and Subjunctives (Active)

Secondary active Imperfect, Aorist and Optatives (Active)
Primary middle Present Indicative and Subjunctives (Middle)
Passive (Passive)
Secondary middle Imperfect and Aorist (Middle)
Perfect Perfect
Imperative Imperative
NOTE. This table was partly taken from Fortson (2004).
3. The primary series indicates present and future, and -mi, -si, -ti, and 3rd Pl. -nti are
the most obvious formations of Late PIE. The secondary endings indicate Past; as, -m, -
s, -t and 3rd Pl. -nt. The subjunctive and optative are usually marked with the secondary
endings, but in the subjunctive primary desinences are attested sometimes. The
imperative has Ø or special endings.
NOTE. Although not easily reconstructed, Late PIE had already independent formations for the
first and second person plural. However, there were probably no common endings used in all
attested dialects, and therefore a selection has to be made for MIE, v.i.
They can also mark the person; those above mark the first, second and third person
singular and third plural. Also, with thematic vowels, they mark the voice: -ti Active
Primary | -t Active Secondary; -toi Middle Primary | -to Middle Secondary.
4. The Augment appears in Ind.-Ira., Gk., and Arm., to mark the Past Tense (i.e., the
Aorist and the Imperfect). It was placed before the Stem, and consisted generally of a
stressed é-, which is a dialectal Graeco-Aryan feature not generally used in MIE.
NOTE. Some common variants existed, as lengthened ḗ-, cf. Gk. η<ē/ā and ω<ō, the so-called
Wackernagel contractions of the Augment and the beginning of the verbal root, which happened
already by 2000 BC. These are different from those which happened in Attic Greek by 1000 BC.
5. Modern Indo-European verbal endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and
tense combined with personal endings, may be organized in five series.

7. Verbs
ACTIVE MIDDLE (or Mediopassive)

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Passive-only
1. -mi, -ō -m -mai, -ai -ma, -a -mar, -ar
Sg. 2. -si -s -soi -so -sor

3. -ti -t -toi -to -tor
1. -mes/-mos -me/-mo -mesdha -medha -medhar
Pl. 2. -t(h)e -te -(s)dhwe -dhwe -dhwer

3. -nti -nt -ntoi -nto -ntor
NOTE 1. About the Active endings: 1) 1st P. Pl. them. endings -mo, -mos, are found in Italic (Lat.
-mus), Celtic (O.Ir. *-mo or *-mos), Balto-Slavic (cf. Pruss. -mai, O.C.S. -mŭ<*-mo, *-mos or *-
mom), and from -mo- or -me-, in Germanic (cf. Goth. -m) and Indo-Iranian (cf. O.Ind. -ma). 2)
2nd P. Pl. ending athematic -the (<*-tHe) is only found differentiated in Old Indian, but this
system is sometimes considered the original, while the other dialects would have merged them
into a common -te. 3) Dual endings are found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Gmc., but apart from a
common 3rd P. Prim. -tom / Sec. -tām in O.Ind. and Gk., there is only a general (usually
incomplete) paradigm 1st P. w-, 2nd & 3rd P. t-, with different lengthenings in -e/-o, -es/-os, -ā.
NOTE 2. Original PIE Middle endings (output from the ‘stative voice’) were similar to the Perfect
ONES; see Kortlandt’s <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/1860>. 1) The Middle
secondary endings are easily reconstructed for the singular and the 3rd person plural, even though
Toch. B -tai, -te, -nte still suggest to some (Neu 1968) that the original PIE were *-sai, *-tai, *-ntai,
instead of the general opinion, -soi, -toi, -ntoi (cf. Gk. -oi). Dialectal Greek forms in the singular
point to an alternative 1st P. -oi. 2) Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Anatolian dialects show Middle
second plural forms in -medha (<*-medh-h2, O.Ind. -mahe, Gk. -metha, Toch. -ämtä-), -mesdha
(<*-mesdh-h2, cf. Gk. -mestha, Hitt. -wašta-), PII -megha (cf. O.Ind. mahi), and -men, cf. Gk. -
men, Hitt. -wen-i. 3) 1st P. Pl. -mo(s)r, Lat. -mur, and -me(s)dhar (Hitt. -wašta-r-i, Toch. -
mt(t)ä-r), and 2nd P. Pl. Osc. -ter, Hitt. -ttumari, Toch. -cär (<-dhwer, cf. Toch. -t<-dhwe).
Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, and Phrygian had Mediopassive Primary Endings in -r (cf. Lat. -tur,
O.Ir. -tha(i)r, Toch. -tär, Phryg. -tor), whilst others had the general -i (cf. Skr., Av. -te, Gk., Toch. -
tai, Goth. -da, Bal. -tai), coexisting in Indo-Iranian (with -r as injunctive) and in Anatolian, where
both were combined (cf. Hitt. -ta-r-i, nta-r-i). It is thought that -r was the Primary Middle marker
(from an original Impersonal value), corresponding to the -i of the active. Both Mediopassive
endings (-r and -i) coexisted already in the earliest reconstructible PIE, and -i probably replaced
the old impersonal -r as the general Middle marker already by Late PIE. In the Northern dialects -
r became specialized for the newer passive constructions or disappeared. Thus, following the need
for clarity in Modern Indo-European, we reserve the PIE endings in -r for the dynamic passive
(v.s.), and keep those in -i for the original Late PIE Middle Voice.
203
5. The Perfect endings are as follows:
Late PIE PIH

1. -a *-h2e
Sg. 2. -tha *-th2e

3. -e *-e
1. -mé *-mé-
Pl. 2. -té *-é

3. -(ḗ)r *-ḗr
6. The Thematic and Athematic endings of the Active Voice:
Athematic Thematic
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
1. -mi -m -ō -om
Sg. 2. -si -s -esi -es

3. -ti -t -eti -et
1. -mes -me -omos -omo
Pl. 2. -te -te -ete -ete

3. -ṇti -ṇt -onti -ont
NOTE. Athematic Desinences in *-enti, as found in Mycenaean and usually reconstructed as

proper PIE endings, weren’t probably common PIE desinences. Compare Att.Gk. -aasi (<-ansi<-
anti), or O.Ind. -ati, both remade from an original zero-grade PIE -n̥ti. In fact, Mycenaean shows
some clearly remade examples, as Myc. e-e-esi<*esenti (cf. Ion. εων), or ki-ti-je-si (<ktíensi). Also,
Primary Thematic ending -o-mo- does not have a clear PIE ending, but an -s is selected for MIE.
7. The secondary endings are actually a negative term opposed to the primaries. They
may be opposed to the present or future of indicative, they may indicate indifference to
tense, and they might also be used in Present.
NOTE. It is generally accepted that the Secondary Endings appeared first, and then the primary
marker -i (or the impersonal -r) was added to them. Being opposed to the newer formations, the
older endings received a Preterite (or Past) value, and became then Secondary. Forms with
secondary endings, not used with a Preterite value, are traditionally called Injunctives, and had
mainly a modal value. The Injunctive seems to have never been an independent mood, though, but
just another possible use of the original endings in Proto-Indo-European.

7. Verbs
7. The Thematic and Athematic endings of the Middle-Passive:
Athematic Thematic
Primary Second. Passive Primary Secondary Passive
-mai -ma -mar -ai -a -ar
Sg. -soi -so -sor -esoi -eso -esor

-toi -to -tor -etoi -eto -etor
-mesdha -medha -medhar -omesdha -omedha -omedhar
Pl. -(s)dhwe -dhwe -dhwer -e(s)dhwe -edhwe -edhwer

-ṇtoi -ṇto -ṇtor -ontoi -onto -ontor
NOTE. An old Middle ending system Sg. -a, -ta , -o, Pl. -ro, and Primary -ai, -tai , -oi, or -ar, -
tar, -or, Pl. -ro-, is also reconstructed for PIE, from older *-h2e, *-th2e-, *-o, Pl. *-r. These
alternative forms, identical to the perfect forms (v.s.), are usually said to be the output of the
‘stative voice’ (Jasanoff Hittite and the IE verb, 2003), and are not to be commonly used in MIE.
The Middle-Active Opposition is not always straightforward, as there are only-active

and only-middle verbs, as well as verbs with both voices but without semantic differences
between them.
7.2.3. THE THEMATIC VOWEL
1. Stem vowels are – as in nouns – the vowel endings of the Stem, especially when they
are derivatives. They may be i, u, ā, ē (and also ō in Roots). But the most extended stem
vowel is e/o (also lengthened ē/ō), called Thematic Vowel, which existed in PIH before
the split of the Anatolian dialects, and which had overshadowed the (older) athematic
stems already by Late PIE. The thematization of stems, so to speak, relegated the
athematic forms especially to the aorist and to the perfect; many old athematics, even
those in -ā- and -ē-, are usually found extended with thematic endings -je/o-.
NOTE. The old thematics were usually remade, but there are some which resisted this trend; as
edmi, I eat, dōti, he gives, or idhi! go!
The stem vowel has sometimes a meaning, as with -ē- and -ā-, which can indicate state.
There are also some old specializations of meanings, based on oppositions:
a. Thematic vs. Athematic:
- Athematic Indicative vs. Thematic Subjunctive. The contrary is rare.
205
- Thematic Present vs. Athematic Aorist, and vice versa.
- Thematic 1st Person Sg. & Pl. and 3rd Person Pl., and Athematic the rest.
- It may also be found in the Middle-Active voice opposition.
b. Thematic stem with variants:
- The first person, thematic in lengthened -ō.
- Thematic o in 1st Person Sg. & Pl. and 3rd Person Pl.; e in 2nd and 3rd Person Sg. and
2nd Pl. There are also archaic 3rd Person Pl. in e, as senti, they are.
c. Opposition of Thematic stems. This is obtained with different vowel grades of the
root and by the accent position.
2. In the Semithematic inflection the Athematic forms alternate with Thematic ones.
NOTE. The semithematic is for some an innovation of Late PIE, which didn’t reach some of the
dialects, while for other scholars it represents a situation in which the opposition Thematic-
Athematic and the Accent Shifts of an older PIE system had been forgotten, leaving only some
mixed remains into a generalized Late PIE regular Thematic verbal system.
7.2.4. VERB CREATION
1. With Verb Creation we refer to the way verbs are created from Nouns and other
Verbs by adding suffixes and through reduplication of stems.
2. There are generally two kinds of suffixes: Root and Derivative; they are so classified
because they are primarily added to the Roots or to Derivatives of them. Most of the
suffixes we have seen (like -u, -i, -n, -s, etc.) are root suffixes.
Derivative suffixes may be:
a. Denominatives, which help create new verbs from nouns and adjectives; as, -je/o-.
b. Deverbatives, those which help create new verbs from other verbs; as, -ei- (plus
root vocalism o), -i-, -s-, -sk-, -ā-, -ē- etc.
3. Reduplication is a common resource of many modern languages. It generally serves

to indicate intensity or repetition in nouns, and in the Proto-Indo-European verb it had
two main uses:

7. Verbs
a. It helped create a Deverbative, opposed to root verbs, generally in the Present,

especially in Intensives, and usually involving nearly the entire root; as, dṛdrājō or
mṛmrājō, murmur, gálgaljō, talk.
NOTE. It is doubtful whether these are remains of an older system based on the opposition
Root/Deverbative, prior to the more complicated developments of Late PIE in suffixes and
endings, or, on the contrary, it is the influence of (thus earlier) noun derivations.
b. Essentially, though, reduplication has lost its old value and marks the different
stems, whether Present, Aorist or Perfect. There are some rules in reduplication:
- In the Present, it is combined with roots and stress; as, bhíbher-mi, gígnō-mi, etc.
NOTE. There are old reduplicates with Desiderative meaning, which conveys “the subject’s
desire to bring about a state of affairs” in i, like wi-wṇ-sṓ, would like to win, from wen-, to
overpower, win.
- In the Perfect, combined with root vocalism and special (Perfect) endings; as, bhé-
bhor-a, gé-gon-a, etc.
NOTE. Reduplicated Perfects show usually o-grade root vowel (as in Gk., Gmc. and O.Ind.), but
there are exceptions with zero-grade vocalism, cf. Lat. tutudi, Gk. mémikha, tétaka, gégaa.
- Full reduplications of Intensives (cf. mr-mr-, gal-gal-) are different from simple
reduplications of verbal Stems, which are formed by the initial consonant and i in the
Present (cf. bhi-bher-, mi-mno-, pí-bo-), or e in the Perfect and in the Aorist (cf.
bhe-bher-, gé-gon-, ké-klou-).
NOTE. In other cases, reduplicated stems might be opposed, for example, to the Aorist to form
Perfects or vice versa, or to disambiguate other elements of the stem or ending. Intensives carry
the notion of “repeated bringing about of a state of affairs”, and a prime example is qer-qṛ-, doing
again and again, from qer-, cut (off).
4. Common derivational suffixes include the following:

NOTE. Descriptions are taken from LIV (1998); some examples from Piotr Gąsiorowski’s
<http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/2190/Caraculiambro/Verbs.html>. See §7.4 for more.
a. Transitive Intensives of a different kind involve the suffix -ā (<*-eh2-/*-h2-), added to

the weak form of a root to produce athematic verbs, indicating “the entry of the subject
into a new state of being”; as, mn- (<*mn-eh2-), be mindful of, duk-, lead.
207
b. The suffix -je/o- forms thematic Durative verbs, conveying “a subject’s state of being
without stressing the entry of the subject into the state of being”; as, spekjō, view,
regard, kapjō, take, seize, mṛsjō, not heed, ignore (from mors-, forget). From nouns,
as oqjō, to eye (from oqos, eye, cf. oqō, see), nomnjō, name.
c. Suffix -ēje/o-, usually added to -o- grade roots, formed Causatives/Iterative stems,
which indicate “a cause of bringing about a state of affairs, or the repeated bringing about
of a state of affairs”; as, monējō, “make think”, warn, remind, sedējō, be sitting,
bhoudhējō, wake somebody up (cf. bheudhō, awake), ṛghējō, incite (cf. argujo,
reason, discuss), etc.
d. The nasal suffix -néu-/-nu-, usually enforcing the weak vocalism of the root,
produces (often transitive and vaguely causative) athematic verbs that refer to the
beginning or termination of an action (the so-called Inchoatives), or suggest that
something is done once (rather than repeated). A rarer variant of this pattern involves -
nu- formations with stress alternating between the full-vowelled root and the inflection.
A closely related formation involves verbs in -nā- (<*-náh2-/*-nh2-); as, ṛneumi, set in
motion, move (from *h1or- ‘rise, move’), rékneumi, range.
e. Similar functions can be attributed to the so-called nasal infix -né-/-n-, which is
normally inserted after a liquid or semivowel (R = w, j, r, l) in CeRC- roots, producing
the characteristic alternation CR-né-C-/CR-n-C-, preserved in Indo-Iranian; as, linéq-
/linq-, abandon, release, (from leiq-), junég-/jung-, join, connect (from jeug-), etc.
f. The suffix -ske/o-, usually added to zero-grade bases, forms Iterative (or Inchoative)
stems; as, cṃskṓ, walk about (cf. cemjō, come), pṛkskṓ, ask repeatedly, gnōskō,
know. Also with reduplication; as, cícṃskō, gígnōskō.
Its common variant is -iske/o-. Apparently, the same -ske/o- can also produce
Denonimal duratives like medhuskō, get drunk (from medhu, mead, intoxicating
drink) or wodskō, wash (from wod-, water).
g. The suffix -āje/o- added to adjectives produces Factitives, meaning ‘make

something’; as, newājō, make new, renew, nomnājō, name, sedājo, settle.
h. The suffix -ē-, and the combinations -ē-s-, -ē-ske/o-, yield intransitive verbs
denoting change of state (‘become X’); as, roudhēskō, turn red, senēskō, get old.

7. Verbs
7.2.5. SEPARABLE VERBS
1. A Separable Verb is a verb that is composed of a Verb Stem and a Separable Affix. In
some verb forms, the verb appears in one word, whilst in others the verb stem and the
affix are separated.
NOTE. A Prefix is a type of affix that precedes the morphemes to which it can attach. A separable
affix is an affix that can be detached from the word it attaches to and located elsewhere in the
sentence in a certain situation.
2. Many Modern Indo-European verbs are separable verbs, as in Homeric Greek, in

Hittite, in the oldest Vedic and in modern German ‘trennbare Verben’.
Thus, e.g. the (Latin) verb supplāktum, beg humbly, supplicate (adj. supplāks,
suppliant, verb plākējō, advise, persuade), gives sup wos plākējō (cf. O.Lat. sub uos
placō), I entreat you, and not *wos supplakējō, as Classic Lat. uos supplicō.
NOTE. German is well known for having many separable affixes. In the sentence Ger. Ich komme
gut zu Hause an the prefix an in the verb ankommen is detached. However, in the participle, as in
Er ist angekommen, “He has arrived”, it is not separated. In Dutch, compare Hij is aangekomen,
“He has arrived”, but Ik kom morgen aan, I shall arrive tomorrow.
English has many phrasal or compound verb forms that act in this way. For example, the adverb
(or adverbial particle) up in the phrasal verb to screw up can appear after the subject (“things”) in
the sentence: “He is always screwing things up”.
Non-personal forms, i.e. Nouns and Adjectives, form a compound (karmadharaya)

with the preposition; as O.Ind. prasādaḥ, “favour”, Lat subsidium, praesidium, O.Ind.
apaciti, Gk. apotisis , “reprisal”, etc.
NOTE. There are, indeed, many non-separable verbs, those formed with non-separable prefixes.
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS
7.3.1. Conjugation is the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar
conjugation pattern in a particular language, a Verb Class. This is the sense in which we
say that Modern Indo-European verbs are divided into twelve Regular Conjugations; it
means that any regular Modern Indo-European verb may be conjugated in any person,
number, tense, mood and voice by knowing which of the twelve conjugation groups it
belongs to, and its main stems.
209
NOTE. The meaning of Regular and Irregular becomes, thus, a matter of choice, although the
selection is obviously not free. We could have divided the verbs into ten conjugations, or twenty, or
just two – Thematic and Athematic –, and then we would have left the variant verbs into a huge
group of Irregulars. We believe that our choice is in the middle between a simplified system with
many irregular conjugations – which would need in turn more data for the correct inflection of
each verb –, and an extensive conjugation system – trying to include every possible inflection
attested in Late PIE –, being thus too complicated and therefore difficult to learn. It is clear that
the way a language is systematized influences its evolution; to avoid such artificial influence,
typical of Classical languages (e.g. the innovations systematized by ancient grammarians in
Sanskrit, Greek or Latin) we try to offer a natural approach to PIE, including the most common
verbal classes as general conjugations, and leaving the most irregular verbs outside.
A reference book for the classification of PIE verbs into conjugations is found in the Lexikon der
indogermanischen Verben (2001), under the direction of H. Rix. Nevertheless, it features an old
PIE reconstruction, with all attested athematic and thematic conjugations of Present, Aorist and
Perfect stems, and it is therefore 1) too complex for a classical grammar, and 2) not applicable to a
Late PIE early dialectal scheme, in which some athematic paradigms had been lost (or frozen into
scarce, hence irregular examples), while newer verbs (and remade ones) further split within the
thematic paradigms. A general picture of the LIV’s verbal classes:
LIV STEM CLASS Examples

1a Present, Athematic, Amphidinamic root. *gwhen-ti/*gwhn-énti
1b Present, Athematic, Acrodynamic root. *stēu-ti/*stéw-n̥ti
1g Present, Athematic, with -e- Reduplication. *dhé-dhoh1-ti/*dhé-dhh1-n̥ti
1h Present, Athematic, with -i- Reduplication. *sti-stéh2-ti/*sti-sth2-énti
1i Present, Thematic, with -i- Reduplication. *gi-gn̥h1-é-ti
1k Present, Athematic, with Nasal Infix *li-né-kw-ti/li-n-kw-énti
1n Present, Thematic suffix -e-, e grade root *bhér-e- ti
1o Present, Thematic suffix -é-, zero grade root *ghr̥h3-é- ti
1p Present, Thematic suffix -ské-, zero grade root *gwm̥-ské- ti
1q Present, Thematic suffix -jé-, zero grade root *gn̥h1-jé-toi
2a Aorist, Athematic, root *gwem-t
2b Aorist, Athematic, suffix -s- *prek-s-n̥t
2c Aorist, Thematic, Reduplicated *we-ukw-e-t
3a Perfect, Reduplicated *gwe-gwom-/gwe-gwm-

7. Verbs
7.3.2. Modern Indo-European verbs are divided into two main Conjugation Groups: the
Thematic, newer and abundant in Late PIE, and the old Athematic Verbs. These groups
are, in turn, subdivided into eight and four subgroups respectively.
NOTE. The fact that a PIE Root is of a certain type doesn’t imply necessarily that its derivatives
(Stems derived from it) belong to a specific conjugation, as they might be found in different
subgroups depending on the dialects (for Eng. love, cf. Lat. lubet, Skr. lubhyati, Gmc. liuban), and
even within the same dialect (cf. Lat. scatō, scateō). That’s why e.g. Old Indian verbs are not
enunciated by their personal forms, but by their roots.
A. THE THEMATIC CONJUGATION
The First or Thematic Conjugation Group is formed by the following 8 subgroups:
I. Root Verbs with root vowel e in the Present and o in the Perfect:
a. Triliteral: deikō, dikóm, doika, deiksō, show, etc.
b. Concave: teqō, teqóm, toqa/tōqa, teqsō, escape, séqomai, follow, etc.
NOTE. For IE teqō, cf. O.Ir. téchid/táich(<e/ō).
II. Concave Root Verbs with non-regular Perfect vocalism. Different variants include:
a. labhō, lābha, take; lawō, lāwa, enjoy, slabai, slāboma, fall (Middle
Voice); aidai, praise.
NOTE. Compare Gk. αιδομαι, O.ind. ile, Gmc. part. idja-. The first sentence of the Rigveda may
already be translated to Modern Indo-European with the aforementioned verbs.
b. kano, kékana/kékāna, sing.

c. legō, lēga, join, read, decide.
d. lowō, lōwa, wash.
e. rādō, rāda, shuffle, scrape, scratch.
f. rēpō, rēpa, grab, rip out.
g. rōdō, rōda, gnaw.
III. Verba Vocalia, i.e., thematic --je/o-, -ḗ-je/o-, -í-je/o-, -ú-je/o-:
a. amājō, love.
b. lubhējō, love, desire.
c. sāgijō, look for, search.
d. argujō reason, argue (cf. Lat. arguō, Hitt. arkuwwai).
211
IV. Verbs in -je/o-:
a. Triliteral: kupjō, kup(j)óm, koupa, keupsō, be worried.

b. Concave: jakjō, jēka, throw.
c. Lamed-he: parjō, pepra/péprōka, produce.
d. Reduplicated Intensives: kárkarjō, proclaim, announce (cf. Gk. καρκαίρω,
but Skr. carkarti).
NOTE. Examples of thematic reduplicated intensives include common forms like Greek
πορφυρω, παμπαινω, γαργαιρω, μορμορω, μερμηριζω, καγχαλαω, μαρμαιρω, δενδιλλω, λαλεω, and,
in other IE dialects, Slavic glagoljo, Latin (‘broken’ reduplication with different variants) bombico,
bombio, cachinno, cacillo, cracerro, crocito, cucullio, cucurrio, curculio, didintrio, lallo,
imbubino, murmillo, palpor, pipito, plipio, pipio, tetrinnio, tetrissito, tintinnio, titio, titubo, etc.
V. Intensives-Inchoatives in -ske/o-:
a. Of Mobile Suffix: swēdhskō, swēdhjóm, swēdhwa, swēdhsō, get used to.

b. Of Permanent Suffix: pṛkskṓ, inquire.
VI. With nasal infix or suffix:
a. Perfect with o vocalism: jungō, jugóm, jouga, jeugsō, join.

b. Reduplicated Perfect: tundō, tét(o)uda/tút(o)uda, strike.
c. Convex: bhrangō, bhrēga, break.
d. Nasal Infix and Perfect with o root: gusnō, gousa (cf. Lat. dēgūnō, dēgustus)
e. Nasal Infix and Reduplicated Perfect: cf. Lat. tollō, sustulii (supsi+tét-), lift.
VII. With Reduplicated Present:
a. sisō, sēwa, sow.

b. gignō, gegna, gégnāka, produce.
VIII. Other Thematics:
o pḷdō, pép(o)la.
o widējō, woida, see.
o etc.

7. Verbs
B. THE ATHEMATIC CONJUGATION
Verbs of the Second or Athematic Conjugation Group may be subdivided into:

I. Monosyllabic:
a. In Consonant: esmi, be, edmi, eat, ēsmai, find oneself, be.
b. In ā (i.e. PIH *h2): snāmi, swim, bhamai, speak.
c. In ē (i.e. PIH *h1): bhlēmi, cry, (s)remai, calculate.
d. With Nasal infix: leiq- (lineqti/linqṇti), leave, kleu- (kḷneuti/kḷnunti),
hear, peu- (punāti/punānti), purify, etc.
NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
e. Others: eími, go, etc.

II. Reduplicated:
a. (sí)stāmi, stand.
b. (dhí)dhēmi, set, place,
c. (jí)jēmi, throw, expel.
d. (dí)dōmi, give.
e. (bhí)bheimi, fear.
f. kíkumi/kuwóm/kékuwa, strengthen.
III. Bisyllabic:
a. wémāmi, vomit.
NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
b. bhélumi, weaken, (cf. Goth. bliggwan, “whip”).

NOTE. This verb might possibly be more correctly classified as bhelujō, within the Verba Vocalia,
type AIIId in -u-jo- of the Thematic Group.
IV. Suffixed:
a. In -nā- (<PIH *neh2): pérnāmi, grant, sell (cf. Gk. περνημι, O.Ir. ren(a)id,
etc.), qrnāmi, buy (cf. O.Ind. krīnāti, O.Ind. cren(a)im, gr. πρίαμαι, etc).
b. In -nu-: árnumi/órnumi, rise (up).
c. With nasal infix: lineqmi (linqō), bhenegmi (bhegō), amneghti
(amghō)
213
NOTE. For these verbs Old Indian shows zero-grade root vowel and alternating suffixes. Greek
shows the opposite behaviour, which should be preferred in MIE because of its ease of use.
7.4. THE FOUR STEMS
7.4.1. THE FOUR STEMS
1. The Stems of the Present may be:
I. Roots, especially Thematic, but also Athematic and Semithematic.
II. Reduplicated Roots, especially Athematic.
III. Consonantal stems, all Thematic. They may end in occlusive, or -s and its
lengthenings, like -ske/o-; as, pṛk-skṓ, ask, ask for, from zero-grade of prek-, ask.
IV. In Vowel, Thematic in -i-, -u-, and Athematic in -ā, -ē.
V. In Nasal, Thematic and Athematic (especially in -neu-/-nu-, -nā-/-na-).
2. The Aorist Stem is opposed to the Present:
A. Aorist Athematic Roots vs. Present Roots and Reduplicates.
B. Aorist Thematic Roots vs. Athematic Presents.
C. Aorist Thematic Reduplicated Roots vs. Athematic Reduplicated Present.
D. Aorist with -s- and its lengthenings, both Thematic & Athematic.
E. Aorist with -t- and -k- are rare, as Lat. feci.
F. Aorist with -ā-, -ē-, and -i-, -u-, & their lengthenings.
3. The Stems of the Perfect have usually root vowel /Ø, with dialectal reduplication –
mainly Indo-Iranian and Greek –, and some especial endings.
4. Modern Indo-European uses a general Future Stem with a suffix -s-, usually
Thematic -se/o-.
NOTE. The future might also be formed with the present in some situations, as in English I go to
the museum, which could mean I am going to the museum or I will go to the museum. The
Present is, thus, a simple way of creating (especially immediate) future sentences in most modern
Indo-European languages, as it was already in Late PIE times.

7. Verbs
5. To sum up, there are four inflected Stems, but each one has in turn five inflected
forms (Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative and Participle), and one not
inflected (Verbal Noun). Verbal inflection is made with desinences (including Ø), which
indicate Person, Time and Voice. The person is thus combined with the other two.
NOTE. The imperfect stem had neither a subjunctive nor an optative formation in Late PIE.
An example of the four stems are (for PIE verbal root leiq-, leave) leiq-e/o- (or nasal
li-n-eq-e/o-) for the Present, (é)liq-é/ó- for the Aorist, (lé-)loiq- for the Perfect, and
leiq-sje/o- for the Future.
7.4.2. THE PRESENT STEM
I. PRESENT STEM FORMATION PARADIGM
1. Verbal Roots (Athematic, Semithematic and Thematic) were not very common in
Late PIE. They might have only one Stem, or they might have multiple Stems opposed to
each other.
2. Reduplicates are usually different depending on the stems: those ending in occlusive
or -u- are derived from extended roots, and are used mainly in verbs; those in -s and -u
are rare, and are mainly used for the remaining stems.
3. The most prolific stems in Late PIE were those ending in -i, -ē and -ā, closely related.
Athematics in -ē- and -ā- have mostly Present uses (cf. dhídhēmi, do, sístāmi, stand),
as Thematics in -ske/o- (as gnō-skō, know, pṛk-skṓ, ask, inquire) and Athematics or
Thematics with nasal infix (i.e. in -n-, as li-n-eq-, leave, from leiq, or bhu-n-dho-,
make aware, from bheudh-).
II. PRESENT ROOT STEM
1. A pure Root Stem, with or without thematic vowel, can be used as a Present, opposed
to the Aorist, Perfect and sometimes to the Future Stems. The Aorist Stem may also be
Root, and it is then distinguished from the Present Stem with 1) vowel opposition, i.e.,
full grade, o-grade or zero-grade, 2) thematic vowel, or 3) with secondary phonetic
differentiations (as accent shift).
215
Present verbal roots may be athematic, semithematic and thematic. The athematics
were, in Late PIE, only the remains of an older system, as (probably) the semithematics.
2. In Monosyllabic Roots ending in consonant or sonant, the inflection is usually made:
a. in the Active Voice Sg., with root vowel e and root accent
b. in the Active and Middle Voice Pl., root vowel Ø and accent on the ending.
The most common example is es-, be, which has a singular in es- and plural in s-.
There are also other monosyllabic verbs, as chen-, strike, ed-, eat. Other roots, as eí-,
go, follow this inflection too.
ed-, eat chen-, knok eí-, go es-, be

1. edmi chenmi eími esmi
Sg. 2. edsi chensi eísi esiii

3. estii chenti eíti esti
1. dmes chṇmés imés smes
Pl. 2. dte chṇté ité ste

3. denti chṇenti jenti senti
i MIE ésti < PIE *édti; ii Please note PIE es- + -si = esi, there is no gemination of s.
3. There is also another rare verbal type, Root Athematic with full or long root vowel
and fixed root accent, usually called Proterodynamic. It appears frequently in the Middle
Voice.
4. Monosyllabic Roots with Long Vowel (as dhē-, stā- or dō-) are inflected in Sg. with
long vowel, and in Pl. and Middle with -a. They are rare in Present, usually reserved for
the Aorist. The reconstructed PIH paradigm of stā- is given here for comparison.
dhē-, do dō-, give stā-, stand *steh2-, stand

1. dhídhēmi (dí)dōmi (sí)stāmi *(sí)steh2mi
Sg. 2. dhídhēsi (dí)dōsi (sí)stāsi *(sí)steh2si

3. dhídhēti (dí)dōti (sí)stāti *(sí)steh2ti
1. dhídhames (dí)dames (sí)stames *(si)sth2més
Pl. 2. dhídhate (dí)date (sí)state *(si)steh2té

3. dhídhanti (dí)danti (sí)stanti *(si)sth2ṇti

7. Verbs
NOTE. Most athematic verbs are usually reconstructed with a Mobile Stress paradigm (as in
Sanskrit, or the oldest PIE), but we preserve the easier Greek columnar accent, a Late PIE trend
similar to the nominal Mobile paradigm; it usually reads Late PIE dhidhamés, dhidhaté,
dhidhanti, or didamés, didaté, didanti.
5. Disyllabic Roots which preserve an athematic inflection have the Present in full/Ø-
vowel. The alternative Ø/full-vowel is generally reserved for the Aorist.
6. In the Semithematic Root Stem, the 3rd Person Pl. has often an ending preceded by
the Thematic vowel e/o. That happens also in the 1st Person Sg., which often has -o or -
o-m(i); and in the 1st Person Pl., which may end in -o-mos, -o-mo.
NOTE. In an old inflection like that of the verbal root es, i.e. esmi-smés, sometimes a
Semithematic alternative is found. Compare the paradigm of the verb be in Latin, where zero-
grade and o vowel forms are found: s-omi (cf. Lat. sum), not es-mi; s-omos (cf. Lat. sumus), not
s-me; and s-onti (cf. Lat. sunt), not s-enti. Such inflection, not limited to Latin, has had little
success in the Indo-European verbal system, at least in the dialects that have been attested. There
are, however, many examples of semithematic inflection in non-root verbs, what could mean that
an independent semithematic inflection existed in PIE, or, on the contrary, that old athematic
forms were remade and mixed with the newer thematic inflection (Adrados 1996).
7. Thematic verbal roots have generally an -e/o- added before the endings. Therefore,
in Athematic stems -e/o- is not usually found, in Semithematics it is found in the 1st P.Sg.
and Pl., and in Thematic stems it appears always.
Thematic inflection shows two general formations:
a. Root vowel e and root accent; as in déiketi, he/she/it shows.
b. Root vowel Ø and accent on the thematic vowel, as in dikóm he/she/it showed.
The first appears usually in the Present, and the second in the Aorist, although both
could appear in any of them in PIE. In fact, when both appear in the Present, the a-type
is usually a Durative – meaning an action not finished –, while b-type verbs are
Terminatives or Punctuals – meaning the conclusion of the action. This semantic value is
not general, though, and is often found in Graeco-Aryan dialects.
NOTE. The newer inflection is, thus (in a singular/plural scheme), that of full/full vocalism for
Present, Ø/Ø for Aorist. The (mainly) Root Athematic - and Semithematic - inflection in full/Ø
appears to be older than the Thematic one. The Thematic inflection probably overshadowed the
217
Athematic and Semithematic ones by Late PIE, and there are lots of examples of coexisting
formations, some of the newer being opposed to the older in meaning.
III. PRESENT REDUPLICATED STEM
1. Depending on its Formation, present stems may have either Full Reduplication,
sometimes maintained throughout the conjugation, or Simple Reduplication, which
normally consists of the initial consonant of the root followed by -i-.
Depending on its Meaning, reduplication may have a general value (of Iteration or
Intensity), or simply opposed values in individual pairs of Basic Verb-Deverbative.
Therefore, it helps to distinguish the verb in its different forms.
2. How Reduplication is made:
I. Full Reduplication, normally found in the Present Stem, repeats the Root or at least
the group consonant/sonorant+vowel+consonant/sonorant; as, gal-gal-, talk, bher-
bher-, endure, mṛ-mṛ-, whisper, etc.
Full reduplication is also that which repeats a Root with vowel+consonant/sonorant;

as, ul-ul-, howl (cf. Lat. ululāre).
II. Simple Reduplication is made:
a. With consonant + i,
- in Athematic verbs; as, bhi-bher-, carry (from bher-),
- in Thematic verbs; as, gi-gnō-sko-, know (from gnō-), etc. si-sdo-, sit down,
(from zero-grade of sed-, sit),
- Some Intensives have half full, half simple Reduplication, as in dei-dik-, show
(from deik-).
- There are other forms with -w, -u, as in leu-luk-, shine (from leuk-, light).
- There are also some Perfect stems with i.
b. With consonant + e/ē, as dhe-dhē-, de-dō-, etc.
Simple Reduplication in e appears mainly in the Perfect, while i is characteristic of

Present stems. Reduplication in e is also often found in Intensives in southern dialects.

7. Verbs
NOTE. Formal reduplication in -i is optional in Modern Indo-European, as it is mostly a Graeco-

Aryan feature; as, gignōskō/gnōskō, didō/dō, pibō/pō(i), etc.
NOTE. Reduplication didn’t affect the different root vowel grades in inflection, and general rules
were followed; as, bíbherti-bibhrmés, sístāmi-sistamés, etc.
3. The different Meaning of Reduplicates found in PIE are:
- Indo-Iranian and Greek show a systematic opposition Basic Verb - Deverbative

Reduplicated, to obtain an Iterative or Intensive verb.
- Desideratives are Reduplicates with i + Root + -se/o-, as e.g. men- vs. mi-mṇ-so-,
think. Such Reduplicates are called Terminatives.
NOTE. Although the Iterative-Intensives, Desideratives and sometimes Terminatives did not
succeed as usual resources in some North-West IE dialects, they are an old common resource of
Late PIE, probably older than the opposition Present-Perfect, and wea probably alive to a certain
degree in Europe’s IE times.
IV. PRESENT CONSONANT STEM
1. Indo-European Roots may be lengthened with an occlusive to give a verb stem, either
general or Present-only. Such stems are usually made adding a dental -t-, -d-, -dh-, or a
guttural -k-, -g-, -gh- (also -k-, -g-, -gh-), but only rarely with labials or labiovelars.
They are all Thematic, and the lengthenings are added to the Root.
NOTE. Such lengthenings were probably optional in an earlier stage of the language, before they
became frozen as differentiated vocabulary by Late PIE. Some endings (like -ske/o-, -je/o-, etc.)
were still optional in Late PIE, v.i. These lengthenings are considered by some linguists as equally
possible root modifiers in Proto-Indo-European as those in -s-, -sk-, -n- (infix), -nu-, -nā-, etc.
However, it is obvious that these ones (vide infra) appear more often, and that they appear usually
as part of the conjugation, while the former become almost always part of the root and are
modified accordingly. Whatever the nature and antiquity of all of them, those above are in Modern
Indo-European usually just part of existing stems (i.e., part of the IE morphology), while the
following extensions are often part of the conjugation.
3. Imperfect Stems in -s- and its derivatives, as -sk- and -st-, are almost all Thematic.
NOTE. Thematic suffix -ste/o- has usually an Expressive sense, meaning sounds most of the
times; as, bhṛstō, burst, break (from bhresjō, shatter).
219
4. Stems in -s have a common specialized use (opposed to Basic stems), marking the
Preterite, the Future, and sometimes the Subjunctive.
NOTE. Aorist stems in -s- are usually Athematic. Because of its common use in verbal inflection,
deverbatives with a lengthening in -s- aren’t generally opposed in meaning to their basic stems.
There may be found some individual meanings in such opposed stem pairs, though, already in
Late PIE; as, Insistents or Iteratives (cf. wéid-se/o-, “want to see, go to see”, hence “visit”, as Lat.
vīsere, Goth. gaweisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn, vs. Pres. wid-ḗje/o-, see, as Lat. vidēre), Causatives,
and especially Desideratives (which were also used to form the Future stem in the Southern
Dialect). There is, however, no general common meaning reserved for the extended stem in -s-.
Compare also Lat. pressī <* pres-sai vs. Lat. premō; Lat. tremō vs. a Gk. τρεω<*tre-sō, O.Ind.
trásate, ‘he is frightened’.
PRESENT CONSONANT LENGTHENINGS
A. Thematic suffix -ske/o- is added to Roots in zero-grade, especially to monosyllabics

and disyllabics; as, pṛk-skṓ (from prek-), cṃ-skṓ, (from cem-), gnō-skō (from gnō-
). It can also be added to Reduplicated stems, as dí-dk-skō (from dek-), gí-gnō-skō,
and to lengthened Roots, especially in ī, u, ē, ā, as krē-skō (from ker-).
Sometimes these Deverbatives show limited general patterns, creating especially Iteratives, but
also Inchoatives, Causatives, and even Determinatives or Terminatives.
This lengthening in -sk- seems to have been part of Present-only stems in Late PIE; cf.
Lat. flōrescō/flōruī, Gk. κικλησκω/κεκληκα, and so on.
NOTE 1. Cases like IE verb pṛkskṓ, ask, demand (cf. O.H.G. forscōn, Ger. forschen, Lat.
poscō>por(c)scō, O.Ind. pṛcch, Arm. harc’anem, O.Ir. arcu), which appear throughout the whole
conjugation in different IE dialects, are apparently exceptions of the Late Proto-Indo-European
verbal system; supporting a common formation of zero-grade root Iterative presents, compare also
the form (e)ské/ó- (<h1skó), the verb es- with ‘existential’ sense, as O.Lat. escit, “is”, Gk. ẽske,
“was”, Hom. Gk. éske, Pal. iška, etc.
NOTE 2. Supporting the theory that -sk has a newer development than other lengthenings is e.g.
the Hittite formation duskiski(ta) (cf. O.Ind. túsyate, ‘silenter’, O.Ir. inna tuai ‘silentia’), which
indicates that in Anatolian (hence possibly in Indo-Hittite as well) such an ending – unlike the
other endings shown - is still actively in formation.
B. Stems in -n- are said to have a nasal suffix or a nasal infix – if added within the root.
They may be Athematic or Thematic, and the most common forms are -n, -neu-/-nu-, -

7. Verbs
nā-: as in stṛ-neu-mi/ster-nu-ō, spread; li-n-eq-mi/li-n-q-ō, leave; mḷ-n-ājō,

soften; dhre-n-g-ājō, hold; pu-n-g-ō, prik; bhu-n-dh-ō, be aware, pla-n-t-ājō,
plant; etc. These verbs can be found also without the nasal suffix or infix, viz. streu-,
leiq-, mlā-, dhreg-, peug-, plat-.
There are other, not so common nasal formations; as, -ne/o-, and (possibly derived
from inflected -neu- and -nei-) the forms -nwe/o-, -nje/o-. So for example in sper-
no-, scatter, plē-no-, fill.
NOTE. These formations are very recent to Late Proto-Indo-European. In Greek it is frequent
the nasal suffix -an-. Others as -nwe/o-, -nje/o-, appear often, too; as Gk. phthínuo, Goth.
winnan (from *wenwan); Gk. iaíno, phaínomai (from bhā-) and O.Ind. verbs in -nyati.
V. PRESENT VOWEL STEM
1. Some roots and derivatives (deverbatives or denominatives) form the Thematic verb
stems with -je/o-, and Semithematics in -ī, usually added to the stem in consonant.
The preceding vowel may be an -ā-, -ē-, -i- or -u-, sometimes as part of the root or
derivative, sometimes as part of the suffix. Possible suffixes in -je/o- are therefore also
the so-called Verba Vocalia, -je/o-, -ḗje/o-, -íje/o-, and -úje/o-.
NOTE 1. Verbs in -je/o- are usually classified as a different type of deverbatives (not included in
verba vocalia); in these cases, the root grade is usually Ø; as, bhudhjō, wake up, from bheudh-;
but the full grade is also possible, as in spekjō, look.
NOTE 2. Deverbatives in -je/o- give usually Statives, and sometimes Causatives and Iteratives,
which survive mainly in the European dialects (but cf. Gk. ωθεω, O.Ind. vadhayati, etc), as the
especial secondary formation Causative-Iterative, with o-grade Root and suffix -je/o-, cf. from
wes-, dress, Active wosḗjeti (cf. Hitt. waššizzi, Skr. vāsáiati, Ger. wazjan, Alb. vesh), from leuk-
, light, Active loukḗjeti (cf. Hitt. lukiizzi, Skr. rocáyati, Av. raočayeiti, O.Lat. lūmina lūcent), etc.
There are also many deverbatives in -je/o- without a general meaning when opposed to its basic
verb. The Thematic inflection of these verbs is regular, and was usually accompanied by the
Semithematic inflection in the Northern dialects, but not in the Southern ones.
2. Thematic root verbs in -je/o- are old, but have coexisted with the semithematics -
je/o-/-i-/-ī-. These verbs may be deverbatives – normally Iteratives or Causatives – or
Denominatives.
221
NOTE. They served especially to form verbs from nouns and adjectives, as wesnóm, price, and
wesnējō, value (cf. Skr. vasna-yá), nōmṇ, name, nōmnjō, name (cf. Gk. onomainō, Got.
namnjan), or melit, honey, mḷitjō, take honey from the honeycomb (as Gk. blíttō), etc.
The deverbative inflection could have -je/o-, -ḗje/o-, or its semithematic variant.
NOTE 1. The State or Status value of these verbs is a common IE feature mainly found today in
Balto-Slavic dialects, with verbs in -ē- and -ā-, whose inflection is sometimes combined with
thematic -je/o-.
NOTE 2. About the usual distinction in IE manuals of -éje/o- vs. -ḗje/o-, the former is
apparently attested in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Armenian (cf. Arm. Gen. siroy, “love”,
sirem, “I love”<*keire-jé-); Greek loses the -j- and follows (as Latin) the rule ‘uocālis ante
uocālem corripitur’, what helps metrics. However, Greek had probably a present with long ē (as in
non-liquid future and perfect). Mycenaean doesn’t clarify the question; moreover, it is often
accepted that forms like O.Ind. in -ayati are isolated. For pragmatic purposes, Modern Indo-
European should follow always an ending -ḗje/o-, which fits better into a North-West IE
reconstruction and into Western poetry, which follows the Classical Greek and Latin metrics, as it
is not so easy to include lubhéjeti (with three syllables) in the common classic hexameter...
However, for modern dialectal purposes (i.e. to write in Hellenic, Aryan or Anatolian) it is
probably safe to assume a common, old PIE dialectal (and limited) trend to use -éje/o-.
3. Stems in -u- are rarely found in the Present, but are often found in the Preterite and
Perfect stems.
NOTE. Stems in -u- have, thus, an opposed behaviour to those in -i-, which are usually found in
Present and rarely in Preterite and Perfect.
In Present stems, -u- is found in roots or as a suffix, whether thematic or athematic

(but not semithematic), giving a stem that may normally appear as the general stem of
the verb. It is therefore generally either part of the root or a stable lengthening of it.
NOTE. Common exceptions to this general rule concerning Late PIE verbs in -u-, usually general
stems, are different pairs gheu-/ghō-, pleu-/plō-, etc.
4. Root or stems in -ē-, Athematic or (usually) Thematic mixed with -i-. Sometimes the
-ē- is part of the Root, sometimes it is a suffix added or substituting the -e- of the Stem.
They may be verbs of State; as, albhējō, be white, with a stative value. There are also
Iterative-Causatives; Denominatives are usually derived from thematic adjectives in e/o.
NOTE. These are probably related to stems in -i- (i.e., in -je/o-).

7. Verbs
Other examples include lubhējō, be dear, be pleasing; rudhējō, blush, redden;

galējō, call (not denominative), monējō, remind, advise, senējō, be old, etc.
5. Roots or stems in -ā-, Athematic or mixed with -i-. They are spread throughout the
general Verb system; as, bhā(jō), draw; dukā(jō), drag, draw; amā(jō), love, etc.
NOTE. Some find apparently irregular formations as Lat. amō, “I love”, from an older am-
je/o-, mixed with -i-; however, they are sometimes reconstructed (viz. Adrados) as from *amō,
i.e. in -ā without ending (cf. Lat. amas, amat,...); against it, compare common IE formations as
Umb. suboca , “invoke”, Russ. délaiu, and so on.
About their Meaning, they may be (specially in Latin) Statives or Duratives, and
sometimes Factitives opposed to Statives in -ē- (cf. Hitt. maršaḫ-marše-, Lat. clarāre-
clarēre, albāre-albēre, nigrāre-nigrēre, liquāre-liquēre). But there are also many
deverbatives in -ā- without a special value opposed to the basic verb.
Stems in -ā- help create Subjunctives, Aorists, and Imperfectives. -ā- is less commonly
used than -ē- to make Iterative and Stative deverbatives and denominatives.
NOTE. They are probably related to verbs in -i- (i.e. in -je/o-), as with stems in -ē-.
7.4.3. THE AORIST STEM
I. AORIST STEM FORMATION PARADIGM
1. The Aorist describes a completed action in the past, at the moment when it is already
finished, as e.g. Eng. I did send/had sent that e-mail before/when you appeared.
NOTE. As opposed to the Aorist, the Imperfect refers to a durative action in the past (either not
finished at that moment or not finished yet), as e.g. Eng. I sent/was sending the e-mail when you
appeared.
2. The Aorist is made usually in Ø/Ø, Secondary Endings, Augment and sometimes
Reduplication; as, 1st. P.Sg. (é)bheróm.
NOTE. Augment was obviously obligatory neither in Imperfect nor in Aorist formations in Late
PIE (cf. Oldest Greek and Vedic Sanskrit forms), but it is often shown in most PIE grammars
because (Brugmannian) tradition in IE studies has made Augment obligatory for PIE, even if a)
the Aorist was mostly a literary resource, b) only Greek and Sanskrit further specialized it, and c)
only later made the Augment obligatory. Following Meier-Brügger, “The PIE augment *(h1)é was
quite probably an adverb with the meaning ‘at that time’ and could be employed facultatively
223
where indicative forms of present and aorist stems were combined with secondary endings to
produce a clear past tense (…) The establishment of the augment as a norm in the indicative aorist,
indicative imperfect, and indicative pluperfect took place in a post-Proto-Indo-European phase.
Other IE languages such as Latin or Germanic developed their own suffixal means of indicating
past tense forms”. It is clear, then, that for a Modern Indo-European based on the North-West IE
it would be more reasonable to select an ‘Augment’ (if we had to) in pro-, as common Celtic ro-, in
kom-, as regular Germanic ga-, or in per- as frequently found in Latin, instead of the Graeco-
Aryan in é-.
3. The opposition of Present and Preterite stems is made with:
a. Present Reduplicated Root vs. Aorist Basic Root; as, sí-stā-mi, I stand, vs. stā-m,
I stood; dhí-dhē-mi, I do, I put, vs. dhē-m, I did;
b. Thematic Present vs. Athematic Aorist in -s; as, leiq-ō, I leave, lēiq-s-ṃ, I left.
c. Both stems Thematic, but with different vowel grade, and often stress on the
desinence; as, leiq-ō, I leave, liq-óm, I left.
NOTE. Every stem could usually function as Present or Aorist in PIE, provided that they were
opposed to each other. And there could be more than one Present and Aorist stem from the same
Root; as, for Thematic Present leiq-ō, I leave, which shows two old formations, one Athematic
extended lēiq-s-ṃ (the so-called sigmatic Aorist), and other Thematic zero-grade liq-óm.
4. There was a logical trend to specialize the roles of the different formations, so that
those Stems which are rarely found in Present are usual in Aorists. For example,
Thematic roots for the Present, and Aorists extended in (athematic) -s-.
NOTE. In fact, there was actually only one confusion problem when distinguishing stems in
Proto-Indo-European, viz. when they ended in -ē- or -ā-, as they appeared in Presents and Aorists
alike. It was through oppositions and formal specializations of individual pairs that they could be
distinguished; as, adding a present mark like -je/o-.
II. AORIST ROOT STEM
1. Athematic Aorist Root stems were generally opposed to Athematic Reduplicated

Present stems, but it wasn’t the only possible opposition in PIE.
NOTE. Such athematic Root stems aren’t found with endings in consonant, though.
2. Monosyllabic Root Aorists are usually opposed to Presents:
a. In -neu-; as, kḷneumi/kleum, hear, or qṛneumi/qerm, make, do; etc.

7. Verbs
NOTE. Derivative kḷneumi is difficult to reconstruct with certainty; often interpreted as with
infix -n-, i.e. kḷ-n-eu-, it has been proposed that it is a zero-grade suffixed klu-neu-, cf. Buddh.
Skr. śrun; Av. surunaoiti; Shughni çin; O.Ir. cluinethar; Toch. A and B käln. Skr. śRno-/śRnu- <
*kluneu-/klunu- would show a loss of u analogous to the loss of i in tRtī́ya- ‘third’ < IE tritijo-.
b. Reduplicated or in -ske/o-, -je/o-; as, cṃskṓ/cām, come;
c. Thematic Present; as, ghewō/ghewṃ, pour.
3. Disyllabic Root Presents show a similar opposition pattern; as, gígnōskō/gnōm.
4. The thematic vowel is the regular system in inflection, i.e. Present Sg. Active with full
vowel, and Ø in the rest.
5. Thematic Aorist stems are the same ones as those of the Present, i.e. full-grade and
zero-grade, e.g. leiq- and liq-, always opposed to the Present:
a. The liqé/ó- form (i.e. zero-grade) is usually reserved for the Aorist stem; as, pṇdh-
skō/pṇdh-ó-m, suffer.
b. The leiqe/o- form (i.e. full-grade) is rarely found in the Aorist – but, when it is
found, the Present has to be logically differentiated from it; e.g. from the Imperfect with
Augment, viz. from bhertum, to carry, paradigm Pres. bhéreti/bherti, he carries,
Imperf. bherét/bhert, he was carrying, Aorist ébheret/ébhert, he carried.
III. AORIST REDUPLICATED STEM
1. Aorist Reduplicated stems – thematic and athematic – are found mainly in Greek and
Indo-Iranian, but also sporadically in Latin.
NOTE. Southern dialects have also (as in the Present) a specialized vowel for Reduplicated
Aorists, v.i., but in this case it is unique to them, as the other dialects attested apparently followed
different schemes.
2. Aorist Thematic Reduplicates have a general vowel e (opposed to the i of the

Present), zero-grade root vowel (general in Aorists); as, chenmi/che-chṇ-om, murder,
kill; weqmi/we-uq-om, say, speak.
In roots which begin with vowel, reduplication is of the type vowel+consonant.

NOTE. This resource for the Aorist formation seems not to have spread successfully outside
Graeco-Aryan dialects; however, the opposition of Present Reduplication in i, Preterite
Reduplication in e (cf. Perfect Stem) was indeed generalized in Late Proto-Indo-European.
225
3. Some roots which begin with vowel form also Reduplicated Aorists; as ag-ag-om (as
Gk. ηγαγον, where η<ā<*é+a – Wackernagel, hence *é-agagom).
4. Also, Causatives form frequently Reduplicated Aorists, cf. Lat. momorit, totondit,
spopondit, etc., or O.Ind. atitaram, ajijanam, etc.
IV. AORIST CONSONANT STEM
1. As we have seen, Present Thematic stems in -s- are often Desideratives (also used as
immediate Futures). The same stems served as Aorists with secondary endings (usually
reserved for the Aorist), generally called the Sigmatic Aorist.
NOTE. Forms in -se/o- are often found in Slavic; as, O.C.S. vedǪ/vęsŭ, nesǪ/nęsŭ, pĕjǪ/pĕxŭ,
moljǪ/molixŭ, nesǪ/mĭnĕxŭ, etc. Cf. also Skr. ávrkṣam, ádhukṣas, árukṣas, etc. For the Future
stem coming from sigmatic aorist stem, Adrados (1996) states: “Homeric Greek aorists dúseto,
bḗseto, are exactly parallels to Future dúsomai, bḗsomai, remains of the same sigmatic thematic
stem, and not remade forms as Leumann (1952-53) and Prince (1970) proposed”.
2. The -s- was added:
a. to a Consonant ending and lengthened root vowel, in contrast with the Present in
full vowel;
b. to a vowel ā, ē, ō, with the same stem as the Present, or to the noun from which the
verb is derived. Those in ē and ā must have Ø root grade.
There was also a second Aorist mark: an -e- before the -s- (possibly an older Aorist
mark, to which another mark was added); as, alkējō/alkēsom, grow, from al-;
mṇjō/mnāsom, consider, from men-; etc.
NOTE. Thematic Aorist stems are mostly used as Presents in Indo-Iranian, Greek, Slavic, and
Latin, which show still another Aorist stem for sigmatic aorists. Therefore, thematic stems in s-
are usually Future stems in Modern Indo-European.
3. Athematic stems in -s- were widespread in PIE. They were originally added to the
Root, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, in consonant or vowel, opposed to the Present.
Monosyllabic or Disyllabic Aorist root stems in i, u, ā, ē, ō, have a fixed vowel grade

(like most Athematic Root Aorists); e.g. the 3rd P.Pl. plēnt, from redupl. pí(m)plēmi, fill

7. Verbs
(i.e. in zero-grade/full-grade), or 3rd P.Pl. pewisṇt from pōnāmi, purify (i.e. in full-
grade/zero-grade).
The most frequent Aorist stems in PIE were monosyllabic roots ending in consonant or
sonant. They usually have in Graeco-Aryan lengthened root vowel in the active voice, and
zero-grade in the rest; as, leiq-, leave, from which liq-ó-m and lēiq-s-ṃ; so too from
qer-, make, giving qēr-s-ṃ; etc. Lengthened vocalism in sigmatic aorists was probably
an innovation in Late PIE.
NOTE. For lengthened grade, cf. maybe Latin forms like dīxī (<*dēik-s-), uēxī de uehō (cf.
O.Ind. ávāk-ṣam from váhāmi, “drive”), rēxī from regō, etc., or Toch. B preksa, A prakäs
(<*prēk-s-ā), according to Lindeman (1968).
The general system of Present vs. Sigmatic Aorist stems may be so depicted: -ēje/o- vs.
-ēs-; -āje/o- vs. -ās-; -je/o- vs. -is-; -je/o- vs. -ās-; -je/o- vs. ēs-; and -e/o- vs. -ās-.
NOTE 1. Aorist stem formation in -i-, -ē-, -ā- is still less common. Other common formations in
-s- include the following: In -is- (Latin and Indo-Aryan), -es- (Greek), as genis- from gen-,
beget, wersis- from wers-, rain; also, cf. Lat. amauis (amāuistī, and amāuerām<*-wisām), etc.
In -sā-, attested in Latin, Tocharian and Armenian. In -sē-, thematic -sje/o-, etc.
NOTE 2 Aorists in -s- are then a modern feature of Late PIE, found in all its dialects (as
Imperfects or Perfects in North-West IE), but for Germanic and Baltic, possibly the dialects
spoken far away from the core of the remaining dialect continuum.
4. Stems in -t- function usually as Aorists opposed to Present stems, especially in Latin,
Italic, Celtic and Germanic.
NOTE. While the use of -t for persons in the verbal conjugation is certainly old, the use of an
extension in -t- to form verbal Stems seems to be more recent, and mainly a North-West IE
development.
5. Stems in -k- are rare, but there are examples of them in all forms of the verb,
including Aorists.
V. AORIST VOWEL STEM
1. Aorists in ā, ē, are very common, either as pure stems with Athematic inflection, or
mixed with other endings, e.g. -u-.
227
NOTE. As already said, stems extended in -u- are rarely found in Present stems, but are frequent
in Preterites, and the contrary has to be said of stems in -i-. For more on these formations, v.s. the
Present Vowel Stem section.
When opposed to a Present, stems extended in -ā, -ē, are often Aorists.
2. Possible oppositions Present Stem Vowel vs. Aorist Stem Vowel include:
A. Present Thematic in -i- vs. Aorist Athematic in -ē, -ā; as, mńjō/mṇēm, consider,
alkējō/alkām, be hungry.
B. Present Thematic in e/o vs. Aorist Athematic in -ē, -ā; as, legō-legēm, collect.
3. The use of stems in -u- is usually related to the Past, and sometimes to the Perfect.
Such endings may appear as -u-, often -āu-, -ēu-; as, plēu-, from plē-, sēu, from sē-,
gnōu-, from gnō.
4. Stems in -i/-ī are scarcely used for Aorists, but it appears in general stems used for
Present and Aorist stems, cf. awisdhijō/awisdhiwom, hear, Lat. audĭo, audĭui.
7.4.4. THE PERFECT STEM
The Perfect stem (opposed to the Present) has  or lengthened root vowel and special
Perfect endings, Sg. -a, -tha, -e; 3rd Pl. -r. In Gk. and Ind.-Ira., the stem was often
reduplicated, generally with vowel e.
NOTE. Originally the Perfect was probably a different Stative verb, which eventually entered the
verbal conjugation, meaning the state derived from the action. PIE Perfect did not have a Tense or
Voice value; it was later opposed to the Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) and became Present, and to the
Middle Perfect and became Active.
I. Root vowel is usually /Ø, i.e. o-grade in the singular and zero-grade in the plural; as,
(Pres. 1stP.Sg., Perf. 1stP.Sg., Perf.1stP.Pl), gígnō-mi/gé-gon-a/ge-gṇ-mé, know;
bhindh-ō/bhondh-a/bhṇdh-mé, bind; bheudhō/bhoudh-a/bhudh-mé, bid;
NOTE. 1) for different formations, cf. kan-ō/(ké)kan-a/kṇ-mé, sing, cf. O.Ir. cechan, cechan,
cechuin (and cechain), cechnammar, cechn(u)id, cechnatar.; d-ō-mi/de-d-ai, give, cf. O.Ind.
dadé, Lat. dedī. 2) For examples of root vowel ā, cf. Lat. scābī, or Gk. τεθηλα, and for examples
with root vowel a, cf. Umb. procanurent (with ablaut in Lat. procinuerint) – this example has lost
reduplication as Italic dialects usually do after a preposed preposition (cf. Lat. compulī, detinuī),
although this may not be the case (cf. Lat. concinuī). For subgroups of conjugations, v.s.

7. Verbs
NOTE 2. There are also (mainly dialectal) Perfects with lengthened Root vowel; as, from Latin
sedē-jō, sēd-a, sit; ed-ō, ēd-a, eat; cem-jō, cēm-a, come; ag-ō, āg-a, act; from Germanic,
sleb-ō, séslēb-a, sleep; etc.
II. The Endings of the Perfect are -a, -tha, -e, for the singular, and -mé, -(t)é, -(ē)r,
for the plural.
III. Reduplication is made in e, and sometimes in i and u.
NOTE. Apparently, Indo-Iranian and Greek dialects made reduplication obligatory, whereas
North-Western dialects didn’t; but, compare nonobligatory reduplication in woida, from weid-,
cf. for woisda (<*woid-th2e), O.Ind. véttha, Gk. (w)oīstha, Goth. waist. Cf. also Gk. εγνοκα, Lat.
sēuī (which seems old, even with Goth. saiso), Lat. sedī, from sedeō and sīdo, which don’t let us
reconstruct when is from PIE sesdāi, and when from sēdāi.
7.4.5. THE FUTURE STEM
1. Future stems were frequently built with a Thematic -s- ending, although not all Indo-
European dialects show the same formations.
NOTE. The Future comes probably from Late PIE Desiderative-Causative Present stems, usually
formed with extensions in Thematic -s- (and its variants), which became with time a regular part
of the verbal conjugation in some dialects, whilst disappearing in others; e.g. weid-sō, “wish to
see”, as Lat. vīsere, Goth. gaweisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn, “visit”, from weid-, (cf. widējō, see). In
fact, whether using this formation or not, all Indo-European languages tended to differentiate the
Present from the Future Tense. Usual resources found in Indo-European languages to refer to the
future are 1) the Present as Immediate Future, 2) the Present Subjunctive or Aorist with
prospective value, 3) different Desiderative formations in Present, and 4) Verbal Periphrasis.
Future stems were usually made in Proto-Indo-European dialects as follows:
a. With a simple Athematic -s, or extended Thematic -se/o-, -sje/o-, or -sēje/o-.
b. With root vowel e, i.e. in full-grade.
c. With or without reduplication.

NOTE. Cf. for a common origin of the future in -s-, Sanskrit (and Baltic) futures in -sje/o- (cf.
Skr. dā-ṣy-mi, Lith. dou-siu, “I will give”), Doric Greek in -sēje/o-, -sje/o-, Classical Greek and
Archaic Latin in -se/o- (cf. O.Lat. faxō, dhak-sō, “I will make”, O.Lat. peccas-sō, from peccāre,
Lat. erō, “I will be”, from esō, from IE es-, be, etc.), and Old Irish common reduplicates in -s (cf.
subj. gessti, fut. gigessti). Also, some more dialectal additions are found appearing before the -s-
edings; as, -i-s- in Indo-Iranian and Latin, -e-s- in Greek and Osco-Umbrian.
229
2. In Modern Indo-European, the Future is regularly made by adding a Thematic -s-

(usually -sje/o-), following – if possible – the attested common vocabulary.
NOTE. The Future stem in -s- is found neither in Germanic and Slavic dialects, nor in Classic
Latin, which developed different compound futures. However, Indo-Iranian, Baltic and Greek
show almost the same Future stems (along with similar formations in Archaic Latin, Osco-
Umbrian and Old Celtic dialects), what means that the Future stem had probably a common (but
unstable) pattern already developed before the first migrations, still in a common Late PIE.
Apparently, then, Germanic and Slavic dialects, as well as the systematized Classic Latin, didn’t
follow it or later substituted it with their own innovative formations. Another common resource of
early PIE dialects to indicate future tense was to use the subjunctive mode of the aorist stem.
For Germanic future compounds, compare general Germanic from PIE wṛtō, turn, PGmc.
werþō, “become, turn into” (cf. Goth. wairþan, O.S., O.Du. werthan, O.N. verða, O.E. weorðan,
O.Fris. wertha, O.H.G. werdan, Eng. worth, Ger. werden), from PIE wer-, turn. Also, sk(e)lō,
Gmc. skulō, “owe, must” (cf. Goth. skulan, O.S. sculan, O.N., Swed. skola, O.H.G. solan, M.Du.
sullen, Eng. shall, Ger. sollen), with a dialectal meaning shift from ‘obligation’ to ‘probable future’,
related to O.E. scyld “guilt”, Ger. Schuld, also in O.N. Skuld; cf. O.Prus. skallisnan, Lith. skeleti
“be guilty”, skilti, “get into debt”. Also, for Eng. “will”, from Gmc. welljan, “wish, desire”, compare
derivatives from PIE wel-.
In Osco-Umbrian and Classic Latin, similar forms are found that reveal the use of compounds
with the verb bheu-, be exist, used as an auxiliary verb with Potential-Prospective value (maybe
a common Proto-Italic resource), later entering the verbal conjugation as a desinence; compare
Osc.-Umb. -fo-, Faliscan carefo, pipafo, or Lat. -bo-, -be- (cf. Lat. ama-bo, from earlier *ami
bhéwō, or lauda-bo, from *laudi bhewō).
The common Slavic formation comes also from PIE bheu-, be, exist, grow, with extended
bhūtjō, come to be, become, found in BSl. byt- (cf. O.C.S. бъіти, Russ. быть, Cz. býti, Pol. być,
Sr.-Cr. bíti, etc.), and also in Lith. bū́ti, O.Ind. bhūtíṣ, and Cel. but- (O.Ir buith). Also, with
similar meanings and forms, compare Gmc. biju, “be”, (cf. Eng. be, Ger. bin), or Lat. fui, “was”,
also in zero-grade bhutús, “that is to be”, and bhutūros, future, as Lat. futūrus (cf. gn̅tūrā,
Lat. nātūra), or Gk. φύομαι; from the same root cf. Goth. bauan, O.H.G. buan, “live”.
3. Conditional sentences might be built in some Proto-Indo-European dialects using

common Indicative and Subjunctive formations. In Modern Indo-European, either such
archaic syntax is imitated, or an innovative formation is used, viz. the Future Stem with
Secondary Endings.

7. Verbs
NOTE. Most IE dialects show a newer possibility for conditional inflection, the use of “a past
form of the Future stem”, cf. Eng. I will/I would, Deu. Ich werde/Ich würde, Spa. haré/haría, Pol.
[past] + bym, byś, by, etc. To apply this concept to the Proto-Indo-European verbal system (with
stems and verb-endings) would mean to use the Future Stem with secondary endings.
However, conditional sentences might also be made with the available Late PIE resources, using
periphrases with Indicative and Subjunctive (as Classic Latin), or with the Subjunctive and
Optative (as Classical Greek), etc. Whether MIE speakers prefer to use the modern common Indo-
European type of Conditional Inflection, or different periphrasis of PIE indicatives, subjunctives
and optatives, is a practical matter outside the scope of this grammar.
Examples of the different conditional formations are as follows:
o The system proposed was developed in the earliest attested Late PIE dialect, Sanskrit, where
the Conditional was built using the Future Stem (in thematic suffix -s-, already seen) with
Secondary Endings; cf. Skr. dā-ṣy-ti, “he will give”, vs. dā-ṣy-t, “he would give”, from IE
dō-, Skr. bhavi-ṣy-mi, “I will be”, bhavi-ṣy-m, “I would be”, from IE bheu-.
o In Ancient Greek, the Optative is found as modal marker in the antecedent, which defines the
conditional sense of the sentence; cf. εἰ πράσσοι τοῦτο καλῶς ἄν ἔχοι, “if he were to do that, it
would turn out well”.
o In Germanic dialects, the conditional is usually made with a verbal periphrasis, consisting of
the modal (future) auxiliary verb in the past, i.e. would (or should, also could, might), and the
infinitive form of the main verb, as in I will come, but I would come; compare also Ger. (fut.)
Ich werde kommen, (cond.) Ich würde kommen.
o While Latin used the indicative and subjunctive in conditional sentences, Romance languages
developed a conditional inflection, made by the imperfect of Lat. habēre, cf. V.Lat. (fut.)
uenire habeo, “I have to come”, V.Lat. (cond.) uenire habēbam, “I had to come”, as in Fr.
(fut.) je viendr-ai, (cond.) je viendr-ais, Spa. (fut.) yo vendr-é, (cond.) yo vendr-ía, etc., cf.
also the Portuguese still separable forms, as e.g. Pt. fazê-lo-ia instead of “o fazería”. Modern
Italian has substituted it by another similar ending, from the perfect of Lat. habēre
o In Slavic languages, a derivative of bheu- is used, namely Russ. бы, Pol. bym, byś, by, etc.
Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the Protasis or condition, and the
Apodosis or result, a matter studied in the section on Proto-Indo-European Syntax.
231
7.4.6. OTHER FORMATIONS
MIDDLE PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT
a. It was a common resource already in the common Proto-Indo-European language to

oppose a new Perfect formation to the old one, so that the old became only Active and the
newer Middle. Such formations were generalized in the southern dialects, but didn’t
succeed in the northern ones.
The new Perfect Middle stem was generally obtained with the Perfect stem in zero-
grade and middle endings.
b. The Past Perfect or Pluperfect was also a common development of some dialects,
opposing the new perfect with Secondary Endings (which mark a past tense) to the old
perfect, which became then a Present Perfect.
THE COMPOUND PAST
A special Past or Preterite is found in IE dialects of Europe (i.e., the North-West IE and
Greek), sometimes called Future Past, which is formed by two elements: a verbal stem
followed by a vowel (-ā, -ē, -ī, -ō), and an auxiliary verb, with the meanings be (es-),
become (bheu-), do (dhē-), or give (dō-).
NOTE. Although each language shows different formations, they all share a common pattern and
therefore have a common origin traceable to Late PIE, unstable at first and later systematized in
the early proto-languages.
The Compound Past may be studied dividing the formation into three main parts: the
forms of the first and second elements and the sense of the compound.
1. The First Element may be
a. A Pure Root.
b. Past Stem with the same lengthening as the rest of the verb.
c. Past Stem lengthened, but alternating with the Present stem, i.e. normally Present
zero-grade vs. Past in full-grade.
d. Past Stem lengthened vs. Thematic Present (and Aorist).

7. Verbs
NOTE. Originally, then, Compound Pasts are derived from a root or a stem with vowel ending,
either the Present or the Aorist Stem. They are Pasts similar to the others (Imperfects and Aorists),
but instead of receiving secondary endings, they receive a secondary stem (like the Perfect).
2. The second element is an auxiliary verb; as, dhē- in Greek and Germanic, bheu- in
Latin and Celtic, and dō- in Balto-Slavic.
3. Their specific Past meaning vary according to the needs of the individual dialects.
7.5. MOOD STEMS
7.5.1. INDICATIVE
The Indicative expresses the Real Action, in contrast to the other moods, which were
specialized in opposition to the basic Indicative mood. It appears in the Four verbal
Stems.
7.5.2. IMPERATIVE
The Imperative had probably in Middle PIE the same basic stem of the Indicative, and
was used without ending, in a simple Expressive-Impressive function, of Exclamation or
Order. They were the equivalent in verbal inflection to the vocative in nominal
declension.
Some Late PIE dialects derived from this older scheme another, more complex
Imperative system, with person, tense and even voice.
It is also old, besides the use of the pure stem, the use of the Injunctive for the
Imperative in the 2nd person plural; as, bhere! carry! (thou), bhérete! carry! (you).
The so-called Injunctive (Beekes 1995) is defined as the Bare Stem, with Secondary
Endings, without Augment. It indicated therefore neither the present nor the past, thus
easily showing Intention. It is this form which was generally used as the Imperative.
1. The Bare Stem for the Imperative 2nd P. Sg. is thus general;
2. The Injunctive (Bare Stem + ending) forms the 2nd P. Pl.; as well as
3. the 3rd P. Sg. and the 3rd P. Pl., which have a special ending -tōd.
NOTE. An ending -u, usually *-tu, is also reconstructed (Beekes 1995); the inclusion of that
ending within the verbal system is, however, difficult. A common IE ending -tōd, on the other
hand, may obviously be explained as the introduction into the verbal conjugation of a secondary
233
Ablative form of the neuter pronoun tod, this, a logical addition to an Imperative formation, with
the sense of ‘here’, hence ‘now’, just as the addition of -i, ‘here and now’ to oppose new endings to
the older desinences (Adrados 1996). This formation was further specialized in some dialects as
Future Imperatives.
The Imperative in Modern Indo-European is made with the Present Stem and
Secondary Endings, and is thus generally divided into two main formations:
a. The old, athematic Imperatives; as in eí! go! from eími; or es! be! from esmi.
NOTE. In Root Athematic verbs, plural forms show -Ø vowel and accent on the ending; as, s-
éntōd! be they!
A common Athematic desinence, along with the general zero-ending, is -dhi, PII (and
probably PIE) -dhí, which seems to be very old too; as, i-dhi! go!, s-dhí! be!
b. Thematic Imperatives; as bhere! carry!, age! do! act!, etc.
Athem. Them.
2. -Ø, (-dhi) -e
Sg.
3. -tōd -etōd
2. -te -ete
Pl.
3. -ṇtōd -ontōd
NOTE. In Late PIE, only the person distinctions seem to have been generalized. Middle forms
include injunctive forms plus middle desinences; as, 2nd P. Sg. -so (cf. Gk. lúou<*lúe-so, Lat.
sequere<*seque-se), 2nd P. Pl. -dhwe, cf. Gk. lúes-the, O.Ind. bháva-dhvam.
7.5.3. SUBJUNCTIVE
1. The Subjunctive is normally Athematic, usually in -ā, -ē and sometimes -ō, and
always opposed to the Indicative. There are also Subjunctives in -s, probably newer than
those in -ē, -ā.
NOTE. No subjunctive is found in Balto-Slavic, which could mean that it was an innovation of
Late PIE, or else that it was lost in that dialect.
2. The Subjunctive Stem is made opposing it to the Indicative Stem, usually following
these rules:
a. Indicative Athematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic; as, esmi, I am, esō, (if) I be.

7. Verbs
b. Indicative Thematic vs. Subjunctive with Lengthened Thematic Vowel (not root
vowel!); as, Ind. bhéresi, you carry, Sub. bhérēsi, you may carry, (if) you carried.
NOTE. Following Meier-Brügger, “[t]he subjunctive suffix is PIE *-e-, In the case of athematic
verbal stems, the rule is [where K=Consonant] -K+Ø- (indicative stem), -K+e- (subjunctive stem);
correspondingly, that of thematic verbs is -e+Ø - (indicative stem), -e+e- (subjunctive stem). The
formal identity of the athematic subjunctive stem (e.g. PIE *h1és-e-) to the thematic indicative
stem (e.g. the type PIE *bhér-e-) is no coincidence. This identity may be understood if we suppose
that the subjunctive with -e- was first an action type. The voluntative/prospective meaning was
neutralized when the primary endings, which emphasized the present tense, and thus the
immediacy of the action type, were used and could give the impetus for the formation of indicative
-e- stems. At the same time, the -e- stem voluntative/prospectives proved very lasting and
established themselves, together with the optatives, as a mode which could be attached to every
stem, lastly even the indicative -e- stems”.
3. In Thematic Verbs the Subjunctive is made from the Present Stem, but in Athematic
Verbs it is usually made from the Bare Stem; as, kḷneumi, Subj. kléwomi.
7.5.4. OPTATIVE
1. The Optative mood is a volitive mood that signals wishing or hoping, as in English I
wish I might, or I wish you could, etc.
2. The Optative is made with Secondary Endings, usually with zero-grade root vowel,
adding the following suffix:
1) In the Athematic flexion, a general alternating full-grade -jē in the singular, and
zero-grade -ī- in the plural of the active voice, and -ī- in the middle voice; as,
chnjḗt, may he strike, chnīnt, may they strike.
NOTE. “The stress was on the ending in the 1st and 2nd pl. forms of the mobile paradigms, and
evidently also in the sg. forms of the middle voice, but not in the 3rd pl. forms, where a number of
indications point to original root stress”, as Lat. velint, Goth. wileina, and O.C.S. velętъ. But, Ved.
-ur appears “in all those athematic forms where the stress is either on the root or on a preceding
syllable”. Kortlandt (1992), see <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/2878>.
2) When the stress is fixed, it is -oi- in the thematic flexion, and -ī- in the athematic
(e.g. sigmatic aorists); as, bheroit, may he carry.
NOTE. This is probably the thematic -o- plus the zero-grade Optative suffix -i- (<*i-h1-), i.e.
originally *-o-ih1-, or maybe *-o-jh1-, see Hoffmann (1976). Optative endings of the 1st P. Pl. and
235
especially the 3rd P. Pl. O.Ind. (-yam, -ur) and O.Gk. (*-ia, *-ien) yield a reconstruction of vocalic
sonants in PII and PGk, i.e. Them. *-oj-ṃ, *-oj-ṇt, Athem. *-ij-ṇt.
3. The Athematic Optative formations had usually mobile stress, with stress on the
Optative suffix, and on the ending in the 2nd and 3rd Pers. Plural.
7.6. THE VOICE
7.6.1. ACTIVE VOICE
1. The characteristic Primary Endings are -mi, -si, -ti, 3rd Pl. -nti, while the Secondary
don’t have the final -i, i.e. -m, -s, -t, 3rd Pl. -nt.
NOTE. The secondary endings are believed to be older, being originally the only verbal endings
available. With the addition of a deictic -i, which possibly indicated originally “here and now”, the
older endings became secondary, and the newer formations became the primary endings.
Compare a similar evolution in Romance languages from Lat. habere, giving common Fr. il y a,
“there (it) is”, or Cat. i ha, “there is”, while the Spanish language has lost the relationship with
such older Lat. i, “there”, viz. Spa. hay, “there is” (from O.Spa. ha+i), already integrated within the
regular verbal conjugation of the verb haber.
2. These Desinences are used for all verbs, whether Athematic or Thematic; as, esti, he
is, or bhéreti, he carries. However, in the 1st P. Sg., Thematics end in -ō; as, bherō.
NOTE. These endings in -ō are probably remains of an older situation, in which no ending was
necessary to mark the 1st P. Sg. (that of the speaker), and therefore, even though a desinence -m
became general with time, the older formations prevailed, along with a newer Thematic -o-mi.
7.6.2. MIDDLE VOICE
1. The Middle Endings are generally those of the Active voice with a characteristic
Middle voice -o, in which the Primary Endings have an additional -i.
2. In the Moods, the endings attested are the same.
NOTE. Only dialectally were some new endings developed to differentiate the subjunctive.
7.6.3. PASSIVE VOICE
1. The Passive voice was a development of early North-West IE dialects; it seems

therefore useful to specialise a common modern Indo-European grammatical formation,
based on old PIE endings.

7. Verbs
2. The -r ending was usual in the Middle formations of Proto-Indo-European, and it

had also a specific impersonal value. The -r has therefore two uses in Indo-European:
a. The -r After the Stem had usually in PIE an impersonal value, and it was also found
lengthened as -ro, -roi, -renti, -ronti, -rontoi, etc.
NOTE. The -r was used in the 3rd P. Sg. & Pl., and it was extended in -nt- when necessary to
distinguish the plural, giving initially the impersonal forms e.g. 3rd P.Sg. déiketor, “it is shown”,
and 3rd P.Pl. déikontor, “they are shown”, with the impersonal ending -r which was later
generalized in some dialects, spreading as Mediopassives in Hittite, Italic, Celtic, Latin and
Tocharian. Also, when a Middle form was needed, a Middle ending -o was added. The primary
marker -i was used apparently with the same aim.
b. The -r After the Ending was usual in forms related to the so-called PIE
Mediopassive Voice, attested in Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Celtic and Tocharian, as well as
in Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Anatolian dialects. In Celtic, Osco-Umbrian and Latin,
they replaced the Middle Primary Endings, and acquired a Passive value.
NOTE 1. The oldest traceable meaning of the endings in -r in Proto-Indo-European, taking the
Anatolian examples, show apparently the same common origin: either an impersonal subject or, at
least, a subject separated from the action, which is a meaning very closely related to the later
dialectally specialized use of a Passive Voice.
NOTE 2. There are no distinctions of Primary-Secondary Passive Endings, as the Secondary

formations are the same oldest Medioppasive -o Endings. The newer -i (Middle) and -r
(Impersonal) endings were added later and spread on a dialect-to-dialect basis, some of them
using and/or mixing both of them, all specializing its use.
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS
7.7.1. INFINITIVES
1. The Infinitives are indeclinable nouns with non-personal verbal functions, which can
be in some dialects as many as inflection, voice, aspect and even time.
NOTE. Infinitives are, thus, old nouns reinterpreted as forming part of the verbal conjugation.
As Meier-Brügger (2003) notes, “[i]t is doubtful that [old] Proto-Indo-European featured a
specific infinitive suffix. The development of means of differentiation of voice, aspect, and tempus
in the infinitive formations is post-Proto-Indo-European”.
237
2. The oldest Infinitives are the Verbal Nouns, casual forms inflected as nouns,
sometimes included in the verbal inflection. A Verbal Noun is a declinable substantive,
derived from the root of a verb.
NOTE. The difference in the syntax is important: the verbal noun is constructed as a substantive,
thus - for example - with the object in the genitive; as, wīr chentis, the murder of a man. Such a
formation is opposed to an infinitive with an accusative; as, wīróm chentum, to murder (Nom.)
a man, v.i.
3. Verbal Nouns were, thus, the normal way to express the idea of a modern Infinitive
in the oldest PIE. They were formed with the verbal stem and usually a nominal suffix -
ti-; as, statis, standing, placing, from stā-, stand.
NOTE. cf. Skt sthíti- ‘stay, sojourn’, Grk stásis ‘place, setting, erection [of a statue]’, Lat statim
‘firmly, steadfastly’, Eng. stead. Some IE dialects chose later between limited noun-cases of those
verbal nouns for the Infinitive formation, generally Acc., Loc., Abl.; compare Lat. *-os (sibilant
neuter), Gmc. *-on-om (thematic neuter), etc.
4. In Late PIE, a common Infinitive suffix -tu- (and dial. -ti-), usually added to the
verbal root, conveyed the same meaning as the English infinitive; as, bhertum, to carry.
NOTE 1. For generalized IE infinitive -tu-, cf. Lat. (active & passive supine) -tum (acc.) -tū (dat.-
loc.) -tui (dat.), Gk. -tós (<*-tew-os), Skr. -tus, -tum (acc.), Av. -tos (gen.), -tave, -tavai (dat.), -
tum, Prus. -twei (dat.) -tun, -ton (acc.), O.Sla. -tŭ (supine), Lith. -tų, etc.; for -ti-, cf. Ved. -taye
(dat), BSl., Cel. -ti (loc.), Lith. -tie (dat.), etc.; also, in -m-en-, cf. Skr. -mane, O.Gk. -men(ai), etc.
NOTE 2. A common ending -dhwāi/-dhjāi (Haudry) added to the Basic Verbal Stem (possibly
originally related to the forms -tu-, -ti-) is the basic form behind Ved. -dhyai, Gk. Middle -σθαι,
Umb. -fi, Toch. -tsi, as well as Latin gerunds and the for Germanic reconstructed -dhjōi (Rix
1979), all possibly related to an original middle infinitive. Other forms include -u-, -er/n-, -(e)s-,
extended -s-, -u-, -m-, also Gmc. -no- (as Goth. ita-n<*edo-no-), Arm. -lo-, etc.
7.7.2. PARTICIPLES
1. The Participles are adjectives which have been assimilated to the verbal system,
having thus verbal inflection.
NOTE. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European shows an intense reliance on participles, and
thus a certain number of participles played a very important role in the early language.

7. Verbs
2. Those in -nt-, fem. -nt-ja/ī, are the older ones, and are limited to the Active voice
and to the Present, Imperfect and Future.
In athematics it seems that a weak and strong stem coexisted in present participles, cf.
es-ont-/s-ṇt-, who exist, being, weq-ont-/uq-ṇt-, who speaks, dhe-dha-nt-, placing,
jung-ṇt-, joining.
NOTE. For s-ṇt- instead of sent-, cf. ap-sṇt- (for apo-we-sent-is) in Lat. (ab)sent-, Myc. pl.
(a-p)e-a-sa, i.e. ap-ehassai (with -assa-<*-ṇt-ih2-). A. Morpurgo Davies (1978) considered that
“[a]s far as we know, there is no reason to attribute *h1s-ent- to Proto-Greek”.
In thematics, a form -o-nt- (also -e-nt-) is generalized as, bher-ont-, who carries.
NOTE. The suffix -o-nt- shows no general full-grade/zero-grade paradigm in MIE. It is safe to
assume that for North-West IE, and probably also for Late PIE, as “[i]t remains to be seen whether
the thematic forms were originally declined as *-ont-/*-nt- (as in Vedic), and were only
secondarily reinterpreted as *-o-nt-”, Meier-Brügger, 2003 (Rix 1976, Szemerényi 1990).
NOTE 2. In Anatolian, however, this participle is semantically equivalent to the -tó- verbal
adjective. Aorist active participles wre formed similarly to present participles, with the aorist stem;
cf. Skr. sthānt-, Gk. stant- (<stā-nt-) ‘having stood’.
3. The Perfect active has a suffix -wos-, fem. -us-ja/ī; as, wid-wós-, seeing, from
weid-. Common is the reduplicated Perfect stem; as, qe-qṛ-wós-, making, from qer-.
NOTE. For widwós, cf. Av. vīduu, O.Ind. vidús-, Gk. eidós, also Toch. B. lt-u, Lith. áug-us-i,
etc. Compare reduplicated examples in Myc. a-ra-ru-wo-a, Skr. ca-kṛ-vás-, Lat. me-mor-, etc.
Another old suffix is found in Myc. -wót-.
Both the Present and Perfect participles masculine and neuter are indeed inflected
following the second declension in t and s; as, Masc. Nom. -nts, -wos, Acc. -ntṃ, -
wosṃ, Gen. -ntos, -usos (note the zero-grade us- in the Oblique cases), Nom. pl. -
ntes, -woses, etc. Feminine forms follow the first declension in -ja/ī.
4. The Middle Participles have a common suffix (originally probably adjectival),

Athematic -meno-/-mno-, Thematic -o-meno-/-o-mno-; as, alomnós, “who feeds
himself”, student, (as Lat. alumnus, from al-), dhēmn, “who suckles”, woman, (as Lat.
femina, from dhēi-).
NOTE. On the *-mXno- question, where X is a vowel or laryngeal or even laryngeal+vowel, while
Melchert (1983) or Szemerényi (1990) support an original -mn-o-, a competing hypothesis is
239
Fritz’s one with an original *-mh1eno-, into variants *-mh1no- and then -mno-, in which “the
laryngeal disappears when the suffix is added to a root or stem with a non-syllabic final position
preceding the full vowel e. The non-laryngeal full grade form *-meno- would then have the newly
constructed zero grade form *-mno-” (Meier-Brügger 2003). The differentiation of the perfect *-
mh1n-ó- vs. the present *´-o-mh1no- in the various IE languages may be traced back to the
athematic/thematic dichotomy (Rix 1976).
5. In addition to participles, PIE had verbal adjectives in -tó- and -nó-, added usually
to the zero-grade of a verbal stem that indicated completed action, and were semantically
like past participles in English. They are used in static passive formations.
NOTE. If the verb they were formed from was transitive (like eat), the verbal adjective was
passive and past in tense (eaten), but if the verb was intransitive (like go), the verbal adjective was
simply past in tense (gone). Examples include chṇ-tós, slain, from transitive chenmi, murder,
cf. Skr. hatá-, Gk. -phatós; cṃ-tós, (having) come, from intransitive chemjō, come. Taken from
Fortson (2004).
a. General -tó-; as, altós, grown, dhatós, placed, kaptós, taken, liqtós, left,
pigtós, painted etc.
b. Old (not generalized) -nó- and its variants; as, plēnós, “(having been) filled up”,
full, bhidhnós, “having been split”, parted, bitten; wṛgnós, worked.
NOTE. For plēnós, from pel-, fill, an adjective which was not part of the verbal paradigm, cf.
Skr. pūrṇá-, Lat. plēnus (vs. past participle -plētus, “filled”), Goth. fulls (double -ll- < *-ln-), O.Ir.
lán, Lith. pìlnas. Also, the common PIE verb is found from this root, plḗnāmi, fill, cf. O.Ind.
pṛṇti Goth. fullnan, Ger. füllen, O.Ir. lín(a)im, Arm. lnum, and root Gk. píplēmi.
NOTE. Verbal adjectives in -mó-, -ló-, functioned as past participles in individual languages; as,
present passive participle in Balto-Slavic -mo-, cf. O.C.S. nĕsomŭ, Lith. nēšamas, ‘being carried’,
perhaps Anatolian, cf. Luv. kīšammi-, ‘combed’. For its old use, cf. pr̅mós, foremost, first, from
per-, v.s. the ordinal numerals; however, Latin prīmus is usually reconstructed as from preismós
(cf. Paelignian prsmū), but possibly superlative pr̅(w)-isṃós, from common PIE pr̅mos,
pr̅wos, first, is the solution (cf. Szemerényi 1970, Adrados 1998).
7.7.3. GERUNDIVES AND ABSOLUTIVES
1. Verbal Adjectives are not assimilated to the verbal system of Tense and Voice. Those
which indicate need or possibility are called Gerundives.

7. Verbs
NOTE. Verbal Adjectives and Adjectives (as Verbal Nouns and Nouns) cannot be easily
differentiated.
2. Whereas the same Passive Participle suffixes are found, i.e. -tó-, -nó-, -mó-, there
are two forms especially identified with the Gerundives in Late PIE dialects:
a. -ló- and -li- are found in Latin, Balto-Slavic, Tocharian and Armenian; as,
ṇbherelós, unbearable, ágilis, agile, etc.
NOTE. For suffix -lo- as a participle suffix, cf. Russ. videlŭ, Lat. credulus, bibulus, tremulus, etc.
b. -jó- (a common lengthening to differentiate adjectives) is sometimes a Gerundive

of Obligation, as well as -tu-, -ti-, -ndho-, etc.; as, dhṛsjós, that has to be dared;
gnōtinós, that has to be known; séqondhos, second, that has to follow;
gnskendhos, that has to be born; and so on.
c. -mon, with a general meaning of ‘able’; as, mnāmon-, mindful.
NOTE. For the “Internal Derivation” (after the German and Austrian schools) of this PIE suffix
*-mṇ>-mon, cf. Gk. mnẽma<*mń-mṇ, “reminder”, PIE *mnāmṇ, into Gk. mnḗmon > mnā-
mon, “who remembers”; compare also Skr. bráhman, “prayer”, Skr. brahmán, “brahman”, etc.
3. The adverbial, not inflected Verbal Adjectives are called Absolutives or Gerunds.
They were usually derived from older Gerundives.
NOTE. Early PIE speakers had to use verbal periphrases or other resources to express the idea of
a modern Gerund, as there were no common reconstructible PIE gerunds. Just like Verbal Nouns
were the usual basis to express the idea of Infinitives, Verbal Adjectives (and especially
Gerundives) were a common PIE starting point to create Gerunds
A common Future (or Obligation) Passive Absolutive ending, -téw(ij)os, existed in

Late PIE; as, legtéw(ij)os, which has to be said, read or gathered.
NOTE. For the absolutive use of -téw(ij)os, cf. Gk. -τος, -τεος, O.Ind. -tavya, O.Ir. -the, etc.,
probably all from verbal adjectives in -tu-, full grade -tew-, usually lengthened with common
gerundive ending -ij-.
Because of its Passive use, it may be used only with transitive verbs.
241
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES
7.8.1. THEMATIC VERBS
I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (Present Stem low-o-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative IMPERFECT

lowō lówōmi lowoim - lowom
Sg. lówesi lówēsi lowois lowe lowes

lóweti lówēti lowoit lówetōd lowet
lówomos lówōmos lówoime - lówomo
Pl. lówete lówēte lówoite lówete lówete

lówonti lówōnti lowoint lówontōd lowont
deiktum, to show (Present Stem deik-o-)

deikō déikōmi deikoim - deikóm
Sg. déikesi déikēsi deikois deike deikés

déiketi déikēti deikoit déiketōd deikét
déikomos déikōmos déikoime - deikomo
Pl. déikete déikēte déikoite déikete deikete

déikonti déikōnti deikoint déikontōd deikónt
weistum (<weid-tum), to see (Present Stem wid-ḗjo-)

widējō widḗjōmi widējoim - widējóm
Sg. widḗjesi widḗjēsi widējois weide widējés

widḗjeti widḗjēti widējoit wéidetōd widējét
widḗjomos widḗjōmos widḗjoime - widējomo
Pl. widḗjete widḗjēte widḗjoite wéidete widējete

widḗjonti widḗjōnti widējoint wéidontōd widējónt

7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (Present Stem low-o-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative IMPERFECT PASSIVE

lowai lowāi lówoima lowa lowar
Sg. lówesoi lówēsoi lówoiso lóweso lówesor

lówetoi lówētoi lówoito lóweto lówetor
lówomesdha lówōmesdha lówoimedha lówomedha lówomedhar
Pl. lówedhwe lówēdhwe lówoidhwe lówedhwe lówedhwer

lówontoi lówōnto lówointo lówonto lówontor
deiktum, to show (Present Stem deik-o-)

deikai deikāi déikoima deika deikar
déikesoi déikēsoi déikoiso déikeso déikesor
déiketoi déikētoi déikoito déiketo déiketor
déikomesdha déikōmesdha déikoimedha déikomedha déikomedhar
déikedhwe déikēdhwe déikoidhwe déikedhwe déikedhwer
déikontoi déikōntoi déikointo déikonto déikontor
weistum, to see (Present Stem wid-ḗjo-)

widējai widējāi widḗjoima widēja widējar
widḗjesoi widḗjēsoi widḗjoiso widḗjeso widḗjesor
widḗjetoi widḗjētoi widḗjoito widḗjeto widḗjetor
widḗjomesdha widḗjōmesdha widḗjoimedha widḗjomedha widḗjomedhar
widḗjedhwe widḗjēdhwe widḗjoidhwe widḗjedhwe widḗjedhwe
widḗjontoi widḗjōntoi widḗjointo widḗjonto widḗjontor
243
II. AORIST STEM
ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (Aorist Stem lou-s-, Sigmatic)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative

lousṃ lousom lousīm
Sg. lous louses lousīs

loust louset lousīt
lousme lóusomo lóusīme
Pl. louste lóusete lóusīte

lousṇt lousont lousīnt
deiktum, to show (Aorist Stem dik-ó-, zero-grade)

dikóm dikṓm dikóim
Sg. dikés dikḗs dikóis

dikét dikḗt dikóit
dikomo dikōmo dikoime
Pl. dikete dikēte dikoite

dikónt dikṓnt dikóint
NOTE. For original dikóm, cf. diśáti, Gk. ἄδικος, etc.
weistum, to see (Aorist Stem wid-ó-, zero-grade)

widóm widṓm widóim
Sg. widés widḗs widóis

widét widḗt widóit
widomo widōmo widoime
Pl. widete widēte widoite

widónt widṓnt widóint
NOTE. For PIE accent on the optative suffix, following the accent on the thematic vowel of
certain Aorist formations, cf. O.Ind. them. aor. opt. sg. vidé-s (<*widói-s).

7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (Aorist Stem lou-s-, Sigmatic)

lousma lousa lóusīma
Sg. louso lóuseso lóusīso

lousto lóuseto lóusīto
lóusmedha lóusomedhā lóusīmedha
Pl. lousdhwe lóusedhwe lóusīdhwe

lousṇto lóusonto lóusīnto
deiktum, to show (Aorist Stem dik-ó-, zero-grade)

diká dik dikoima
Sg. dikeso dikēso dikóiso

diketo dikēto dikoito
dikómedha dikṓmedhā dikóimedha
Pl. dikedhwe dikēdhwe dikoidhwe

dikonto dikōnto dikointo
weistum, to see (Aorist Stem wid-ó-, zero-grade)

widá wid widoima
Sg. wideso widḗso widoiso

wideto widēto widoito
widómedha widṓmedhā widóimedha
Pl. widedhwe widēdhwe widoidhwe

widonto widōnto widointo
245
III. PERFECT STEM
loutum, to wash (Perfect Stem lōu-/lou-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative PAST MIDDLE

lōwa lōwōm lōwoim lōwóm lōwa
Sg. lōutha lōwēs lōwois lōwés lṓweso

lōwe lōwēt lōwoit lōwét lṓweto
loumé lṓwōmo lṓwoime lōwomo lṓwomedha
Pl. louté lṓwēte lṓwoite lōwete lṓwedhwe

lowḗr lōwōnt lōwoint lōwont lṓwonto
deiktum, to show (Perfect Stem doik-/dik-)

doika doikōm doikoim doikom doika
Sg. doiktha doikēs doikois doikes dóikeso

doike doikēt doikoit doiket dóiketo
dikmé dóikōmo dóikoime dóikomo dóikomedha
Pl. dikté dóikēte dóikoite dóikete dóikedhwe

dikḗr doikōnt doikoint doikont dóikonto
weistum, to see (Perfect Stem woid-/wid-)

woida woidōm woidoim woidom woidā
Sg. woisthai woidēs woidois woides wóideso

woide woidēt woidoit woidet wóideto
widmé wóidōmo wóidoime wóidomo wóidomedha
Pl. wistéii wóidēte wóidoite wóidete wóidedhwe

widḗr woidōnt woidoint woidont wóidonto
i From woid-tha. ii From wid-té.

7. Verbs
IV. FUTURE STEM
loutum, to wash (Future Stem lou-s-jo-)
Future Conditional
lousjō lousjom
Sg. lóusjesi lousjes

lóusjeti lousjet
lóusjomos lóusjomo
Pl. lóusjete lóusjete

lóusjonti lousjont
deiktum, to show (Future Stem deik-s-jo-)
Future Conditional*
deiksjō deiksjom
Sg. déiksjesi deiksjes

déiksjeti deiksjet
déiksjomos déiksjomo
Pl. déiksjete déiksjete

déiksjonti deiksjont
NOTE. For the Aorist in -s-, cf. Lat. dīxī (<*dik-s-); IE future stems in (thematic) -s- are maybe
originally from subjunctives of sigmatic aorists, e.g. subj. dik-so-mi, “I may/shall show”.
weistum, to see (Future Stem weid-s-jo-
Indicative Conditional
weidsjō weidsjom
Sg. wéidsjesi weidsjes

wéidsjeti weidsjet
wéidsjomos wéidsjomo
Pl. wéidsjete wéidsjete

wéidsjonti weidsjont
NOTE. With the old PIE voluntative-desiderative formation – possibly also behind the origin of
the future stem – is North-West IE weid-so-, visit (<“wish to see”); cf. Lat. vīsō, -ere, Umbr. re-
vestu; Goth. ga-weisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn.
247
7.8.2. ATHEMATIC INFLECTION
I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
estum, to be (Present Stem es-/s-)

esmi esō sjēm - esṃ
Sg. esi esesi sjēs es/sdhí es

esti eseti sjēt estōd est
smés ésomes sīme - esme
Pl. sté ésete sīte (e)ste este

senti esonti sīnt sentōd esent
Participle: sonts, sontja, sont
NOTE. Proto-Indo-European verb es, be, is a copula and verb substantive; it originally built only
a durative aspect of present, and was therefore supported in some dialects (as Gmc., Sla., Lat.) by
the root bheu-, be, exist, which helped to build some future and past formations.
For cognates of the singular forms and the 3rd person plural, compare Gmc. ezmi, ezzi, esti, senti
(cf. Goth. im, is, is, sind, O.N. em, est, es, O.E. eom, eart, ist, sind/sint, O.H.G. -,-, ist, sind, Eng.
am, art, is, -), Lat. sum (<ésomi), es(s), est, sunt (<sonti), Gk. ειμί, εῖ, εστί, εἰσί (Dor. ἐντί), O.Ind.
ásmi, ási, ásti, sánti, Av. ahmi (O.Pers. amiy), -, asti, hanti, Arm. em, es, ē, -, O.Pruss. asmai,
assai, est, Lith. esmì, esì, ẽsti, O.C.S. jesmь, jesi, jestъ, sǫtъ (<sonti), Russ. есмь, еси, есть, суть
(<sonti), O.Ir. am, a-t, is, it (cf. O.Welsh hint) Alb. jam,-,-, etc.
Athematic Optatives form the Present with zero-grade; cf. Lat. siēm, duim, Gk. ισταιην, διδοιην,
τιθειην, O.Ind. syaam (asmi), dvisyām (dvesmi), iyām (emi), juhuyām (juhkomi), sunuykām
(sunomi), rundhyām (runadhmi), kuryām (karomi), krīnīyām (krīnāmi), etc. Exceptions are Lat.
uelim (not uulim), Goth. (concave) wiljau, wileis, etc. The reconstructed Optative paradigm of
esmi comes from these formations (note the columnar stress on the optative suffix):
SINGULAR PLURAL
Sanskrit sym sys syt syma syta syúr
O. Greek εἴην εἴης εἴη εἶμεν εἶτε εἶεν
O. Latin siem sies siet sīmus sītis *sīnt
Gothic sijau sijais sijai sijaima sijaith sijaina

7. Verbs
Due to the decadence of the Athematic flexion in North-West IE, a trend that had begun before
Late PIE times – but was held back in the Southern dialects – there was a dynamic situation of
coexistence and (eventually) substitution of athematic stems with remade thematic ones; e.g.
newer thematic kluwējō, stājō, coexisted with older kḷneumi, (sí)stāmi, with similar
meaning and use, and in most EIE dialects completely replaced them.
kleutum, to hear (Present Stem kḷneu-/kḷnu-, with Nasal Infix)

kḷneumi klewomi kḷnujḗm - kḷnewṃ
Sg. kḷneusi klewesi kḷnujḗs kleu/kludhi kḷneus

kḷneuti kleweti kḷnujḗt kleutōd kḷneut
kḷnumes kléwomos kḷnwīme - kḷneume
Pl. kḷnute kléwete kḷnwīte kleute kḷneute

kḷnunti klewonti kḷnwnt kléwṇtōd kḷnewṇt
NOTE. Late PIE indicative forms were read kḷnumés, kḷnuté, Opt. kḷnwīmé, kḷnwīté, Imp.
kludhí, as in Vedic. Greek and EIE Columnar accent is preferred in MIE. Also, apparently the
optative in the 3rd P. Pl. had possibly full-grade root vowel, i.e. kḷnéwīnt; see Kortlandt (1992).
stātum, to stand (Present Stem (si)stā-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)

(sí)stāmi stájomi (si)stajḗm - (si)stām
Sg. (sí)stāsi stájesi (si)stajḗs stā/stadhi (si)stās

(sí)stāti stájeti (si)stajḗt stātōd (si)stāt
(sí)stames stájomos (si)stame - (sí)stāme
Pl. (sí)state stájete (si)state stāte (sí)stāte

(sí)stanti stájonti (si)stant stānti (si)stānt
NOTE. Indicative forms were usually read in PIE sistamés, sistaté, as in Vedic. The Optative
formations show zero-grade stem sta-, and the accent is written to distinguish -a-ī- from a
diphthong -aī-. For sta-jo- as a thematic subjunctive (Vedic uses its injunctive sthe-), cf. O. Gk.
subj. 1pl. στείομεν (< PGk stejome- < PIE *stəjome- > MIE stajome-), from Gk. ἵστημι; also,
θείομεν (<PGk dhejome- < PIE *dhəjome- > MIE dhajome-) from τίθημι, IE dhē-; δείομεν
(<PGk dejome- < PIE *dəjome- > MIE dajome-) from Gk. δίδωμι, IE dō; and so on.
249
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (Present Stem kḷneu-/kḷnu-, with Nasal Infix)

kḷneumai klewai kḷnwīma kḷneuma kḷuneumar
kḷneusoi kléwesoi kḷnwīso kḷneuso kḷneusor
kḷneutoi kléwetoi kḷnwīto kḷneuto kḷneutor
kḷnéumesdha kléwomesdha kḷnwmedha kḷnéumedha kḷneumedhar
kḷneudhwe kléwedhwe kḷnwīdhwe kḷneudhwe kḷneudhwer
kḷnéwṇtoi kléwontoi kḷnwīnto kḷnéwṇto kḷnéwṇtor
NOTE. PIE had probably an Athematic Optative Middle stress on declension, as in Vedic; viz.
kḷnwīsó, kḷnwīdhwé, etc. The general columnar accent of PGk and EIE is again preferred.
stātum, to stand (Present Stem (si)stā-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Indicative PASSIVE

(sí)stāmai stajāi (si)stama (sí)stāma (sí)stāmar
(sí)stāsoi stájeso (si)staso (sí)stāso (sí)stāsor
(sí)stātoi stájeto (si)stato (sí)stāto (sí)stātor
(sí)stāmesdha stájomedha (si)stamedha (sí)stāmedha (sí)stāmedhar
(sí)stādhwe stájedhwe (si)stadhwe (sí)stādhwe (sí)stāsdhwer
(sí)stāntoi stájonto (si)stanto (sí)stāntoi (sí)stāntor
II. AORIST STEM
ACTIVE
NOTE. The Aorist of es-, be, was built with the regular Aorist Stem and Augment (to
differentiate it from the present stem), viz. ēs-(>é+es-), adding Secondary Endings. Compare Old
Indian Sg. ā́sam, ās, ās, Pl. ā́sma, ā́sta, ā́san, Gk. Hom. 1. Sg. ἦα, 2. Sg hom. att. ἦσθα, 3. Sg. dor.
etc. ἦς, Pl. hom. ἦμεν, ἦτε, ἦσαν, Lat. erat, Hitt. e-eš-ta (ēsta), Alb. isha.

7. Verbs
estum, to be (Aorist Stem ēs-/es-)

ēsṃ ēsom esjḗm
Sg. ēs ēses esjḗs

ēst ēset esjḗt
ēsme ḗsomo esīme
Pl. ēste ḗsete esīte

ēsṇt ēsont esnt
kleutum, to hear (Aorist Stem kluw-)

kluwom kluwōm klujḗm
Sg. kluwes kluwēs klujḗs

kluwet kluwēt klujḗt
kluwome kluwōmo klwīme
Pl. kluwete kluwēte klwīte

kluwont kluwōnt klwīnt
NOTE. For Aorist kluwom, cf. Gk. ἔ-κλυον, O.Ind. śruvam.
stātum, to stand (Aorist Stem stā-)

stām stajō stajḗm
Sg. stās stajes stajḗs

stāt stajet stajḗt
stāme stájomo stame
Pl. stāte stájete state

stānt stajont stant
251
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (Aorist Stem kluw-)

kluwa kluwā klwīma
Sg. klúweso klúwēso klwīso

klúweto klúwēto klwīto
klúwomesdha klúwōmedha klwmedha
Pl. klúwedhwe klúwēdhwe klwīdhwe

klúwonto klúwōnto klwīnto
stātum, to stand (Aorist Stem stā-)

stāma staja stama
Sg. stāso stájeso staso

stāto stájeto stato
stmedha stájomedha stamedha
Pl. stādhwe stájedhwe stadhwe

stānto stájonto stanto
III. PERFECT STEM
kleutum, to hear (Perfect Stem ké-klou-/ké-klu-, reduplicated)

kéklowa kéklowō keklujḗm kekloum kéklouma
Sg. kékloutha kéklowes keklujḗs keklous kéklouso

kéklowe kéklowet keklujḗt keklout kéklouto
keklumé kéklowomo keklwīme kékloume kékloumedha
Pl. kekluté kéklowete keklwīte kékloute kékloudhwe

keklwḗr kéklowont keklwnt keklount kéklowṇto

7. Verbs
stātum, to stand (Aorist Stem se-stā-/se-sta-, reduplicated)

sestā séstājō sestajḗm sestām séstāma
Sg. séstātha séstājes sestajḗs sestās séstāso

sestā séstājet sestajḗt sestāt séstāto
sestamé séstājomo sestame séstāme séstāmedha
Pl. sestaté séstājete sestate séstāte séstāedhwe

sestr séstājont sestant séstānt séstānto
NOTE. For reduplicated se-sta-, cf. O.Ind. perf. tasthu, tasthe, tasthimá, tasthivas-; Gk. perf.
ἕστηκα, ἕσταμεν, ἑσταώς.
IV. FUTURE STEM
kleutum, to hear (Future Stem kleu-s-jo-)
Future Conditional
kleusjō kleusjom
Sg. kléusjesi kleusjes

kléusjeti kleusjet
kléusjomos kléusjomo
Pl. kléusjete kléusjete

kléusjonti kleusjont
stātum, to stand (Future Stem stā-s-jo-)
Future Conditional
stāsjō stāsjom
Sg. stsjesi stāsjes

stsjeti stāsjet
stsjomos stsjomo
Pl. stsjete stsjete

stsjonti stsjont
253
7.8.3. OTHER COMMON PIE STEMS
I. THEMATIC VERBS
1. Root:
o Present lowō, I wash, Aorist (é)lousṃ, Perfect lélowa.

o Present serpō, I crawl, Aorist (é)sṛpom.
o Present bherō, I carry, Aorist (é)bherom, Perfect bhébhora.
o Present bheugō, I flee, Aorist (é)bhugom.
o Present bheidhō, I believe, persuade, Aorist (é)bhidhom.
o Present weqō, I speak, Aorist (Them. Redupl.) (é)weuqom.
o Present tremō, I tremble, Aorist (é)tṛmom.
NOTE. A particular sub-class of Thematic Presents without suffix is of the tipe Skr. tudati, which
have Present Stems with zero-grade root-vowel, as glubhō/gleubhō, skin.
2. Reduplicated:
There are many reduplicatd thematic stems, analogous to the athematic ones:
o Present gignō, I generate, (from gen-), Aorist (é)gṇom/(é)genom, Perfect

gégona, P.Part. gn̅tós (cf. O.Ind. jatá, Lat. nātus).
NOTE. For gn̅tós, cf. O.Ind. jātás, Av. zāta-; Lat. nātus, Pael. cnatois, Gaul. f. gnātha
“daughter”; O.N. kundr “son”, also in compound, cf. Goth. -kunds, “ be a descendant of “, O.E. -
kund, O.N. -kunnr.
o Present pibō, I drink (<reduplicated pí-pō, from pōi-).

o Present mimnō, I remember, (from men-).
3. In -je/o-, some of them are causatives:
o Present spekjō, I watch, Aorist (é)speksṃ, P.Part. spektós.

o Present tenjō, I stretch, Aorist (é)tṇom/(é)tenóm, Perfect tétona, P.Part.
tṇtós.
4. Verba Vocalia:
o Present bhorējō, I make carry, from bher-, carry.

o Present widējō, I see, I know, Aorist (é)widóm, Perfect woida P.Part. wistós
(<wid-tós).

7. Verbs
o Present monējō, I make think, remember, as Lat. moneo, from men-, think.
o Present tromējō, I make tremble, from trem-, tremble.
5. In -ske/o-. Verbs built with this suffix had usually two main functions:
a. Durative action, Intensive or Repetitive (Intensive-Iterative), as attested in Greek;
b. Incompleted action, with an Inchoative value, indicating that the action is beginning.
Common examples include:
o Present pṛkskṓ, I ask, demand, inquire (cf. Lat. posco, Ger. forschen, v.i.) from
prek-, ask.
o Present gnāskai, I am born (cf. Lat. gnascor), P.Part. gnātós.
NOTE. From zero-grade gṇń-sko-, lit. “I begin to generate myself”, in turn from reduplicated
verb gignō, generate.
o Present gnoskō, gígnōskō, I begin to know, I learn, from gnō-, know.
6. With Nasal Infix:
o Present jungo, join (from jeug-), Aorist jēugsṃ.

NOTE. Compare O.H.G. [untar-]jauhta (as Lat. sub-jugaui), Lat. jungō, -ere, -nxi, -nctus, Gk.
ζεύγνῡμι, ζεῦξαι ζυγηναι; O.Ind. yunákti (3. Pl. yuñjánti = Lat. jungunt), yuñjati, full-grade
yōjayati (<jeugējeti); Av. yaoj-, yuj-; Lit. jùngiu, jùngti, etc. For Past Participles (with and
without Present infix -n-), compare O.E. geoht, iukt, Lat. junctus, Gk. δεπθηόο, O.Ind. yuktá-, Av.
yuxta-, Lit. jùngtas, etc.
II. ATHEMATIC VERBS
1. Root:
They are the most archaic PIE verbs, and their Present conjugation is of the old type
Singular root vowel in full-grade, Plural root vowel in zero-grade.
o Present esmi, I am.

o Present eími, I walk.
o Present bhāmi, I speak.
NOTE. The verb talk is sometimes reconstructed as PIE *āmi, I talk, and Imperfect *ām, I
talked/have talked; for evidence of an original ag(h)-jō, compare Lat. aiō, Gk. ην, Umb. aiu,
Arm. asem. Thus, this paradigm would rather be Thematic, i.e. Present ag(h)jō, I talk, vs.
Imperfect ag(h)jóm, I talked/have talked.
255
o Present edmi, I eat.

NOTE. Note that its early Present Participle dent-, “eating”, was frozen as substantive dentis,
meaning “tooth”.
o Present welmi, I want.
2. Reduplicated:
o Present sístāmi (from stā-, stand), Aorist (é)stām, P.Part. statós.

o Present déidikmi (from deik-, show), Aorist (é)dēiksṃ, Perfect dédoika,
P.Part. diktós.
o Present dhídhēmi (from dhē-, do, make), Aorist (é)dhēm, P.Part. dhatós.
o Present dídōmi (from dō-, give), Aorist (é)dōm, P.Part. datós.
o Present jíjēmi, throw, Aorist (é)jem.
NOTE. For evidence on an original PIE jíjēmi, and not *jíjāmi as usually reconstructed, cf. Lat.
pret. iēcī, a form due to its two consecutive laryngeals, while Lat. iaciō is a present remade (J.
González Fernández, 1981).
3. With Nasal Infix:
o klunéumi, hear (from kleu-), Aorist (é)klwom, Perfect kéklowa, P.Part.

klutós, meaning “heard” and also “famous”.
o punémi, rot (from pew), Aorist (é)pēwsṃ.
7.9. THE VERBAL ACCENT
The finite verb of a PIE main clause was normally placed following the subject and the
object, at the end of the sentence, where the sentence accent usually decreases. However,
when the verb was stressed at the beginning of the sentence, or in a subordinate clause, it
carried its normal accent.
NOTE. Meier-Brügger (2003) also states that “[r]esearchers agree that Vedic generally reflects
the fundamental characteristics of [common] Proto-Indo-European, and thus, that the finite verb
in a main clause was unstressed (…) It remains disputed whether the second position of the finite
verb, common to modern Germanic languages such as German, originated from the inherited
phenomenon of enclitics, or whether it appeared secondarily”. On that, Wackernagel (1892) “the
German rule of word order was already valid in the mother language”.

8. PARTICLES
8.1. PARTICLES
8.1.1. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections are called Particles. They
cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and
many as conjunctions.
8.1.2. Strictly speaking, Particles are usually defined as autonomous elements, usually
clitics, which make modifications in the verb or sentence, but which don’t have a precise
meaning, and which are neither adverbs nor preverbs nor conjunctions.
8.1.3. Indo-European has some particles (in the strictest sense) which mark certain
syntax categories, classified as follows:
I. Emphatics or Generalizers may affect the whole sentence or a single word, usually a
pronoun, but also a noun or verb. The particle ge/gi, ghe/ghi, usually strengthens
the negation, and emphasizes different pronouns.
NOTE 1. The origin of this particle is probably to be found in PIE -qe, acquiring its coordinate
value from an older use as word-connector, from which this Intensive/Emphatic use was derived.
Compare O.Ind. gha, ha, hí, Av. zi, Gk. ge, -gí, -χí, Lith. gu, gi, O.Sla. -go, že, ži, Also, compare,
e.g. for intensive negative neghi, O.E. nek, O.Ind. nahí, Balt. negi. Also, if compared with Gk. dé,
O.Ind. ha, O.Sla. že, and related to -qe, a common PIE particle che might be reconstructed.
II. Verb Modifiers:
a. The old -ti had a Middle value, i.e. Reflexive.

NOTE. This is a very old value, attested in Anatolian, cf. Hitt. za, Pal. -ti, Luw. -ti, Lyd. -(i)t, Lyc.
-t/di.
b. The modal -man, associated with the Indicative, expresses Potentiality (when
used in Present) and Irreality (in the Past).
NOTE. It is probably the same as the conjunction man, if, and closely related to -ma, but.
c. The negative particle mē, nē, associated with the Indicative or forms indifferent
to the Moods.
III. Sentence categorizers indicate the Class of Sentence, whether negative or

interrogative.
a. Absolute Interrogatives were introduced in European dialects by special

particles, generally an.
NOTE. The origin could be the “Non-Declarative Sense” of the sentence. It has been proposed a
common origin with the negative particle ne/ṇ.
b. Negation has usually two particles, etymologically related:
- Simple negation is made by the particle ne, and lengthened with -i, -n, -d,
etc.; as, emphatic nei, not at all.
- Mood negation or prohibitive is the particle mē, general MIE nē.
NOTE. For PIE mē, compare Gk. μή, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. mā, Toch. mar/mā, Arm. mi, Alb. mos.
In some PIE dialects (as generally in EIE), nē (from ne) fully replaced the function of mē, cf.
Goth. ne, Lat. nē, Ira. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. lē is ultimately derived from mē or nē.
IV. Sentence Connectives introduce independent sentences or connect different

sentences, or even mark the principal sentence among subordinates.
a. so and to, which are in the origin of the anaphoric pronoun we studied in § 6.5.
b. nu, which has an adverbial, temporal-consecutive meaning.
c. An introductory or connective ar, and, thus, therefore, which is possibly the

origin of some coordinate conjunctions.
d. ne, thus, cf. Lat. ne, Gk. tóne, Skr. ná.
8.2. ADVERBS
8.2.1. There is a class of invariable words, able to modify nouns and verbs, adding a
specific meaning, whether semantic or deictic. They can be independent words
(Adverbs), prefixes of verbal stems (Preverbs) – originally independent but usually
merged with them – and also a nexus between a noun and a verb (Appositions),
expressing a non-grammatical relationship, normally put behind, but sometimes coming
before the word.
NOTE. In the oldest PIE the three categories were probably only different uses of the same word
class, being eventually classified and assigned to only one function and meaning. In fact, Adverbs

8. Particles
are generally distinguished from the other two categories in the history of Indo-European
languages, so that they change due to innovation, while Preverbs and Appositions remain the same
and normally freeze in their oldest positions.
8.2.2. Adverbs come usually from old particles which have obtained a specific deictic
meaning. Traditionally, Adverbs are deemed to be the result of oblique cases of old nouns
or verbal roots which have frozen in IE dialects, thus loosing inflection.
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
8.3.1. Adverbs were regularly formed in PIE from Nouns, Pronouns and Adjectives.
8.3.2. From Pronouns we find adverbs made as follows:
i. With a nasal lengthening; as, tām, at that point, jāmi, already, teni, until, kina,
from this side, dom, still, num-, now, nom, so.
NOTE. Those in -ām are interpreted as being originally Acc. Sg. fem. of independent forms.
ii. An -s lengthening, added to the adverb and not to the basic form, giving sometimes
alternating adverbs; as, ap/aps, ek/eks, ambhí/ambhís, etc.
iii. An -r lengthening; as, tor, kir, etc. which is added also to other derived adverbs. It
is less usual than the other two.
NOTE. Compare for such lengthenings Goth. hwar, her, (O.E. where, hier), Lat. cur, O.Ind. kár-
hi, tár-hi, Lith. kur, Hitt. kuwari. Also, IE qor-i, tor-i, kir-i, etc. may show a final circumstantial
-i, probably the same which appears in the Oblique cases and in the Primary Verbal Endings, and
which originally meant ‘here and now’.
8.3.3. Some older adverbs, derived as the above, were in turn specialized as suffixes for
adverb derivation, helping to create compound adverbs from two pronoun stems:
a. From dē, from upwards; as, imde, from there; or nasal -dem.
b. Probably from dhē, put, place, there are two particles which give suffixes with local
meaning, from stems of Pronouns, Nouns, Adverbs and Prepositions, -dhem, and -
dhei, -dhi; as idhei, there, ṇdhi, in excess.
NOTE. For -dem, cf. Lat. idem, quidam, O.Ind. idān-im; for -dhem, -dhi, Gk. -then, -tha, -thi.
c. Some adverbial suffixes with mood sense – some with temporal sense, derived from
the older modal; as, ita, so, uta, rather, anta, towards, etc.; and itim, item, autim,
otherwise, uti, out, etc.
259
NOTE. Compare from PIE -ta (<*-th2), Lat. iti-dem, ut(i), ita, Gk. protí, au-ti, O.Ind. iti, práti;
from -t(i)m, Lat. i-tem, Gk. ei-ta, epei-ta, O.Ind. u-tá.
8.3.4. From Nouns and Adjectives (usually Neuter Accusatives), frozen as adverbs
already in Late PIE. The older endings to form Adverbs are the same as those above, i.e.
generally -i, -u and -(i)m, which were in turn originally Adverbs.
Such Adverbs had precise, Local meanings, not merely Abstract or Deictic, and evolved
later usually as Temporals. Endings -r, nasal -n and also -s, as in the formation of
Pronouns, are also found.
NOTE 1. It is not uncommon to find adverbs derived from nominal stems which never had
inflection, thus (probably) early frozen as adverbs in its pure stem.
NOTE 2. From those adverbs were derived Conjunctions, either with Temporal-Consecutive
meaning (cf. Eng. then, so) or Contrastive (cf. Eng. on the contrary, instead).
Some common endings include:
a. In -d: cf. Lat. probē, Osc. prufēd; O.Ind. pascāt, adharāt, purastāt.
b.In -nim: cf. Osc. enim, “and”, O.Ind. tūsnim, “silently”, maybe also idānim is *idā-
nim, not *idān-im.
c.In -tos: cf. Lat. funditus, diuinitus, publicitus, penitus; O.Ind. vistarataḥ, “in detail”,
samkṣepataḥ, prasangataḥ, “occasionally”, nāmattaḥ, “namely”, vastutaḥ, “actually”,
mata, “by/for me”.
d.In -ks: cf. Lat. uix, Gk. περιξ, O.Ind. samyak, “well”, prthak, “separately”, Hitt.
hudak, “directly”.
8.4. PREPOSITIONS
8.4.1. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning,
but have become specialized in use.
They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of the
Proto-Indo-European language the cases alone were probably sufficient to indicate the
sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater
precision. These adverbs, from their common association with particular cases, became
Prepositions; but many retained also their independent function as adverbs.

8. Particles
8.4.2. Most prepositions are true case-forms: as the comparatives eksterós (cf.
external), ṇdherós (cf. inferior), superós, and the accusatives kikrom, koram, etc.
8.4.3. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Oblique
cases.
8.4.4. Some examples of common PIE adverbs/prepositions are:
ambhí, on both sides, around; cf. O.H.G. umbi (as Eng. by, Ger. bei), Lat. am, amb-,
Gk. amphi, amphis, O.Ind. abhí.
ana, to; on, over, above. Cf. Goth. ana, Gk. ánō, aná, O.Ind. ána, O.C.S. na.
antí, opposite, in front. Cf. Goth. and, Lat. ante, Gk. antí, O.Ind. ánti, átha, Lith. añt;
Hitt. ḫanti.
apo, from; out. Cf. Goth. af, lat. ab, abs, Gk. apo, aps, apothen, O.Ind. ápa.
au-/we-, out, far. Cf. Lat. au-, uē-, Gk. au, authi, autár, O.Ind. áva, vi-, Toc. -/ot-,
O.C.S. u.
obhi, in the middle; around, from, to, etc. Cf. Lat. ob, “towards, to”, O.Ind. abhi, Av.
aiwi, Goth. bi.
en(i)/ṇ, in. Cf. Goth. in, Lat. in, Gk. en, ení, O.Ind. ni, nis, Lith. in, O.C.S. on, vŭ.
epi, opi, pi, on, towards here, around, circa. Cf. Gmc. ap-, ep-, Lat. ob, op-, -pe, Osc.
úp-, Gk. epi, opi, pi, O.Ind. ápi, Av. áipi, Arm. ev, Lith. ap-, O.Ir. iar, ía-, ei-, Alb. épërë,
etc.
eti, even; also. Cf. Goth. iþ, Lat. et, Gk. eti, O.Ind. áti, átaḥ, at, O.C.S. otu.
ṇdhi, more, over, ṇdher(í), down. Cf. Gmc. under-, Lat. infra, Gk. éntha, O.Ind. ádhi,
ádhaḥ.
per(i), about, around; prō(d), in front, opposite; forwards. Cf. Goth. fra, faúr, faúra,
Lat. pro, prae, per, Gk. perí, pará, pros, O.Ind. pári, práti, pra, Lith. per, Ltv. prett’,
O.C.S. prĕ.
qu, from interrogative-indefinites qi/qo;
ter-, trāntis, through. Cf. Gmc. thurkh (cf. Goth. þairh, O.S. thuru, O.E. þurh, O.Fris.
thruch, O.H.G. thuruh, M.Du. dore, Ger. durch), Lat. trans, O.Ind. tiraḥ, Av. taro, O.Ir.
tre, Welsh tra.
261
(s)upo, under, down; (s)uper(í), up. Cf. Goth. uf, ufar (as Eng. up, over, Ger. auf,
über), Lat. sub, super, Gk. upó, upér, O.Ind. úpa, upári.
8.4.5. Common Late Proto-Indo-European adverbs include the following:
ad, to, near, pósteri, afterwards
apóteri, behind postrōd, backwards
dē/dō, from, to pṛa, next to
ek/eksí, out prāi, in front, ahead
ektós, except priteri, along(side)
entós, even, also prō(d), ahead
kom, near pṛos, ahead
nī, down próteri, in front of
ṇeu, without prota, against
obhi, on, over rōdhí, because (of)
ólteri, beyond úperi/upsí, on, over
perti, through, otherwise ut/utsí, up, out
pos/posti/pósteri, behind wī, separately
poti, toward sṇi/sṇteri, separately
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS
8.5.1. Conjunctions, like prepositions, are closely related to adverbs, and are either
petrified cases of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, jod, an old
accusative. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot
always be referred to their original case-forms.

8. Particles
8.5.2. Conjunctions connect words, phrases or sentences. They are divided in two main
classes, Coordinate and Subordinate.
8.5.3. Coordinates are the oldest ones, which connect coordinated or similar
constructions. Most of them were usually put behind and were normally used as
independent words. They are:
i. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well as

of words; as, -qe, and, -wē, or, toqe, also, joqe, atqe, and, itaqe, and also, neqe,
nor, enim, and.
NOTE. For PIE neqe, compare Lat. ne-que, Gk. οὕτε, Arm. oc, O.Ir. nó, nú, Welsh ne-u, O.Bret.
no-u, Alb. a-s, Lyc. ne-u, Luw. napa-wa, and for PIE mēqe, in Greek and Indo-Iranian, but also
in Toch. ma-k and Alb. mo-s. The parallel newe is found in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Italic and
Celtic dialects.
ii. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, ma, but,
auti, or, autim, perti, otherwise, ati, but, ōd, and, but, ektós, excepted.
NOTE. Adversative conjunctions of certain antiquity are at(i) (cf. Goth. adh-, Lat. at, Gk. atár),
(s)ma/(s)me (cf. Hitt.,Pal. ma, Lyd. -m, Lyc. me, Gk. má, mé, Messap. min), auti (cf. Lat. autem,
aut, Gk. aute, authis, autis, autár), ōd, “and, but” (cf. O.Ind. ād, Av. (ā)at, Lith. o, Sla. a), etc. In
general, the oldest IE languages attested use the same Copulative postpositive conjunctions as
Adversatives, their semantic value ascertained by the context.
iii. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.
iv. Illative, denoting an inference: as, tori, therefore, ar, thus, therefore, ita, swāi,
so, ṇdha, then, s(w)eike, thus.
8.5.4. Subordinates connect a subordinate or independent clause with that on which it

depends. They were introduced in PIE generally with relative clauses. The (rare)
conjunctions that could have subordinate value included:
a. -jo, and, which has a general subordinate value, usually Relative, Final or
Conditional.
NOTE. For common derivatives of PIE -jo, probably related to the relative pronoun, compare
Hitt. -a/-ya, Toch. -/yo,It was probably replaced by -qe.
263
b. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis; as, mān, ei, if, nemān, unless,
sēd, sṇe, apart.
NOTE. For ei, possibly related to i-, hence to jo and -jo, cf. Goth. -ei, Gk. eí, O.C.S. i, Lat. s-ī.
c. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition; as, mān, as if.
d. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission; as, eti, even, an, perhaps, au,
howbeit, although, perom, besides.
NOTE. For eti, even, and, cf. Lat. et, Gk. eti, nasalized ṇti in Germanic und-, as Goth., Eng. and.
e. Temporal: as, antí, prāi, before, pos(ti), after.
g. Final, expressing purpose; as, uta, in order that, ne, that not.
h. Causal, expressing cause; as, jodqid, because.

9. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN SYNTAX
9.1. THE SENTENCE
A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation,

or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as, the dog
runs.
b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as, does

the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,

how fast the dog runs !
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an

Imperative Sentence : as, go, run across the Alps; or let the dog run.
NOTE. The content of this chapter on Syntax (but for the Morphosyntax section) is taken mostly
from Winfred P. Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974): “The fundamental order of
sentences in PIE appears to be OV. Support for this assumption is evident in the oldest texts of
the materials attested earliest in the IE dialects. The fundamental order of sentences in these
early dialects cannot be determined solely by frequency of sentence patterns. For, like other
linguistic constructions, sentence patterns manifest marked as well as unmarked order. Marked
order is expected in literary materials. The documents surviving from the earliest dialects are
virtually all in verse or in literary forms of prose. Accordingly many of the individual sentences
do not have the unmarked order, with verb final. For this reason conclusions about the
characteristic word order of PIE and the early dialects will be based in part on those syntactic
patterns that are rarely modified for literary and rhetorical effect: comparative constructions,
the presence of postpositions and prepositions, and the absence of prefixes, (...)”.
Lehmann is criticized by Friedrich (1975) who, like Watkins (1976) and Miller (1975), support a
VO prehistoric situation, probably SVO (like those found in ‘central’ IE areas), with non-consistent
dialectal SOV findings. In any case (viz. Lehmann and Miller), an older IE I or IE II OV (VSO for
Miller) would have been substituted by a newer VO (SOV for Miller, later SVO through a process of
verb transposition) – thus, all Indo-European dialects attested have evolved (thus probably from a
common Late PIE trend) into a modern SVO.
Formal writings in Modern Indo-European should follow the patterns attested in the
oldest inscriptions, i.e. (S)OV, as in Vedic Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Old Latin and
Avestan. A newer, general (S)VO order (found in Greek, Latin, Avestan, Germanic, etc.),
reveals the change from OV in Middle PIE towards a newer VO that was replacing it
already by Late PIE, and especially in North-West Indo-European.
9.1.1. KINDS OF SENTENCES
PIE sentences were either Nominal, i.e. formed by nouns, or Verbal, if they included a
verb.
I. A Subject and a Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of.
The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
a. The Subject is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a
Noun.
b. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as the dog runs), or it may consist of
some form of es and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as It is
good). Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
II. In Proto-Indo-European, simple sentences may be composed of only one word, a

noun or a verb; as, God!, or (it) rains.
NOTE 1. Nominal sentences of this type are usually Interjections and Vocatives. Verbal sentences
of this type include Imperatives (at least of 2nd P.Sg.) and impersonal verbs, which had never a
subject in the oldest dialects attested; as, for Eng. (it) rains, cf. Goth. rigneiþ, Lat. pluit, Gk. ὓει,
Skt. várṣati. It is believed that when IE dialects became SVO in structure, so that a subject was
required, the third singular anaphoric pronoun, corresponding to it, German es, French il, etc.,
was introduced as subject in such sentences. Such pronouns were introduced because SVO
languages must have subjects in sentences, as do intransitive verbs in any OV language. Such
verbs could be supplemented by substantives in various cases, among them the accusative. These
constructions are especially prominent for verbs referring to the emotions; as, Lat. miseret, pudet,
taedet, Skr. kitaváṃ tatāpa. Compare also Cicero’s Lat. eōrum nōs miseret, or O.H.G. thes gánges
thih nirthrúzzi. In PIE sentences various case forms could be used with verbs. The simplest
sentences may consist of verbs accompanied by nouns in seven of the eight cases; only the vocative
is not so used. The nouns fill the role of objects or, possibly better stated, of complements.

9. Proto-Indo-European Syntax
NOTE 2. Besides the simple sentence which consists only of a verb, a simple sentence in the early
dialects and in PIE could consist of a verb accompanied by a noun or pronoun as complement. A
subject however wasn’t mandatory. Nor were other constructions which may seem to be natural,
such as indirect objects with verbs like ‘give’. The root *dō- or in its earlier form *deH- had in its
simplest sense the meaning ‘present’ and was often unaccompanied by any nominal expression
(Lehmann).
9.1.2. NOMINAL SENTENCE
Nominal sentences, in which a substantive is equated with another substantive, an

adjective, or a particle, make up one of the simplest type of sentence in PIE.
NOTE 1. Such a type of sentence is found in almost every IE dialect; cf. Hitt. attaš aššuš, “the
father (is) good”, Skr. tváṃ váruṇa, “you (are) Varuna”, O.Pers. adam Dārayavauš, “I (am)
Darius”, Lat. omnia praeclara rara, “all the best things (are) rare”, etc. In all dialects, however,
such sentences were restricted in its use to a especially formal use or, on the contrary, they are
found more often than originally in PIE. Thus, in Latin and Germanic dialects they are found in
proverbs and sayings, as in Old Irish; in Greek it is also found in epic and poetry. However, in
Balto-Slavic dialects the pure nominal sentence has become the usual type of nominal sentence,
even when the predicate is an adverb or an adverbial case. However, such a use, which is more
extended in modern dialects (like Russian) than in the older ones (as Old Slavic), is considered the
result of Finno-Ugrian influence.
NOTE 2. In the course of time a nominal sentence required a verb; this development is in
accordance with the subjective characteristic of PIE and the endings which came to replace the
individual qualifier markers of early PIE. The various dialects no longer had a distinct equational
sentence type. Verbs might of course be omitted by ellipsis. And, remarkably, in Slavic, nominal
sentences were reintroduced, as Meillet has demonstrated (1906-1908). The reintroduction is
probably a result of influence from OV languages, such as the Finno-Ugric. This phenomenon
illustrates that syntactic constructions and syntactic characteristics must be carefully studied
before they can be ascribed to inheritance. In North Germanic too an OV characteristic was
reintroduced, with the loss of prefixes towards the end of the first millennium A.D. (Lehmann
1970). Yet in spite of these subsequent OV influences, nominal sentences must be assumed for
PIE.
A. There are traces of Pure Nominal Sentences with a predicate made by an oblique
case of a noun or a prepositional compound, although they are not common to all Indo-
European dialects.
267
NOTE. Apart from Balto-Slavic examples (due to Finno-Ugric influence), only some isolated
examples are found; cf. Skr. havyaír Agnír mánuṣa īrayádhyai, “Agni must be prayed with the
sacrifices of men”, Gk. pàr hépoige kaì hálloi oi ké mé timḗsousi, “near me (there are) others who
[particle] will praise me” (Mendoza).
B. In addition to such expansions by means of additional nouns in nonrequired cases,

sentences could be expanded by means of particles.
NOTE. For Lehmann, three subsets of particles came to be particularly important. One of these
is the set of preverbs, such as ā. Another is the set of sentence connectives, such as Hitt. nu. The
third is the set of qualifier expressions, e.g., PIE mē ‘(must) not’. An additional subset,
conjunctions introducing clauses, will be discussed below in the section on compound clauses.
Preverbs are distinctively characterized by being closely associated with verbs and modifying
their meaning. In their normal position they stand directly before verbs (Watkins 1964).
Generally, thus, Concordance governed both members of the Pure Nominal Sentence.
NOTE. Unlike the personal verb and its complements (governed by inflection), the Nominal
Sentence showed a strong reliance on Concordance between Subject and Predicate as a definitory
feature: both needed the same case, and tended to have the same number and gender.
THE COPULATIVE VERB
The copulative verb es- is only necessary when introducing late categories in the verbal
morphology, like Time and Mood. Therefore, when the Mood is the Indicative, and the
Time is neuter (proverbs without timing, or Present with semantic neuter) there is no
need to use es.
NOTE 1. The basic form of nominal sentences has, however, been a matter of dispute. Some
Indo-Europeanists propose that the absence of a verb in nominal sentences is a result of ellipsis
and assume an underlying verb es- ‘be’ (Benveniste 1950). They support this assumption by
pointing to the requirement of such a verb if the nominal sentence is in the past tense; cf. Hitt.
ABU.I̯A genzuu̯alaš ešta, “My father was merciful”. On the contrary, Meillet (1906-1908),
followed by Lehmann and Mendoza, thought that nominal sentences did not require a verb but
that a verb might be included for emphasis. This conclusion may be supported by noting that the
qualifiers which were found in PIE could be used in nominal sentences without a verb. As an
example we may cite a Hittite sentence which is negative and imperative, 1-aš 1-edani
menahhanda lē idāluš, “One should not be evil toward another one”. Yet, if a passage was to be

explicit, a form of es- could be used, as in Skr. nákir indra tvád úttaro ná jyyāṅ asti, “No one is
higher than you, Indra, nor greater”.
NOTE 2. On the original meaning of es-, since Brugmann (1925) meant originally “exist” hence
its use as a copulative verb through constructions in which the predicate express the existence of
the subject, as in Hom. Gk. eím Oduseús Laertiádes, “I am Odisseus, son of Laertes” (Mendoza).
In PIE times there were seemingly other verbs (with similar meanings of ‘exist’) which could be
used as copulatives; compare IE bheu-, “exist, become, grow” (cf. O.Ind. bhávati, or as supletives
in Lat. past fui, O.Ir. ba, O.Lith. búvo, fut. bùs, O.C.S. impf. bease, etc.), Germanic wes-, ‘live,
dwell’.
9.1.3. VERBAL SENTENCE
The most simple structure of the common Indo-European sentence consists of a verb,
i.e. the carrying out of an action. In it, none of the verbal actors (Subject and Object)
must be expressed – the subject is usually not obligatory, and the object appears only
when it is linked to the lexical nature of the verb.
NOTE. The oldest morphological categories, even time, were expressed in the PIE through
lexical means, and many remains are found of such a system; cf. Hitt. -za (reflexive), modal
particles in Gk. and O.Ind., modal negation in some IE dialects, or the simple change in
intonation, which made interrogative or imperative a declarative sentence – in fact, the imperative
lacks a mark of its own.
The relationship between the Subject and the Object is expressed through the case.
There is no clear morphological distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs in

Proto-Indo-European.
NOTE. Some Indo-European dialects have specialized some verbal suffixes as transitives
(causatives) or intransitives, as Gk. -en, Gmc. -io, Lat. -a, etc., while in some others a preverb
combined with a verbal root makes the basic verb transitive or intransitive.
When subjects are explicitly expressed, the nominative is the case employed.
NOTE. Expression of the subject is the most prominent extension of simple sentences to include
more than one substantival expression. Besides such explicit mention of the subject, predicates
may consist of verbs accompanied by two or more nouns, in cases which supplement the meanings
of the verbs (v.i.). Such constructions must be distinguished from the inclusion of additional
nouns whose case forms indicate adverbial use.
269
Few verbs are mandatorily accompanied by two nouns.
1. the use of the dative in addition to the accusative, as in Skr. tbhiām enaṃ pári dehi,
‘Give him over to those two’.
2. the instrumental and ablative, as Skr. áhan vṛtrám ... índro vájreṇa, ‘Indra killed ...
Vṛtra with his bolt’. Skr. tváṃ dásyūm̐r ókaso agna ājaḥ, ‘You drove the enemies from
the house, O Agni.’
NOTE. While the addition to these sentences which is indicated by the nouns in the
instrumental and the ablative is essential for the meaning of the lines in their context, it does not
need to be included in the sentence for syntactic reasons.
3. The causative accompanied by two accusatives, as Skr. devn̐ uśataḥ pāyayā havíḥ,
‘Make the desiring gods drink the libation’.
In such sentences the agent-accusative represents the object of the causative element: as Arthur
A. Macdonell indicated (1916), in a corresponding simple sentence this noun would have been
given in the nominative, as Skr. dev havíḥ pibanti, ‘The gods drink the libation’.
Accordingly a simple verb in PIE was at the most accompanied by one substantive,
unless the additional substantive was complementary or adverbial.
LOCAL CASES: PREDICATES WITH TWO OR MORE SUBSTANTIVES
Nonmandatory case forms are found in great variety, as may be determined from the
studies of substantival inflections and their uses. Five groups of adverbial elements are
identified: (1) circumstance, purpose, or result; (2) time; (3) place; (4) manner; (5)
means.
1) Additional case forms may be used to indicate the Purpose, Result, or Circumstance
of an action.
So e.g. the Instrumental in Skr. mṛḷáyā naḥ suastí, ‘Be gracious to us for our well-
being’.
The Dative was commonly used in this sense, as in the infinitival form Skr. prá ṇa yur
jīváse soma tārīḥ ‘Extend our years, soma, for our living [so that we may live long].’,
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. nu-kan mNana-Luin kuin DUMU.LUGAL ANA mNuwanza haluki para nehhun,
‘and the prince NanaLUiš whom I sent to Nuwanza to convey the message’ where Hittite dative
noun haluki. (Raman 1973).

When an animate noun is involved, this use of the dative has been labeled the indirect
object; as, Skr. riṇákti kṛṣṇ raṛuṣya pánthām, ‘Black night gives up the path to the red
sun’.
NOTE. As these examples may indicate, the dative, like the other cases, must be interpreted with
reference to the lexical properties of the verbal element.
2) A further adverbial segment in sentences indicates the Time of Occurrence. The

cases in question are various, as in Skr. dívā náktaṃ śárum asmád yuyotam, ‘By day
and during the night protect us from the arrow’.
NOTE. The nominal form dívā, which with change of accent is no longer an instrumental but an
adverbial form outside the paradigm, and the accusative náktaṃ differ in meaning. The
instrumental, like the locative, refers to a point in time, though the “point” may be extended; the
accusative, to an extent of time. Differing cases accordingly provide different meanings for nouns
marked for the lexical category time.
3) Nouns indicating Place also differ in meaning according to case form:

A. The Accusative indicates the goal of an action, as in Lat. Rōmam īre ‘go to Rome’,
Hitt. tuš alkištan tarnahhe ‘and those (birds) I release to the branch’ (Otten and Souček
1969:38 § 37).
B. The Instrumental indicates the place “over which an action extends” (Macdonell
1916: 306): sárasvatyā yānti ‘they go along the Sarasvatī’.
C. The Ablative indicates the starting point of the action: sá ráthāt papāta ‘he fell from
his chariot’; and the following example from Hittite (Otten and Souček 1969): iššaz
(š)mit lālan AN.BARaš [d]āi, ‘He takes the iron tongue out of their mouths.’
D. The Locative indicates a point in space, e.g., Skt. diví ‘in heaven’ or the locative kardi
in the following Hittite example (Otten and Souček): kardi-šmi-i̯a-at-kán dahhun, ‘And I
took away that [illness which was] in your heart’.
Nouns with lexical features for place and for time may be used in the same sentence, as
in Skr. ástam úpa náktam eti, ‘He goes during the night to the house’. Although both
nouns are in the Accusative, the differing lexical features lead to different interpretations
of the case. In this way, inflectional markers combine with lexical features to yield a wide
variety of adverbial elements.
271
4) Among the adverbial elements which are most diverse in surface forms are those
referring to Manner. Various cases are used, as follows.
A. The Accusative is especially frequent with adjectives, such as Skt. kṣiprám ‘quickly’,
bahú ‘greatly’, nyák ‘downward’.
B. The Instrumental is also used, in the plural, as in Skt. máhobhiḥ ‘mightily’, as well as
in the singular, sáhasā ‘suddenly’.
Similar to the expression of manner is the instrumental used to express the sense of
accompaniment: Skr. devó devébhir ā́gamat, ‘May the god come [in such a way that he
is] accompanied by the other gods’.
C. The Ablative is also used to express manner in connection with a restricted number
of verbs such as those expressing ‘fear’: réjante víśvā kṛtrímāṇi bhīṣ, ‘All creatures
tremble fearfully’.
5) Adverbial expressions of Means are expressed especially by the instrumental; as, Skr.
áhan vṛtrám ... índro vájreṇa, ‘Indra killed ... Vṛtra with his bolt.’ The noun involved
frequently refers to an instrument; cf. Hitt. kalulupuš šmuš gapinit hulaliemi, ‘I wind the
thread around their fingers’.
Animate nouns may also be so used. When they are, they indicate the agent: agnínā
turváṣaṃ yáduṃ parāváta ugr devaṃ havāmahe, ‘Through Agni we call from far
Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugradeva’. This use led to the use of the instrumental as the agent
in passive constructions.
9.2. MORPHOSYNTAX
9.2.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX
In addition to its lexical meaning, the finite verb consists of grammatical categories,
which are in turn composed of the following five dimensions: person, number, mode,
tense-aspect, and diathesis.
NOTE. Information on PIE morphosyntax is almost exclusively taken (literally or modified) from
M Meier-Brügger’s Indo-European Linguistics (2003).

a. The categories in themselves are three categories of number (singular, dual and
plural), the four modes (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optative), the four tense-
aspects (present, aorist, perfect, future), and the three diatheses (active, middle, passive).
b. Transitivity is not marked morphologically, but rather is expressed through the

presence of an accusative morpheme in the complement.
9.2.1.1. PERSON AND NUMBER
1. Within the dimension of person, PIE features three categories which are normally
numbered following the example of grammarians of antiquity. In the singular, the first
person indicates the speaker; the second, the person to whom he speaks; and the third,
that about which one speaks.
Thus, the first person refers in every case to a human being, or rather to an object that
is thought of as animated. The second person essentially refers to a being that is thought
of as listening, or an accordingly conceived object. The third person, on the other hand,
has no natural tendency to indicate either living beings, or objects, and can indicate the
one just as well as the other.
The plural of the first or second person does not necessarily indicate that there is more
than one speaker, or people, to whom one speaks, but may simply indicate that the
speaker and listener represent groups. The distinction between the inclusive first person
plural (‘we’, i.e. including the speaker, his group, and the listener) and exclusive first
person plural (‘we’, i.e. the speaker and his group, without the inclusion of the listener)
cannot be reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European. That which is true of the plural, also
applies to the dual.
2. In the verbal as n the nominal number categories, PIE features a singular, a plural
and a dual. In the case of the verb, number refers to the number of living beings or things
that are indicated by the subject noun. The number plural does not indicate that the
verbal activity takes place repeatedly or over a longer duration; this is expressed by the
activity type of the verb (Dressler 1968).
Number is the dimension in which, in general, agreement exists between verbal and
nominal inflection, namely the agreement between the finite verbal form of the predicate
and nominal form of the nominative subject. The verbal aspect of ‘person’ must, with
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regard to agreement, be considered in another light: aside from its reflection in the verb
form, ‘person’ is not a grammatical category, but rather a lexical one, one that is firmly
linked to the personal pronoun.
9.2.1.2. TENSE-ASPECT AND MOOD
1. The dimensions ‘tense-aspect’ and ‘mood’ are linked in their functions and appear
together. While tense and aspect are represented within a single morpheme and are thus
connected with each other in terms of content, the category of ‘mood’ is sometimes
expressed using a proper modal morpheme, as in the cases of the subjunctive and
optative, and is sometimes expressed through the use of different endings (indicative,
injunctive, imperative).
2. Using aspect, the speaker places the verbal action in a chronological relationship,
whereby he specifies whether the verbal action is completed (perfective aspect) or in
course (imperfective aspect). When the grammar of a language includes this distinction,
the language in question is considered an aspectual language. Aspect is a grammatical
dimension.
NOTE. H. Rix theorizes that an earlier phase of Proto-Indo-European featured a larger number
of categories within the aspect dimension, and otherwise no longer distinguished between
grammatical aspect and lexical aspect, rather uniting the two under the rubric ‘aspect-action type’.
3. Unlike grammatical aspect, lexical aspect (i.e. manner of action, or Aktionsart) is a

property of the verbal meaning, and thus belongs to the lexical realm. Lexical aspects are
not uniform in terms of content: They sometimes refer to the process of verbal activity,
sometimes to the subject. Lexical aspects that refer to the process of verbal activity may
be divided into telic and atelic lexical aspects, the former being those that only last a
moment, the latter, those of more significant duration. Telic lexical aspect may be the
result of the verbal activity as a whole (momentative), of its beginning (initial-
terminative), or of its end (final-terminative). Atelic lexical aspect is a feature of verbal
activities that last longer (durative), or are repeated (iterative). Lexical aspects that refer
to the subject may concern a desire of that subject (desiderative), or the bringing about of
a state of affairs (factitive), or the cause of an event (causative). In terms of contents,
lexical aspects are sometimes similar to grammatical categories, e.g. the desiderative
lexical aspect and the optative mood, which overlap in the first person singular when the

speaker and subject are one and the same. The factitive and the causative lexical aspects
correspond to the active voice. Because lexical aspect and aspect are sometimes similar,
the lexical aspect system can be carried over into the grammatical aspect system and vice
versa, as may be observed in the evolution of Proto-Indo-European into the individual
languages. Evidence of the change from lexical aspect to a grammatical aspect may even
be observed in suppletive verbal paradigms with stem forms of different verbal roots, e.g.
‘carry’, ‘bring’: Lat. pres ferō vs. perf. tulī; Gk. pres pherō vs. aor. éneukon.
4. Proto-Indo-European features three tense-aspect stems for expressing tense and

aspect: aorist stem, present stem, and imperfect stem. The imperfect stem is formed
from the present stem. The indicative forms of the tense stem only indicate the present
(indicative present, perfect) and past (indicative aorist, imperfect); future actions were
expressed through the subjunctive mood.
NOTE. In the post-Proto-Indo-European period, there were, aside from the languages that
continued the use of the subjunctive, various other means of expressing future actions, including a
new future stem formation (v.s.). Periphrastic future was express by means of an auxiliary verb,
usually meaning “become” in North-West IE, while Hittite had “come” o “go” (cf. Hitt.
uwami/paimi) + present. Vedic had also a form in -tar- (nomen agentis) + copula.
5. In its task as an indicator of tense, the present stem reveals a similarity to both the
perfect stem and the aorist stem. The Perfect, like the present indicative, refers to the
present tense, indicating a state of affairs to which the verbal action led, e.g. ‘the goat has
eaten’, i.e. ‘the goat is sated’. On the other hand, the Imperfect, which derives from the
present stem, has in common with the aorist a reference to the past tense: The imperfect
and the indicative aorist differ only in their stem forms and are otherwise formally
identical. The indicative aorist cannot be used to indicate the present tense, since the
indicative aorist paradigms do not feature primary endings that indicate the ‘here and
now’ of the communication process. This is due to the perfective aspect, which in the
indicative excludes the possibility of referring to the present and has more of a future
meaning. The Proto-Indo-European aorist and perfect categories merged into the perfect
in Latin.
Examples:
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a) Present: Plautus Trinummus 400, aperiuntur aedes “the house is opened”; l 100
nóston díznai meliēdéa “You seek honey-sweet homecoming”, RV 10, 107, 7
dákṣiṇśvam dákṣiṇā gṃ dadāti “the Dakṣiṇā gives a steed, the Dakṣiṇā gives a cow”.
b) Imperfect: Plautus Casina 178, nam ego ibam ad te “for I came to you”; M 152 mála
gàr kraterōs emákhonto, “for they fought very hard”.
c) Aorist: D 459 tón rh' ébale prōtos “It was him that he hit first”; RV 10, 85, 41 rayíṃ
ca putrmś cādād “He gave riches and sons”.
d) Perfect: Plautus Captivi, 575 servos es, liber fuisti “A slave you are; free you have
been”; t 72 kakà dè khroi eímata eímai “I have bad clothing on my skin”; RV 4, 16, 6 apó
rireca “he released the water”.
6. Aside from the category of tense, the Aorist stem indicates the perfective aspect, the
Present stem the imperfective aspect, and the Perfect stem a sort of resultative aspect.
While the present and the aorist form a dichotomy, the perfect is isolated outside of this
dichotomy. The isolated position of the perfect is also shown by the fact that the perfect,
unlike the aorist and the present, has no moods other than the indicative, while it is
precisely in the moods other than the indicative that the aspectual opposition of aorist
and present is relevant. It thus remains questionable whether or not one may speak of
aspect in the case of the perfect. In any case, the perfect is situated outside of the
aspectual opposition of the present and the aorist.
NOTE. H. Rix thus describes the qualities of the perfect: “Primary affixes as reduplication, mark,
among other things, modes of action in PIE, and differences of the endings distinguish, among
other things, voices. The PIE perfect, therefore, is to be defined as a certain mode of action that
appears in a certain voice only”.
7. The Indicative is used for statements to which the speaker lends validity: By using
the indicative, the speaker gives his statement the character of a true statement. Whether
or not the contents of the statements in fact correspond to reality, is of course uncertain.
Examples – D 443 epí khthonì baínei “she runs on the earth”; RV 1, 105, 1 candrámā
apsvàntár  suparṇó dhāvate diví “the beautifully winged moon runs in the waters
across the sky”.
8. According to K. Hoffman (Injunktiv 1967), the Injunctive serves to mention an

action, without specifying chronology.

NOTE. The injunctive in Vedic expresses verbal definiteness, or the presumed validity of an
action. It receives a special function in prohibitive phrases in which it is then used in combination
with the negation m in order to express that something is forbidden.
9. The Imperative, particularly the true, 2nd person imperative, holds a special place in
the verbal paradigm, similar to that in the nominal paradigm occupied by the vocative,
which is equally directed to a listener, and with which the imperative shares the formal
characteristic of having a singular form which is composed of the stem without an
ending, with no sign of its connection to the sentence.
Examples – Plautus, Mostellaria, 387 habe bonum animum “have good courage”; B 331
áll’ áge mímnete pántes “come now, stay”; RV 1, 16, 6 tm indra sáhase piba “Drink this,
oh Indra, for strength”.
In addition to the true imperative, which expresses a request or an order that demands
the immediate execution of the verbal activity, another form of expression for
instructions and requests with a temporal function developed from the association of this
imperative form with the ablative of the demonstrative pronoun PIE tōd. While these
instructions and requests have the immediate validity of the true imperative, they do not
bring about the immediate execution of the verbal activity.
Interdictions, or negative orders or requests, are, unlike positive orders and requests,
not expressed with the imperative, but rather with the injunctive in connection with the
negation PIE mē (or nē). The use of the infinitive to name the prohibited verbal activity
in early PIE dialects is comparable.
10. According to Delbrück’s investigations of fundamental notions (Ai. Syntax 1888),

the Subjunctive mood expresses a will, while the Optative mood expresses a wish. It is
important to note that the will or the wish (as the case may be) that is meant is that of the
speaker, and not that of the subject, or, more precisely stated, that of the actor that is
designated by the nominative form. The wish of the subject was originally expressed
through its own derivational verbal form, namely, the desiderative. For Gonda (1956),
the characteristic properties are ‘visualization’ for the subjunctive, and ‘eventuality’ for
the optative. According to A. Scherer (1969), “the subjunctive draws the conclusion from
a given situation. The subjunctive would then indicate a state of affairs, which according
to the relevant facts, may be accepted as factual (i.e. concluded from the circumstances
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to be necessarily true), while the indicative reports what the speaker knows (or believes
to know), or asserts as a fact. The optative characterizes merely that the state of affairs
was thought”.
a. The Subjunctive, which originally indicates the future, has two functions: In its
prospective function, it serves to express things that happen in the future, while in its
voluntative function, it indicates the will of the speaker. The subjunctive is used to
express his will when he considers that it is within his power to bring about the verbal
action. A declaration of will in a strict sense is only possible when the speaker has direct
influence on events, such that that which is desired may also be executed. This means
that a true expression of will may only be in the first person singular, while all other cases
are equally requests. If the first person subjunctive is taken as a request made of oneself,
a connection to the second and third person subjunctive is possible in which the speaker
has no direct influence on the realization of the verbal action, so that the statement may
only be understood as a request. A further connection may be made with the 1st person
plural, in which the speaker communicates his own will, and at the same time directs a
request to others.
Examples:
a) 1 sg.: Plautus Cacchides 1049 quod perdundumst properem perdere “what may be
lost, I will/want to hurry up and lose”; u 296 áll’ áge oí kaì egṓ dō kseínion “thus I
will/want to give a gift of welcome also to him”; RV 10, 39, 5 purāṇ vāṃ vīry prá
bravā jáne, “your earlier heroic deeds I will/want to announce to all people”; RV 6, 59, 1
prá nú vocā sutéṣu vām “On the occasion of the pressing, I thus will/want to announce
the heroic deeds of both of you”.
b) 1 pl.: W 601 nun dè mnēsṓmetha dórpou “now we will/want to think about the
meal”; RV 5, 51, 12 svastáye vāyúm úpa bravāmahai “We will/want to call to Vaayu for
the sake of welfare”.
c) 2nd person: Plautus, Mostellaria, 388 taceas “you should remain silent”; RV 4, 31, 3
̥̄ m satám bhavāsi ūtíbhiḥ “you, oh helper of the
abh ṣú naḥ sákhīnām avit jaritrn
singer’s friends, will/should protect us well with a hundred helps”.
d) 3rd person: Plautus, Captivi 115 sed uti adserventur magna diligentia “but they
should be guarded with great care”; H 197 oú gár tís me bíē ge ekòn aékonta díētai “For

none will/should force me to leave against my own will”; H 87 kaí poté tis eípēsi kaì
ópsigónōn ánthrṓpōn “and one day, even one of the descendants will say”; RV 8, 1, 22 sá
sunvaté ca stuvaté ca rāsate “who will/should give both to him who presses, and to him
who prizes” RV 10, 81, 7 sá no víśvāni hávanāni joṣad “That man will/should be friendly
and take receipt of all our sacrifices”.
b. The Optative, which originally indicates possibility, has two functions, either
expressing the wish of the speaker (desiderative function), or expressing possibility
(potential function). When the optative is used to express a wish, the speaker indicates
that he is not directly able to bring about the verbal action. The optative proves to be
more uniform that the subjunctive, given that in its cupitive function, the optative,
independently of the category of person, always indicates a simple wish of the speaker,
regardless of his influence on the realization of the verbal action.
Examples of the potential function: – Plautus, Amphitruo, 1060 nec me miserior

femina est neque ulla videatur magis “a more miserable woman than myself does not
exist, and will most probably never be seen”; Terence, Eunuchus, 511 roget quis “one
might ask”; Z 122f. oú tis keínon anḕr alalḗmenos elthṑn alléllōn peíseie gunaiká te kaì
phílon uión “a man, who comes traveling with news of that, could not convince his son
and the woman”; RV 5, 50, 1 víśvo devásya netúr márto vurīta sakhyám “each mortal
will likely desire the friendship of the leading god”.
Examples of the desiderative function:
a) 1st person: S 121 nun dè kléos esthlón apoímēn “and now I would like to wrest noble
fame”; RV 6, 13, 6 víśvābhir gīrbhír abhí pūrtím aśyām “by all songs, I would like to
obtain fulfillment”; RV 1, 4, 6 syméd índrasya sármani “we would like to be under
Indra’s protection”.
b) 3rd person: Terence, Eunuchus, 302 ut illum di deaeque senium perdant “that elder
is the one that the gods and the goddesses would like to ruin”; A 18 umïn mèn theoì doïen
“to you indeed, the gods like to give”; P 416f. all’autou gaïa mélaina’ pasi khánoi “the
black earth should open to all precisely here”; RV 5, 21, 4 deváṃ vo devayajyáyaagnim
īḷīa mártyaḥ “the mortal should praise your god Agni through worship”.
In terms of content, the similarity between the prospective function of the subjunctive
and the potential function of the optative is evident in the comparison of Z 459 kaí poté
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tis eípēsin “one day, someone will say” and Z 479 kaí poté tis eípoi “one day, someone
will in all likelihood say”.
9.2.1.3. DIATHESIS
1. Within the dimension of diathesis, three categories may initially be reconstructed:

active, middle and stative.
2. Active and middle voices may be distinguished formally by their endings, v.s.
However, in terms of content, the attribution of agentivity to the active voice and
patientivity to the middle voice is not tenable: Lexemes with active contents are not
always used in the active voice, just the same as lexemes with patientive content are not
always used in the middle voice. Owing to the incompatibility of lexical meanings with
one or the other voice, some verbs only occur in either the active or the middle voice.
3. Originally, the middle voice had a reflexive meaning, thus incorporating the function
of the passive voice. The middle voice appears when the verbal action affects the subject
directly or indirectly, or, when the verbal action does not have an affect beyond the
subject. When the subject is plural or dual, the middle voice also expresses reciprocity.
4. In addition to the active and middle voices, a third diathesis category may be
distinguished, the stative, indicating a state of being (related to the Perfect and early
Middle endings, v.s.). The stative voice expresses the subject’s state of being. In Proto-
Indo-European, the stative merges on the one hand with the middle voice, which, in
addition to its original reflexive meaning, takes on the additional ‘state of being’ meaning
of the stative, and on the other hand, forms the basis for the perfect, which formally
differs from the stative by its reduplication.
NOTE. H. Rix describes the earlier distribution of functions that became the middle voice in the
following way: “It is quite obvious how to distribute the two functions of the more recent middle
voice among these two older voices: the content of the middle was the reflexive along with the
passive, and the content of the stative was the deponent”. Rix emphasizes that the middle voice is
more related to the stative voice than to the perfect mood: “It is this voice ‘stative’ and not the
mode of action ‘perfect’, that is the partner of the voice middle”.
5. The function of the category ‘passive’, which appears in many IE languages, but did
not exist as a grammatical category in Proto-Indo-European, was performed by the

middle voice. The various IE languages that feature a passive voice each formed it
independently from each other (v.s.).
6. According to I. Mel’čuk, there is a difference between ‘diathesis’ and ‘voice’.

According to his view, one speaks of ‘diathesis’ in cases in which forms of the same verb
that are commonly said to differ in voice cannot be used to describe the same real
situation. Such is the case of middle voice forms and their corresponding active forms.
On the other hand, the possibility of referring to the same real situation exists in the case
of the passive forms that correspond to active forms. In this case, one speaks of ‘voice’.
9.2.1.4. PERIPHRASTIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Relative to the ancient IE languages, periphrastic constructions of the type Lat. quid
futūrum est ‘what should that become’, or quod habeō tollere ‘what I intend to take’, are
considered new. However, such forms are attested in the Hittite of the 2nd millennium
BC, e.g. the ḫark- constructions for the perfect and pluperfect.
If in fact the Latin perfect of the type portāvī may be traced to the periphrase
*portāwosis esom (i.e. an active perfect participle with -wos- + verbum substantivum),
then also it must date from prehistoric period. Thus, it may not be ruled out that Proto-
Indo-European already featured several periphrastic constructions.
NOTE. Meier-Brügger (2003) further states: “I also consider cases such as the following to be
similar to paraphrases: Lat. vēndere < vēnum *dide- ‘to put up for sale’, in the sense of ‘to sell’ vs.
venīre < vēnum īre ‘to go for sale’ in the sense of ‘to be sold’ (dide must here be traced to PIE
*dheh1-, and not to *deh3-! (…) Or, similarly, interficere ‘to separate (from life), to make
disappear’, in the sense of ‘to kill’, vs. interīre ‘to go and disappear’ in the sense of ‘to decline’ (-
facere makes clear that this is a case of PIE *dheh1-). This combination of substantivized verb or
preverb and *dheh1- (in the active sense), or *h1ei-, ‘to go’ (in the passive sense) certainly dates
from a pre-individual language period”.
9.2.2. NOMINAL MORPHOSYNTAX
The verb, with its system of categories, presents a contrast with all other inflectable
parts of speech, which share a common system of categories. For this reason, one speaks
of nominal categories when speaking not only of the noun, which includes substantives
and adjectives, but also when speaking of pronouns. The commonalities that combine
these word types are the case and number categories
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In the case of adjectives and gendered pronouns, the dimension fo gender is not
directly linked to the lexeme.
The personal pronoun plays a special role among the pronouns and nouns, not just
because it does not distinguish between gender, but also because personal pronouns,
unlike other pronouns, do not in fact take the place of nouns, which is why it would be
better to use the term ‘personals’. Unlike the case of verbs, the dimension ‘person’ in
personal pronouns is lexical.
9.2.2.1. CASE
1. To each case may be attributed a certain meaning. To be certain, the meaning may
vary from the central meaning in certain cases. Meanings of cases vary as do lexical
meanings, according to context. However, two opposing meanings may not be unified in
a single linguistic symbol. The meaning of a case is generally independent of context,
while the various functions are determined by the context. In the wider context of a
sentence, there are certain roles that may be assigned to the various nominal forms that
appear in the sentence. These roles, however, are independent of the linguistic symbol
and concern the actual situation, which may be described quite variously by the speaker.
The same actual situation may thus be described in an active construction, or in a passive
construction: The cat ate the mouse. – The mouse was eaten by the cat. In the one case,
the nominative form ‘cat’ corresponds to the agens, in the other, the nominative form
‘mouse’ corresponds to the patiens. Agens and patiens are two opposing roles, which
may neither be assigned as different meanings of a single linguistic symbol, nor classified
as functions of a single meaning. As roles, agens and patiens are separated from the
linguistic symbol of the nominative and may not be indicated by the nominative. Rather,
the nominative indicates that which is in the foreground, thus, the theme; whether the
agens or the patiens provides the theme is unimportant.
2 The claim is often made that case meaning is least distinct in the case of
complements, and most distinct in the case of extensions. According to W. U. Dressler:
“case forms are obligatory completions of verbs (…) subjects and objects are automatic
results of the use of verbs, which, in their dependence schemes, present corresponding
fillable spaces” and further “here remains the function of case in the facultative extension
of the sentence. Here, the case has syntactical value of its own”; Haudry: “As a general

rule, one may assert that government tends to deprive the case of its own semantic
contents; a governed use is defined by a function. Positive semantic contents may only
appear in free uses”; Pinkster: “the semantic relations within a sentence are revealed by
the cases only to a very limited extend, because: - within the nuclear predication the
predicate determines the possibility of lexemes to occur as arguments with the predicate;
the number and nature of the semantic functions are fixed for each verb; - outside the
nuclear predication the lexical meaning itself determines to a high degree whether a
lexeme may be used with a given semantic function”. However, the claim may not be
made with such a comprehensive validity (Hettrich 1988). Because the nominative does
not occur as an extension, its meaning as a complement cannot be compared with that of
an extension. The locative, on the other hand, may always indicate a spatial relationship,
regardless of whether it is a complement or a given.
3. Although they have meanings that sometimes vary greatly, different cases fit into a
single paradigm: Thus, in terms of content, the nominative case, when used to indicate a
grammatical subject, is completely different from the locative case when it is used to
indicate the spatial aspects of the verbal action.
a. The order in which cases are listed originates in Sanskrit grammar, in which the
cases in the paradigm that were formally identical were grouped together in each of the
three numbers. However, this formal criterion is not a purely external characteristic. This
formal identity is also generally defensible in relation to meaning, just as the partial
formal fusion of various case forms may be seen as a preliminary phase of case
syncretism.
b. Proto-Indo-European cases may be classified into groups according to aspects of

content: There are cases with rather abstract meaning, that cross-reference within the
language system, and others that have rather concrete meaning, referring primarily to
language-external reality. This differentiation is not new, but must not be seen as an
absolute classification, since individual cases are situated between the two poles, able to
be used concretely or syntactically.
Cases assume particular meanings in the establishment of spatial relations of the verbal
action: The spatial cases are the locative (where?), the accusative (where…to?), and the
ablative (where…from?). The noun that indicates the place to which the verbal action
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refers is declined in one of these cases, allowing that which is signified by the subject (in
the case of intransitive verbs), or that which is signified by the object (in the case of
transitive verbs), to be spatially situated. That which is spatially situated is referred to as
the locatum; that which refers to the place of reference, is the relatum.
4. A common phenomenon of the linguistic development from Proto-Indo-European to

the IE languages is case syncretism, which means that cases which were originally
separate from each other and distinguishable by their endings, were subsumed into a
single ending. The spectrum of meaning of the resulting case becomes correspondingly
broad, rendering the task of discerning a basic meaning of the case more difficult.
In Latin, the ablative represents the merger of three cases: instrumental, ablative and
locative. In Greek, the PIE instrumental and locative cases merged to form the dative,
and the ablative was subsumed in the genitive.
NOMINATIVE
The Nominative occupies a special position within the nominal paradigms of IE

languages. This position is revealed by, among other things, the fact that in Old Indian –
apart from neuter forms – all three numbers are formed on the basis of the strong stem
and that the columnal nominal accent in Greek follows the accent position in the
nominative case. Within the realm of syntax as well, the nominative traditionally plays a
special role as the casus rectus, which contrasts with all the other casus obliqui of the
paradigm.
The nominative indicates the theme of the sentence which, in a non-marked sentence,
is placed in sentence-initial position. Other sentence elements are also thematized in
taking the sentence-initial position, which, in the non-marked sentence, is reserved for
the subject.
“The Proto-Indo-European nominative does not indicate the subject of an action in the
logical sense, but rather in the sense that appears to the observer to be bearer and
middle-point of the action that is expressed by the verb” (Delbrück 1879). However, this
does not apply to the interrogative pronoun, which places its referent in the middle-
point, even when it does not take the subject position and is not the bearer of the verbal
action. The concept of the subject is itself difficult to grasp; for H.-J. Sasse it is “a

syntactical relation with semantic and pragmatic functions… [the] sentence element that
is indicated as the subject has a doubled function as it is both pragmatic (as an indicator
of the topic of the sentence) and semantic (as an identifier of the agent). This double-
function finds expressing in its syntactical characteristics (Sasse, 1982).
VOCATIVE
The Vocative is the nominal form that is used for addressing a listener. There is only a
distinct vocative in the singular, and even then, not all nominal paradigms feature a
separate vocative form. Where there is no separate vocative, its function is taken by the
nominative. The same occurs when two actions of addressing are linked: While the first
is in the vocative, the second is in the nominative. – Examples: G 276f. Zeu páter…Héliós
th’ “Oh father Zeus and Helios”; RV 3, 25, 4 ágna índraś ca “Oh Agni and Indra”.
i. The vocative element in the sentence receives no accent. – Example: RV 1, 184, 2

asmé ū ṣú vṛṣaṇā mādayethām “Enjoy yourselves nicely, you two heroes, in our
company”.
ii. In Old Indian, when the vocative forms a sentence of its own, and is thus in sentence-
initial position, it receives stress, regardless of its normal nominal accent, on its first
syllable, i.e. on the first syllable of the sentence. In this case, sentence stress is meant and
not word stress. – Example: AV 19, 70, 1 dévā jvata “Gods! Live!”
ACCUSATIVE
The Accusative has two apparently very different functions: On the one hand, it
indicates the direct object in the case of transitive verbs (i.e. accusative object), on the
other hand, it expresses that the verbal action bears an orientation in terms of space (i.e.
directional accusative). The accusative is further used to express spatial or chronological
expanse (i.e. accusative of expanse). In addition, it expresses the relation of the verbal
action to a referent in a non-spatial sense (relational accusative). Finally, the accusative
is also used when the contents of a verb are additionally expressed through a noun which
appears in the accusative (i.e. accusative of contents): The technical term for this use of a
substantive and a verb with the same lexical contents is figura etymologica. The original
meaning of the accusative is probably that of direction, in the sense of spatial relation.
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The additional meanings that developed upon this basics include extent, relation, object
and contents.
i. According to Hübschmann (Casuslehre 1875), the accusative indicates the

“completion or narrower definition of the verbal concept”, distinguishing an obligatoty
accusative, i.e. the object accusative, from a facultative accusative. Delbrück (Gr. Syntax
1879) thus describes the use of the accusative: “Originally, it served neither to indicate
the object, nor the destination, nor the relation, etc., but rather simply to complement
the verb. The choice of senses in which this complement was to be understood was left to
the listener”. He further asserts that there were “different types of uses…already in the
Proto-Indo-European period”.
ii. As an indicator of place, the accusative is similar to the locative which is also used to
indicate the arrival at a destination toward which a movement was oriented. In contrast,
although the accusative does not exclude the arrival at a destination, it is semantically
indifferent to the question of arrival at a destination (García Ramón, 1995).
NOTE. It remains disputed whether the local or grammatical meaning of the accusative is
original According to G. De Boel (1988), the directional accusative is not inherited, but rather
newly created.
iii. Equally unclear is the relationship in Proto-Indo-European of a specialized

directional case, the ‘directive’, which was continued in Anatolian, to the directional
accusative. According to G. Dunkel (1992), the directive only indicates the direction: “It
expressed only the aim or direction of a movement”. In comparison, the accusative and
the locative have additional meanings: the accusative indicates “attainment of the goal
and entering it”; and the locative, “attainment of the goal…and…state of rest”.
iv. Only miscellaneous remnants of the accusative of direction without the use of a
preposition are extant in Latin, e.g. domum “to home”, rus “to the countryside”.
Examples:
a) Accusative of direction: A 322 érkhesthon klisíēn “go both of you to your tent”; K 195
ósoi keklḗato boulḗn “who where summoned for consultation”; TS 6, 2, 11, 4 yad
múkhaṃ gachaty áthodáraṃ gachati “if it goes to the mouth, then it goes to the
stomach”.

b) Accusative of extent: Plautus, Truculentus 278 noctem in stramentis pernoctare “to

pass one night in the straw”; Psi 529 douròs erōḗn “at a spear throw’s distance”; l 190
kheima “in the winter”; TB 1, 3, 6, 3 saptádaśa pravyādhn ājíṃ dhāvanti “they run a
race for a distance of seventeen times the range of one shot”; TB 1, 1, 3, 9, só asvatthé
saṃvatsarám atiṣṭhat “he remained in the tree for one year”.
c) Accusative of relation: Plautus, Menaechmi 511f. indutum…pallam “clothed in a

dress”; E 354 melaíneto dè khróa kalón “and she was reddened on her beautiful skin”;
SB 14, 7, 2, 27 nàinaṃ kṛtākṛté tapataḥ “neither things done, nor things undone hurt
this one”.
d) Object accusative: SB 14, 7, 1, 24 jíghran vái tád ghrātávyaṃ ná jighrati “truly

smelling, he smells not what is to be smelled”.
e) Accusative of content: Plautus, Captivi 358 quod bonis bene fit beneficium “which
charitable act is well direct to the good”; O 414 álloi d’ ámph’ állēsi mákhēn emá-khonto
néessin “here and there they fought the fight for the ships”; RV 8, 7, 4 yád ymaṃ ynti
vāyúbhiḥ “when they go the way with the winds”.
INSTRUMENTAL
The instrumental case indicates that which accompanies the verbal activity. This
meaning forms the basis from which other meanings have developed: In the case of
inanimate objects, the instrumental indicates the means by which the verbal action is
executed; in the case of a person, it indicates that the person executes, or helps to execute
the action; in the case of places, it indicates where movement takes place. The
instrumental further indicates constitution, accompanying circumstances, a reason, and
in comparisons, the distinguishing characteristic. The function of the instrumental that
relates to people, or ‘sociative’ function may be reconstructed in Late Proto-Indo-
European. However, this function finds its origins in a use that is purely related to
inanimate objects (K. Strunk 1993). In the indication of temporal circumstances, the
instrumental bears a resemblance to the temporal locative. In Latin, the instrumental,
like the locative, has merged into the ablative. In Greek, the instrumental has merged
with the dative.
Examples:
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a) Instrumental of accompaniment: Plautus, Amphitruo 219 postquam utrimque

exitum est maxuma copia “after they marched up in great numbers on both sides”; l
160f. enthád’ ikáneis nēí te kaì etároisi “you arrive here with the ship and the
companions”; RV 1, 1, 5 devó devébhir  gamat “the god should come here with the
gods” RV 5, 51, 1, víśvair ū́mebhir  gahi “ come here with all helpers”; RV 1, 92, 7 divá
stave duhit gótamebhiḥ “the daughter of the heavens is prized by the Gotamas”.
b) Instrumental of means: Plautus, Truculentus 526f. neque etiam queo / pedibus mea
sponte ambulare “and I cannot even walk around independently on my own feet”;
Lucretius 4, 387 vehimur navi “we sail with the ship”; A 527 kephalē kataneúsō “I will
nod with my head”; M 207 péteto pnoiēs anémoio “he flew with a breath of the wind”; RV
1, 128, 3 śatáṃ cákṣāṇo akṣábhiḥ “the god that sees with a hundred eyes”; RV 3, 32, 14
nāvéva yntam “as to those who go with the ship”.
c) Instrumental of route: Plautus, Curculio, 35 nemo ire quemquam publica prohibet

via “no one hinders another from walking on a public street”; Plautus, Poenulus, 1105
terra marique “on earth and sea”; RV 1, 25, 7 antárikṣeṇa pátatām “which fly in the air”;
RV 3, 58, 5 éhá yātam pathíbhir devaynaiḥ “comes this way on divine paths”; RV 5, 64,
3 mitrásya yāyām path “I would walk on Mitra’s path”.
d) Instrumental of constitution: Cato, De agricultura 88, 1 amphoram defracto collo

“an amphora with a broken neck”; PY Ta 641.1 ti-ri-po e-me po-de i.e. tripos hemē podē
“a tripod with one leg”; RV 4, 7, 3 dym iva stŕbhiḥ “like the heavens with the stars”.
e) Instrumental of accompanying circumstances: L 555 tetinóti thumō “with a worried

temperament”; s 199 phthóggō eperkhómenai “coming forward with noise”; RV 4, 13, 1,
út sū́ryo jyótiṣā devá éti “up comes the divine sun with light”; RV 9, 97, 36 índram  vi ś
a bṛhat ráveṇa “go to Indra with great noise”.
f) Instrumental of reason: Plautus, Amphitruo 1118 nam mihi horror membra misero
percipit dictis tuis “for fright seizes from poor me my limbs because of your words”; Ph
390 gēthosúnē “out of joy”; SB 1, 2, 3, 1 sá bhīṣ ní lilye “he hid himself out of fear”.
g) Instrumental of comparison: Plautus, Cistellaria 205 qui omens homines supero

antideo cruciabilitatibus animi “I, who supersede all men, surpass in tortures of the
heart”; G 194 eurúteros d’ ōmoisin “wider, however, than the shoulders”.

DATIVE
When used to indicate people, the dative indicates an actor or actors who receive
(action; [indirect] object dative) or possess (state; possessive dative). Further, while the
dative is used to indicate one who is positively or negatively affected (dativus
commodi/incommodi), only the quality of being affected is expressed by the dative; the
positive or negative connotations themselves remain outside of the domain of the dative.
When applied to abstract nouns, the dative indicates that the noun is the goal of an
action (dativus finalis). This function is important for the formation of infinitive
constructions.
Examples:
a) Relational dative: Plautus, Stichus 260 nullan tibi lingua est? “have you no tongue?”;
Plautus, Mostellaria 293 tibi me exorno ut placeam “I adorn myself for you, in order to
please”; Plautus, Rudens 229 quoniam vox mihi prope hic sonat? “what voice thus
sounds for me so near?”; Plautus, Rudens 274 nunc tibi amplectimur genua “now we
shall seize your knees”; Plautus, Truculentus 378 mihi quidem atque oculis meis “indeed
for me and my eyes”; H 423 oí d’ ḗnteon allḗloisin “and they met one another”; H 101
tōde d’ egṑn autòs thōrḗksomai “and for this one I will arm myself”; A 4 autoús dè elṓria
teukhe kúnessin “and he gave them to the dogs as prey”; E 249f. mēdé moi oútōs thune
“do not rage so to me”; B 142 toïsi dè thumòn enì stḗthessin órine “and he stirred the soul
in their chests”; Ps 595 daímosin eínai alitrós “to be a sinner to the gods”; RV 4, 12, 3
dádhāti rátnaṃ vidhaté…mártyāya “he distributred wealth to the devoted mortal”; RV
1, 15, 12 devn devayaté yaja “sacrifice to the gods for the worshipper of gods”; RV 2, 2,
8 átithis crur āyáve “a dear guest for the son of Āyu”.
b) Dativus finalis: Plautus, Poenulus 626 ut quaestui habeant male loqui melioribus
“that they have it as a gain, that they speak badly of their betters”; H 285 khármē
prokaléssato “he called out to battle”; RV 1, 30, 6 ūrdhvás tiṣṭhā na ūtáye “be there
upright to support us”.
ABLATIVE
The Ablative expresses the place of origin of the verbal action. Accordingly, the ablative
is principally featured when a locatum moves, or is moved, away from a relatum. To this
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central meaning may be traced the ablative functions relating to origin, which refers to a
spatial idea, relating to separation, which is accompanied by a movement away, relating
to comparisons, in which the ablative is used to indicate the object in relation to which a
compared object differs. In Greek, the ablative was subsumed within the genitive.
Examples:
a) Ablative of place of origin: Cato, De agricultura 5 primus cubitu surgat “he gets up
out of bed first”; Plautus, Trinummus 805 cunctos exturba aedibus “drive all from the
house”; O 655 neōn mèn ekhṓrēsan “they retreated from the ships”; E 456 ouk án dḕ
tónd’ ándra mákhēs erúsaio “could you not push this man from the fight?; RV 7, 18, 10
īyúr gvo ná yávasād ágopāḥ “they went like cows from the field without a herdsman”;
RV 7, 5, 6 tváṃ dásyūmr ókasa agna ājaḥ “you, oh Agni, drive the Dasyus from their
homeland”.
b) Ablativus originis: Plautus, Captivi 277 quo de genere natust “from which family he
originates”; RV 1, 123, 9 śukr kṛṣṇd ajaniṣṭa “the shining one was born from the
darkness”; RV 10, 72, 3, ásataḥ sád ajāyata “from the non-being came the being forth”.
c) Ablativus separativus: z 192 oút’ oún esthētos deuḗseai “and you will not lack in
clothing”; S 126 mēdé m’ éruke mákhēs “do not hold me back from battle”.
d) Ablativus comparationis: Plautus, Poenulus 812 levior pluma est gratia “thanks is
lighter than a feather”; D 400 eío khérēa mákhē “worse than he in battle”; S 109 polú
glukíōn mélitos “much sweeter than honey”; RV 1, 114, 6 svādóḥ svdīyo “sweeter than
sweets”; RV 10, 176, 4 sáhasaś cid sáhīyān “stronger even than the strong”.
GENITIVE
In its partitive root meaning the Genitive expresses that a part is meant of the noun in
the genitive case. Originally, the genitive relates only to the contents of the lexeme, a
noun featuring the genitive ending. Various functions have developed from this root
meaning, including indications of composition, possession and relation. According to G.
Serbat (1986), “(…) the sense is asserted of a certain, limited quantity, which is of a
smaller scale than the term indicated by the stem. … In other words, the ending only
affects the word stem. At the same time, the ending plays no syntactical role (…) As a
result, this partitive form may not be classified among the syntactically significant

characteristics, but rather among the forms that have no syntactical value, the
quantitative forms… singular, dual, and plural”. The genitive may often replace other
cases without expressing their meaning; it lends an additional partitive meaning to the
meaning that the expected case would have brought. According to Scherer, three realms
of use may be distinguished for the genitive, namely: the indication of possession,
quality, and relation. The genitive is also used in comparisons to indicate that with which
something is compared.
Examples:
a) Partitive: Plautus, Casina 538 modius…salis “a scoop of salt”; I 102 lōtoïo phagṓn
“eating of lotus”; Th 470 ēous “in the morning”.
b) Genitivus qualitatis: Cato, De agricultura 121 lauri folia “leaves of the laurel”; ph 7
kṓpē d’ eléphantos epēen “a handle of ivory was on it”.
c) Genitivus possessivus: Plautus, Mostellaria 980 patris amicus “the father’s friend”;
Sophocles, Aias mastigophoros 172 Diós Ártemis “Artemis (daughter) of Zeus” Ph 109
patrós d’eím’ ágathoïo “and I am (the son) of a noble father”.
d) Genitivus relationis: Terence, Phormio 954 monstri … simile “similar to a miracle”;

Ps 485 ḕ trípodos peridṓmethon ēè lébētos “both of us are betting a tripod and a basin”;
A 512 ḗpsato goúnōn “she touched the knee”.
LOCATIVE
By expressing that the verbal action takes place in spatial relation to the object that is
indicated by the referent, the locative serves primarily to situate the verbal action
spatially, and secondarily to situate the verbal action temporally. The extent to which the
idea of space is expressed is also dependent upon the lexical meaning of the noun. If the
noun indicates something that has spatial extent – which may include concrete as well as
abstract nouns –, the spatial idea may thus be quite evident. However, when the noun
indicates, e.g. a unit of time, the use of the locative only reveals the original spatial
metaphor that underlies the concept of a temporal relation, at the same time without
requiring that the metaphor predominates. In addition, the spatial idea may be carried
over to the most various circumstances. Thus, the realm of use of the locative includes
local, temporal, and modal expressions. The local meaning of the locative is not limited
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to a certain part of the object, but rather may just as well pertain to its interior, exterior,
or environment. This is sometimes dependent on the object that is designated and its
form. Depending in turn on the nature of the verbal action, the locative may have the
function of indicating the goal of a movement that is coming to completion. In Latin, the
locative was subsumed within the ablative. There exist only miscellaneous inherited
locative forms, such as domi “at home” and ruri “in the countryside”. In Greek, the
locative was subsumed in the dative.
Examples:
a) Locative of place: Plautus, Amphitruo 568 homo idem duobus locis ut simul sit “that
the same man should be in two places at the same time”; D 166 aithéri naíōn “living in
the heavens”; d 844 ésti dé tis nēsos méssē alí “there is an island in the middle of the
sea”; N 179 óreos koruphē “on the peak of the mountain”; G 10 eút’ óreos koruphēsi
Nótos katékheuen omíkhlēn “as when the sough wind pours fog down from the mountain
top”; RV 7, 68, 7 mádhye … samudré “in the middle of the sea”; RV 9, 18, 4  yó víśvāni
vryā vásūni hástayor dadhé “who holds all treasures that one could desire to have in
his own hands”; RV 1, 32, 2 áhann áhim párvate śiśriyāṇám “he smote the dragon that
had occupied the mountain”; RV 5, 36, 2 párvatasya pṛṣṭhé “on the back of the
mountain”; RV 3, 23, 4 sárasvatyāṃ revád agne didīhi “shine beautifully on the
Sarasvati oh Agni”; RV 7, 18, 18 tásmin ní jahi vájram “Strike him with the cudgel!”.
b) Locativus temporalis: Plautus Amphitruo 568 tempore uno “at one time”; B 468 ṓrē
“in the spring”; G 189 ḗmati tō “on this day”; RV 3, 4, 2 yáṃ devsas trír áhann
āyájante “whom the gods summon three times a day”.
c) Locativus conditionis: RV 3, 56, 8 vidáthe santu devḥ “the gods should be present
at the sacrifice”; RV 6, 52, 17 víśve devā havísi mādayadhvam “all of you gods amuse
yourselves at the pouring of libations”.
LOCAL CASES AND LOCAL PARTICLES; CASE, ADVERB AND ADPOSITION
1. The Proto-Indo-European cases with local meaning are the locative, accusative, and
the ablative. These cases designate a general spatial relationship between two objects,
which include places (which are concrete objects) and actions (in which concrete persons
or objects participate). The locative simply organizes spatially. With the accusative and

the ablative, the concept of direction enters into play, with each indicating an opposing
direction: The accusative indicates that the verbal action is oriented toward the object
referent; the ablative indicates that the verbal action is oriented away from the object
referent. These local dimensions then serve – in a process of transfer that is itself the
result of cognitive reflection – equally to describe temporal relations and other
circumstances. Because in the case of local cases the spatial relation of intransitive verbs
exists between the locatum (indicated by the nominative subject) and the relatum, while
in the case of transitive verbs it exists between the locatum (indicated by the accusative
object) and the relatum, one may also observe, in comparing such a means of designating
spatial relations with the designation of subject and object in ergative languages, an
ergative trait (Lehmann, 1983).
2. Adpositions, like adverbs, modify their referents semantically; indeed, while the
adposition features the characteristic of government, the adverb does not: While the
adposition is distinguished by the additional characteristic of government, this
syntactical connection to the referent is missing in the case of the adverb, which is why
the semantic connection through modification comes to the fore.
The adverbs in IE languages that correspond to adpositions are positioned following

their referents (Benfey 1880).
9.2.2.2. NUMBER
The dimension ‘number’ in Proto-Indo-European includes three categories: singular,

dual, and plural. Number is a verbal as well as a nominal dimension: Thus, the finite verb
of the predicate corresponds in number with the nominative form of the subject.
In the case of the noun, the singular indicates that a single unit of that which is
indicated by the nominal lexeme is concerned, whereby the nominal lexeme may either
indicate a single unit from a group (singulative), or a collectivity (collective). The dual
number indicates duality, and the plural, plurality. The Late Proto-Indo-European
nominal category ‘dual’ may be traced to an Early Proto-Indo-European lexical category
which could be found in terms for body parts that exist in pairs. R. Lühr (2000) tries to
explain the connection of dual forms with singular or plural forms (incongruence) by
citing the difference among individual word categories in referentiality, which is greatest
in the case of substantives and smallest in the case of verbs.
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9.2.2.3. GENDER
Proto-Indo-European includes three categories within the dimension ‘gender’:

masculine, feminine, and neuter. However, since the gender of the substantive need not
correspond to the sex of that which it indicates, this terminology, taken from the
grammarians of antiquity, does not adequately describe the contents of the categories.
Masculine substantives need not refer to masculine subjects, just as feminine
substantives need not refer to feminine subjects.
i. While internal reconstruction enables one to trace the three gender system
(masculine/feminine/neuter) back to a two gender system (common/neuter), the
attribution in terms of meaning is not clear at this early stage. Various underlying
principles of distribution are conceivable: animate vs. inanimate, agent vs. non-agent,
with subject marking vs. without subject marking. The breadth of the spectrum from
lexical to grammatical content becomes clear.
NOTE. The classification of an earlier PIE language phase that is internally reconstructed as an
ergative language or an active language is linked with the question of gender in connection with, as
the case may be, the existing (masculine/feminine), or missing (neuter) characteristics of the
nominative.
9.3. SENTENCE MODIFIERS
9.3.1. INTONATION PATTERNS
The sentence was characterized in PIE by patterns of Order and by Selection.
A. Selection classes were determined in part by inflection, in part by lexical

categories, most of which were covert.
NOTE. Some lexical categories were characterized at least in part by formal features, such as
abstract nouns marked by -ti-, nouns in the religious sphere marked by -u- and collectives marked
by *-h.
B. In addition to characterization by means of order and categories of selection, the

sentence was also delimited by Intonation based on variations in pitch.

To the extent that the pitch phonemes of PIE have been determined, a high pitch may
be posited, which could stand on one syllable per word, and a low pitch, which was not
so restricted.
NOTE. The location of the high pitch is determined by Lehmann primarily from the evidence in
Vedic; the theory that this was inherited from PIE received important corroboration from Karl
Verner’s demonstration of its maintenance into Germanic (1875). Thus the often cited correlation
between the position of the accent in the Vedic perfect and the differing consonants in Germanic
provided decisive evidence for reconstruction of the PIE pitch accent as well as for Verner’s law, as
in the perfect (preterite) forms of the root deik-, show.
PIE Vedic O.E. O.H.G.

1 sg. dedóika didéśa tāh zēh
1 pl. dedikmé didiśimá tigon zigum
Words were characterized on one syllable by a high pitch accent, unless they were
enclitic, that is, unmarked for accent.
Accented words could lose their high pitch accent if they were placed at specific
positions in sentences.
A. Vocatives lost their accent if they were medial in a sentence or clause; and finite
verbs lost their accent unless they stood initially in an independent clause or in any
position in a dependent clause in Vedic. These same rules may be assumed for PIE. On
the basis of the two characteristic patterns of loss of accent for verbs, characteristic
patterns of intonation may also be posited for the IE sentence.
Judging on the basis of loss of high pitch accent of verbs in them, independent clauses
were characterized by final dropping in pitch. For in unmarked order the verb stands
finally in the clause.
Clauses, however, which are marked either to convey emphasis or to indicate

subordination, do not undergo such lowering. They may be distinguished with final
NOTE. The intonation pattern indicated by apparently conveyed the notion of an emotional or
emphatic utterance or one requiring supplementation, as by another clause. These conclusions are
supported by the patterns found in Germanic alliterative verse. For, as is well known, verbs were
frequently placed by poets in the fourth, nonalliterating, metrically prominent position in the line:
þeodcyninga þrym gefrūnon , of-people’s-kings glory we-heard-of, ‘We heard of the glory of the
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kings of the people’. This placing of verbs, retained by metrical convention in Germanic verse,
presumably maintains evidence for the IE intonation pattern. For, by contrast, verbs could
alliterate when they stood initially in clauses or in subordinate clauses; egsode eorlas, syððan
ǣrest wearð, he-terrified men since first he-was, ‘He terrified men from the time he first was
[found]’. þenden wordum wēold wine Scyldinga, as-long-as with-words he-ruled the-friend of-
the-Scyldings. The patterns of alliteration in the oldest Germanic verse accordingly support the
conclusions that have been derived from Vedic accentuation regarding the intonation of the Indo-
European sentence, as do patterns in other dialects.
Among such patterns is the preference for enclitics in second position in the sentence
(Wackernagel 1892). Words found in this position are particles, pronouns, and verbs, which have
no accent in Vedic texts. This observation of Wackernagel supports the conclusion that the
intonation of the sentence was characterized by initial high pitch, with the voice trailing off at the
end. For the enclitic elements were not placed initially, but rather they occupied positions in which
unaccented portions of words were expected, as in Skr. prāvep mā bṛható mādayanti, ‘The
dangling ones of the lofty tree gladden me’. The pronoun mā ‘me’, like other such enclitics, makes
up a phrase with the initial word; in this way it is comparable to unaccented syllables of individual
words, as in Skr. pravātej íriṇe várvṛtānāḥ, ‘[born] in a windy place, rolling on the dice-board’
A simple sentence then consisted not only of a unit accompanied by an intonation

pattern, but also of subunits or phrases. These were identified by their accent and also by
patterns of permitted finals.
9.3.2. SENTENCE DELIMITING PARTICLES
The particles concerned are PIE nu, so, to, all of them introductory particles.
NOTE. Their homonymity with the adverb nu, nun and the anaphoric pronoun was one of the
reasons earlier Indo-Europeanists failed to recognize them and their function. Yet Delbrück had
already noted the clause-introducing function of Skr. sa (1888), as in Skr. tásya tni śīrṣṇi prá
cicheda. sá yát somapnam sa tátaḥ kapíñjalaḥ sám abhavat, ‘He struck off his heads. From
the one that drank soma, the hazel-hen was created’. Delbrück identified sa in this and other
sentences as a particle and not a pronoun, for it did not agree in gender with a noun in the
sentence. But it remained for Hittite to clarify the situation.
In Hittite texts the introductory use of the particles is unmistakable (J.Friedrich 1960); ta and šu
occur primarily in the early texts, nu in the later, as illustrated in the following Old Hittite example
(Otten and Souček 1969): GAD-an pešiemi šu- uš LÚ-aš natta aušzi ‘I throw a cloth over it and no
one will see them’.

Besides such an introductory function (here as often elsewhere translated ‘and’), these
particles were used as first element in a chain of enclitics, as in n-at-ši ‘and it to-him’, nu-
mu-za-kan ‘and to-me self within’ and so on.
NOTE 1. In Homeric Greek such strings of particles follow different orders, but reflect the IE
construction, as in: oudé nu soí per entrépetai phílon êtor, Olúmpie, ‘But your heart doesn’t
notice, Zeus’. As the translation of per here indicates, some particles were used to indicate the
relationships between clauses marking the simple sentence.
NOTE 2. Many simple sentences in PIE would then be similar to those in Hittite and Vedic
Sanskrit, such as those in the charming story taken by Delbrück from the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa.
Among the simplest is Skr. tám índro didveṣa, ‘Indra hated him’. Presumably tam is a conflated
form of the particle ta and the enclitic accusative singular pronoun; the combination is attested in
Hittite as ta-an (J. Friedrich 1960). Besides the use of sentence-delimiting particles, these
examples illustrate the simplicity of PIE sentences. Of the fifteen sentences in the story, only two
have more than one nominal form per verb, and these are adverbial as observed above. Similar
examples from the other early dialects could be cited, such as the Italic inscription of Praeneste, or
the Germanic Gallehus inscription: Ek HlewagastiR HoltijaR horna tawido, ‘I, Hlewagastir of
Holt, made the horn’. In these late texts, the subject was mandatory, and accordingly two nominal
forms had come to be standard for the sentence. If however the subject is not taken into
consideration, many sentences contained only one nominal element with verbs, in the early
dialects as well as in PIE.
9.4. VERBAL MODIFIERS
9.4.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
The Injunctive has long been identified as a form unmarked for mood and marked only
for stem and person. It may thus be compared with the simplest form of OV languages.
By contrast the Present indicative indicates “mood”. We associate this additional

feature with the suffix -i, and assume for it declarative meaning.
NOTE 1. Yet it is also clear that, by the time of Vedic Sanskrit and, we assume, Late PIE, the
injunctive no longer contrasted directly with the present indicative. We must therefore conclude
that the declarative qualifier was expressed by other means in the sentence. We assume that the
means of expression was an intonation pattern. For, in normal unmarked simple sentences, finite
unaccented verbs stood finally in their clause, as did the predicative elements of nominal
sentences; Delbrück’s repeatedly used example may be cited once again to illustrate the typical
pattern: víśaḥ kṣatríyāya balíṃ haranti, ‘The villagers pay tribute to the prince’. Since the verb
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haranti was unaccented, i.e., had no high pitch, we may posit for the normal sentence an
intonation pattern in which the final elements in the sentence were accompanied by low pitch.
NOTE 2. Lehmann supports this assumption by noting that a distinctive suprasegmental was
used in Vedic to distinguish a contrasting feature, interrogation or request (Wackernagel 1896).
This marker, called pluti by native grammarians, consisted of extra length, as in ágnā3i ‘O fire’ (3
indicates extra length). But a more direct contrast with the intonation of simple sentences may be
exemplified by the accentuation of subordinate clauses. These have accented verbs, as in the
following line from the Rigveda: antáś ca prgā áditir bhavāsi , ‘If you have entered inside, you
will be Aditi’. As the pitch accent on ágā indicates, verbs in subordinate clauses maintained high
pitch, in contrast with verbs of independent clauses like bhavāsi. We may conclude that this high
pitch was an element in an intonation pattern which indicated incompleteness, somewhat like the
pattern of contemporary English.
Evidence from other dialects supports the conclusion that, in late PIE, Declarative
sentences were indicated by means of an intonation pattern with a drop in accentuation
at the end of the clause.
NOTE. In Germanic verse, verbs of unmarked declarative sentences tend to occupy unaccented
positions in the line, notably the final position (Lehmann 1956). Although the surface expression
of accentuation patterns in Germanic is stress, rather than the pitch of Vedic and PIE, the
coincidence of accentuation pattern supports our conclusions concerning PIE intonation.
9.4.2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
The Interrogation was apparently also indicated by means of Intonation, for some
questions in our early texts have no surface segmental indication distinguishing them
from statements, for example, Plautus Aulularia 213, aetatem meam scis, ‘Do you know
my age?’
NOTE. Only the context indicates to us that this utterance was a question; we may assume that
the spoken form included means of expressing Int., and in view of expressions in the later dialects
we can only conclude that these means were an intonation pattern.
Questions are generally classified into two groups:
A. Those framed to obtain clarification (Verdeutlichungsfragen), and

B. Those framed to obtain confirmation (Bestätigungsfragen). This feature
accompanies statements in which a speaker sets out to elicit information from the hearer.

NOTE. It may be indicated by an intonation pattern, as noted above, or by an affix or a particle,

or by characteristic patterns of order, as in German Ist er da? ‘Is he here?’ When the Interrogative
sentence is so expressed, the surface marker commonly occupies second position among the
question elements, if the entire clause is questioned. Such means of expression for Int. are found
in IE languages, as Lat. -ne, which, according to Minton Warren “occurs about 1100 times in
Plautus and over 40 times in Terence” (1881). Besides expressions like Lat. egone ‘Me?’, sentences
like the following occur (Plautus Asinaria 884): Aúdin quid ait? Artemona: Aúdio. ‘Did you hear
what he is saying? Artemona: yes’
Other evidence for a postponed particle for expressing Int. is found in Avestan, in which -na is
suffixed to some interrogatives, as in Av. kas-nā ‘who (then)?’; and in Germanic, where na is
found finally in some questions in Old High German. Old Church Slavic is more consistent in the
use of such a particle than are these dialects, as in chošteši li ‘Do you wish to?’ This particle is also
used in contemporary Russian.
The particle used to express Interrogation in Latin, Avestan, and Germanic is

homophonous with the particle for expressing negation, PIE ne.
NOTE. It is not unlikely that PIE ne of questions is the same particle as that used for the
negative. As the interrogative particle, however, it has been lost in most dialects. After Lehmann
(1974), its loss is one of the indications that late PIE was not a consistent OV language. After
Mendoza, the fact that such Interrogatives of a yes/no-answer are introduced by different particles
in the oldest attested dialects means that no single particle was generalized by Late PIE; cf. Goth.
u, Lat. -ne, nonne, num Gk. ἣ, νὐ , Skr. nu, Sla. li. However, the common findings of Hittite, Indo-
Iranian, Germanic and Latin are similar if not the same. In any case, for most linguists, rather
than a postposed particle, 1) Intonation was used to express the Interrogatives, as well as 2)
Particles that were placed early in clauses, often initially.
The partial Interrogative sentences are those which expect an aclaratory answer; they
are introduced in PIE by pronominal or adverbial forms derived from interrogative qi-
/qo-, always placed initially but for marked sentences, where a change in position is
admitted to emphasize it.
NOTE. In some languages, Interrogatives may be strengthened by the addition of posposed
particles with interrogative sense, as in Av. kaš-na. Such forms introduce indirect interrogatives
when they ask about a part of the sentence. Indirect interrogatives in the form of Total
interrogatives (i.e., not of yes/no-answer) are introduces by particles derived from direct
interrogative particles (when there are) or by conditional conjunctions; as Hitt. man.
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9.4.3. NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Indications of Negation, by which the speaker negates the verbal means of expression,
commonly occupies third position in the hierarchy of sentence elements.
We can only posit the particles ne and mē, neither of which is normally postposed after
verbs.
NOTE 1. For prohibitive particle mē, compare Gk. μή, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. mā, Toch. mar/mā,
Arm. mi, Alb. mos. In other IE dialects it was substituted by nē, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. nē (also as
modal negation), Ira. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. lē is ultimately derived from mē or nē. PIE
ne is found as Goth.,O.H.G. ni, Lat. nĕ- (e.g. in nequis) O.Ind. ná, O.Sla. ne, etc. Sometimes it is
found in lengthened or strengthened forms as Hitt. natta, Lat. non, Skr. ned, etc. A common PIE
lengthened form is nei, which appears in Lat. ni, Lith. neî, Sla. ni, etc., and which may also
ultimately be related to Proto-Uralic negative *ei- (Kortlandt, v.s.).
NOTE 2. In the oldest languages, negation seems to have been preverbal; Vedic nákis, Gk. oú tis,
mḗ tis, Lat. nēmo, OHG nioman ‘no one’, and so on. The negative element ne was not used in
compounding in PIE (Brugmann 1904); ṇ- had this function. Moreover, there is evidence for
proposing that other particles were placed postverbally in PIE (Delbrück 1897). Delbrück has
classified these in a special group, which he labels particles. They have been maintained
postpositively primarily in frozen expressions: ē in Gk. egṓnē, ge in égōge ‘I’ (Schwyzer 1939).
But they are also frequent in Vedic and early Greek; Delbrück (1897) discusses at length the use of
Skt. gha, Gk. ge, and Skt. sma, Gk. mén, after pronouns, nouns, particles, and verbs, cf. Lat. nōlo <
ne volo, Goth. nist< ni ist, and also, negative forms of the indefinite pronoun as O.Ind. m-kis, ná-
kis, Lat. ne-quis, etc. which may indicate an old initial absolute position, which could be also
supported by the development of correlative forms like Lat. neque, etc., which combine negation
and coordination. Lehmann, on the contrary, believes in an older postposed order, characteristic
of OV languages (i.e. a situation in IE II), because of the usually attributed value of emphasis to
the initial position of negation, postverbal negation examples (even absolute final position in
Hittite and Greek), the old existence of the form nei, as well as innovative forms like Lat. ne-quis
or Gk. oú-tis.
NOTE 3. In Modern Indo-European, thus, negation should usually be preverbal, as in modern

Romance languages (cf. Fr. n’est, Spa. no es, etc.), but it can be postponed in emphatic contexts, as
it is usual in modern Germanic languages (cf. Eng. is not, Ger. ist nicht, etc.), as well as in very
formal texts, thus imitating some of the most archaic findings of early PIE dialects.

9.5. NOMINAL MODIFIERS
9.5.1. ADJECTIVE AND GENITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
1. Proto-Indo-European Attributive Adjectives were normally preposed.

NOTE. Delbrück summarizes the findings for Vedic, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Germanic,
giving examples like the following from Vedic: śvetḥ párvatāḥ, ‘white mountains’ (1900).
Lehmann (1974) adds an example of Hitt. šuppi watar, ‘pure water’.
In marked constructions Adjectives might be postposed, as in áśvaḥ śvetáḥ, ‘a white

horse, a gray’.
2. The position of the Attributive Genitive is the same as that of the Attributive
Adjective.
NOTE. A striking example is given from the Old English legal language (Delbrück 1900): ōðres
mannes hūses dura, ‘the door of the house of the other man’.
Like the adjective construction, the attributive-genitive construction may have the
modifier postposed for marked effect, as is sómasya in SB 3.9.4.15 (Delbrück 1878): kíṃ
nas tátaḥ syād íti? prathamabhakṣsá evá sómasyar jña íti, ‘What might then happen
for us?’ ‘The first enjoyment of [Prince] Soma’.
NOTE 1. The relatively frequent marked use of the genitive may be the cause for the apparently
free position of the genitive in Greek and Latin. The ambivalent order may also have resulted from
the change of these languages toward a VO order. But, as Delbrück indicates, the preposed order is
well attested in the majority of dialects. This order is also characteristic of Hittite (J. Friedrich
1960). We may therefore assume it for PIE.
NOTE 2. In accordance with Lehmann’s views on syntactic structure, the attributive genitive,
like the attributive adjective, must be derived from an embedded sentence. The sentence would
have a noun phrase equivalent with that in the matrix sentence and would be a predicate nominal
sentence. Such independent sentences are attested in the older dialects. Delbrück gives a number
of examples, among them: aṣṭaú ha vaí putr ádites, ‘Aditi had eight sons’. áhar devnām sīt,
‘Day belonged to the gods’. These sentences accordingly illustrate that the genitive was used in
predicate nominative sentences to convey what Calvert Watkins has labeled its primary syntactic
function: the sense “of belonging”. When such a sentence was embedded in another with an
equivalent NP, the NP was deleted, and the typical genitive construction resulted. Hittite also uses
301
s as a genitive as well as a nominative marker. For “genitives” like haššannaššaš ‘(one) of his race’
can be further inflected, as in the accusative haššannaš-šan ‘(to one) of his race’ (J. Friedrich).
9.5.2. COMPOUNDS
1. In the derivation of compounds special compounding rules apply.
The verbal compounds in a language observe the basic order patterns, For PIE we
would expect an older OV order in compounds, as e.g. Skt. agnídh- ‘priest’ < agni ‘fire’ +
idh ‘kindle.’
NOTE. A direct relationship between compounds and basic syntactic patterns is found only when
the compounds are primary and productive. After a specific type of compound becomes
established in a language, further compounds may be constructed on the basis of analogy, for
example Gk. híppagros ‘wild horse’, in contrast with the standard productive Greek compounds in
which the adjectival element precedes the modified, as in agriókhoiros ‘wild swine’ (Risch 1944-
1949). Here we will consider the primary and productive kinds of compounds in PIE.
2. Two large classes and other minor types are found:
A. the Synthetics (noun+noun), which make up the majority of the PIE compounds,
a. Pure Synthetics, i.e. noun+noun.
b. Sinthetics in which the first element is adverbial, i.e. adverb+noun.
B. The Bahuvrihis.
C. Adjective + Nouns, apparently not so productive in PIE as in its dialects.
D. A small number of additive compounds.
SYNTHETICS
Synthetics consist of a nominal element preceding a verbal, in their unmarked forms, as

in Skt. agnídh-, ‘priest’. As in this compound, the relation of the nominal element to the
verbal is that of target.
The particular relationship of nominal and verbal elements was determined by the
lexical properties of the verb; accordingly, the primary relationship for most PIE verbs
was that of target. But other nominal categories could also be used with verbs.
3. Kinds of Relationships:
1) The Receptor relationship, as Skr. devahéḍana, ‘angering the gods’.

2) The Instrument or Means relationship; as Skr. ádrijūta, ‘speeded by the stones’,
The compound ṛtajā of this passage may illustrate the Time relationship.
3) The Source relationship, as Skr. aṅhomúc, ‘freeing from trouble’.
4) The Place relationship, as Skr. druṣád, ‘sitting in a tree’.
5) The Manner relationship; as, Skr. īśānakŕt, ‘acting like a ruler’.
These compounds exhibit the various relationships of nominal constituents with verbal
elements, as in Skr. tv-datta, ‘given by you’.
NOTE. Synthetics attested in the Rigveda accordingly illustrate all the nominal relationships
determinable from sentences. Synthetics are frequently comparable to relative constructions, as in
the following sentence: gnír agāmi bhrato vṛtrah purucétaṇaḥ, ‘Agni, the god of the
Bharatas, was approached, he who killed Vṛtra, who is seen by many’.
Besides the large number of synthetics of the NV pattern, others are attested with the
pattern VN. These are largely names and epithets, such as púṣṭi-gu, a name meaning ‘one
who raises cattle’ (RV 8.51.1.), and sanád-rayi ‘dispensing riches’.
BAHUVRIHIS
The second large group of PIE compounds, Bahuvrihis, are derived in accordance with
the sentence pattern expressing Possession. This pattern is well known from the Latin
mihi est construction (Bennett 1914; Brugmann 1911): nulli est homini perpetuom
bonum, “No man has perpetual blessings”.
Lehmann accounts for the derivation of bahuvrihis, like Lat. magnanimus ‘great-
hearted’, by assuming that an equational sentence with a noun phrase as subject and a
noun in the receptor category indicating possession is embedded with an equivalent
noun, as in the following example (‘great spirit is to man’ = ‘the man has great spirit’):
On deletion of the equivalent NP (homini) in the embedded sentence, a bahuvrihi

compound magnanimus ‘greathearted’ is generated. This pattern of compounding
ceased to be primary and productive when the dialects developed verbal patterns for
expressing possession, such as Lat. habeo ‘I have’.
303
Bahuvrihis may be adjectival in use, or nominal, as in the vocative use of sūnari ‘having
good strength’ (made up of su ‘good’ and *xner- ‘(magical) strength’) in Slr. víśvasya hí
prṇanaṃ jvanaṁ tvé, ví yid uchási sūnari, ‘For the breath and life of everything is in
you, when you light up the skies, you who have good strength’. The Greek cognate may
illustrate the adjectival use: phéron d’ euḗnora khalkón ‘They carried on board the
bronze of good strength’. The bahuvrihis are accordingly similar to synthetics in being
comparable to relative clauses.
NOTE. Although the bahuvrihis were no longer primary and productive in the later dialects,
their pattern remained remarkably persistent, as we may note from the various philo- compounds
in Greek, such as philósophos, ‘one who holds wisdom dear’, phíloinos, ‘one who likes wine’, and
many more. Apart from the loss of the underlying syntactic pattern, the introduction of different
accentual patterns removed the basis for bahuvrihis. As Risch pointed out, Greek eupátōr could
either be a bahuvrihi ‘having a good father’ or a tatpurusha ‘a noble father’. In the period before
the position of the accent was determined by the quantity of final syllables, the bahuvrihi would
have had the accent on the prior syllable, like rja-putra ‘having kings as sons’, RV 2.27.7, in
contrast with the tatpurusha rja-putrá ‘king’s son’, RV 10.40.3. The bahuvrihis in time, then,
were far less frequent than tatpurushas, of which only a few are to be posited for late PIE. An
example is Gk. propátōr ‘forefather’. If the disputed etymology of Latin proprius ‘own’ is
accepted, *pro-pətrjós ‘from the forefathers’, there is evidence for assuming a PIE etymon;
Wackernagel (1905) derives Sanskrit compounds like prá-pada ‘tip of foot’ from PIE. Yet the small
number of such compounds in the early dialects indicates that they were formed in the late stage
of PIE (Risch).
NOTE 2. Dvandvas, such as índrāviṣ ́ṇu and a few other patterns, like the teens, were not highly
productive in PIE, if they are to be assumed at all. Their lack of productiveness may reflect poorly
developed coordination constructions in PIE (Lehmann 1969). Besides the expansion of
tatpurushas and dvandvas in the dialects, we must note also the use of expanded root forms.
Thematic forms of noun stems and derived forms of verbal roots are used, as in Skt. deva-kṛta,
‘made by the gods’. Such extended constituents become more and more prominent and eventually
are characteristic elements of compounds, as the connecting vowel -o- in Greek and in early
Germanic; Gk. Apolló-dōros ‘gift of Apollo’ (an n- stem) and Goth. guma-kunds ‘of male sex’ (also
an n- stem). Yet the relationships between the constituents remain unchanged by such
morphological innovations. The large number of tatpurushas in the dialects reflects the
prominence of embedded-modifier constructions, as the earlier synthetics and bahuvrihis
reflected the embedding of sentences, often to empty noun nodes. As noted above, they

accordingly have given us valuable information about PIE sentence types and their internal
relationships.
9.5.3. DETERMINERS IN NOMINAL PHRASES
Nouns are generally unaccompanied by modifiers, as characteristic passages from an

Archaic hymn of the Rigveda and from an Old Hittite text may indicate.
Demonstratives are infrequent; nouns which might be considered definite have no

accompanying determinative marker unless they are to be stressed. The Demonstrative
then precedes.
The relationship between such Demonstratives and accompanying Nouns has been
assumed to be Appositional; it may be preferable to label the relationship a loose one, as
of pronoun or noun plus noun, rather than adjective or article plus noun.
NOTE. In Homer too the “article” is generally an anaphoric pronoun, differing from
demonstratives by its lack of deictic meaning referring to location (Munro). Nominal phrases as
found in Classical Greek or in later dialects are subsequent developments; the relationship
between syntactic elements related by congruence, such as adjectives, or even by case, such as
genitives, can often be taken as similar to an appositional relationship (Meillet 1937).
To illustrate nominal phrases, cf. Vedic eṣām marútām , “of-them of-Maruts”. The nominal
phrase which may seem to consist of a demonstrative preceding a noun, eṣām marútām, is divided
by the end of the line; accordingly eṣām must be interpreted as pronominal rather than adjectival.
The following Hittite passage from a ritual illustrates a similar asyndetic relationship between
the elements of nominal phrases (Otten and Souček 1969): harkanzi- ma –an dHantašepeš
anduhšaš harša[(r)] –a gišŠUKURhi.a , But the Hantašepa-gods hold heads of men as well as
lances. In this sentence the nouns for ‘heads’ and ‘lances’ supplement ‘it’. Moreover, while the
meaning of the last word is uncertain, its relationship to the preceding elements is imprecise, for it
is a nominative plural, not an accusative. Virtually any line of Homer might be cited to illustrate
the absence of close relationships between the members of nominal phrases; cf. Odyssey nēȗs dé
moi hḗd’ héstēken ep’ agroȗ nósphi pólēos, en liméni Rheíthrōi hupò Nēíōi hul ḗenti, ‘My ship is
berthed yonder in the country away from the city, in a harbor called Rheithron below Neion,
which is wooded’. The nouns have no determiners even when, like nēus, they are definite; and the
modifiers with liméni and Neíoi seem to be loosely related epithets rather than closely linked
descriptive adjectives.
305
The conclusions about the lack of closely related nominal phrases may be supported by
the status of compounds in PIE. The compounds consisting of Descriptive Adjectives +
Noun are later; the most productive are reduced verbal rather than nominal
constructions. And the bahuvrihis, which indicate a descriptive relationship between the
first element and the second, support the conclusion that the relationship is relatively
general; rājá-putra, for example, means ‘having sons who are kings’ rather than ‘having
royal sons’; gó-vapus means ‘having a shape like a cow’, said of rainclouds, for which
the epithet denotes the fructifying quality rather than the physical shape.
Accordingly, closely related nominal expressions are to be assumed only for the
dialects, not for PIE. Definiteness was not indicated for nouns. The primary relationship
between nominal elements, whether nouns or adjectives, was appositional.
The syntactic patterns assumed for late PIE may be illustrated by narrative passages
from the early dialects. The following passage tells of King Hariśchandra, who has been
childless but has a son after promising Varuna that he will sacrifice any son to him. After
the birth of the son, however, the king asks Varuna to put off the time of the sacrifice,
until finally the son escapes to the forest; a few lines suffice to illustrate the simple
syntactic patterns.
AB athainam uvāca varuṇaṁ rājānam upadhāva putro

7.14. then-him he-told Varuna king you-go-to son
Acc. sg. Perf. 3 sg. Acc. sg. Acc. sg. Imper. 2 sg. Nom. sg.
me jāyatāṁ tena tvā yajā
to-me let-him-be-born with- you I-worship
Imper. 3 sg. Inst. sg. Acc. sg. Mid. Pres.
iti. tatheti. sa varuṇaṁ
end-quotation indeed-end ‘he’ Varuna
(<tathā iti) 3 sg. Nom.
rājānam upasasāra putro me jāyatāṁ tena
king went-to son to-me let-him-be-born with-him
Perf. 3 sg.
tvā yajā iti. tatheti.
you I-worship end-quotation indeed-end-quotation
tasya ha putro jajñe rohito nāma.

his, of-him now son he-was-born Rohita name

Gen. sg. m. Ptc. Mid. Perf. 3 sg.
taṁ hovācājani te vai putro
him Ptc.-he-told-he-was born to-you indeed son
Acc. sg. Aor. Pass. 3 sg. Ptc. Ptc.
yajasva māneneti. sa
you-worship me-with-him-end-quotation ‘he’
Mid. Imper. 2 sg. Acc. sg.-Inst. sg.
hovāca yadā vai paśur nirdaśo
Ptc.-he-told when indeed animal above-ten
Conj. Ptc. Nom. sg. m. Nom. sg. m.
bhavatyatha sa medhyo bhavati. nirdaśo
he-becomes-then he strong he-becomes above-ten
Pres. 3 sg.-Ptc. Nom. sg. m.
‘nvastvatha tvā yajā iti.
Ptc.-let-him-be-then you I-worship end-quotation
Imper. 2 sg. Acc. sg.
tatheti. sa ha nirdaśa āsa
indeed-end-quotation he now above-ten he-was
Perf. 3 sg.
Then he [the Rishi Narada] told him [Hariśchandra]: “Go to King Varuna. [Tell him]: ‘Let a son
be born to me. With him I will worship you [= I will sacrifice him to you] .’”
“Fine,” [he said].
He went to King Varuna [saying]: “Let a son be born to me. I will sacrifice him to you.”
“Fine,” [he said]
Now his son was born. Rohita [was his] name.
[Varuna] spoke to him. “A son has indeed been born to you. Sacrifice him to me.”
He said thereupon: “When an animal gets to be ten [days old], then he becomes strong [= fit for
sacrifice]. Let him be ten days old; then I will worship you.”
307
“Fine,” he said.
He now became ten.
As this passage illustrates, nouns have few modifiers. Even the sequence: tasya ha
putro, which might be interpreted as a nominal phrase corresponding to ‘his son’,
consists of distinct components, and these should be taken as meaning: “Of him a son
[was born]”. As in the poetic passage cited above, nouns and pronouns are individual
items in the sentence and when accompanied by modifiers have only a loose relationship
with them, as to epithets.
9.5.4. APPOSITION
Apposition is traditionally “when paratactically joined forms are grammatically, but not
in meaning, equivalent”.
NOTE. Because of the relationship between nouns and modifiers, and also because subjects of
verbs were only explicit expressions for the subjective elements in verb forms, Meillet (1937)
considered apposition a basic characteristic of Indo-European syntax. As in the previous passage,
subjects were included only when a specific meaning was to be expressed, such as putra ‘son’. The
element sa may still be taken as an introductory particle, a sentence connective, much as iti of
tathā iti, etc., is a sentence-final particle. And the only contiguous nouns in the same case,
varunam rājānam, are clearly appositional.
A distinction is made between Appositional and Attributive (Delbrück); an appositional

relationship between two or more words is not indicated by any formal expression,
whereas an attributive relationship generally is.
NOTE. Thus the relationships in the following line of the Odyssey are attributive: arnúmenos
hḗn te psukhḗn kaì nóston hetaírōn , lit. “striving-for his Ptc. life and return of-companions”. The
relationship between hḗn and psukhḗn is indicated by the concordance in endings; that between
nóston and hetaírōn by the genitive. On the other hand the relationship between the two vocatives
in the following line is appositional, because there is no mark indicating the relationship: tȏn
hamóthen ge, theá, thúgater Diós, eipè kaì hēmi ̑n, ‘Tell us of these things, beginning at any point
you like, goddess, daughter of Zeus’. Both vocatives can be taken independently, as can any
appositional elements.

Asyndetic constructions which are not appositive are frequently attested, as Skr. té vo
hṛdé mánase santu yajñ, ‘These sacrifices should be in accordance with your heart,
your mind’. Coordinate as well as appositive constructions could thus be without a
specific coordinating marker.
Comparable to appositional constructions are titles, for, like appositions, the two or
more nouns involved refer to one person.
NOTE. In OV languages titles are postposed in contrast with the preposing in VO languages;
compare Japanese Tanaka-san with Mr. Middlefield. The title ‘king’ with Varuna and similarly in
the Odyssey, Poseidáōni ánakti , when ánaks is used as a title. But, as Lehmann himself admits,
even in the early texts, titles often precede names, in keeping with the change toward a VO
structure.
Appositions normally follow, when nouns and noun groups are contiguous, as in the
̑ is Athḗnē,
frequent descriptive epithets of Homer: Tòn d’ ēmeíbet’ épeita theá, glaukop
‘Him then answered the goddess, owl-eyed Athene’.
To indicate a marked relationship, however, they may precede (Schwyzer 1950). But the
early PIE position is clear from the cognates: Skt. dyaus pitā, Gk. Zeȗ páter, Lat. Jūpiter.
9.6. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES
9.6.1. COORDINATION
While coordination is prominent in the earliest texts, it is generally implicit.
The oldest surviving texts consist largely of paratactic sentences, often with no
connecting particles.
New sentences may be introduced with particles, or relationships may be indicated with
pronominal elements; but these are fewer than in subsequent texts.
Similar patterns of paratactic sentences are found in Hittite, with no overt marker of
coordination or of subordination. J. Friedrich states that “purpose and result” clauses are
not found in Hittite (1960), but that coordinate sentences are simply arranged side by
side with the particle nu, as in the Hittite Laws. Conditional relationships too are found
in Hittite with no indication of subordination (J. Friedrich 1960).
309
NOTE. The subordinate relationships that are indicated, however, have elements that are related
to relative particles. Accordingly the subordination found in the early dialects is a type of relative
construction. As such examples and these references indicate, no characteristic patterns of order,
or of verb forms, distinguish subordinate from coordinate clauses in PIE and the early dialects.
Hermann therefore concluded in his celebrated article that there were no subordinate clauses in
PIE (1895). For Lehmann (1974), the paratactic arrangement which he assumed for PIE, however,
is characteristic of OV languages. Hypotaxis in OV languages is often expressed by nonfinite verb
forms and by postposed particles.
The arrangement of sentences in sequence is a typical pattern of PIE syntax, whether

for hypotactic or for paratactic relationships.
Expressions for coordination were used largely for elements within clauses and
sentences. When used to link sentences, conjunctions were often accompanied by initial
particles indicating the beginning of a new clause and also indicating a variety of possible
relationships with neighboring clauses.
NOTE. Sentence-connecting particles are, however, infrequent in Vedic and relatively infrequent
in the earliest Hittite texts; Lehmann concludes that formal markers of sentence coordination
were not mandatory in PIE.
The normal coordinating particle in most of the dialects is a reflex of PIE -qe.
This is postposed to the second of two conjoined elements, or to both.
NOTE. Hittite -a, -i̯a is used similarly, as in attaš annaš a ‘father and mother’ (J. Friedrich
1960).
The disjunctive particle PIE -wē is also postposed.

NOTE 1. In Hittite, however, besides the postposed disjunctive particles -ku ... -ku ‘or’, there was
the disjunctive particle našma, which stood between nouns rather than after the last. This pattern
of conjunction placement came to be increasingly frequent in the dialects; it indicates that the
conjunction patterns of VO structure have come to be typical already by IE II.
NOTE 2. With the change in coordinating constructions, new particles were introduced; some of
these, for example, Lat. et, Goth. jah, OE and, have a generally accepted etymology; others, like
Gk. kaí, are obscure in etymology. Syntactically the shift in the construction rather than the source
of the particles is of primary interest, though, as noted above, the introduction of new markers for
the new VO patterns provides welcome lexical evidence of a shift. The syntactic shift also brought
with it patterns of coordination reduction (Ersparung) which have been well described for some

dialects (Behaghel). Such constructions are notable especially in SVO languages, in which
sequences with equivalent verbs (S, V, O, Conj., S2, V1, O2) delete the second occurrence of the verb
, as M.H.G. daz einer einez will und ein ander ein anderz, ‘that one one-thing wants and another
an other’.
Reduction of equivalent nouns in either S or O position is also standard, as in Beowulf.

NOTE. But in the paratactic structures characteristic of Hittite, such reduction is often avoided.
In an SVO language the second memii̯as would probably not have been explicitly stated, as in:
‘now my speech came to be halting and was uttered slowly’. The lack of such reduction, often a
characteristic of OV languages, gives an impression of paratactic syntax. Another pattern seeming
to be paratactic is the preposing of “subordinate clauses,” either with no mark of subordination or
with a kind of relative particle, as in the concluding passage of Muršilis Sprachlähmung (Götze
and Pedersen 1934). The second from last clause has no mark to indicate subordination; the
earlier clauses contain a form of relative particle.
IŠTU GIŠBANŠUR-ma-za-kán kuizza azikinun

from table-but-Refl.-Ptc. from-which I-was-accustomed-to-eat
IŠTU GAL-i̯a-kán kuizza akkuškinun

from beaker-and-Ptc. from-which I-was-accustomed-to-drink
šašti-i̯a-za-kán ku̯edani šeškeškinun IŠTU

in-bed-and-Refl.-Ptc. in-which I-was-accustomed-to-sit from
URUDDU10xA-ia-za-kán kuizza arreškinun

basin-and-Refl.-Ptc. from-which I-was-accustomed-to-wash
kuit-i̯a imma ÚNUTU anda u̯erii̯an ešta nu UL

what-and else utensil Adv.-Ptc. mentioned it-was now not
kuitki dattat IŠTU DINGIRLI QATAMMA SIxDI-at

any it-was-taken from god likewise it-was-determined
‘The god also determined that nothing more should be used of the table from which I was
accustomed to eat, of the beaker from which I was accustomed to drink, of the bed in which I
was accustomed to sleep, of the basin in which I was accustomed to wash, and of whatever
other article was mentioned’
In an SVO language like English, the principal clause, which stands last in Hittite, would be
placed first. The interpretation of the preceding clause as a result clause is taken from Götze and
311
Pedersen. The initial clauses contain relative particles which indicate the relationship to kuitki of
the second-from-last clause; they also contain coordinating particles: a, i̯a. In this passage the
clauses, whether coordinate or subordinate from our point of view, are simply arrayed in
sequence. Each concludes with a finite verb which provides no evidence of hypotaxis. The sentence
connectives which occur—repeated instances of a/ia—heighten the impression of coordination.
The absence in Hittite of verb forms – which are cognates of the Vedic and Greek
optative and subjunctive – which came to be used largely to indicate subordination is
highly consistent in its OV patterning, as such verb forms were not required.
Hittite however did not forego another device, which is used to indicate subordinate
relationship in OV as well as VO languages, the so-called nonfinite verb forms. These are
used for less explicit kinds of complementation, much the way relative constructions are
used for more explicit kinds.
9.6.2. COMPLEMENTATION
Compound sentences may result from the embedding of nominal modifiers.

NOTE. In VO languages embedded nominal modifiers follow nouns, whereas in OV languages
they precede nouns. This observation has led to an understanding of the Hittite and the
reconstructed PIE relative constructions. if we follow the standard assumption that in relative
constructions a second sentence containing an NP equivalent to an NP in the matrix sentence is
embedded in that matrix sentence, we may expect that either sentence may be modified. A
sentence may also be embedded with a dummy noun; the verb forms of such embedded sentences
are commonly expressed with nominal forms of the verb, variously called infinitives, supines, or
participles. In OV languages these, as well as relative constructions, precede the verb of the matrix
sentence.
An example with participles in the IE languages is Skr. vásānaḥ in the last lines of the
following Strophic hymn: rúśad vásānaḥ sudṛśīkarūpaḥ, “brightly dressing-himself
beautifully-hued”.
It may also have “a final or consequential sense”, as in the following Strophic hymn:
tvám indra srávitav apás kaḥ, ‘You, O Indra, make the waters to flow.’ Also in the
poetic texts such infinitives may follow the main verb, as in ábodhi hótā yajáthāya
devn, lit. “he-woke-up priest for-sacrificing gods”, ‘The priest has awakened to
sacrifice to the gods’.

NOTE. The postposed order may result from stylistic or poetic rearrangement; yet it is also a
reflection of the shift to VO order, a shift which is reflected in the normal position for infinitives in
the other IE dialects. In the Brahmanas still, infinitives normally stand directly before the verb,
except in interrogative and negative sentences (Delbrück). On the basis of the Brahmanic order
we may assume that in PIE nonfinite verbs used as complements to principal verbs preceded them
in the sentence. Hittite provides examples of preposed complementary participles and infinitives
to support this assumption (J. Friedrich). Participles were used particularly with har(k)- ‘have’
and eš- ‘be’, as in uerii̯an ešta ‘was mentioned’; the pattern is used to indicate state.
INFINITIVES
1. Infinitives could indicate result, with or without an object (J. Friedrich 1960): 1-aš 1-
an kunanna lē šanhanzi, lit. “one one to-kill not he-tries”, i.e. ‘One should not try to kill
another’.
2. Infinitives could be used to express purpose, as in the following example, which pairs
an infinitive with a noun (J. Friedrich): tuk-ma kī uttar ŠÀ-ta šii̯anna išhiull-a ešdu, lit.
“to-you-however this word in-heart for-laying instruction-and it-should-be”, i.e. ‘But
for you this word should be for taking to heart and for instruction’.
3. The Infinitive could be loosely related to its object, as in examples cited by Friedrich,
such as apāš-ma-mu harkanna šan(a)hta, lit. “he-however-me for-deteriorating he-
sought”, i.e. ‘But he sought to destroy me’.
4. The complementary infinitive indicates the purpose of the action; as Friedrich points
out, it is attached to the verb šanhta plus its object mu in a construction quite different
from that in subsequent dialects.
NOTE. These uses are paralleled by uses in Vedic, as may be noted in the work of Macdonell
(1916), from which some examples are taken in Lehmann (1974). On the basis of such examples in
Vedic and in Hittite, he assumes that infinitive constructions were used to indicate a variety of
complements in PIE.
Hittite and Sanskrit also provide examples of Participles functioning appositionally or

as adjectives indicating state (J. Friedrich 1960): ammuk-u̯ar-an akkantan IQ.BI, lit. to-
me-Pte.-indicating-quotation-him dying he-described, i.e. ‘He told me that one had
died.’
313
NOTE. This pattern had been noted by Delbrück for the Rigveda, with various examples
(1900:327), as śiśīhí mā śiśayáṃ tvā śṛṇomi, ‘Strengthen me; I hear that you are strong.’ The
adjective śiśayá ‘strengthening’ is an adjective derived from the same root as śiśīhí. Delbrück also
noted that such “appositives” are indicated in Greek by means of clauses. Greek represents for
Lehmann accordingly a further stage in the development of the IE languages to a VO order. Yet
Greek still maintained preposed participles having the same subject as does the principal verb, as
in: tḕn mèn idṑn gḗthēse, lit. “it Ptc. seeing he-rejoiced”
This pattern permits the use of two verbs with only one indicating mood and person;
the nonfinite verb takes these categories from the finite.
Participles were thus used in the older period for a great variety of relationships,
though also without indicating some of the verbal categories.
Dependent clauses are more flexible in indicating such relationships, and more precise,
especially when complementary participles and infinitives follow the principal verb.
9.6.3. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Indo-Europeanists have long recognized the relationship between the Subordinating

Particles and the stem from which Relative Pronouns were derived in Indo-Iranian and
Greek.
NOTE. Thus Delbrück has pointed out in detail how the neuter accusative form of PIE jo- was
the basis of the conjunction jod in its various meanings: (1) Temporal, (2) Temporal-Causal, (3)
Temporal-Conditional, (4) Purpose. He also recognized the source of conjunctional use in
sentences like Skr. yáj jyathās tád áhar asya kme ‘ṅśóḥ pīyū́ṣam apibo giriṣṭhm, ‘On the
day you were born you drank the mountain milk out of desire for the plant’.
1) Relative clauses must have stood Before the Main Clause originally and
2) The earliest type of subordinate jo- clauses must have been the Preposed Relative
constructions.
NOTE. This conclusion from Vedic receives striking support from Hittite, for in it we find the
same syntactic relationship between relative clauses and other subordinate clauses as is found in
Vedic, Greek, and other early dialects. But the marker for both types of clauses differs. In Hittite it
is based on IE qid rather than jod; thus, Hittite too uses the relative particle for indicating
subordination. The remarkable parallelism between the syntactic constructions, though they have
different surface markers, must be ascribed to typological reasons; we assume that Hittite as well

as Indo-Aryan and Greek was developing a lexical marker to indicate subordination. As does yad
in Vedic, Hitt. kuit signals a “loose” relationship between clauses which must be appropriately
interpreted.
As J. Friedrich has stated (1960), kuit never stands initially in its clause. Sentences in which it is
used are then scarcely more specifically interconnected than are conjoined sentences with no
specific relating word, as in examples cited by Friedrich (ibid.): nu taškupāi nu URU-aš dapii̯anzi
išdammašzi, lit. Ptc. you-shout Ptc. city whole it-hears, ‘Now cry out [so that] the whole city
hears’. Like this example, both clauses in a kuit construction generally are introduced with nu (J.
Friedrich 1960). We may assume that kuit became a subordinating particle when such connections
were omitted, as in Friedrich’s example. These examples illustrate that both yád and kuit
introduce causal clauses, though they do not contain indications of the origin of this use.
It is therefore generally believed that Subordinates originated in Relative sentences, as

Vedic, Old Irish, Avestan and Old Persian illustrate. Proverbs and maxims are a
particularly conservative field in all languages, and even etymologically there are two
series which especially often; namely, qo-...to-, and jo-...to-.
NOTE 1. For IE qo-..to-, cf. Lat. cum...tum, qualis...talis, quam...tam, or Lith. kàs...tàs,
kòks...tàs, kaîp...taîp, kíek...tíek, etc., and for jo-...to-, Ved. yás...sá tád, yáthā...táthā,
yvat...tvat, Gk. oios...toios, ósos...tósos, O.Pers. haya (a compound from so+jo, with the same
inverse compound as Lat. tamquam, from two correlatives), etc.
NOTE 2. For Haudry this correlative structure is the base for subordination in all Indo-European
languages. Proto-Indo-European would therefore show an intermediate syntax between parataxis
and hypotaxis, as the correlative structure is between a ‘loose’ syntax and a ‘locked’ one.
Lehmann assumes that the use of Skr. yád, Hitt. kuit, and other relative particles to
express a causal relationship arose from subordination of clauses introduced by them to
an Ablative; cf. Skr. ácittī yát táva dhármā yuyopimá (lit. unknowing that, because
your law, order we-have-disturbed), m nas tásmād énaso deva rīriṣaḥ (lit. not us
because-of-that because-of-sin O-god you-harm), ‘Do not harm us, god, because of that
sin [that] because unknowingly we have disturbed your law’.
As such relationships with ablatives expressing Cause were not specific, more precise
particles or conjunctions came to be used. In Sanskrit the ablatival yasmāt specifies the
meaning ‘because’.
315
Further, yad and yátra specify the meaning ‘when’. In Hittite, mān came to be used
for temporal relationships, possibly after combined use with kuit; kuitman expressed a
temporal relationship even in Late Hittite, corresponding to ‘while, until’, though
mahhan has replaced mān (J. Friedrich 1960 gives further details). The conjunction mān
itself specifies the meanings ‘if’ and ‘although’ in standard Hittite. In both Hittite and
Vedic then, the “loose” relative-construction relationship between subordinate clauses
and principal clauses is gradually replaced by special conjunctions for the various types
of hypotactic relationship: Causal, Temporal, Conditional, Concessive.
Just as the Causal relationship developed from an Ablative modified by a Relative

construction, so the Temporal and Conditional relationship developed from a clause
modifying an underlying Time node.
The less differentiated and less precisely related subordinate clauses are often still
evident, however, as in yád clauses of the Archaic hymn, Rigveda 1.167. For conciseness,
only yád clauses will be cited here, with Hoffmann’s interpretation of each; the entire
stanzas and their translations are given by Hoffmann (1967).
RV 1.167.5. jóṣad yád īm asuryā̀ sacádhyai

she-desires when them Asuryan to-follow
‘when the Asuryan will desire to follow them’
RV arkó yád vo maruto havíṣmān

song-of-praise whenever, for-you Maruts accompanied-by-libations
‘if the song of praise accompanied by libations is designed for you, Maruts’
RV sácā yád īṃ vṛ́ṣamaṇā ahaṁyú

1.167.7. together because them manly-minded proud
sthirā́ cij jánīr váhate subhāgā́ḥ

rigid though women she-drives well-favored
‘because the manly minded, proud, yet stubborn [Rodasi] brings along other favored
women’

In these three stanzas yad introduces subordinate clauses with three different
relationships: Temporal, Conditional, Causal. Such multiple uses of yad belong
particularly to the archaic style; subsequently they are less frequent, being replaced by
more specific conjunctions.
In addition to the greater specificity of subordinate relationship indicated by particles,

the early, relatively free hypotactic constructions come to be modified by the dominant
subjective quality of the principal verb. The effect may be illustrated by passages like the
following from a Strophic hymn, in which the verb of the principal clause is an optative:
RV 1.38.4. yád yūyám pṛṣnimātaro

if, when you having-Prsni-as-mother
mártāsaḥ syā́tana
mortals you-would-be
stotā́ vo amṛ́taḥ syāt

singer your immortal he-would-be
‘Your singer would be immortal if [= in a situation when] you Maruts were mortals.’
(That is, if our roles were reversed, and you were mortals, then you would wish me to
be immortal.)
This passage illustrates how the use of the Optative in the principal clause brings about
a Conditional relationship in the Subordinate clause (see also Delbrück 1900). Through
its expression of uncertainty the Optative conveys a Conditional rather than a Temporal
meaning in the yad clause.
NOTE. Lacking verb forms expressing uncertainty, Hittite indicates conditional relationships
simply by means of Particles (J. Friedrich 1960). Although several particles are used in Hittite to
indicate various types of conditional clauses—man ... mān for Contrary-to-Fact, takku and man
for Simple Conditionals—Hittite did not develop the variety of patterns found in other dialects.
These patterns, as well described in the handbooks, are brought about not only by differing
particles but also by the uses of the various tense and mood forms. Constructions in the dialects
which have developed farthest from those of PIE are those in which the tense, mood, or person is
modified in accordance with rules based on the verb form of the principal clause. Such shifts are
among the most far-reaching results of the subjective quality of the Indo-European verb (Delbrück
1900).
317
Differences between the constructions in the various dialects reflect the changes as well
as the earlier situation. In Homer, statements may be reported with a shift of mood and
person, as in:
Odyssey líssesthai dé min autós, hópōs nēmertéa eípēi

request Ptc. him self that true-things he-may-say
‘You yourself ask him so that he tells the truth.’
The form eípēi is a third-person aorist subjunctive. If the statement were in direct
discourse, the verb would be eȋpe, second-person imperative, and the clause would read:
̑ e nēmertéa ‘tell the truth’. Such shifts in person and mood would not be expected in
eip
an OV language; in Vedic, for example, statements are repeated and indicated with a
postposed iti. The shifts in the other dialects, as they changed more and more to VO
structure, led to intricate expression of subordinate relationships, through shifts in
person, in mood, and in tense, as well as through specific particles indicating the kind of
subordination. The syntactic constructions of these dialects then came to differ
considerably from that even in Vedic.
The earliest poems of the Vedas are transparent in syntax, as may be illustrated by
Stanzas 9 and 10 of Hymn 1.167:
RV 1.167.9. nahī́ nú vo maruto ánty asmé

never Ptc. your Maruts near from-us
ārttāc cic chávaso ántam āpúḥ

from-far or of-strength end they-reached
té dhṛṣṇúnā śávasā śuśuvṅsó

they bold power strengthened
‘rṇo ná dvéṣo dhṛṣatá pári ṣṭhuḥ

flood like enmity bold against they-stand
‘Never have they reached the limit of your strength, Maruts, whether near or far
from us. Strengthened by bold power they boldly oppose enmity like a flood.’

RV vayám adyéndrasya préṣṭhā vayám

1.167.10. we today-Indra’s most-favored we
śvó vocemahi samaryé

tomorrow we-wish-to-be-called in-battle
vayám pur máhi ca no ánu dyū́n

we formerly great and us through days
tán na ṛbhukṣ narm ánu ṣyāt

that us chief of-men to may-he-be
‘We today, we tomorrow, want to be called Indra’s favorites in battle. We were

formerly. And great things will be for us through the days; may the chief of men give
that to us’.
Although the hymn offers problems of interpretation because of religious and poetic
difficulties, the syntax of these two stanzas is straightforward; the verbs in general are
independent of one another, in this way indicating a succession of individual sentences.
Such syntactic patterns, though more complicated than those of prose passages, lack the
complexity of Classical Greek and Latin, or even Homeric Greek. These early Vedic texts,
like those of Old Hittite, include many of the syntactic categories found in the dialects,
but the patterns of order and relationship between clauses had already changed
considerably from the OV patterns of Middle PIE.
9.7. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES
9.7.1. PARTICLES AS SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION
Noninflected words of various functions were used in indicating relationships between

other words in the sentence or between sentences.
1. Some were used for modifying Nouns, often indicating the relationships of nouns to
verbs. Although these were generally placed after nouns and accordingly were
319
Postpositions, they have often been called Prepositions by reason of their function rather
than their position with regard to nouns (Delbrück).
2. Others were used for modifying Verbs, often specifying more precisely the meanings
of verbs; these then may be called Preverbs.
3. Others, commonly referred to as Sentence Connectives, were used primarily to

indicate the relationships between Clauses or Sentences (Watkins 1964; Lehmann 1969).
9.7.1.1. POSTPOSITIONS
Postpositions in the various dialects are found with specific cases, in accordance with
their meanings.
Yet in the Old Hittite texts, the Genitive rather than such a specific case is prominent
with Postpositions derived from Nouns, such as piran ‘(in) front’ (Neu 1970):
kuiš LUGAL-ua-aš piran ēšzi

who king’s front he-sits
‘whoever sits before the king’
Such postpositions came to be frozen in form, whether unidentifiable as to etymology;

derived from nouns, like piran; or derived from verbs, like Skr. tirás (viz. Lehmann).
Further, as the language came to be VO, they were placed before nouns.
As case forms were less clearly marked, they not only “governed” cases but also took
over the meanings of case categories. The preposition tirás (tiró), derived from the root
*tṛ- ‘cross’, illustrates both the etymological meaning of the form and its eventual
development as preposition:
RV yáṃ te śyenáḥ padbharat

8.82.9. what for-you eagle with-foot-he-bore
tiró rájāṅsy áspṛtam

crossing, through skies not-relinquishing
píbéd [<píba íd] asya tvám īśiṣe

you-drink-indeed of-it you you-are-master (for-your-benefit)

‘What the eagle brought for you in his claws, not dropping it [as he flew] through the
skies, of that drink. You control [it for your own benefit]’.
The syntactic use of such particles with nouns is accordingly clear.
9.7.1.2. PREVERBS
1. Rather than having the close relationships to nouns illustrated above, particles could
instead be associated primarily with Verbs, often the same particles which were used as
Postpositions.
2. Such combinations of particles and verbs came to be treated as units and are found
repeatedly in specific uses (Delbrück 1888).
A. Preverbs might occupy various positions:
1. If unmarked, they are placed before the verb;
2. If marked, they are placed initially in clauses (Watkins 1964).
NOTE. In the course of time the Preverbs in unmarked position came to be combined with their
verbs, though the identity of each element is long apparent in many of the dialects. Thus, in
Modern German the primary accent is still maintained on some verbal roots, and in contrast with
cognate nouns the prefix carries weak stress: erteílen ‘distribute’, Úrteil ‘judgment’. The steps
toward the combination of preverb and verbal root have been described for the dialects, for
example, Greek, in which uncombined forms as well as combined forms are attested during the
period of our texts.
B. In the attested IE dialects:
a. Preverbs which remained uncombined came to be treated as Adverbs.
b. Combinations of Preverbs plus Verbs, on the other hand, eventually came to

function like unitary elements.
The two different positions of preverbs in early texts led eventually to different word
classes.
9.7.1.3. SENTENCE PARTICLES
1. Particles were also used to relate sentences and clauses (J. Friedrich 1959:18, § 11):
321
takku LÚ.ULÙLU-an EL.LUM QA.AZ.ZU našma GÌR-ŠU kuiški

if man free his-hand or his-foot someone
tuu̯arnizzi nušše 20 GÍN KUBABBAR paai

he-breaks Ptc.-to-him 20 shekels silver he-gives
‘If anyone breaks the hand or foot of a freeman, then he must give him twenty shekels
of silver.’
Particles like the initial word in this example indicate the kind of clause that will follow
and have long been well described. The function of particles like nu is not, however,
equally clear.
NOTE. Dillon and Götze related nu and the use of sentence connectives to similar particles in
Old Irish (Dillon 1947). Such particles introduce many sentences in Old Irish and have led to
compound verb forms in this VSO language. Delbrück had also noted their presence in Vedic
(1888)
Since introductory šu and ta were more frequent than was nu in the older Hittite texts,
scholars assumed that sentences in IE were regularly introduced by these sentence
connectives. And Sturtevant proposed, as etymology for the anaphoric pronoun,
combinations of so- and to- with enclitic pronouns, as in the well-known Hittite
sequence ta-at, cf. IE tod, and so on ( see Otten and Souček 1969 for the use of such
particles in one text).
It is clear that sentence connectives were used in Hittite to indicate continued

treatment of a given topic (Raman 1973). It is also found with Hittite relative
constructions, a function which may also be ascribed to Vedic sá and tád.
NOTE. For Lehmann (1974), since this use may be accounted for through post-PIE influences,
sentence connectives may have had a minor role in PIE.
2. Other particles, like Hitt. takku ‘if’, probably had their counterparts in PIE, even if
the surface forms were completely unrelated. This is also true for Emphatic Particles like
Skr. íd; they were used after nouns as well as imperatives. Such emphatic particles
combined with imperatives suggest the presence of Interjections, which cannot usually
be directly reconstructed for PIE but are well attested in the several dialects.

3. A coordinate sentence connective -qe can clearly be reconstructed on the basis of

Goth. u(h), Skr. ca, Gk. te, Lat. que, and so on. But its primary function is the
coordination of elements in the sentence rather than clauses or sentences.
NOTE. Moreover, when ca is used to connect verbs in the Vedic materials, they are parallel
(Delbrück 1888); Delbrück finds only one possible exception. In an OV language the relating of
successive verbs is carried out by means of nonfinite verbs placed before finite. We may then
expect that coordinating particles had their primary use in PIE as connectors for sentence
elements rather than for sentences.
Another such particle is -w ‘or’. Like -qe, the particle indicating disjunctive ‘or’ was
postposed, in retention of the original pattern as late as Classical Latin.
4. Particles in PIE may also have corresponded to verbal qualifiers.
a. The most notable of these is mē, which carried a negative modal meaning.
b. There is indication of such uses of particles in other patterns, for example, of Vedic
pur ‘earlier’ to indicate the past, as apparently Brugmann was the first to point out
(Delbrück 1888), and also Vedic sma, to indicate repeated action in the past (Hoffmann
1967). It is curious that sma is also found after m in Vedic (Hoffmann 1967).
NOTE. Lehmann suggested that such mood- and tense-carrying particles may have been
transported from a postverbal to a preverbal position. Some particles may accordingly have been
equivalent in an earlier stage of PIE to elements used after verbs to indicate verbal categories.
9.7.2. MARKED ORDER IN SENTENCES
1. Elements in sentences can be emphasized, by Marking; the chief device for such
emphasis is Initial Position.
Other sentence elements may also be placed in initial position for marking.
2. In unmarked position the preverb directly precedes the verb. Changes in normal
order thus provide one of the devices for conveying emphasis.
Other devices have to do with Selection, notably particles which are postposed after a
marked element.
3. Emphasis can also be indicated by lexical selection.
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4. Presumably other modifications might also be made, as in Intonation.
The various syntactic devices accordingly provided means to introduce marking in

sentences.
9.7.3. TOPICALIZATION WITH REFERENCE TO EMPHASIS
Like emphasis, Topicalization is carried out by patterns of arrangement, but the

arrangement is applied to coequal elements rather than elements which are moved from
their normal order.
Topicalization by arrangement is well known in the study of the early languages, as in

the initial lines of the Homeric poems. The Iliad begins with the noun mȇnin ‘wrath’, the
Odyssey with the noun ándra ‘man’. These, to be sure, are the only possible nouns in the
syntactically simple sentences opening both poems: mȇnin áeide ‘Sing of the wrath’ and
ándra moi énnepe ‘Tell me of the man’. Yet the very arrangement of moi and other
enclitics occupying second position in the sentence, in accordance with Wackernagel’s
law, indicates the use of initial placement among nominal elements for topicalization.
The use of topicalization may be illustrated by a more complex set of sentences, such as
the first address of Zeus in the Odyssey. Only the first lines of this will be quoted; but
these indicate a shift in topic from the ‘gods’ to ‘men’, then to a particular man,
Aegisthus, then to Agamemnon, and subsequently to Orestes (Lehmann 1974).
Ȏ pópoi, hoȋon dḗnu theoùs brotoì aitióōntai; eks hēméōn gár phasi kák’ émmenai, hoi
dè kaì autoì, sphȇisin atasthalíēisin hupèr móron álge’ ékhousin, hōs kaì nu ̑n Aígisthos
hupèr móron Atreídao, gȇm’ álokhon mnēstḗn, tòn d’ éktane nostḗsanta,
‘Alas, how the mortals are now blaming the gods. For they say evils come from us, but
they themselves have woes beyond what’s fated by their own stupidities. Thus Aegisthus
beyond what was fated has now married the wedded wife of Agamemnon, and killed
him on his return.’
As this passage and many others that might be cited illustrate, the basic sentence
patterns could be rearranged by stylistic rules, both for emphasis and for topicalization.
In this way the relatively strict arrangement of simple sentences could be modified to
bring about variety and flexibility.

Appendix I: Indo-European in Use
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE
I.1. TEXTS TRANSLATED INTO MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
These texts have been translated as examples for the revived language.
I.1.1. PATER NOS (LORD’S PRAYER)
Eurōpājóm English Latine Ελληνικά

Pater Nos, Our Father, who art Pater noster, qui es Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς
kémeloisi jos esi, in heaven, in caelis: οὐρανοῖς·
Nōmṇ sqénetoru Hallowed be thy sanctificetur ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά
tewe. Name. Nomen Tuum; σου·
Regnom Thy kingdom come. adveniat Regnum ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία
cémjetōd tewe. Tuum; σου·
Dhidhḗtoru Thy will be done, fiat voluntas Tua, γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά
woljā Téwijā, σου,
ita kémelei jota On earth as it is in sicut in caelo, et in ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ
pḷtáwijāi. heaven. terra. γῆς·
Qāqodjūtenom Give us this day our Panem nostrum τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν
bharsjom daily bread. cotidianum da ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν
ṇseróm edjḗu nobis hodie; σήμερον·
dasdhi nos
joqe dhḷeglāns And forgive us our et dimitte nobis καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ
ṇserns parke, trespasses, debita nostra, ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν,
swāi skéletbhos As we forgive those Sicut et nos ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν
párkomos. who trespass dimittimus τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν·
against us. debitoribus nostris;
Enim mē ṇsmé And lead us not into et ne nos inducas in καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς
péritloi enke temptation, tentationem; ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν,
prōd,
mō úpelēd nosēje But deliver us from sed libera nos a ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ
nos. Estōd. evil. Amen Malo. Amen τοῦ πονηροῦ. ἀμήν.
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I.1.2. SLWĒJE MARIJĀ (HAIL MARY)

Sḷwēje Marijā, Hail Mary, full of Ave María, gratia Θεοτόκε Παρθένε,
crātjā plēn tū, grace, plena, χαῖρε, κεχαριτωμένη
Μαρία,
Arjos twojo esti; the Lord is with Dominus tecum. ὁ Κύριος μετὰ σοῦ.
thee;
súwoqnā cénāisi blessed art thou Benedicta tu in εὐλογημένη σὺ ἐν
esi, among women, mulieribus, γυναιξί,
súwoqnos-qe and blessed is the et benedictus εὐλογημένος ὁ
úderosjo two fruit of thy womb, fructus ventris tui, καρπὸς τῆς κοιλίας
bhreugs estōd, Jesus. Iesus. σου, ὅτι Σωτήρα
Jēsus. ἔτεκες τῶν ψυχῶν
ἡμῶν
Noibha Marijā, Holy Mary, Mother Sancta Maria, Mater
Déiwosjo Mātér, of God, Dei,
nosbhos ōrāje pray for us sinners, ora pro nobis
ágeswṇtbhos, peccatoribus,
numki mṛtjos-qe now and at the hour nunc et in hora
nos daitei. Estōd. of our death. Amen. mortis nostrae.
Amen.
I.1.3. KRÉDDHĒMI (NICENE CREED)

Oinom kréddhēmi We believe in one Credo in unum Πιστεύομεν εἰς ἕνα
Deiwom, God, Deo, Θεὸν
Paterṃ the Father Patrem Πατέρα
solwomóghmonṃ, Almighty, omnipoténtem, παντοκράτορα,
djḗwepḷtáwīdhōtṃ, Maker of heaven factórem cæli et ποιητὴν οὐρανοῦ καὶ
and earth, terræ, γῆς,
dṛknjōm sólwosom and of all things visibílium ómnium ὁρατῶν τε πάντων
ṇdṛknjōm-qe visible and et invisibílium; και ἀοράτων.
dhētṓr; invisible.
Arjom-qe Jēsum And in one Lord Et in unum Και εἰς ἕνα κύριον
Ghristóm oinom, Jesus Christ, Dóminum Iesum Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν,
Christum,

Déiwosjo Sūnúm the only-begotten Fílium Dei τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ θεοῦ
oinógnātom, Son of God, unigénitum, τὸν μονογενῆ,
Patros-jos gnātós begotten of the et ex Patre natum τὸν ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς
aiwēd prāi solwēd, Father before all ante ómnia sæcula: γεννηθέντα πρὸ
worlds (æons), πάντων τῶν αἰώνων,
Deiwos Deiwēd, Light of Light, very Deum de Deo, φῶς ἐκ φωτός, θεὸν
leuksmṇ God of very God, lumen de lúmine, ἀληθινὸν ἐκ θεοῦ
léuksmene, wērom Deum verum de ἀληθινοῦ,
Deiwom wērēd Deo vero,
Deiwēd,
gentós, nē dhatos, begotten, not génitum non γεννηθέντα οὐ
made, factum, ποιηθέντα,
Patrei kómbhoutis, being of one consubstantiálem ὁμοούσιον τῷ πατρί·
substance with the Patri,
Father;
josōd solwā dhakt by whom all things per quem ómnia δι' οὗ τὰ πάντα
senti; were made; facta sunt; ἐγένετο·
qos nosbhis rōdhí who for us men, qui propter nos τὸν δι' ἡμᾶς τοὺς
dhghómṇbhis and for our hómines et propter ἀνθρώπους καὶ διὰ
kémelobhos kidét, salvation, came nostram salútem τὴν ἡμετέραν
down from heaven, descéndit de cælis; σωτηρίαν
κατελθόντα
enim memsom and was incarnate et incarnátus est de ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν καὶ
Noibhēd Ánamēd by the Holy Ghost Spíritu Sancto ex σαρκωθέντα ἐκ
Wéwṛtei Marijād of the Virgin Mary, María Vírgine et πνεύματος ἁγίου καὶ
eksí ándhesād, and was made homo factus est; Μαρίας τῆς
enim dhghomōn man; παρθένου καὶ
geneto; ἐνανθρωπήσαντα,
eti krukídhētos he was crucified for crucifíxus étiam σταυρωθέντα τε
nosbhis prōd us under Pontius pro nobis sub ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἐπὶ
Pontjei upo Pilatei, Pilate, and Póntio Piláto, Ποντίου Πιλάτου,
pastos sepēlitós-qe suffered, and was passus et sepúltus καὶ παθόντα καὶ
esti, buried, est; ταφέντα,
joqe ati tritjei stete and the third day et resurréxit tértia καὶ ἀναστάντα τῇ
diwí, skréibhmona he rose again, die secúndum τρίτῃ ἡμέρα κατὰ
ad kémelom-qe according to the Scriptúras; et τὰς γραφάς, καὶ
skāndwós, Patrí Scriptures, and ascéndit in cælum, ἀνελθόντα εἰς τοὺς
déksijāi sedḗjeti; ascended into sedet ad déxteram οὐρανοὺς, καὶ
heaven, and sitteth Patris; καθεζόμενον ἐκ
on the right hand δεξιῶν τοῦ πατρός
of the Father;
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joqe dwonim from thence he et íterum ventúrus καὶ πάλιν ἐρχόμενον

kléwosē cemjest shall come again, est cum glória μετὰ δόξης κρῖναι
cīwóns mṛwons-qe with glory, to judge iudicáre vivos et ζῶντας καὶ νεκρούς·
kómdhēnqos; the quick and the mórtuos;
dead;
qosjo regnom nē whose kingdom cuius regni non erit οὗ τῆς βασιλείας οὐκ
antjom bhéuseti. shall have no end. finis; ἔσται τέλος.
joqe Noibhom And in the Holy Et in Spíritum Καὶ εἰς τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ
Ánamom, potim Ghost, the Lord Sanctum, Ἅγιον, τὸ κύριον,
ḗtrodhōtṃ-qe, and Giver of life, Dóminum et (καὶ) τὸ ζωοποιόν, τὸ
Patrós Sūneus-qe who proceedeth vivificántem: qui ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς
proilóm, from the Father, ex Patre Filióque ἐκπορευόμενον,
procédit;
qei Patrē Sūnéwē- who with the qui cum Patre et τὸ σὺν πατρὶ καὶ υἱῷ
qe semli áidetor Father and the Son Fílio simul συμπροσκυνούμενον
enim magtjetor together is adorátur et καὶ συνδοξαζόμενον,
bhatos-jos worshiped and conglorificátur; qui τὸ λαλῆσαν διὰ τῶν
próbhātṇs terqe glorified, who locútus est per προφητῶν.
esti. spake by the Prophétas;
prophets.
joqe oinām, In one holy Et in unam εἰς μίαν, ἁγίαν,
noibhām, catholic and sanctam καθολικὴν καὶ
kṃtísolwām apostolic Church; cathólicam et ἀποστολικὴν
apostólejām apostólicam ἐκκλησίαν·
ékklētijām. Ecclésiam.
Oinom bhatējai we acknowledge Confíteor unum ὁμολογοῦμεν ἓν
agesupomoukom one baptism for the baptísma in βάπτισμα εἰς ἄφεσιν
cadhmṇ; remission of sins; remissiónem ἁμαρτιῶν·
peccatorum
saitlōm-qe cītām we look for the et exspecto προσδοκοῦμεν
cémjonqōm. Estōd resurrection of the resurrectionem ἀνάστασιν νεκρῶν,
dead, and the life mortuorum et καὶ ζωὴν τοῦ
of the world to vitam ventúri μέλλοντος αἰῶνος.
come. Amen. sæculi. Amen. Ἀμήν.

I.1.4. NOUDÓS SŪNÚS (PARABLE OF THE PRODIGAL SON)

11 Dhghomōn “A certain man Homo quidam Ἄνθρωπός τις εἶχεν
enis sū́nuwe had two sons. habuit duos filios: δύο υἱούς.
eiket.
12 Joqe And the younger et dixit καὶ εἶπεν ὁ νεώτερος
jowísteros of them said to his adolescentior ex αὐτῶν τῷ πατρί,
patréi weuqét : father, ‘Father, illis patri: Pater, da Πάτερ, δός μοι τὸ
Pater, rijós give me the mihi portionem ἐπιβάλλον μέρος τῆς
dasdhi moi portion of goods substantiæ, quæ οὐσίας. ὁ δὲ διεῖλεν
aitim qāi that falls to me.’ me contingit. Et αὐτοῖς τὸν βίον.
meghei áineti, So he divided to divisit illis
joqe rēim them his substantiam.
ibhom widhét. livelihood.
13 Enim nē And not many Et non post multos καὶ μετ' οὐ πολλὰς
péluwāns days after, the dies, congregatis ἡμέρας συναγαγὼν
dināns pos, younger son omnibus, πάντα ὁ νεώτερος
solwā garlós, gathered all adolescentior filius υἱὸς ἀπεδήμησεν εἰς
jowísteros together, peregre profectus χώραν μακράν, καὶ
sūnús reu journeyed to a far est in regionem ἐκεῖ διεσκόρπισεν τὴν
porsótenom country, and there longinquam, et ibi οὐσίαν αὐτοῦ ζῶν
oigheto wasted his dissipavit
ἀσώτως.
londhom, possessions with substantiam suam
idhei-qe rēim prodigal living. vivendo luxuriose.
nudét sewe
ghlóidotos
cīwents.
14 Enim ítapo But when he had Et postquam δαπανήσαντος δὲ
solwā cósissēt spent all, there omnia αὐτοῦ πάντα ἐγένετο
kom, dhṛghtós arose a severe consummasset, λιμὸς ἰσχυρὰ κατὰ
molét famine in that facta est fames τὴν χώραν ἐκείνην,
ghrēdhus land, and he valida in regione καὶ αὐτὸς ἤρξατο
londhei began to be in illa, et ipse cœpit ὑστερεῖσθαι.
ólnosmei, joqe want. egere.
egētum sepe
bhwije.
15 Itaqe cālós, Then he went and Et abiit, et adhæsit καὶ πορευθεὶς
qismei jugeto joined himself to uni civium regionis ἐκολλήθη ἑνὶ τῶν
kéiwijom a citizen of that illius: et misit πολιτῶν τῆς χώρας
ólnosjo londhī, country, and he illum in villam ἐκείνης, καὶ ἔπεμψεν
imqe sontajet sent him into his suam ut pasceret αὐτὸν εἰς τοὺς ἀγροὺς
porkons fields to feed porcos. αὐτοῦ βόσκειν
pāsksi. swine. χοίρους:
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16 Atqe úderom And he would Et cupiebat καὶ ἐπεθύμει

skḷiqāis gladly have filled implere ventrem χορτασθῆναι ἐκ τῶν
plḗnātum his stomach with suum de siliquis, κερατίων ὧν ἤσθιον
gheríjeto the pods that the quas porci οἱ χοῖροι, καὶ οὐδεὶς
porkōs edent swine ate, and no manducabant: et ἐδίδου αὐτῷ.
jans atqe neqis one gave him nemo illi dabat.
ismei dōt. anything.
17 Swei poti “But when he In se autem εἰς ἑαυτὸν δὲ ἐλθὼν
wṛtomnós, egt: came to himself, reversus, dixit: ἔφη, Πόσοι μίσθιοι
qotjoi patrós he said, ‘How Quanti mercenarii τοῦ πατρός μου
domei many of my in domo patris mei περισσεύονται ἄρτων,
mísdhotes father’s hired abundant panibus, ἐγὼ δὲ λιμῷ ὧδε
paskneis servants have ego autem hic ἀπόλλυμαι.
spréigonti, kei bread enough and fame pereo!
egṓ au dhami to spare, and I
mṛijai! perish with
hunger!
18 ṛísomnos I will arise and go surgam, et ibo ad ἀναστὰς πορεύσομαι
paterṃ eisō to my father, and patrem meum, et πρὸς τὸν πατέρα μου
mene ad, joqe will say to him, dicam ei: Pater, καὶ ἐρῶ αὐτῷ, Πάτερ,
ismei seksō : “Father, I have peccavi in cælum, ἥμαρτον εἰς τὸν
Pater, sinned against et coram te: οὐρανὸν καὶ ἐνώπιόν
kémelom proti heaven and before σου,
tewom-qe antí you,
memlai,
19 jāmi nē deknos and I am no jam non sum οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος
egṓ, sūnús longer worthy to dignus vocari filius κληθῆναι υἱός σου:
téwijos be called your tuus: fac me sicut ποίησόν με ὡς ἕνα
kluwētum: son. Make me like unum de τῶν μισθίων σου.
dhasdhi me one of your hired mercenariis tuis.
swāi qimqim servants.”’
mísdhotom
tewe.
20 Ita ṛitós “And he arose and Et surgens venit ad καὶ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν
paterṃ ludhét came to his father. patrem suum. Cum πρὸς τὸν πατέρα
sewe. Eti jom But when he was autem adhuc longe ἑαυτοῦ. ἔτι δὲ αὐτοῦ
qeli bhūlō, em still a great way esset, vidit illum μακρὰν ἀπέχοντος
patḗr tósjope off, his father saw pater ipsius, et εἶδεν αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ
dṛket, joqe ana him and had misericordia αὐτοῦ καὶ
kṛsents compassion, and motus est, et ἐσπλαγχνίσθη καὶ
kómqēiljō ran and fell on his accurrens cecidit
δραμὼν ἐπέπεσεν ἐπὶ
krūtós esti neck and kissed super collum ejus,
τὸν τράχηλον αὐτοῦ
enim kolsom him. et osculatus est
petlós em eum. καὶ κατεφίλησεν
bhusājét. αὐτόν.

21 Wedét And the son said Dixitque ei filius: εἶπεν δὲ ὁ υἱὸς αὐτῷ,
óisosmōi to him, ‘Father, I Pater, peccavi in Πάτερ, ἥμαρτον εἰς
sūnús: Pater, have sinned cælum, et coram τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ
kémelom proti against heaven te: jam non sum ἐνώπιόν σου, οὐκέτι
tewom-qe anti and in your sight, dignus vocari filius εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι
memlai: jāmi and am no longer tuus. υἱός σου.
nē deknos egṓ, worthy to be
sūnús téwijos called your son.’
nōmnādhjom
22 nū “But the father Dixit autem pater εἶπεν δὲ ὁ πατὴρ πρὸς
mísdhatbhos said to his ad servos suos: τοὺς δούλους αὐτοῦ,
bhato patḗr servants, ‘Bring Cito proferte Ταχὺ ἐξενέγκατε
sewe; bhersi: out the best robe stolam primam, et στολὴν τὴν πρώτην
pṛisṃām and put it on him, induite illum, et καὶ ἐνδύσατε αὐτόν,
dhrághete and put a ring on date annulum in καὶ δότε δακτύλιον
togām joqe tom his hand and manum ejus, et εἰς τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ
westíjete, sandals on his calceamenta in
καὶ ὑποδήματα εἰς
anom tosjo feet. pedes ejus:
τοὺς πόδας,
ghéseni
kerpjons-qe
esjo daste
pedsú:
23 kom piwonṃ- And bring the et adducite καὶ φέρετε τὸν
qe bhérete fatted calf here vitulum μόσχον τὸν σιτευτόν,
loigom joqe and kill it, and let saginatum, et θύσατε καὶ φαγόντες
chénete, joqe us eat and be occidite, et εὐφρανθῶμεν,
edāmos, joqe merry; manducemus, et
wḷdām epulemur:
terpāmos,
24 jodqid kei for this my son quia hic filius ὅτι οὗτος ὁ υἱός μου
sūnús mene was dead and is meus mortuus νεκρὸς ἦν καὶ
dhedhuwós ēst alive again; he erat, et revixit: ἀνέζησεν, ἦν
atqe coje ati: was lost and is perierat, et ἀπολωλὼς καὶ
skombnós ēst, found.’ And they inventus est. Et εὑρέθη. καὶ ἤρξαντο
atqe wṛētai. began to be cœperunt epulari. εὐφραίνεσθαι.
Enim wḷdām merry.
bhwijónt.
25 Agrei au “Now his older Erat autem filius ην δὲ ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ ὁ
senísteros ēst son was in the ejus senior in agro: πρεσβύτερος ἐν
sūnús: joqe field. And as he et cum veniret, et ἀγρῷ: καὶ ὡς
jom cēmsēt came and drew appropinquaret ἐρχόμενος ἤγγισεν τῇ
enim domom near to the house, domui, audivit οἰκίᾳ, ἤκουσεν
nedisēt, he heard music symphoniam et συμφωνίας καὶ
kómkantum and dancing. chorum: χορῶν,
leigṃ-qe
kluwét.
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26 Joqe neqom So he called one et vocavit unum de καὶ προσκαλεσάμενος

móghuwom of the servants servis, et ἕνα τῶν παίδων
ghaulós pṛket and asked what interrogavit quid ἐπυνθάνετο τί ἂν εἴη
qid ghāi-ke these things hæc essent. ταῦτα.
bhousēnt. meant.
27 Isqe sqet: And he said to Isque dixit illi: ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι Ὁ
bhrātēr tewe him, ‘Your Frater tuus venit, ἀδελφός σου ἥκει,
cēme enim brother has come, et occidit pater καὶ ἔθυσεν ὁ πατήρ
piwonṃ patḗr and because he tuus vitulum σου τὸν μόσχον τὸν
two chone has received him saginatum, quia σιτευτόν, ὅτι
loigom, jodqid safe and sound, salvum illum ὑγιαίνοντα αὐτὸν
tom cīwóm your father has recepit. ἀπέλαβεν.
solwom ghōde. killed the fatted
calf.’
28 kṛditós autim “But he was angry Indignatus est ὠργίσθη δὲ καὶ οὐκ
esti, joqe nē en and would not go autem, et nolebat ἤθελεν εἰσελθεῖν. ὁ
eitum welwāt. in. Therefore his introire. Pater ergo δὲ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ
Ar patḗr ejos father came out illius egressus, ἐξελθὼν παρεκάλει
eksodlós, and pleaded with cœpit rogare illum. αὐτόν.
bhwijét im him.
chestum.
29 Atqe se So he answered At ille respondens, ὁ δὲ ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν
protiweqents, and said to his dixit patri suo: τῷ πατρὶ αὐτοῦ, Ἰδοὺ
patréi bhato father, ‘Lo, these Ecce tot annis τοσαῦτα ἔτη δουλεύω
sewe: edke many years I have servio tibi, et σοι καὶ οὐδέποτε
totjons atnons been serving you; numquam ἐντολήν σου
sístāmi twei I never mandatum tuum παρῆλθον, καὶ ἐμοὶ
upo, joqe transgressed your præterivi: et οὐδέποτε ἔδωκας
neqom dikām commandment at numquam dedisti
ἔριφον ἵνα μετὰ τῶν
tewe kleusō any time; and yet mihi hædum ut
φίλων μου εὐφρανθῶ:
dus, atqe you never gave me cum amicis meis
neqom meghei a young goat, that epularer.
ghaidom desta I might make
wḷdāi ameikos merry with my
senutéwijāi. friends.
30 Mō ita tom But as soon as this Sed postquam ὅτε δὲ ὁ υἱός σου
sūnús tewe kei, son of yours filius tuus hic, qui οὗτος ὁ καταφαγών
rēim loutsāis came, who has devoravit σου τὸν βίον μετὰ
cṛālós cēme, devoured your substantiam suam πορνῶν ἦλθεν,
ólnosmōi livelihood with cum meretricibus, ἔθυσας αὐτῷ τὸν
píwonṃ harlots, you killed venit, occidisti illi σιτευτὸν μόσχον.
loigom chonta. the fatted calf for vitulum
him.’ saginatum.

31 Atqe oise “And he said to At ipse dixit illi: ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτῷ,

tosmōi weuqét: him, ‘Son, you are Fili, tu semper Τέκνον, σὺ πάντοτε
suneu, tū always with me, mecum es, et μετ' ἐμοῦ εἶ, καὶ
áiwesi mojo and all that I have omnia mea tua πάντα τὰ ἐμὰ σά
esi, enim solwā is yours. sunt: ἐστιν:
menjā téwijā
senti.
32 Wḷdm autim It was right that epulari autem, et εὐφρανθῆναι δὲ καὶ
terptum, joqe we should make gaudere oportebat, χαρῆναι ἔδει, ὅτι ὁ
gaudhētum merry and be quia frater tuus hic ἀδελφός σου οὗτος
opos est, glad, for your mortuus erat, et νεκρὸς ἦν καὶ ἔζησεν,
jodqid bhrātēr brother was dead revixit; perierat, et καὶ ἀπολωλὼς καὶ
tewe kei and is alive again, inventus est. εὑρέθη.
dhedhuwós ēst and was lost and
atqe coje ati: is found.’”
skombnós ēst,
atqe wṛētai.
I.1.5. NEWOS BHEIDHOS (NEW TESTAMENT) – JŌHANĒS, 1, 1-14

1 Pārjei Wṛdhom In the beginning in principio erat Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ
bhewet, joqe was the Word, and Verbum et Verbum λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος
Wṛdhom Deiwei the Word was with erat apud Deum et ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν,
ēst ensí, joqe God, and the Word Deus erat Verbum καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ
Deiwos was God. λόγος.
Wṛdhom ēst.
2 Ensí id pārjei He was in the hoc erat in οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ
Deiwei ēst. beginning with principio apud πρὸς τὸν θεόν.
God. Deum
3 Eisōd solwā All things were omnia per ipsum πάντα δι' αὐτοῦ
gegner enim id made through facta sunt et sine ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς
ṇeu neqid Him, and without ipso factum est αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ
gégnisēt josjo Him nothing was nihil quod factum ἕν. ὃ γέγονεν
gégone. made that was est
made.
4 Ismi cītā In Him was life, in ipso vita erat et ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ
bhewet, joqe and the life was the vita erat lux ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς
cītā ēst light of men. hominum τῶν ἀνθρώπων:
dhghómonom
leuks.
333
5 Itaqe leuks And the light et lux in tenebris καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ

skotei skéjeti, shines in the lucet et tenebrae σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ
joqe oisām darkness, and the eam non σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ
skotos nē turét. darkness did not conprehenderunt κατέλαβεν.
comprehend it
6 Gnātós esti There was a man fuit homo missus a Ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος
wīrós Deiwō sent from God, Deo cui nomen ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ
sontonós whose name was erat Iohannes θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ
Jōhanēs John. Ἰωάννης:
nṓmṇtos.
7 Tristimonjōi This man came for hic venit in οὗτος ἦλθεν εἰς
ludhét se, a witness, to bear testimonium ut μαρτυρίαν, ἵνα
leukbhi witness of the testimonium μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ
tristidhēnts, ei Light, that all perhiberet de τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα
solwoi ijo through him might lumine ut omnes πάντες πιστεύσωσιν
kreddhēsēnt. believe. crederent per δι' αὐτοῦ.
illum
8 Nē olne leuks, He was not that non erat ille lux οὐκ ἦν ἐκεῖνος τὸ
immō, leukbhi Light, but was sent sed ut φῶς, ἀλλ' ἵνα
tristidhēnts. to bear witness of testimonium μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ
that Light. perhiberet de τοῦ φωτός.
lumine
9 Leuks wērom That was the true erat lux vera quae ην τὸ φῶς τὸ
ēst, solwom Light which gives inluminat omnem ἀληθινόν, ὃ φωτίζει
bhnuti light to every man hominem πάντα ἄνθρωπον,
dhghomonṃ, coming into the venientem in ἐρχόμενον εἰς τὸν
dhoubnom kod world. mundum κόσμον.
ludhl.
10 Dhoubnei ēst, He was in the in mundo erat et ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ἦν,
enim ijo world, and the mundus per ipsum καὶ ὁ κόσμος δι'
dhoubnom world was made factus est et αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ
gegner, atqe nē through Him, and mundus eum non ὁ κόσμος αὐτὸν οὐκ
im dhoubnom the world did not cognovit ἔγνω.
gnōt. know Him.
11 Somobhos He came to His in propria venit et εἰς τὰ ἴδια ἦλθεν,
ludhét, atqe im own, and His own sui eum non καὶ οἱ ἴδιοι αὐτὸν
somói ghadont did not receive receperunt οὐ παρέλαβον.
nei ad. Him.

12 Jotjoi im But as many as quotquot autem ὅσοι δὲ ἔλαβον

ghadónt, received Him, to receperunt eum αὐτόν, ἔδωκεν
moghtim tobhos them He gave the dedit eis αὐτοῖς ἐξουσίαν
génonī dōt right to become potestatem filios τέκνα θεοῦ
Diwoputla, esjo children of God, to Dei fieri his qui γενέσθαι, τοῖς
nōmṇ those who believe credunt in nomine πιστεύουσιν εἰς τὸ
kréddhēntbhos, in His name: eius ὄνομα αὐτοῦ,
13 joi nē ésenos, who were born, not qui non ex οἳ οὐκ ἐξ αἱμάτων
neqe memsī of blood, nor of the sanguinibus neque οὐδὲ ἐκ θελήματος
woljās, neqe will of the flesh, ex voluntate carnis σαρκὸς οὐδὲ ἐκ
wīr immō nor of the will of neque ex voluntate θελήματος ἀνδρὸς
Déiwosjo gnātṓs man, but of God. viri sed ex Deo nati ἀλλ' ἐκ θεοῦ
sonti. sunt ἐγεννήθησαν.
14 Joqe Wṛdhom And the Word et Verbum caro Καὶ ὁ λόγος σὰρξ
memsom wṛstós became flesh and factum est et ἐγένετο καὶ
esti, enim dwelt among us, habitavit in nobis ἐσκήνωσεν ἐν ἡμῖν,
pḷtomóm ṇsmí and we beheld His et vidimus gloriam καὶ ἐθεασάμεθα τὴν
dhēke ení, enim glory, the glory as eius gloriam quasi δόξαν αὐτοῦ, δόξαν
ejos qedos of the only unigeniti a Patre ὡς μονογενοῦς
dṛkomes, qedos begotten of the plenum gratiae et παρὰ πατρός,
swāi Father, full of veritatis
πλήρης χάριτος καὶ
oinógnātejom grace and truth.
ἀληθείας.
Patrós wḗrotjō
cratjā-qe
plēnóm.
335
I.2 KOMTLOQJOM please [I ask you] chedhō
(CONVERSATION) thanks méitimons /
moitmom
Common expressions in MIE include:
thanks (I give prijēsna /
English Eurōpājóm you) prósēdjom
hello! alā! / gheuse! (tebhei agō)
dear Peter: qeime Perte: I thank you prijējō tewom
welcome crātós / sucṃtós you are welcome, esti sū, potei

tū sir
good day latom ēsúm excuse me ṇgnōdhi
good morning wēsrom ēsúm sorry/pardon me parke
good afternoon / wesprom ēsúm I am sorry kesdō

evening don't worry mē koisāje
good night noqtim ēsúm good bye, darling sḷwēj’, prijótṃā
how are you? qotā wḷḗjesi? good luck kobom ēsúm
I am fine wḷējō sū yes dā / jāi / ne-(ghi)
Who are you? qis esi? indeed nem-pe / ita tod
Whose [son] are qosjo esi? no nē / nei
you?
alright tagte
what is your qotā kluwḗjesi?
attention probhoudhos
name? [how are
you heard?] where is the door qodhei dhworis?
what is your qid esti tebhei here is what I kei esti jod
name? nōmṇ? asked pṛkskóm
my name is Peter kluwējō Pertos what is this? qid (esti) tod?

[I am heard this is food pitús tod (esti)
Peter]
what time is it? qid esti daitis?
my name is Peter meghei Pertos
it is true wērom tod
nōmṇ
very good / the bhodistom /
pleased to meet gaudhējō tewe
best bhodsṃom
you gnōtim
everything is solwā sū́ I live in the Main Stoighei Magnéi

alright (ágontor) Street ceiwō / trebhō
how old are you? qótobhos Lucrecia and I are Lukretjā egṓ-qe
átnobhos tū? friends ámeikes smes /
ámeike swes
I am ten years old dekṃ gnātós
[ten born I am] esmi the cat mews in kattā ghortei
the garden mijaluti
do you speak bhāsoi [bhasoi]
European? an Eurōpājóm? the dog bites the kattām mordḗjeti
cat kwōn
I speak a little páukolom
bhāmoi the woman walks kattā dhḗmonā
with the cat aljetoi
I don't nē tewom peumi
understand you I see the head of kattās dṛkō
the cat ghebhlām
tell me what you seqe moi qid
think kṇsējāsi Where is the qodhei esti
train? douknom?
I don't know nē woida
the train is here douknom (esti)
shut up takēj’ [takēje]
kei
sit down sisde (sg.) /
I want to eat fish welmi piskim
sísdete (pl.)
ghostum
come here cemj' [cemje]
do you want to welsi mojo
kom-ke
sleep with me? sweptum?
I'm going right nū ghenghō kom
yes, I wish for it jāi, moksi
now
gherijai
what do you do or qóterom
no, you stink / nē, smérdesi /
study? ghléndhesi an
smell bad bhragrjesi dus
drjesi?
it is hot! [how hot qām kalḗjeti!
are they married? esti lachḗjonti?
is it!]
I love women lubhējō pelū
it is cold! [how qām srīgējeti!
dhḗmonāns /
cold is it!]
cenāns
I go swimming to laqom eimi
write here your deikom skreibhe
the lake everyday dhochei snātum
address kei tewe
qāqei
337
can I smoke? moghō (an) online at <http://dnghu.org/indo-european-

smeughtum? language/>.
may I smoke? [is moghnjom

it possible (for meghei an
me) to smoke?] smeughtum
(esti)?
esti moi
smeughtum?
smoking smeughtum
prohibited wétānom
happy new year ghoilom newom

atnom
I agree with solwei manjō

everything that kom, jod
you explained me dhghjéstenei
yesterday in your bhersi dewtlei
mail peri
I thank you for méndhesi prijējō

the interest that te, jobhi áiwesi
you always have prōd steightum
to carry on awējāsi
NOTE. About the sentence “is it possible to

smoke?”, constructed with the verb esti,
compare Lat. est in Ovid (Metamorphoses
Book III, 479) quod tangere non est, “as it is
not possible to touch”; also Virgil est
cernere, “it can be seen”; also, for Gk.
estì(n), “it is possible”, compare Lucian (The
Parliament of the Gods, 12) Ἔστιν, ὦ Ἑρμῆ,
“is it possible, Hermes”.
MIE language lessons with common

vocabulary and sentences are freely available

I.3 LATE PIE LEXICON stand (sí)stāmi

advantage (sí)stāmi antí/prāi
This lexicon is available online with regular be far (sí)stāmi apó
updates at the automatic dictionary and hunt (wí)weimi
find (wí)wermi
translator <http://indo-european.eu>. For
affirm ∂gjō
detailed etymological information, see speech ∂gtis
Appendix III.1. That information is also reach ∂pjō
available online at harvest ∂snātis
apple ábelos
<http://dnghu.org/en/proto-indo-
sudden abhnos
european-language/>. very abhro-
The Late PIE etymological schwa (*∂) lamb acnos
at ad
represents an older (PIH) laryngeal, which
prepare adējō
was later pronounced differently in each rite admṇ
dialect. That laryngeal schwa is omitted if it spelt ados
is word-initial and appears alone, as in PIH agile ág∂lis
fear āghar
*H3bhruH, or if the preceding syllable has
lake ágherom
full vocalism, as in *klamrós, but it is plough animal aghjā
written elsewhere, as in *p∂ter-. For more repellent aghlós
on this, see Conventions Used in this Book, drizzle aghlóws
afflict ághneumi
and § 2.2.10.
brood aglā
rank agm∂n
I.3.1. ENGLISH - PIE
push agō
DICTIONARY fault agos
ram agós
For detailed information on the Proto- massacre agrā
Indo-European words, its etymology, usage, fruit ágrēnom
root and meaning, see the following section, farmer agróqolās
land agros
Appendix I.3.2.
wing agslā
English PIE pushed agtós
give (dí)dōmi feel ashamed aichesājō
know (gí)gnōskō (gnōwa) hearth aidhis
blow ()wēmi burn aidhō
expel (jí)jēmi oak aigā
sharpen (kí)kēmi ill aigros
fill (pím)plēmi reach aikō
over (s)úperi copy áimneumi
superior (s)úperos replication aimom
uppest (s)upmos belong ainō
339
take possession áinumoi protect alkējō

even aiqos roe-deer alkis
ryegrass airā nourish alō
honour aisdai small alpos
ardour aisdhom the other one álteros
clear aiskrós adult altjos
respect aisō high altós
request áisoskō garlic lujos
desire aisskā beer álumṇ
part aitis love amājō
always áiw(es)i around ambhí
period áiwesos public servant ambhíagtos
eternal aiwós circuit ámbhinom
eternity áiwotāts servant ambhíqolos
vital energy aiwu travel ambhírēmos
early ájeri both ambhou
brassy ájesnos friend ámeikā
brass ajos friend amēiks
maple ákeris aunt ámetā
pile ákeswos oppress amghō
blade akjēs narrow amghús
bit akmā narrowness ámghustis
stone akmōn mother ammā
prickle aknā seizing āmós
eat áknāmi sour amrós
scammony akōkós morning amros - amrei
chaff akos perhaps an
sharp akris breath an∂mos
promontory akrom duck an∂ts
axe áksijā to ana
axle aksis maid ándhesā
broom aksteinos blind andhos
sting ákulos articulation anglos
needle akus withdraw anjō
hello alā! hook ankos
stroll alājai before dawn anksi
white albhos time before dawn ánksitjom
money alchos granny annā
trough aldhōn ring anos
spelt alēiks handle ansā
alder álesnos provided with
ansātos
be cold alghējō handle
another aljos monster ansus
to another place áljote towards anta

portico antas ash āsos

before antí hawk astris
antique ántijos guile astus
classical ántitjos again ati
fringe antjās remnant atiloiqos
end antjom seabream atis
cave antrom noble atlos
grandmother anus year atnos
shore peros and atqe
fastening apmṇ black ātros
brook apnis dad attās
from apo sir audhos
revenge apóqitis glance aug
distance apóst∂tis enlarge augējō
behind apóteri aument āugējō
hint apóteros increase augmṇ
absent apowésentis increase augō
colony ápowoiks development augos
dad appās grown augtós
boar apros tube aulos
asp apsā pot auqslā
water aqā empty ausijō
therefore ar gold ausom
plough arājō dawn ausōsā
adjust árarjō morning ausrom
plough arātrom dawn áussketi
heron árdejā eastern áusteros
point ardis howbeit aw
silver árgṇtom fountain awā
brilliant argós desire awējō
reason argujō breeze áweljā
sir arjos oat awigsnā
cattle ármṇtom grandmother áwijā
arm armos bird awis
reed arom feel awisdhijō
bow arqos fountain awṇ
precisely arti spend the night awō
art artis uncle áwontlos
joint artus grandfather awos
hazelnut árusā back awou
butter arwā or awti
field arwom otherwise awtim
altar āsā destitute awtjos
be dry āsējō orange badjos
341
skirt baitā trust bheidhō

club baktlom fig bheikos
barbaric bálbalos bee bheiqlā
tongue-tied balbos axe bheitlom
drum bámbalos knock bheldō
babble batā coot bhelēks
bark baubājai enhance bheljō
bleat bebājō fluoresce bhelō
strenght belom make noise bhelō
strong bélowents weakness bhelu
end bendā henbane bhélunā
pintle bendlā thigh bhemṛ
damp bewō bind bhendhō
pronounce bh∂skō mate bhendhros
hit bh∂tjō melodious bhendos
be favourable bh∂wējō hit bhenjom
bean bhabhā birch bherāgs
arm bhāghus keep bherghō
fry bhagjō glimmer bherkō
atribute bhagō bear bhermi (bherō)
portion bhagos burden bhermṇ
beech bhāgos breach bhernā
penis bhalnós quickly bhersi
speech bhām∂n boil bherwō
rumor bhāmā blow bhesmi
speak bhāmoi wake up bheudhō
illuminate bháneumi succeed bheughō
sentence bhānis fold bheugō
lighting bhānom knead bheurō
bright bhānús profit bhéwedā
light bhāos be bhewmi
wheat bhar reality bhéwonom
beard bhardhā nature bhewtis
brooch bharkos environment bhewtlom
wheat bharseinā fear bhíbheimi
bread bharsjom vessel bhidhós
pinetree bharwos bitter bhidrós
bundle bhaskis good bhilis
vulture bhāsos strike bhínāmi
expression bhātis cleave bhindō
beaver bhebhros struck bhītós
run bhecō flame bhl∂gsmā
require bhedhō fan bhlādhrom
curb bhegō priest bhlaghmṇ

hit bhlagō rough bhorcos

clear bhlaidos worn bhoros
thin bhlakkos proud bhorsos
blow bhlāmi barefoot bhosos
yellow bhlāwos awaken bhoudhējō
boast bhledō flight bhougā
hit bhleicō flee bhougājō
inflate bhleidō favourable bhōwijós
weep bhlēmi smell bhragrājō
dim bhlendhos brother bhrātēr
flow bhleucō brother's son bhrātreinos
stream bhleugsmṇ brotherly bhrtrijos
weaken bhleumi shine bhrēgō
choke bhleusō fry bhreicō
shimmer bhḷgējō grunt bhremō
support bhḷkjō gush up bhrendhō
flake bhlokos edge bhrenō
white-stained bhlōros shatter bhresjō
flower bhlos use bhréucai
bloom bhlosējō fruit bhreugs
scandal bhloskos wheat bhreugsmṇ
flower bhlōtis use bhreugtis
dick bhṇghus strike bhreukō
dig bhodhjō limit bhrēunā
scald-crow bhodhwos swell bhreusō
better bhodjós bridge bhrēwā
excellent bhodrós brew bhrewō
grave bhodsā well bhrewṛ
guerrilla bhogā high bhṛghos
contend bhogājō chirp bhrigijō
crook bhogjos crumble bhrijājō
stream bhoglā cut open bhṛijō
ugly bhoidhos press bhríkāmi
ugly bhoidos stuff bhṛkjō
drone bhoiqos ashtree bhṛksnos
flame bhokos speckled bhṛktos
bag bholghis incision bhṛmā
leaf bholjom break bhrṇgō
den bhōljóm summit bhroigos
steam bholos cedar bhrosdhos
noisy bholós scale bhrounóm
crib bhondhsā brown bhrounos
thief bhōr fragment bhroustom
bore bhorājō forehead bhrówṇtis
343
tip bhṛstís torture cēlējō

bearing bhṛtis acorn célṇdis
bulrush bhrughnos throw away celō
throat bhṛugs cavity celom
eyebrow bhrūs come cemjō
break bhrúsnāmi woman cenā
cuirass bhrusnjā devour cerbhō
breast bhrusos mountain ceri
particle bhrustóm finish cerjō
bush bhrutēks praise cerō
syrup bhrwtom have fever cerō
soil bhudhmṇ pike ceru
ground bhudhnos watercress cérurom
flee bhugjō extinguish césneumi
animal bhugos branches cespis
blunt bhukús resin cetus
swelling bhulj rubbish ceudhos
watcher bhulkos beautiful chaisos
was bhūm pray chedhō
serve bhúncai bile cheldi
kiss bhusājō desire chelō
hasten bhūsjō wound chendō
dwelling bhūt murder chenmi
hit bhutjō death chentis
been bhūtós warm cherō
gall bistlis heat cheros
cockroach blaktā wire chislom
chatter blatsājō deceive chḷnō
bleat blēkājō torch chōks
drop bṇdus abundant chonós
deaf bodhrós warm chormos
goat bokkos hearth chornos
explode bólboljō summer heat chrensós
tunnel bolkos be violent chṛjō
resound boukājō go away cícāmi
rough brenghos fold cijā
badger brokos prevail cínāmi
eagle owl bughōn lush cīrós
mouthful bukkā finger cistis
dive cadhō life cītā
step cāmṇ lively cīwāks
mundane cécālos life cīwos
torment cedhō alive cīwós
live cejwō animal cīwotos

gullet cḷā scorch dáwneumi

fly cḷājō fuel dawtis
tired cḷēnós from upwards dē
agonise cḷnāmi knead debhō
vulture cḷturós allergy dedrus
march cṃtis tick deghā
viscose cobhōn example deikm∂n
sack coinos show deikō
womb colbhos address deikos
big eater corós indication deiktis
rod cosdhos goddess deiwā
mention cotējō godly déiwijos
swelling cotlós god deiwos
shit coucis deity deiwotāts
dirty coudhros rich deiwots
lapwing cówijā be proper dekējō
bovine cowijós ten dekṃ
herdsman cówqolos finger dékṃtulos
cow cows worthy deknos
heavy cṛ(āw)ús virtue dekos
heavy cr∂tos right déksteros
devour cṛājō calculate deljō
welcome crātós split delō
millstone cṛwenus building demos
hovel cṛcestjom bite denkō
whirl cṛcots infere densō
embryon cṛebhos tooth dentis
sad creughos turn derbhō
Adam's apple croghos get cumulated derghō
big crotsos separate derō
sorrow croughnos wood deru
crane cṛús drag deukō
certainly dā leader deuks
divide up daimoi spoil deusō
time daitis far dew
brother-in-law daiwēr exhaustion dh∂tis
tear dakru skillful dhabhros
mate dāmos vegetation dhalnā
river dānus pinetree dhanwos
be expensive dápnāmi predator dhaunos
cost of a feast dapnom vanish dhchínāmi
banquet daps destruction dhchitis
torch dáwētā abuse dhebhō
conflagration dáwetus burn dhechō
345
grandfather dhēdhjos day dhochos

decree dhedhmós wall dhoighos
earth dheghom hollow dholos
inflammation dheghwis dove dhombhos
puncture dheicō opinion dhōmós
brooch dhéicodhlā cereal dhōnā
suck dheimi dark dhóncelos
put dhejō dark dhoncos
productive dhēlēiks hollow dhónejā
scythe dhēlgs fountain dhontis
baby dhēljos diarrhea dhorjā
shine dhelō deaf dhoubhos
teat dhēlós black dhoubhús
condition dhēmṇ world dhoubnom
steam up dhemō soot dhoulis
female dhḗmonā strick dhōunis
press dhenghō bring out dhraghō
produce of land dhēnom run around dhreghō
interest dhēnos roar dhrēnos
start dherbhō cry dhrensājō
sloe dherghnos do military
dhreughō
strengthen dherghō service
red dherghos bundle dhrighsós
shit dherghs steady dhṛmos
stain dherkō jump dhṛnumoi
retain dhermi potter wheel dhroghnom
duty (religious) dhēs wheel dhroghós
fact dhētis dare dhṛsō
enough (to be) dheughō boldness dhṛstis
destroy dheukō bold dhṛsus
death dheunos crumble dhrubhjō
run dhewō drop dhrubhtis
yesterday dhghesi dismantle dhruslijō
human being dhghomōn deep dhubús
perch dhghusā daughter dhugtēr
do dhídhēmi-dh∂kjō smoke dhūmājō
end dhigsnis smoke dhūmós
model dhinghō agitate dhúneumi
debt dhḷeghlā dark dhuskos
hunger dhṃis deceive dhwerō
employee dhṃos fleabane dhwestus
direct dhṇghus crazy dhwolnos
solid dhobos whirlpool dhwolsā
make hot dhochējō sound dhwonos

door dhworis course drewā

courtyard dhworom treat drewō
demon dhwosos harsh drismós
conceive dídjāmi bramble dristos
learn didkskō be visible dṛkjai peri
goat dighā make up dṛkjō
move djejō see dṛkō
day djēws vision dṛkos
day djnos perspective dṛksmos
maintain dḷghējō light dṛktā
sweet dḷkus view dṛktis
long dḷḷnghos seen dṛktis
length dḷḷnghotā fall asleep dṛmijō
building place dṃpedom split dṛnos
rough dṃpus war dsā
domain dṃseghṛ tail dumbos
tongue dṇghwā bad dus
thick dṇsus precarious dúsōpis
to dō incompetent duswids
tail doklom fear dweimi
cudge dolājō good dwenos
dew dolghos twenty dwidkṃtói
barrel dōljom biped dwipods
fraud dolos twice dwīs
still dom matching dwīskos
tame dómāmi two each dwīsnōs
house domos fearful dwoiros
landlady dómūnā double dwoplos
landlord dómūnos second dwóteros
gift dōnom two dwou, dwāu, dwou
wrist dornom drunken ēchṛjos
slave dōsos elder edhlos
dowry dōtis palisade edhṛ
town dounom today edjēw
bush dousmos eat edmi
arm dóusontos someone edqis, edqid
work drājō whether edqos, -qā, -qod
drapery drappos pain edunā
work drātis lack egējō
workman drātṓr hedgehog eghjos
murmur dṛdrājō boundary eghṛ
run dremō (dídrāmi) drink ēghwṛ
cut out drepō fire egnis
beguile dreughō I egō
347
that ei inside entós

fuck eibhō west éperom
have eikō on epi
go eimi relation ḗpijos
wrath eisā placed on top épiromos
be angry eisāskai pulse ercom
ice eisom ram erjos
outside ek(sí) share erkō
invisible eksoqs rest ermi
remoteness ekstar abandoned ermos
external éksteros upright ernos
outermost ékstṃos heave erō
excepted ektós eagle éroros
mare ekwā shine erqō
of horses ekwīnós tail ersā
horse ekwos tail ersábhaljom
bodkin ēlā wander ersājō
red-deer elēn land erwā
wound elkos be esmi
bad elkós be situated ēsmoi
eel ellus housemaster esos
that elne elnā elnod blood ēsṛ
conducted elóm good ēsús
swan elōr second éteros
pink elwos even eti
take emō soul etmṇ
insect empis breathe etō
in en inside ētṛ
snake enchis vivid ētros
inside endo be used eukō
furniture endósēdjom burn eusō
and enim get dressed ewō
face enīqā from extrōd
certain enis talk gálgaljō
drive enkō prō power galnos
interior ennós gaul galnos
ambush énsēdjom pin down gangō
island enslā indeed gar
proximity enstar talk garsijō
between énteri rejoice gaudhējō
internal énternos joy gaudhjom
interval énterom at least ge
internal énteros be bitter geigō
intestine énteros sprout geimō

gravel geisā head ghebhlā

embryo geltis defecate ghedō
ice gelu long for gheidhō
be loaded gemō ghei-ke ghāi-ke
this
son-in-law gemros ghod-ke
create genesājō winter gheimṛ
gum gengā winterly gheimrīnós
gender genjos sob gheipō
germ genmṇ hostage gheislos
kin genos boast ghelbō
family gentis growl ghelijō
birth gentlom lip ghelnom
parent gentṓr incise ghelō
parent gentrīks tortoise ghelus
procreation gentus vegetable ghelwos
knee genu green ghelwos
maxilla genus arrive ghēmi
gather gercō step ghenghō
wind gergō hedgehog ghēr
wake up gerjō encircle gherdhō
old gerlós pod gherghros
old (to become) gerō desire gherijai
network gersā lend gherō
veteran gerwós butter ghertom
wear gesō small gherús
glowing ash geulom hand ghēsṛ
taste geustis glove ghesris
resound gewō hand ghestos
own gh∂bhējō arrival ghētis
tip gh∂rtā handle ghetlā
fork ghabhlom veil gheughō
goat ghabhros hear gheusō
goatish ghaidīnós mould gheutis
young goat ghaidos vase gheutlom
stick ghaisējō hollow ghéwejā
spear ghaisom space ghewos
stick ghaisom certainly ghi
hair ghaitā come back ghighējō
disgrace ghálerom whine ghirrijō
yawn ghanos gape ghjājō
goos ghansōr winter ghjems
spearshaft ghastā crossbeam ghlaghos
call ghawō blue ghlastos
not ghawōd splendid ghlēiwos
349
glimmer ghlēmi do harm ghudjō

study ghlendhō pour ghundō
joke ghleumi beast ghwerā
luxury ghloidos beastly ghwērīnós
joke ghloumos wild ghwērós
golden ghḷtnós smith ghwobhros
gold ghḷtom hump gibbā
flourishing ghlustis beget gignō
cancer ghṇdhus sharp gigrós
receive ghṇdō chew gjewō
caress ghneumi ice gl∂gjēs
anus ghodos plane glabhō
joyful ghoilos even gladhros
caluum caput gholwā protest glagh
barley ghórdejom milk glakti
enclosure ghordhos docile glegos
encouragement ghorḗjai adhere gleibhō
pleasantly ghornim mouse gleis
intestine ghoros intelligent glēkis
erect ghorsējō include glembhō
garden ghortos peel gleubhō
ate ghosóm stick glínāmi
guest ghóstipots globe globhos
foreigner ghostis point glōghis
terrible ghouros rubber gloidos
pay attention ghowējō sticky gloijós
step ghradjai glue gloitṇ
grass ghrāsmṇ clack glokijō
grass ghrāsom yarn glomos
bury ghrebhō sister-in-law glōs
hunger ghrēdhus swallow glujō
seize ghreibhō produce (to) gnājō
ointment ghreim∂n gnaw (to) gnāmi
be empty ghṛējō offspring gnās
grumble ghremō be born gnāskai
cornice ghrendhā born gnātós
lock ghrendhos fleece gnebhis
gnaw ghrendō pluck gnebhō
grind ghrewō raze gneibhō
fall into ghrewō lean gneichō
roaring ghromos scrape gneidō
mark ghronos evident gnōros
ball ghroudos native gnos
pebble ghrowā knowledge gnōtis

sign gnōtlom reach ikjō

knower gnōtṓr groin ili
known gnōtós send away īljō
bud gnoubhos from there imde
wise gnōwos more than that immō
dart golbhnos convey nekmi
jaws gombhos oppress ipjō
load gomos this is, id
produce gonējō iron īsarnom
jaws gopos so ita
wrinkle gorbos journey itājō
sadness gorgnóm and also itaqe
sad gorgós different íteros
oral goulos likewise itim
crimpy hair gouros way itṛ
cackle grakijō throw j∂kējō
rheum grammā eject j∂kjō
grain grānom worship jagjō
hornbeam gṛbeinā pious jāgjus
have wrinkle gṛbējō yes jāi
scratch gṛbhō conspiracy jālos
net grebhos pass jāmi
scratch gredō already jāmi
herd gregs conspire jáneumi
lap gremjom entrance jnuwā
crown grendjom persecute jeghō
cradle gretlom ice jegis
go aside greubhō tell jekō
bend greugō healthy jekos
scrape off greumō desert jēlom
solidify greutō hold (to) jemō
grown grṇdhís twin jemós
oak tree grōbhos cousin jentēr
hail grōdis liver jeqṛ
crumb groumos ferment jesō
grunt grundijō right way jeunis
curd cheese grutis broth jeus
bowels gudom judge jewesdiks
ball gugā help jewō
cellar gupā barley jewom
back gurnos cereal jéwornjom
taste gusnō law jewos
throat gutṛ exuberant jṇdros
there idhei desire eagerly jṇtō
351
because jod qid onion kaipā

where (rel.) jodhei long hair káisṛjēs
bulrush joinkos hair kaisrom
when jom heath kaitom
from which jomde exclusive káiwelos
and joqe partridge kákabā
wherefore jori defecate kakkājō
roebuck jorkos cackle kaklājō
season jōrom promote kákneumi
conspirator jōrós thinnen kakō
that, the one that jos (je), jā, jod be experienced kaldējō
begird jṓsneumi blister kaldos
how jota cup kalēiks
alike jota sei fog kalgōn
beast of burden jóugsmṇtom spot kālis
just jówestos heel kalkis
eternal jucis bald kalwos
command judhējō bent kambos
yoke jugóm love kāmi
join jungō press tightly kamō
young júwenis land kampos
you juwes / juwe dig kánāmi
young juwṇkós glow kandō
youth júwṇtā colt kánkestos
young juwōn branch kankus
wood k∂ldos leg kanmā
catch k∂pjō song kanmṇ
box k∂psā sing kanō
captive k∂ptos wheelrim kantos
lack k∂sējō tool kaplos
pure k∂stos land estate kāpos
beware k∂wējō goat kaprā
certainly ka goat kapros
colt kábṇlos head kaput
horse kabōn keel kareinā
keep kadhō fortification karkar
fall kadō announce kárkarjō
trouble kādos crab karkros
saint kadros pin down karnājō
opening kaghlā limb karōn
enclosure kaghos beloved kāros
cut kaidō collect karpō
blind kaikos rock kárrēkā
augur kailom hard kartús

grey kasnos hum kemjō

castle kasterlom strain kemō
camp kastra hornless kemos
encamp kastrājō ash kenēs
chain katēsna hesitate kenkai
fight katos tendon kenklom
meet katsājai weigh kenkō
gather katsājō hook kenkos
cat kattā arise kenō
vessel kaukos rag kentom
cabbage kaulis prick kentrom
shameful kaunós do harm kepō
hit kawdō dirty keqō
hit kawō brain ker∂srom
owl káwonā weasel kérberos
ke kā kod (eke ekā herdsman kerdhjos
this
ekod) range (to) kerdhō
here kei group kerdhos
go down keidō profession kerdos
bug keimēx grow thin kerkō
lie keimoi hen kerkos
colorant keimos excavator kernos
dark keiros frozen snow kernós
civil kéiwijos hair kerom
citizen keiwis dinner kersnā
bind kekājō mutilate kersō
scar kekātrīks head kersṛ
leap kekō deer kerwos
tame kékuros withraw kesdō
chamber kēlā restrain kēsmi
hide kēlājō garlic kesnus
strike keldō comb kesō
mystery kelgā room kētjā
penthouse kéliknom curve keubō
helmet kelmos hide keudhō
push kelō warp keukō
snake kélodhros swelling keulom
arrow kēlom rent keusō
boy kelots sway kēwējō
be high kelsō laugh khákhatnos
travel kelujō hook khamos
road kelus ivy khéderos
heaven kémelom agitated kighrós
lotus kémeros pea kikēr
353
become vigorous kkeumi raffle kleutō

woodpecker kikjā story kleutrom
invoke kiklēskō wash klewō
cold kiklós glory klewos
stork kíkōnjā cause to slope klínāmi
muscle kīkus gentle klisrós
from this side kina divide kḷjō
gird kingō hear kḷneumi
previous kintos sound klṇgō
peg kippos steep kloiwos
compasses kirknos valley klopnis
circle kirkos buttock klounis
biceps kiskā wine-cask kḷpros
basket kistā hot kḷtos
of this side kíteros famous klūtós
immediately kitōd hear kluwējō
towards this side kitrōd defame kḷwijō
colour kiwos get tired kmāmi
activate kjējō lobster kṃertos
damage klādis curved kṃros
sword kladjos with kṃti
clang klagjō hundred kṃtom
yell klāmājō yellow knakos
mutilated klambós recent kṇjós
embank klāmi articulation kṇksos
weak klamrós neck knokos
tablet klāros nut knouks
lame klaudos opinate kṇsējō
close klawdō spokesman kṇstṓr
nail klawos walnut knuwā
key klāws success kobom
closed klawstós thurify kodējō
mountain-path kḷdis healthy koilús
maple kleinos health kóilutāts
hut kleitis agreement koimā
be hot kḷējō lovely koimos
name kḷējō foenum koinos
steal klepō occupation koisā
listen kleumi manner koitús
hearing kleumṇ hip koksā
reputation kléumṇtom dog kolignos
obey kleusō stick koljō
obedience kleustis summit kolmṇ
listening kleutis stalk kolmos

hill kolnis lot koupnā

pile kolnom hut koutā
one-eyed kolnos hollow kowos
neck kolsos cavern kowṛ
dove kólumbhos mix krāmi
with kom tomorrow krasi
collection kómāglom bumblebee krāsrōn
union kómjougos network krātis
consort komjugs plump kratsos
common kómmoinis hinge kṛdḗn
community kommoinitts carbon kṛdhōn
meeting komnom heart kṛdi / kṛdjom
surname kómnōmṇ get angry kṛdijai
equipment kómopjom rock kṛdjō
mass kōmos shirt kṛdsus
complete kómplēnos believe kréddhēmi
perfect kómsqṛtos sieve kreidhrom
patience kómtḷtis crime kreimṇ
against komtrōd shake kreitsō
court kómwoirjom weave krekō
conscience kómwoistis burn kremājō
try kōnājai create krēmi
burn konkējō beer kremom
shell konkhā onion krémusom
top kōnos ring krenghos
hoof kophos scar krenktis
haven kopnos crackle krépāmi
dirt kóqros precipitate krepō
thread koreibs border krēqā
acarian koris grow krēskō
leather korjom chalk krētā
army korjos cut kretō
mud korkos cry kreugō
bleach kormnos cross kreuks
ermine kormōn stock kreumi
pain kormos get encrusted kreupō
crow kornīks agitate kreutō
cherry tree kornos touch krēwō
bag kṓrukos cry krigā
raven korwos sieve krinō
hazel kósolos curly kripsos
rib kostā mane krisnis
joint koubos crest kristā
cup koupā shuttle kristājō
355
difference kritis be pregnant kuwējō

rot kṛjēs whelp kuwos
slender kṛklos powerful kúwṛos
rot kṛnāmi cheese kwatsos
rotten kṛnos white kweidos
horn kṛnu dog kwōn
devotion krōbhtus lip l∂bjom
shriek krokijō tear l∂kesājō
anorak kroknos trap l∂kjō
shake krotjājō tearing l∂kós
leg krous lung l∂nchijóm
shelter krowos be flat l∂pējō
shoe kṛpjos stone l∂pods
body kṛpos fancy l∂skējō
be scratched kṛsējō be concealed l∂tējō
black kṛsnos take labhō
run kṛsō spade laghā
course kṛstus droop lāgō
cart kṛsus left laiwos
icicle krustā scold lājō
dome krūtis fat lajos
blood kruwós forearm lakertos
curved kṛwos lake lakus
forest kselwā babble lalājo
briar ksentis penis lalu
dry kserós poodle lāmā
arid kserós tell off lmṇtom
shave ksnowājō frypan landhom
razor ksnowātlā home god lāōs
lie kúbāmi cow lāpos
reprove kudājō lamp lapsā
cockoo kukulājō liquid latēks
cockoo kukūlós day latom
hiding place kūlā benefit lawō
gnat kūleks team lāwós
ass kūlos benefit lawtlom
pot kumbhā release ledō
recline kumbō lie leghō
wedge kúnejos lay leghos
demand kupjō settlement leghskā
foal kurnos lazy leghskós
treasure kusdhos support leghtrom
kiss kusis light leghús
skin kūtis wring out légneumi

collect legō rod litwos

law legs sip lṃbō
drop leibs tire lṇcō
happen leidō light lṇghros
spoon leiglā crime lōbā
jump leigō late lodi
lily leiljom site loghjom
mud leimos deposit loghos
avoid leinō calf loigos
flax leinom penury loigós
lime-tree leipā lend loiqnom
parterre leisā remaining loiqós
seeside leitos tablet loisā
hang lembō mild loisós
grant lēmi lax loksos
phantom lemsos slanting loksós
spring lendhā fault loktos
weak lēnis land londhom
juniper lentos hip londhwos
stutter lepō worm longhros
flat lergos twisted lordós
pick lesō footprint lorgā
middling leswos club lorgos
concession lētis spear lostos
leather letrom praise loudis
dear leubhos oath loughjom
free léudheros illuminate loukējō
lie leughō radiant loukētjos
shine (to) leukō glade loukos
bright leukós radiance loukós
light leuks window louksā
light leuksmṇ moon louksnā
leaf leups lynx louksos
slate lēwanks louse lousēn
bind ligājō whore loutsā
be allowed likējō hair lowā
stick limpō wash lowō
lick linghō bath lowtrom
oint līnō like lubhējō
ointed līnós herb lubhjā
leave linqō bast lubhros
rheum lippā went ludhóm
greasy liprós be broken lugējō
appease litājō hole lugjā
357
flexible lugnós storm ṃbhros

multitude lugtos me me
shine lukējō not mē
light up lukskējō ponder medai
unbound lūnós gull medgós
unbound lūtós midday médhidjōws
unbind luwō (lewō) middle medhjos
acquit luwō apò mead medhu
be wet m∂dējō acorn medjom
noble m∂glos administrate médneumi
magnanimous m∂gnán∂mos doctor médodiks
big m∂gnos valuation mēdos
more m∂gsi move meicō
honour m∂gtājō scrath out meidō
plunder m∂rnamói prestige meidos
youngster machos warrior meilēts
youth machotis purpose meinom
defend mághneumi lack meitō
field maghos agreement meitrom
form magō smaller meiwijós
prosper mājō flow mejājō
pit mākājō change mejnō
pouch makēn exchange mejō
wall mākesjā shift mejtis
poppy mkōn lip mēknos
slender makrós thunderbolt meldhjā
mum mammā pray meldhō
so mān honey melit
spring mānājō millet meljom
man mánnusos rub melkō
good mānos article melmṇ
girl maqā grind melō
boy maqos strong melos
marsh máreskos deceive melsō
boundary margōn flour melwom
sea mari punish membhō
horse markos measure mēmi
mast masdos meat mēmsóm
designate mātējō be interested mendhai
mother mātḗr stir up mendhō
solid māterós suck mendō
aunt mātérterā fault mendom
hammer matlā frequent menghos
gloomy mauros disguise mengō

dace menis softened mḷdsnos

intellect menmṇ soft mḷdus
sense menos soften mḷduwijō
month mēnsis anounce mḷgājō
rod mentā slack mlīnós
moment mēqos false mḷjos
fork mergā weaken mḷkāmi
snare merghā dark mḷnejós
filth mergis lofty mlōdhrós
sink mergō appear mlōskō
charge merkēds slow mḷsos
flimmer merkō mallow-plant mḷwā
worry mérneumi commit mṇdōmi
simple meros remain mṇējō
block mersō tower mṇijai
insipid merwos consider mṇjō
communicate mesgō defective mṇkos
blackbird meslā shaker mṇkstrom
measure mestis intend mṇsjai
post mētā put on mṇtijai
in the middle meti mind mṇtis
measure mētijai chew mṇtō
dimension mētis chin mṇtom
reap metō mention mṇtos
measure metrom wipe mṇtrājō
proud meudos hand mṇus
cheat meugō scant mṇwos
scratch meukō but mō
muscle meus / muskós measure modos
mist mighlā pleasant moghjos
flimmer míkāmi can moghō
red ochre miljom might moghtis
meet mimdō means moghtrom
remember mímnāskō (memna) pee moighos
reduce míneumi mild moilos
piss minghō fortify moinijai
less mínusi obliged moinis
salary misdhom walls moinja
whey misgā exchange moitājō
mix miskējō thanks moitmos
weaken mlājō mutual moitwos
stupid mlākós exchange mojnos
flour mlātóm soon moksi
permissive mḷdhos coast molā
359
occipital moldhā murmur mṛmrājō

prayer moldhos crush mṛtājō
mill moleinā mortar mṛtāsjom
annoying mōlestos death mṛtis
milk molgējō dead mṛtos
mass mōlis dead mṛwos
effort molos detergent mūdlom
praise molpā clean mūdnós
wet molqos must mudstos
adorn mondō moo mugijō
whelp mondós blow out munkō
warn monējō mouse mūs
neck mongos fly muskā
collar monīli moss muskos
neck monos secrete músnāmi
hill montis mud mūtrom
delay morā mutter muttijō
nightmare morā speechless muttis
dark morcos un- ṇ
bite mordējō nates n∂tis
woman morignā courage nantis
thigh morjods nose nāsis
panic mórmoros serpent natrīks
berry morom sailor nawāgós
fatality moros ship nāws
renowned mōros abyss ṇbhudhnóm
stupid mōrós groin ṇcḗn
character mōs then ṇdha
cerebellum mosgom underly ṇdherós
mucus moukos unmade ṇdhētós
slop mouros in excess ṇdhi
weed mousos sincere ṇdwojos
penis moutos no nē
move mowējō cloud nebhis
skull mreghmós fog nebhlā
deserve mṛējō nettle nedis
short mṛghús near nedjos
die mṛijai link nedō
pubescent mṛjos net nedsā
carrot mṛkā bind nedskō
be withered mṛkējō penetrate neghō
disabled mṛkos kidney neghrōn
speckled mṛktos not at all nei
ant mṛmeikā wash neicō

humiliate neidō arrive ṇkneumi

winnow neikō immortal ṇmrótijos
rivalry neitom bending nṃtos
depressed neiwós find by chance nṇkskai
kill nékāmi put off nocējō
unexpected nekopīnós naked nócodos
death neks knot nōdos
sanctuary némētom holy noibhos
distribute nemō none nōinos
forest nemos destroy nokējō
enemy nemots so nom
grandson nepēts do not? nom nē
grand-daughter neptis name nōmṇ
and not neqe name nōmnājō
nothing neqid precision nomṛ
nobody neqis night noqtis
never neqom free nosējō
someone neqos famine nōunā
soldier neros wicked ṇprobhwos
lower nérteros restless ṇqijētós
strong nertos our ṇserós
modest nesros sword ṇsis
without ṇeu unmuddy ṇsloimis
spend neudō we ṇsme
myop neukos extraordinary ṇswodhros
new new(ij)os now nū
renew newājō now numki
nine newṇ ignorant ṇwidis
ninth néwṇos middle (in the) obhi
nod newō flask óbrusjā
newness newotāts worm ochis
unknown ṇgnōtós aggravate odáugjai
down nī smell odējō
lead nijóm enclosure odhrom
corn niktis hate odjō (ōda)
befriend (to) nínāmi hatred ōdjom
inclined nīqos odor odós
nest nisdos trouble oghlējō
shine nitējō annoyance oghlos
inferior nteros track ogmos
usual nitjos be swollen oidējō
unjustice ṇjousjom depart oighai
unfair ṇjoustos march oimos
need ṇkējō single óinoikos
361
one oinos hoopoe ópopā

simultaneously work opos
oinowṛstós
made be necessary opos esti
rudder oisjā riches ops
that one oisos see oqō
oath oitos eye oqos
yew oiwos edge ōrā
doubt okējō pray ōrājō
harrow ókētā disk orbhis
eight oktōu inheritance orbhjom
eighth oktowos orphan orbhos
hawk ōkúpteros hammer ordhos
swift ōkús beat up orgājō
heat olējō ball orghis
destroy olējō poor ormos
tendril olgjā mouth ōs
formerly ōlim knot osbhos
all oljoi oljāi olja branch osdos
elm olmos autumn osēn
elbow ōlnā ashtrē oskos
further ólteros ashtree ósonos
furthest óltṃos bone ostis
over there oltrōd entrance ōstjom
sedge olwā land oudṇ
firm omos cold ougros
raw ōmós ear ousis
shoulder omsos egg ṓw(ij)om
navel onbhlos cheer owājō
fingernail onchis sheep owis
ointment oncṇ sure p∂grós
oint oncō sell p∂rnāmi
coal oncōl lie open p∂tējō
rock ondos father p∂tēr
blame onējō saucer p∂ter
dream ónerjos suffer p∂tjai
nail onghlos fatherland p∂trjā
another onjos fatherly p∂trjos
groan onkājō uncle p∂trujós
hook onkos fear p∂wējō
load onos sustenance pādhlom
second ónteros region pagos
last ópitjos peace pags
choose opjō protect pālājō
wealth opnā straw pálejā

grey pálowos rock pelsā

touch palpājō much pelu
vine-leaf pámponos variegated pelupoikos
bent pandos dish pēlwis
swelling panknos dust pelwos
swell pankō damage pēmṇ
rag pannos hang pendō
butterfly pāpeljos work with a
penō
swelling paplā thread
concubine pareikā mud penom
come out pārējō provision penos
refrain from parkō fifty penqadkṃta
sparrow parsā fifteen penqdekṃ
food pasknis five penqe
feed pāskō fist penqstis
relative pāsós fifth penqtos
fix pastos sand/gravel pēnsús
pasture pāstus track pentō
a bit pau cook peqō
little paukos cooking peqtis
small paulos cook peqtṓr
fire pāwṛ cooked peqtós
worse pedjós about per(i), per(ti)
sandal pedlom experience perijō
footprint pedom religion perístānom
chest pegtos trout perknā
grow fat peidō mountain pérkūnjom
annoy peigō absolūtus perṃos
woodpecker peikā absolute perṃós
adorn peikō besides perom
magpie peikos feather peróm
pitch peiks farther peros
quick peimis turned aside pérperṇks
resin peitus oak perqos
insult pējō heel persā
comb pekō ham persnā
comb pektēn splash persō
comb pektō pole pertā
cattle peku otherwise perti
impel peldō last year péruti
move pelkō fart pesdō
skin pelnis penis pesnis
make money pelō wing peterós
surface pelom meager pétḷos
363
fly petō strike plṇgō

feather petsnā feather plousmā
bird petsnós board ploutos
understand peumi rain plówijā
clean pewō ship plówijom
drink pibō boat plowós
be annoying pigējō grey pḷowós
sharp pikrós earth pḷtáwijā
hair pilos flatness pḷtnos
fat pīmós coat pḷtom
paint pingō lead plúwaidhom
stab pinjos swamp pḷwods
crush pinsō paunch pṇdēks
pepper píperi breathe pneusō
squeak pipjājō nail pṇgō
fall down piptō spread out pṇtō
fish piskis relief podjom
food pitús foot pods
fat piwōn pumice poimēks
babble plabrājai shepherd pōimōn
advise plākējō get drunk pojējō
flat plākos city polis
wide plākos fallow polkā
flat plānos thumb polnēks
floor plārom fall polnō
planitiēs plātom scene polpos
broad plātús porridge poltos
flat-footed plautos weight pondos
paddle pḷdājō drinking pōnom
crowd plēdhwis way pontis
fold plékāmi cook poqós
plait plektō air porā
filling plēmṇ provide porējō
full plēnós pig porkos
filling plētis feather pornós
shoulder-blades pletjā bull porsis
full plētós far porsōd
flood pleudō carry portājō
lung pleumōn after pos(ti)
flow plewō afterwards pósteri
appendix plighā subsequent pósteros
palm pḷmā last póstṃos
approach (to) pḷnāmaí backwards postrōd
fill pḷnāmi hold potējō

towards poti question pṛkskā

acquire potijai ask pṛkskō
master potis past pṛnos
drink pōtis forwards prō(d)
glass pōtlom attention próbhoudhos
mistress potnjā prove probhwājō
drinker pōtṓr good probhwos
buttocks pougā traitor prod∂tṓr
virginal poughos put forth prṓddōmi
fist pougnos in the morning prōi
swelling pounā departure proitis
penis poutos suitor prokós
clean powējō advanced prokos
boy póweros principal promos
pure powros near proqēd
close to pṛa nigh proqos
before prāi before pṛos
at hand práighesto kindness prósēdjom
present práiloghos extended próstōrnos
name práinōmṇ promontory prostos
along práiteri first (of two) próteros
first prāmos against proti
fern pratis assigned prōtós
first prāwos irritate prousijō
preceding preistos form pṛptus
fan prējō coloured pṛqos
beseech prekō piece pṛsnā
plea preks leek pṛsom
press premō prominence pṛstis
look like prepō part pṛtis
press presō ford pṛtus
price pretjom freeze prunsō
realise pretō water prúsneumi
previous préwijos frost prusw
hover prewō lime-tree pteljā
portico pṛgā molder pujō
give birth pṛijō righteous pūjós
dear prijós tail pukos
foremost prījós lock of hair pulgā
ancient prīskos putrid pūlós
first prīsmos punch pungō
satisfied prītós child pūpos
furrow pṛk core pūrós
motley pṛknos groom pusbhis
365
inflate pusjō swallow qemō

flea puslēks holy qentos
pustule pustlā turn qerpō
be rotten pūtējō complain qésai
rotten pūterós part qestis
child putlom indeed qidpe
clean pūtós rest qijētis
reckon puwējō peaceful qijētós
pus puwos claim qínumoi
square q∂ddrom estimate qíqeimi
shake q∂tjō what qis qid
four times q∂trus anyone qisqis qidqid
four each q∂trusnos when qṃdō
forty q∂twṛádkṃta suffer qṇtjō
fortieth q∂twṛádkṃtṃos where qodhei
four years q∂twṛatnjom where qoi
fourteen q∂twṛdekṃ retaliation qoin
four days q∂twṛdjówijom dirt qoinom
four q∂twṛes fair weather qoitrós, koitrós
four hundreth q∂twṛkṃtémtṃos cushion qolkā
four hundred q∂twṛkṃtos distaff qolus
quadruped q∂twṛpods when qom
fourth q∂twṛtos where qomde
which qād angelica qondhros
how qālis why ? qori
as qām cauldron qorjom
whoever qāqos who, which qos qā(i) qod
basket qasjos cough qostā
how great qwṇtos how many qot(j)os
magic qdnos how qota
and qe whither qote
angle qedos which qóteros
magic force qedos whither qotrēd
feel qeisō wherefrom qotrōd
consideration qeistis handle qṛeumi
rest qejēskō buy qrínāmi
compose qejō bought qrītóm
collection qejtis worm qṛmis
wheel qeklom bush qṛsnos
gaze qekō time qṛtus
far (from) qeli rage r∂bhjō
circulate qelō ray r∂djom
group qelos wet r∂gājō
ciurve qelpō snatch r∂pjō

reason r∂tis cry reudō

shave rādō wild reudos
turnip rāpom dough reughmṇ
dispersed rārós belch reugō
smooth rastós rumor (to
reumi
metal raudos produce)
tough raukos rūmen reusmṇ
grey rāwos ruminate reusmnājō
grow ṛdhjō outdoors rew
steep ṛdhwos ruin réwesnā
leap rebhā planet rewis
jump rebhājō hair rewmṇ
shield rebhō break off rewō
tube rebhrus open land rewos
darkness recos incite ṛghējō
dis- rēd/re torture rigjō
queen regeinā set out ṛijai
kingly regjos ruin rikjō
kingdom regnom flush away rínāmi
direct regō contain ṛkējō
king regs door-bar ṛkēslom
right regtós chest ṛklā
ride reidhō move ṛneumi
easy reidhos movement ṛnutis
bind reigō roof robhos
crack reimā on account of rōdhí
list rēimṇ endeavour rōdhjō
propriety rēis tear rōdō
brook reiwos joyful rōdos
row rējō dam roinos
tick rekā spray ros
range rékneumi beak rōstrom
relax remō wheel rotā
reckon rēmoi charioteer ṛots
property rentus rust roudhstos
crawl rēpō crying roudos
plait resgō secret rounā
rope resgtis rock roupis
oar rēsmos intestiones routos
strainer rēti pause rowā
run retō envy ṛsjā
back retrōd go ṛskai
scrape out reubō farewell ṛtís
red (-haired) reudhos bear ṛtkos
367
red rudhrós apart sēd

rude rudlós appease sēdājō
roar rugijō be sitting sedējō
tunic ruktus besiege sedējō ambhí
break rumpō chair sedlā
weed runkō settlement sedm∂n
shoddy rupús residence sedos
rummage ruspājai sowing segēts
collapsed rwtós plough handle seghdhlā
whenever s(w)ei hold seghō
thus s(w)eike victory seghos
pickaxe s∂kesnā trap ségneumi
stone s∂ksom trap segnom
have taste s∂pijō sow segō
seek sāgijō club seikā
mantle sagom spill seikō
fence saipis drip seilō
hair (strong) saitā band seimā
lifetime saitlom secretion seimṇ
fierce saiwos chain seinus
be furious sājō sieve sējdhlom
sacrifice sákrodhokjom sieve sējō
priest sákrodhots cut sékāmi
holy sakros calm sēknis
salt sal six seks / sweks
salt saldō sixth sekstos
willow salēiks axe sekūris
saliva saleiwā shoot selgō
swell salom pleasant seljos
dirty salús drag selkō
quietness sām∂n buy selō
sand samdhos residence selom
quiet sāmis sowing sēlom
summer samos property selwā
satisfy sánāmi half sēmi-
perform sáneumi bilge out semjō
enact sankijō once semli
juice sapos seed sēmṇ
crop sasjom one semos
satisfaction sātis sing senchō
sour sauros old senēks
sun swel(jos) sink senqō
himself se path sentos
this se/sos sā/sī tod bury sepēlijō

tomb sépeltrom gush skatējō

provide sepō spring skatō
seven septṃ scatter skedō
seventh séptṃos hasten skegō
follow seqai shine skejō
vis-à-vis seqi burst in skekō
say seqō shall skelō
connect serō evil skelos
liquid serom cover skemō
long-lasting sēros hollow out skerbhō
snake sérpenos shit skerdā
crawl serpō castrate skerdō
sleep sesmi split skerjō
sedge sesqos spring skerō
visitor setis escape skeubhō
less sḗtjosi shoot skeudō
suck seugō cover skeumō
boil seutō dark skeuros
lessen sewājō cover skeutō
self sewe inspect (to) skewō
his séwijos decide skidjō
stir up (to) sewō know skijō
silent (to be) silējō split skindō
bind síneumi shin-bone skīwṛ
propice sinísteros pod skḷiqā
place sinō split skḷjō
sit down sisdō deflect skḷneumi
smell sísghrāmi limp skṇgjō
beneficial síslāwos nit sknidā
sow sisō harm skodhos
dry sisqos woodpiece skoidos
far-reaching sītús clown skoirsās
seam sjewm∂n shield skoitom
sew sjewō shade skojā
sewer's awl sjūdhlā small pillar skolmā
sewn sjūtós element skōlos
scabies skabhjēs shelf skolpos
stool skabhnom whore skortom
scratch skabhō canopy skostrom
left-handed skaiwós shadow skotos
carve skalpō nord skouros
mount skandō trousers skousā
ladder skandslā write skreibhō
handle skāpos carve skreidō
369
pit skrobhis shit smerdā

sherd skroupos stink smerdō
skeletton skroutos defect smeros
omoplate skubtis marrow smerwā
maim skutājō smoke smeughō
covering skūtos stain smitlā
slip slabai similar sṃlis
slack slagós wife sṃloghós
hit slakō accordance sṃoitis
rod slatā sibling sṃóp∂tōr
slip sleibō alleyway smoughos
glide sleidhō smoke smoughos
smooth sleigō contrive smudhnō
file sleimā slip in smúghneumi
polish sleimājō creep sn∂ghjō
snail sleimāks cut off snadhō
mud sleimos swim snāmi
violet sleiwos snow sneighs
smooth slējús curtail sneitō
slip sleubō scanty sneitos
devour sleugō spin snēmi
mattock sligōn yarn snēmṇ
spring sḷijai whirl snerō
mass sloidhos embroidery snētjā
plum sloiwom marry sneubhō
crowd slougos smog sneudhs
gulp slṛgjō cable sneurom
together sṃ apart sṇi
certainly smā snow sníncheti
animal smalos snake snoghā
desire smegō intelligence sṇstus
carve smeidhō think sṇtējō
thousand smeighsli missing sṇterí
crumb smeikā daughter-in-law snusós
wonder smeirai settle sodējō
miracle smeirātlom soot sōdjā
wonderful smeiros seat sodjom
send smeitō went sodóm
smile smejō rope sognos
chin smekslā magic soitos
turfgrass smelgā give joy sōlājai
burn smelō furrow solkos
memory smemorjā oil solpos
stain smḗneumi whole solwos

totality solwotāts foam spoimā

make equal (to) somējō perspire spoisājō
equal somós breath spoisnā
send sontējō dispossession spoljom
guilty sontis promise spondējō
allied soqjos bed spondhā
flow sorā stick spōnos
sip sorbhējō betrothed sponstós
rowan tree sorbhos basket sportā
entrails sorwā haste spoudā
left soujós tread spṛāmi
juice soukos abound spreigō
kiss sówijā accelerate spreudō
drop spakos excite sprewō
extend spáneumi burst spṛgō
post sparos move away spṛnō
sparrow sparwos ankle spṛos
head of cereal speikā large fish sqalos
prickle speiksnā portent sqeros
thin speimis thorn sqijā
aspect spekjēs billow sredhō
look spekjō fray sremsō
spleen spelghā snore srenkō
pole spelgis flow srewō
recitate spelō strom srewtis
table speltā be cold srīgējō
extend spēmi cold srīgos
nipple spēnos weed sṛijō
cave speqos repair sṛkijō
compete sperdhō sea heaviness srodhos
hurry sperghō beak sroknā
scatter (to) sperjō stream srowmos
hope spes sickle sṛpā
hurry speudō cleanse sṛpijō
finch spingjā observe sṛwājō
spit spjewō guardian sṛwos
foxglove spjonos standing post st∂tis
spit spjwtos position st∂tus
split spleidō stall stādhlom
retire spleighō pond stagnom
side splighstós remain (water) stagō
be bright spḷndējō pool staknom
cut off spḷtājō couch stālos
flutter spṇdō arrangement stāmṇ
371
place stānējō be delayed stṇtējō

place stānom pillar stobhos
stable stārós trestle stoghos
platform stātlom street stoighos
set staurējō densifiy stoipējō
stake stauros ruler (in
stolbos
staked staurós topography)
stop stāwō force stolgos
walk steighō palate stōmṇ
stick steipēts straighten (to) storējō
plough handle steiwā study stoudjom
condense stejō oakum stoupā
icicle stejsjā lay strāmṇ
flow down stelghō army strātos
put stelō spread strātós
offshoot stelōn line streibā
stare stelpō hiss streidō
stamp on stembhō draw streigō
stumble stemō night bird streigs
dry skin sterbhnjom restrict strengō
decline sterbhō string strengom
love stergō active strēnwos
shit sterkos make noise strepō
shit sterkos make bitter streubhō
star sterlā fight streudō
entrails sternom strew strewō
rigid sternós stop strigājō
rob sterō line strigjā
sterile stérolis draw tight stringō
star steros sneeze stṛneumi
trunk stērps spread stṛnō
snore stertō extension stṛnos
pinnacle stertos pipe strudsmā
get injured steugō ancestor strutjos
inform steumi heap struwis
hit steupō thrash studējō
support steutō rigid (to be) stupējō
stick stigājō stick stupos
safe stiprós dishonour stupróm
plate stlāmṇ well sū
side stlātos beer sudhjom
legal suit stlītis spill sujō
place stlokos piglet sūkós
trunk stṃnos dregs suljā

vigorous súnoros sweat swoidājō

son sūnús ground swólejā
under sup fungus swombhós
soup supā noise swonos
throw supājō fall asleep swōpijō
pig sūs broom swoplom
buzz susājō dream swopnjājō
dry susdos dream swopnjom
expert suwids sleep swopnos
recommend swādējō wade sworā
pleasant swādús rubbish swordis
so swāi shrew sworēx
become stick sworos
swēdhskō
accustomed wound swṛneumi
custom swēdhus whisper swrswrājō
blaze sweidō silent (to be) t∂kējō
star sweidos qualify tādējō
whistle sweighlājō melt tādhēskō
seesaw sweigō corruption tādhis
whistle sweisdō put in order tagjō
smell good swekō dough taismos
fragrant swekos steal tājō
father-in-law swekros burglar tājots
mother-in-law swekrús stab tálejā
sunlight swelā such tālis
swell swelājō at that point tām
seal swelāks belly tarsós
relative sweljos slow tárudos
glare swelō dad tātā
sleeper swelom bull tauros
sulphur swelplos silently tausnim
be followed swemōr silent tausos
sound swénāmi so much twṇtos
swindle swendhō tile teglā
sleep swepō beam tegnom
dream swepṛ cover tegō
turn swerbhō shrine tegos
take care swerghō ceiling tegtom
whisper swerō dense tegús
important swērús shin-bone teibhjā
snappy swerwos creature teknom
sister swesōr receive tekō
sister's son swesreinos axe tekslā
porcine swīnós technique teksnā
373
fashion teksō progeny teukmṇ

bowl tekstā dig out teukō
web tekstlom knee teupō
run away tekwō stop up teurō
strap telmṓn lot teusmṇ
get in a space telpō desert teusqa
ground telsus people teutā
spurn tembhō observe tewai
darkness temesras force tewos
temple temlom stalk tibhjā
obscurity temos be afraid timējō
drunken tēmos chirp titijō
time tempos endure tlāmi
ribbon tenā patient tlātjos
extend tendō rest tḷijō
drag away tenghō raise tḷnō
impregnate tengō speak tloqai
until teni cut tmāmi
extend tenjō elastic tṃpus
temple tenjom comprehend tṇējō
result tenkō fat tṇghus
ligament tenos touch tṇgō
extend tensō dense tṇkros
string tentrom legitimate tṇktos
be warm tepējō stretched tṇtos
fever tepnos thin tṇus
passage teqom garment togā
threaten tercō certainly toi
auger téredhrom hatchet tōkslos
wipe tergō juniper toksos
towel tergslom fugacious tokwós
rub terjō call for tolājō
end termēn bran tolkos
cross terō then tom
enjoy oneself terpō then tom-ke
enjoyment terptis resonate tónāmi
earth tersā shave tondējō
get dry tersai extend (to) tonējō
make afraid tersējō give one's
tongējō
terror tersós opinion
feeble térunos fierceness tonslis
woodworker tetkōn hairdresser tonstṓr
teat tettā noise tóntenos
turkey téturos thunder tontrom

warmth topnos pig trogos

also toqe way tropos
threatening torcós alas troughi
therefore tori ladle trowā
tension (engine) tórkmṇtom gnaw away trowō
loud torós torpid (to be) tṛpējō
want torpējō ugly tṛrpis
turn torqējō thrush tṛsdos
necklace torqis be thirsty tṛsējō
dry torsējō thirst tṛstis
thunder torsmṇ dry tṛstos
so many tot(j)os dry tṛsus
towards there totrēd leprosy trudskā
from there totrōd annoying trudsmós
luck toughā slaughterer truks
thigh touknā you tū
beam trabhis be swollen tumējō
drag traghō mound tumlós
weft traghsmā turmoil túmolos
through trāntis strike tundō
dwell trebhō swell turgējō
brave tregsnos cheese tūrós
sad treistis tower tursis
three trejes trija trísores rejoice oneself tusjai
tremble tremō wave tusnā
incite trenkō cough tustijō
pass trepō coughing tustis
shiver tresō armour twakos
force in treudō force twenkō
miserable treughos enclose twerō
cut out treukō violent twoisós
sea tríj∂tos whirl twṛbhōn
threefold triplós boar twṛkos
triplication trípḷtis troop twṛmā
three times trĩs quick twṛtos
three in a go trisnôs wet (to be) uchējō
witness tristis excess údcris
third tritjos uter úderos
rubbed trītós udder ūdhṛ
wedge tṛmēts udder ūdhros
termite tṛmos immediate ūdhús
thorn tṛnā ox uksōn
posterity troghos wife uksōr
sow trogjā howl ululājō
375
shadow unksrā strike wedhskō

bad upelos utterance wedmṇ
very well úperesū tell wedō
over uperi way weghjā
high úperos carry weghō
under upo leuer weghtis
commission upóqrijom vehicle weghtlom
fundament upósēdjom transporter weghtṓr
service upóstānom be strong wegō
high úpselos weave wegō
above upsi divide weidhō
owen uqnós presence weidos
wide urús house weiks
burnt ustós victim wéiktomā
rather uta loom weimṇ
out uti, ud wrap weipō
otter w∂drā wire weiros
roam w∂gājai strength weis
perimeter w∂rbhis vein weisnā
caution wadhis flow weisō
walk wadhō agnus castus weitēks
river ford wadhom vine weitis
sheath wageinā arch weitō
cry wāghijō ferret wéiwersā
alas wai we wejes / weje
humble wailos desire wekmi
wolf wailós arch wekō
cow wakkā convex weksós
bandy-legged walgos tear off weldō
wall walnom bracelet welīks
died walóm will welmi
foggy, to be wapējō wave welnā
scream waplājō hair welnos
little owl warnā see welō
asunder-legged wāros expect welpō
empty wāstos will weltis
poet wātis wrapping wélwṃen
legbent watjos turn welwō
or we envelope wélwtrom
weave webhō vomit wémāmi
link wédhneumi beautiful wēmos
lead wedhō aspire wḗnāmoi
weapon wedhṛ attack wendhō
weather wedhrom love potion wenēsnom

family wenjā one-year creature wetsós

desire wenō old wetwos
love wenos separate wī
blister wenseikā vibrate wibrājō
equipped with went appearance wid
wind wentos see widējō
thing weqtis widow wídhewā
expression weqtlom willlow widhus
door wēr wisdom widjom
whip werbos be strong wigējō
sect wereinā be curved wijējō
head towards wergō wither wijēskō
work wergom chance wikis
water weri contend wikjō
alder wernā witch wikkā
true wēros widely known wíklutom
wrap out werpō find out windō
male wersis investigate windō peri
wart wersmṇ apparent windos
drag wersō cable winis
hall werstidhlom shackle winkijō
direction wertm∂n win winkō
value wertos cause winsō
defence wertrom man wīrós
belt (for safety) wérunos sprout wisējō
eat weskai mistletoe wiskom
squeeze wēskō club wísogā
prick wésnāmi turn around witājō
bargain wesnējō supplementary wíteros
sell wesnom framework wītj
stay wesō curve witjom
cheap wésolis wheelrim witus
evening wespros speak wíweqmi
spring wēsṛ camel wḷbhontis
morning wēsros feast wḷd
food westā rule wḷdhējō
dress westijō liquid wḷeiqos
cloth westis beat wḷeisō
feast westos be fit wḷējō
dwelling westus whip wḷepējō
excellent wēsus pillage wḷeumi
forbid wétāmi lion wlewā
calf wetlos basin wḷghis
time wetos liquid (to be) wḷiqējō
377
wool wḷnā worm wormis

strap wḷōrom colour wornos
wolf wḷqos policeman worós
tuff of hair wḷtis invert (to) wortējō
impression wḷtus dress wosējō
wave wṇdā turban wosis
complexed (to wet wosmós
wṇghējō
be) backbone wṛaghmṇ
vow wochējō word wṛdhom
water wodā root wṛdjā
water wodṛ enclosure wṛegis
induce (to) woghējō veil wṛeikā
car woghnos webbing wṛéikonjom
transport woghos harn wṛeinā
ploughshare wogsmis respect wṛējai
know woida lamb wṛēn
orient woidējō close wṛeumi
basket woidlos open wṛeumi apo
knowing woidwṓs vigor wṛgā
elm woighos attack (to be in) wṛgējō
vigour woikā work wṛgjō
village woikos attack wṛgos
steadfast woikós close wṛijō
farm woikslā laugh wṛisdējō
punishment woinā persecute wṛnāmi
wine woinos grumble wṛṇgai
poison woisos hand wṛonkā
hunt woitā dip wṛonkis
choose wolējō root wṛrādīks
people wolgos rain wṛstā
roll wolmos turn wṛstis
choice wolos row wṛstos
willing wolós turn wṛtō
fox wolpis enclosure wṛtom
wound wolsnos rye wṛughis
damage wolsom
round wolwós
wind wondhējō
hair wondhos
empty wōnós
water wopjā
wasp wopsā
voice woqs
cannabis worgjom

I.3.2. PIE - ENGLISH DICTIONARY
The Latin meaning and Syntax further define the English meaning and proper usage of
the Late Proto-Indo-European words, while the Notes help to inflect them correctly. The
PIH column shows the laryngeal reconstruction of the words, or the roots behind Late
PIE vocabulary. For detailed information about the etymology of each reconstructed PIE
word, and to determine the vocalic outputs of the etymological schwa (*ə) in the
different dialects, v.i. Appendix III.1.
Late PIE Synt Notes PIH Meaning (Latin)

(dí)dōmi tr BIIc deHw3 give dō
(gí)gnōskō
tr AVc gneH3 know nōscō
(gnōwa)
()wēmi tr BIIb H2weH1 blow exhalō
(jí)jēmi cau BIIb expel expellō
(kí)kēmi tr keH1 sharpen exacuō
plH1; cf
(pím)plēmi tr BIIb fill pleō
pḷnāmi
(s)úperi ind tab over super
(s)úperos adI tab superior superior
(s)upmos sup. uppest summus
(sí)stāmi intr BIIa steH2; stístāmi stand stō
(sí)stāmi
den advantage praestō
antí/prāi
(sí)stāmi apó intr be far distō
(wí)weimi tr BIId hunt uēnor
(wí)wermi tr BIIe find inueniō
∂gjō intr H3eg affirm aiō
∂gtis fem speech contiō
∂pjō inc H2ep reach apīscor
∂snātis fem jo harvest segēs
ábelos mas H2eb-(e)lo apple malum
abhnos adI sudden repentinus
abhro- praefix (per-) very per-
acnos mas H2eg(wh)-no lamb agnus
ad ind at ad
adējō tr prepare praeparō
admṇ neu rite ritus
ados neu ádesos H2ed-os spelt ador
H2eg- Hli-/ ili-
ág∂lis adI agile agilis
/Hlo-
āghar intr fear metuō
ágherom neu lake lacus
aghjā fem H2egh plough animal iūmentum
aghlós adI repellent repellens
aghlóws fem (aghlewós) drizzle irrorātiō
ághneumi tr BIVb afflict affligō

aglā fem brood prōlēs
agm∂n neu en rank agmen
agō cau H2eg push agō
agos mas H2ego- fault noxa
agós mas H2egó- ram ariēs
agrā fem massacre trucidatiō
ágrēnom neu H1eg-r fruit fructus
agróqolās mas farmer agricola
agros mas H2egro- land ager
agslā fem wing āla
agtós adI pushed actus
aichesājō den feel ashamed pudet
aidhis fem ej hearth aedes
aidhō intr burn ardeō
aigā fem H2eigeH2 oak robus
aigros adI H2oig-ro ill aeger
aikō tr AIa H2eik reach ic(i)ō
áimneumi BIVb copy imitor
aimom neu H2eimo- replication effigĭēs
ainō den dat belong pertineō
áinumoi tr take possession potior
aiqos adI even aequus
airā fem ryegrass lolium
aisdai tr honour honorō
aisdhom neu ardour ardor
H1eisk- /
aiskrós adI H2eisk- ? clear clārus
aidh-sk?
aisō tr respect reuereor
áisoskō tr request quaerō
aisskā fem desire desiderium
aitis fem jo H2ei-ti part pars
áiw(es)i ind always semper
áiwesos mas period aetas
aiwós adII H2eiwo- eternal aeuus
áiwotāts fem jo eternity aetas
H2oiwu(s)/
H2oiwi-
aiwu neu vital energy uitālitās
/H2oiwo-/
H2oiwā-
ájeri ind early mane
ájesnos adII brassy aereus
ajos neu es H2ei-os brass aes
ákeris fem jo maple acer
ákeswos mas pile aceruus
akjēs fem blade aciēs
akmā fem bit buccella
akmōn mas (ákmenos) H2ek-mon stone lapis

aknā fem prickle agna

áknāmi tr BIVa eat edō
akōkós mas scammony acridium
akos neu es chaff acus
H2ek-ri-,
akris adI sharp acer
H2ek-(e)ro-
akrom neu H2ek-ro promontory promontorium
áksijā fem axe ascia
aksis mas jo H2egws-iH2 axle axis
aksteinos fem broom genista
ákulos mas sting aculeus
akus fem ew needle acus
alā! excl. hello heus!
alājai intr stroll ambulō
albhos adI H2elbho- white albus
alchos mas money pecūnia
aldhōn mas en trough potārium
alēiks (alikós) spelt alica
álesnos fem H2el-esno- alder alnus
alghējō den be cold algeō
aljos lois id H2el-yo another alius
áljote ind to another place aliō
alkējō tr protect tueor
mas /
alkis ej cf. elēn roe-deer alcēs
fem
alō nourish alō
alpos adI small paruus
álteros adII the other one alter
altjos adII altjós adult adultus
altós adI high altus
lujos mas garlic ālius
álumṇ neu H2elu- beer ceruisia
amājō tr love amō
h2ṇ tbhí ? >
ambhí ind around circum
*h2ṇ tbhí
ambhíagtos mas ambhíagots public servant agens publicus
ámbhinom neu circuit circuitus
ambhíqolos mas servant seruus
ambhírēmos mas travel iter
ambhou lois both ambō
ámeikā fem friend amīca
amēiks mas (amikós) friend amīcus
ámetā fem aunt amita
amghō tr H2emgh oppress angō
H2mghu-;
amghús adI narrow angustus
amghus
ámghustis fem narrowness angustiae
ammā fem mother mamma
āmós mas seizing apprehensiō
381
amrós adI H3mH2-ró sour amārus

amros - amrei mas morning mane
an ind perhaps forsan
an∂mos mas H2enH1(e)-mo breath animus
mas /
an∂ts et H2enH2-t(i)- duck anas
fem
ana ind to ad
ándhesā fem maid uirgō
andhos blind caecus
anglos mas H2eng-lo articulation rotula
anjō tr withdraw remoueō
ankos mas H1enko- hook ancus
anksi ind cf. noqtis before dawn anteluciō
ánksitjom neu time before dawn antelucānum
annā fem granny anus
anos mas ring anus
ansā fem handle ansa
provided with
ansātos adII ansātus
handle
ansus mas monster monstrum
anta ind towards uersus
antas H2enH2teH2 portico antae
antí ind H1enti before ante
ántijos adI antique antiquus
ántitjos classical classicus
antjās fem fringe antiae
antjom neu end fīnis
antrom neu cave tugurium
anus fem H2enu- grandmother anus
peros mas shore ripa
apmṇ neu apsmṇ fastening copula
apnis fem ej H2ep-ni brook amnis
apo ind from ab
apóqitis fem revenge represalia
apóst∂tis fem distance distantia
apóteri ind behind post
apóteros adI hint posterus
apowésentis adII absent absens
ápowoiks mas (ápowoikjos) colony colonia
appās mas dad pappa
apros mas Hepro- boar aper
apsā fem H2epseH2 asp pōpulus tremula
aqā fem H2ekweH2 water aqua
ar ind therefore ergō
H2rH1; H1rjō;
arājō tr plough arō
arjō
árarjō tr adjust adaptō
arātrom neu plough arātrum
árdejā fem heron ardea

ardis fem ej point punctus

árgṇtom neu H2rg- silver argentum
argós adI H2ergó- brilliant splendidus
argujō tr reason arguō
arjos mas sir dominus
ármṇtom neu cattle armentum
armos mas H2erH-mo- arm armus
arom neu H2erom reed harundō
arqos mas H2rkwo- bow arcus
arti ind precisely adeō
artis fem jo art ars
artus mas joint artus
árusā fem H2er- hazelnut abellāna
arwā fem butter aruīna
H2erH3w-o \
arwom neu field aruum
ṛ/ṇ
āsā fem altar āra
āsējō den be dry areō
āsos mas ash cinis
astris mas ej hawk astur
astus mas guile astus
ati ind again re(d)
atiloiqos mas remnant reliquiae
atis fem seabream sparus aurata
atlos adI noble nōbilis
atnos mas year annus
atqe and ac
ātros adI H1eH2-tro black āter
attās mas dad tata
audhos mas sir dominus
aug fem H2eugeH2 glance fascis
augējō prog enlarge augeō
āugējō cau aument augeō
augmṇ neu en increase augmentum
augō cau H2ewg increase augō
augos neu áugestis development auctum
augtós adI grown auctus
aulos fem tube conductus
auqslā fem cf. uknós pot aula
ausijō tr empty hauriō
ausom neu gold aurum
ausṓs;
ausōsā fem H2eus-oHs- dawn aurōra
eH2
ausrom neu morning matīna
áussketi intr dawn illūcescō
áusteros eastern orientālis
aw ind howbeit autem
awā fem fountain fons
383
awējō tr H2ew desire desiderō

áweljā fem breeze aura
awigsnā fem H2ewig-sneH2 oat auēna
áwijā fem grandmother auia
awis fem ej H2ewi- bird auis
awisdhijō tr feel sentiō
awṇ neu (ávenos) fountain fons
awō dur H2ew spend the night pernoctō
áwontlos mas uncle avunculus
awos mas H2euH2o- grandfather auus
awou ind H2ewo(u) back retrō
awti ind or aut
awtim ind otherwise autem
awtjos adI H2eut- destitute destitūtus
badjos adI orange badius
baitā fem skirt falda
baktlom club baculum
bálbalos and barbaric barbarus
balbos adI tongue-tied balbus
bámbalos drum bombus
locutiō sine
batā fem babble
sensu
baubājai intr bark latrō
bebājō intr bleat bēbō
belom neu strenght uis
bélowents neu strong robustus
bendā fem end extrēmum
bendlā mas pintle cnodax
bewō tr AIa damp imbuō
bh∂skō tr pronounce pronuntiō
bh∂tjō tr hit quatiō
bhH2w-
bh∂wējō tr be favourable faueō
/bhH3w dat.
bhabhā fem bean faba
bhāghus mas ew arm bracchium
bhagjō tr fry frigō
bhagō cau atribute addicō
bhagos mas portion portiō
bhāgos fem bheH2go- beech fāgus
bhalnós mas penis pēnis
bhām∂n neu speech affāmen
bhāmā fem rumor fāma
bhāmoi intr bhH2-moi speak for
bháneumi tr BIVb illuminate illūminō
bhānis fem sentence sententia
bhānom neu lighting illuminātiō
bhānús adI bhānus bright lucidus
bheH2os;
bhāos neu (bháaesos) light lux
bhāwos

bhar neu (bharós) wheat far

bhardhā fem beard barba
bharkos mas brooch fibula
bharseinā fem wheat farīna
bharsjom neu bread pānis
bharwos fem pinetree pīnus
bhaskis mas bundle fascis
bhāsos mas vulture ūltur
bhātis fem bh∂tis expression expressiō
bhebhros mas beaver fīber
bhecō intr AIa run currō
bhedhō intr AIb require postulō
bhegō cau curb arcuō
bheidhō tr AIa trust fīdō
bheikos fem fig fīcus
bheiqlā fem bheiq- bee apēs
non IE? Item
bheitlom mas pelekus ai . axe ascia
paraśu
bheldō intr AIa knock battuō
bhelēks fem coot fulica
bheljō tr H3bhel enhance prosperō
bhelō intr fluoresce superluceō
bhelō intr make noise strepō
bhelu neu weakness dēbilitas
bhélunā fem henbane hyosciamus
bhemṛ (bhémenos) thigh femur
bhendhō tr AIa bind ligō
bhendhros mas mate collēga
bhendos adI melodious melodicus
bhenjom hit contusiō
bherāgs fem (bhergos) bherH2-g birch betulla
bherghō tr AIa keep conseruō
bherkō den AIa cf. merkō glimmer fulgeō
bhermi (bherō) tr Bia bhHr; bher bear bherō
bhermṇ neu burden onus
bhernā fem breach fissūra
bhristi ? cf.
bhersi ind quickly citō
testis <*tristis
bherwō inc AIa boil feruō
bhesmi intr Bia blow spirō
bheudhō inc AIa wake up expergiscōr
bheughō perf. AIa succeed eueniō benē
bheugō AIa fold flectō
bheurō tr (liquidō) knead commisceō
bhéwedā fem profit compendium
bhewmi dur BIa / BIIb bhwH2 be sum
bhéwonom neu reality reālitās
bhewtis fem jo bhūtis, bhūtís nature nātura
385
bhewtlom neu environment circumiectus

bhíbheimi tr fear timeō
bhidhós mas vessel fiscus
bhidrós adI bitter asper
bhilis adI good bonus
bhínāmi tr BIVa bhiH strike tundō
bhindō cau cleave findō
bhītós adI bhiH-tó struck tusus
bhl∂gsmā fem flame flamma
bhlādhrom neu fan flābellum
bhlaghmṇ neu priest flāmen
bhlagō tr hit tundō
bhlaidos adI clear candidus
bhlakkos adI thin flaccus
bhlāmi tr blow flō
bhlāwos adI yellow flāuus
bhledō intr AIa boast glorior
bhleicō intr AIa hit flīgō
bhleidō intr AIa inflate inflor
bhlēmi intr weep fleō
bhlendhos adI dim sublustris
bhleucō intr AIa flow fluō
bhleugsmṇ neu en stream flūmen
bhleumi tr BIII/AIIIu bhelujō weaken dēbilitō
bhleusō tr AIa choke suffocō
bhḷgējō den shimmer fulgeō
bhḷkjō tr support fulciō
bhlokos mas flake floccus
candidē
bhlōros white-stained
maculātus
bhlos mas (bhlēsos) flower flōs
bhlosējō den bloom floreō
bhloskos mas scandal scandalum
bhlōtis fem (bhlōtjos) bhlH-ti flower flos
bhṇghus adI dick crassus
bhodhjō tr dig fodiō
bhodhwos mas scald-crow coruus
(comparātīuus
bhodjós adI better melius
)
bhodrós adI excellent excellens
bhodsā fem grave fossa
bhogā fem guerrilla guerrilla
bhogājō intr contend litigō
bhogjos mas crook amnis
bhoglā fem stream amnis
bhoi- <bhei
bhoidhos adI ugly foedus
'timeō'
bhoidos neu es ugly foedus
bhoiqos mas drone fūcus

bhokos flame focus

bholghis mas ej bag follis
bholjom neu bheljom leaf folium
bhōljóm neu bhōwljóm den cubīle
bholos mas steam uapor
bholós adI noisy strepitosus
bhondhsā fem crib praesepēs
bhōr mas bhrós thief fūr
bhorājō tr bore forō
bhorcos adI rough rudis
bhoros mas worn gestāmen
bhorsos adI proud superbus
bhosos adII barefoot planipēs
bhoudhējō cau awaken expergefaciō
bhougā fem flight fūga
bhougājō cau flee fūgō
bhōwijós adI bheHwiyó- favourable propitius
bhragrājō den smell oleō
bhrātēr mas (bhrātros) bhreH2-ter brother frāter
bhrātreinos mas brother's son sobrīnus
bhrtrijos adII brotherly frāternus
bhrēgō intr AIIf shine luceō
bhreicō tr AIa fry frigō
bhremō intr AIa grunt fremō
bhrendhō intr AIa gush up exuberō
bhrenō intr AIa edge excellō
bhresjō tr shatter disrumpō
bhréucai tr use fruor
bhreugs mas (bhrugós) fruit frux
bhreugsmṇ neu en wheat frūmentum
bhreugtis fem jo use ūsus
bhreukō tr AIa strike mulceō
bhrēunā neu limit līmes
bhreusō cau AIa swell tumefaciō
bhrēwā fem bridge pons
bhrewō tr AIa brew concoquō
bhrewṛ neu (bhrewṇos) well puteus
bhṛghos adI bhṛghú- high altus
bhrigijō intr chirp frigō
bhrijājō tr crumble friō
bhHriyō/bhHr
bhṛijō cau cut open incīdō
uyō
bhríkāmi tr press premō
bhṛkjō tr stuff farcio
bhṛksnos fem bhrH2g-sno ashtree frāxinus
bhṛktos adI cf. mṛktos speckled uarius
bhṛmā incision incisiō
bhrṇgō tr bhrH1-g break frangō
bhroigos mas summit cacumen
387
bhrosdhos fem cedar cedrus

bhrounóm neu scale squāma
bhrounos adI brown spādix
bhroustom neu fragment frūstum
bhrówṇtis mas forehead frōns
bhṛstís fem tip cuspis
bhṛtis fem bearing portātiō
bhrughnos fem bulrush iuncus
bhṛugs mas (bhṛugós) throat guttur
H3bhruH;
bhrūs fem (bhruvós) eyebrow brus
bhrews
bhrúsnāmi tr BIVa break defringō
bhrusnjā fem cuirass lorīca
bhrusos mas breast pectus
bhrustóm neu particle particula
bhrutēks mas (bhrutkós) (bhrutkós) bush frutex
bhrwtom neu bhrwHtó- syrup dēfrutum
bhudhmṇ neu en soil solum
bhudhnos mas ground fundus
bhugjō dur flee fugiō
bhugos mas animal bestiola
bhukús adI bhukus blunt hebes
bhulj fem swelling tumor
bhulkos mas watcher uigil
bhHu-m;
bhūm intr (aor. ab esmi) was fuī
bhwom
bhúncai intr AIa serve fungor
bhusājō tr kiss osculō
bhūsjō intr hasten percurrō
bhūt fem dwelling mansiō
bhutjō tr hit quatiō
bhūtós adII been part. pf. esse
bistlis fem gall bīlis
blaktā fem cockroach blatta
blatsājō intr chatter blaterō
blēkājō intr bleat bēbō
bṇdus mas drop gutta
bodhrós adI deaf surdus
bokkos mas goat caper
bólboljō intr AIVd explode explōdō
bolkos mas tunnel cuniculus
boukājō intr resound personō
brenghos adI rough raucus
brokos mas badger mēlēs
bughōn mas eagle owl bubō
bukkā fem mouthful bucca
cadhō intr gwH2dh dive immergō
cāmṇ neu step gradus
cécālos adI mundane mundānus

cedhō tr AIa torment cruciō

cejwō dur AIa gwH3ei-w live uīuō
cēlējō tr AIIIe torture tormentō
célṇdis fem ej acorn glans
celō tr AIa gwelH2 throw away abiciō
celom g(e)uH2-lo cavity cauitās
cemjō intr gwṃjō come ueniō
gwnH2; gwēnis,
cenā fem woman mulier
gwnā
cerbhō devour uorō
ceri neu ej gwerH- mountain mons
cerjō intr AIa finish finiō
cerō tr AIb praise laudō
cerō den have fever febriō
ceru neu ew pike ueru
cérurom neu watercress berrum
césneumi tr BIVb extinguish exstinguō
cespis fem branches foliamen
cetus mas resin bitūmen
ceudhos neu es rubbish immunditia
chaisos adI ghwH2y-so beautiful pulcher
chedhō tr AIa pray rogō
cheldi neu bile fel
chelō tr AIa H1ghwel desire desiderō
chendō cau wound feriō
chenmi tr murder interficiō
chentis fem jo death nex
cherō tr warm calefaciō
cheros neu es heat calor
chislom neu wire fīlum
chḷnō tr deceive fallō
chōks fem (chkos) chōkeH1? torch fax
chonós adI abundant abundans
chormos adI warm formus
chornos mas chṛnos hearth fornus
chrensmós;
chrensós mas summer heat aestus
cf. cherō
chṛjō intr be violent furō
cícāmi inc BIIa gweH2 go away abeō
cijā fem fold ouīle
cínāmi intr BIVa prevail praeualeō
cīrós adI lush laetus
cistis fem finger digitus
gwH3itu-,
cītā fem gwH3i-taH2, life uita
gwH3iwotā
cīwāks adI lively uīuax
cīwos mas gwH3i-wo- life uita
cīwós adI gwH3i-wó- alive uīuus
389
cīwotos mas animal animāl

cḷā fem gullet gula
cḷājō intr fly uolō
cḷēnós adI tired lassus
cḷnāmi intr BIVa gwlH agonise praepatior
cḷturós mas vulture uultur
cṃtis fem march itus
cobhōn adI viscose conglūtīnōsus
coinos mas sack saccus
colbhos mas womb uterus
corós mas big eater cibicida
cosdhos mas rod uirga
cotējō tr mention allūdō
cotlós mas swelling tumōr
coucis fem shit merda
coudhros adI dirty immundus
cówijā fem lapwing uanellus
cowijós adII bovine bouīnus
cówqolos mas herdsman pāstor
cows and cow bōs
gwṛH2-u/
gwṛeH2u/
cṛ(āw)ús adI heavy grauis
gwreH2u;
cṛ(āw)us
cr∂tos adI gwrH-tó heavy brūtus
cṛājō tr gwrH3 devour uorō
crātós adI grH2-to welcome grātus
gwreH2-n
cṛwenus mas millstone mola
/gwreH2-w
cṛcestjom neu hovel gurgustium
cṛcots mas (cṛcetós) whirl gurgues
cṛebhos mas embryon foetus
creughos adI gwru-Hgh sad maestus
croghos mas Adam's apple adamī malum
crotsos adI big grossus
croughnos adI sorrow maestitia
cṛús fem (cṛewós) crane grus
dā ind certainly certō
daimoi tr divide up distribuō
daitis fem time tempus
daiwēr mas (daiwrós) brother-in-law leuir
akru /ṛk d -
akru >drakru
dakru neu ew tear lacrima
> dakru / skw-
akru
dāmos mas mate sodālis
dānus mas river fluuius
dápnāmi tr BIVb be expensive carus esse
dapnom neu cost of a feast impensa dapis

daps mas dapós banquet daps

dáwētā fem torch taeda
dáwetus mas conflagration incendium
dáwneumi tr BIVb scorch accendō
dawtis fem fuel cibus ignis
dē ind from upwards dē
debhō tr AIa knead depsō
dedrus mas allergy allergia
deghā fem tick rihipicephalus
deikm∂n neu example exemplum
deikō tr AIa show monstrō
deikos mas address directiō
deiktis fem quoque diktis indication indicātiō'
deiwā fem goddess dea
déiwijos adII godly dīuus
deiwos mas god deus
deiwotāts fem (deiwotātjos) deity deitās
deiwots adI (déiwetos) rich dīues
dekējō intr be proper decet
dekṃ ind dekm(t) ten decem
dékṃtulos mas finger digitus
deknos adI worthy dignus
dekos neu es virtue decus
déksteros adII right dexter
deljō tr AIVc dHl; del calculate calculō
delō tr split abiungō
demos neu es building aedēs
denkō tr AIa bite admordeō
densō tr AIa infere dēdūcō
H1dont- /
dentis mas jo tooth dens
H1dṇ t-
derbhō intr AIa turn gyrō
derghō intr AIa get cumulated cumulō
derō tr separate sēparō
deru neu (drewos) derH-u; doru wood lignum
deukō tr AIa drag dūcō
deuks and (dukós) leader dux
deusō tr spoil ruinō
dew ind dewH2 dweH2 far procul
dh∂tis fem exhaustion exhaustiō
dhabhros mas skillful habilis
dhalnā fem vegetation uiridia
dhanwos fem pinetree abiēs
dhaunos adI predator praedator
dhchínāmi inc BIVb vanish abeō
dhchitis fem destruction dēlētiō
dhebhō intr AIa Hdhebh abuse abūtōr
dhechō dur AIa burn ardeō
dhēdhjos grandfather auus
391
dhedhmós mas decree consultus

dheghom mas (dhghmos) dhghmós earth humus
dheghwis fem inflammation inflammātiō
dheicō tr AIa puncture figō
dhéicodhlā brooch fibula
dheimi tr dheHi1 suck sūgō
dhejō tr AIb put ponō
dhēlēiks adI (dhēlikós) productive fēlix
dhēlgs fem (dhḷgos) scythe falx
dhēljos mas baby lactans
dhelō intr AIb shine splendeō
dhēlós mas teat tetta
dhēmṇ neu condition habitus
dhemō intr AIb steam up uaporō
dhḗmonā fem dhēlus female femina
dhenghō tr AIa press imprimō
dhēnom neu produce of land genitūra terrae
dhēnos neu es interest faenus
functionem
dherbhō inc AIa start
incipiō
dherghnos fem sloe prūnus spinōsa
dherghō tr strengthen corroborō
dherghos adI red rūber
dherghs fem (dhṛghos) shit excrēmentum
dherkō cau AIa stain maculō
dhermi tr retain retineō
dhēs mas (dhasós) dhH1s- duty (religious) sacrificātiō
dhHtí-,
dhētis fem jo fact factum
dheHti-
dheughō intr AIa enough (to be) sufficiō
dheukō cau AIa destroy conterō
dheunos neu es dh(u)nH2 death fūnus
dhewō intr AIb dhewH1 run currō
dhghesi ind yesterday herī
dhghomōn mas (ghdhómenos) human being homō
dhghusā fem perch perca
dhídhēmi-
tr BIIb / AIVb dheHi1 do faciō
dh∂kjō
dhigsnis mas jo end fīnis
dhinghō tr AVIa model fingō
dhḷeghlā fem debt dēbitum
dhṃis fem hunger famēs
dhṃos mas employee famulus
dhṇghus adI direct directus
dhobos adI solid solidus
dhochējō cau make hot foueō
(dh)echṛ /
dhochos mas day diēs
(dh)ochṛ
dhoighos mas wall moenia

dholos mas hollow cauitas

dhombhos mas dove columba
dhōmós mas opinion sententia
dhōnā fem cereal cereāle
dhóncelos adI dark fuscus
dhoncos adI dark obscūrus
dhónejā fem hollow uōla
dhontis mas ej fountain fons
dhorjā fem diarrhea diarhea
dhoubhos adI deaf surdus
dhoubhús adI dhoubhus black āter
dhoubnom neu world mundus
dhoulis dhūlis soot fūligo
dhōunis mas strick fūnis
dhraghō tr AIIa bring out prōmō
dhreghō intr AIa run around circumcurrō
dhrēnos mas roar gemitus
dhrensājō intr cry drensō
do military
dhreughō den AIa militō
service
dhrighsós mas bundle fascis
dhṛmos adI steady firmus
dhṛnumoi intr BIVb dhrH3 jump saltō
dhroghnom neu potter wheel tornus
dhroghós fem wheel rota
dhṛsō tr AIIh dare audeō
dhṛstis fem boldness audacia
dhṛsus adI bold audax
dhrubhjō tr dhrub(h)? crumble comminuō
dhrubhtis fem jo drop stilla
dhruslijō tr dismantle dismontō
dhubús adI dhubus deep profundus
dhugtēr fem (dhugtrós) dhugH1ter daughter filia
dhūmājō dur smoke fūmō
dhūmós mas dhuH1-mo smoke fūmus
dhúneumi tr BIVb agitate agitō
dhuskos adI dark fuscus
dhwerō tr AIa deceive defraudō
dhwestus fem fleabane pulicāria
dhwolnos adI crazy insānus
dhwolsā fem whirlpool uertex
dhwonos mas sound sonitus
dhworis fem ej dhweris, dhur- door foris
dhworom neu courtyard forum
dhwosos
(masc.)
dhwosos mas demon diabolus
/dhwesos -es-
(neut.)
dídjāmi tr BIIa deiH2 conceive concipere
393
didkskō tr learn dīscō

dighā fem goat capra
djejō intr move moueō
djēws mas (djwos) dyeH1-w day diēs
djnos fem djnā day diēs
dḷghējō intr dat maintain contineō
dḷkus adI sweet dulcis
dḷḷnghos mas long longus
dḷḷnghotā fem length longitudō
dṃpedom neu building place locus operum
dṃpus adI rough rudis
dṃseghṛ neu dṃseghnós domain dominium
dnghu-H2;
dṇghwā fem tongue lingua
dṇt-ghuH2 ?
dṇsus adI thick densus
dō ind to ad
doklom mas tail cauda
dolājō tr cudge dolō
dolghos dew ros
dōljom mas barrel dōlium
dolos mas fraud dolus
dom ind still dum
dómāmi tr dmH2 tame domō
(domõs,
domos fem domus house domus
dómewos)
dómūnā fem landlady domina
dómūnos mas landlord dominus
doH3-no
dōnom neu gift dōnum
/doH3-ro
dornom neu wrist manicula
dōsos mas slave seruos
dōtis fem jo dowry dos
dounom neu duHno-, dūno- town oppidum
dousmos mas bush dūmus
dóusontos mas arm braccium
drājō intr work laborō
drappos mas drapery drappus
drātis fem work labos
drātṓr mas jo workman operārius
dṛdrājō intr murmur murmurō
dremō
intr run currō
(dídrāmi)
drepō AIa cut out abscindō
dreughō cau AIa beguile dēcipiō
drewā fem course cursus
drewō tr AIa treat consuēscō
drismós adI harsh asper
dristos mas bramble dūmus
dṛkjai peri intr. be visible manifestor

dṛkjō tr make up perspiciō

dṛkō tr see uideō
dṛkos mas vision faciēs
dṛksmos mas perspective prospectus
dṛktā fem light lūmen
dṛktis fem view conspectus
dṛktis fem jo seen uisus
dṛmijō dur fall asleep obdormiscor
dṛnos mas drH-nó split fragmentum
dsā fem dsH2 war bellum
dumbos mas tail caudula
dus ind bad malē
dúsōpis adI precarious precārius
duswids adI incompetent inscius
dweimi tr fear timeō
dwenos adI good bonus
dwidkṃtói adII twenty uigintī
dwipods adII jo biped bīpēs
dwīs lois twice bis
dwīskos adI matching pār
dwīsnōs lois two each bīnī
dwoiros adI fearful dīrus
dwoplos adII double duplus
dwóteros adII second secundus
dwou, dwāu,
adII two duo
dwou
ēchṛjos adI drunken ēbrius
edhlos fem H1edh-lo- elder ebulus
edhṛ neu (édhenos) palisade uallum
edjēw ind today hodie
edmi tr H1ed eat edō
edqis, edqid pron someone ecquis
edqos, -qā, - ecquī, -quae, -
pron whether
qod quod
edunā pain dolor
egējō den lack egeō
H1egh-yo /
eghjos mas hedgehog er
H1ogh-i(H)no-
eghṛ neu (eghnós) boundary circunscriptiō
ēghwṛ neu (éghwenos) drink pōtiō
egnis mas jo H1egw-ni- fire ignis
egō pron (mene) egH(o)2 I egō
ei ind that ut
eibhō intr AIa H1eibh fuck futtuō
eikō tr H1eik have habeō
eimi dur H1ei go eō
eisā fem wrath ira
eisāskai inc be angry irāscor
eisom neu ice gelū
395
ek(sí) H1egh-si outside ex

eksoqs adI (éksoqjos) invisible inuisibilis
ek-stH2-ṛ, cf.
ekstar neu (ékstaros) remoteness longinquitās
enstar
éksteros adI tab external exterior
ékstṃos adI outermost extimus
ektós ind excepted praeter
ekwā fem mare equa
ekwīnós adII of horses equīnus
ekwos mas H1ekwo- horse equus
ēlā fem bodkin cuspis
elēn mas (alnós) cf. alkis red-deer alcēs
elkos neu es wound ulcus
elkós adI bad malus
ellus mas ew eel anguilla
elne elnā elnod pron that ille illa illud
elóm tr (aor. a gesō) conducted gessī
elōr mas (éleros) swan olor
elwos pink rosaceus
emō tr take emō
empis fem insect insectus
en ind in in-
H2engwi- ; cf.
enchis fem ej snake anguis
oghwis
endo ind inside in
endósēdjom neu furniture suppellex
enim ind and et
enīqā fem eni-H3kw-eH2 face faciēs
enis adII tab certain quīdam
enkō prō tr AIa drive condūcō
ennós adI interior interior
énsēdjom neu ambush insidiae
enslā fem island insula
en-stH2-ṛ, cf.
enstar neu (énstaros) proximity proximitās
ekstar
énteri ind between inter
énternos adI internal internus
énterom neu interval interuallum
énteros adI tab internal interior
énteros adI tab intestine intestīnus
entós ind inside intus
éperom neu west occidens
epi ind opi on insuper
ḗpijos adII H1eH1p-i- relation adfīnis
épiromos adI ópiromos placed on top supernus
ercom neu H1ergwo- pulse erūm
erjos mas H1er- ram ariēs
erkō fac H1rk share commūnicō
ermi intr H1rH1 rest requiescō

ermos adI H1rH1-mo- abandoned solus

ernos adI upright arrectus
erō tr AIa heave erigō
éroros mas er-H3ero- eagle aquila
erqō intr AIa H1erkw shine splendeō
ersā fem H1ers- tail cauda
ersábhaljom neu tail cauda
ersājō den wander errō
erwā fem land terra
esmi dur H1es be sum
ēsmoi intr be situated sum
esos m H1esH-o- housemaster erus
ēsṛ neu (ésenos) H1esH-r blood sanguis
ēsús adI eH1su- ?; ēsus good bonus
éteros adII second secundus
eti ind even etiam
etmṇ neu en soul animus
etō intr AIa breathe respirō
ētṛ mas ētenós H1eH1-tr inside interior
ētros adI ātros ? vivid uiuidus
eukō tr AIa be used colō
eusō intr H1eus burn ūrō
ewō inc H1ew get dressed induō
extrōd ind from ex
gálgaljō intr talk garriō
galnos mas power potentia
galnos mas gaul gallus
gangō intr pin down siffilō
gar ind ar ge indeed enim
garsijō intr talk garriō
gaudhējō intr rejoice gaudeō
gaudhjom neu joy gaudium
ge ind at least quīdem
geigō den AIa be bitter acūtus sum
geimō intr AIa sprout germinō
geisā fem gravel calculus
geltis fem embryo fētus
gelu neu ew ice gelū
gemō tr AIb be loaded grauātus esse
gemros mas gemHro- son-in-law gener
genesājō cau create generō
gengā fem gum gingiua
comp. -
genjos mas gender sexus
gnH1yo-
genmṇ neu en germ germen
genos neu es genH1os kin genus
genH1ti- /
gentis fem jo family familia
gṇH1ti-
gentlom neu genH1tlo- birth nascentia
397
gentṓr mas genH1tor parent genitor

gentrīks fem (géntrijos) genH1triH2 parent genitrīx
gentus mas genH1tu- procreation genitus
genu neu knee genū
genus neu maxilla maxilla
gercō tr AIa H2ger gather cogō
gergō cau AIa wind contorqueō
gerjō intr H1ger wake up expergiscor
gerlós adI old senex
gerō prog AIa gerH2 old (to become) sēnēscō
gersā fem network gerra
gerwós mas veteran ueterānus
gesō tr H2gs wear gerō
geulom neu glowing ash fauilla
geustis fem jo taste gustus
gewō intr AIa resound resonō
gh∂bhējō tr own possideō
gh∂rtā fem tip cuspis
ghabhlom neu fork furca
ghabhros mas goat hircus
ghaidīnós adII goatish haedīnus
ghaidos mas young goat haedus
ghaisējō den stick haereō
ghaisom neu spear gaesum
ghaisom neu stick pilum
ghaitā fem hair capillum
ghálerom neu disgrace labēs
ghanos neu es yawn hiātus
ghansōr mas er goos anser
ghastā fem spearshaft hasta
ghH2ew /
ghawō tr call uocō
ghwH2e
ghawōd ind not haud
ghebhlā fem head caput
ghedō tr AIb defecate iunificō
gheidhō tr AIa long for aueō
ghei-ke ghāi-ke
tab this hic haec hoc
ghod-ke
gheims, cf.
gheimṛ neu (ghéimenos) winter hiems
ghjems
gheimrīnós adII winterly hibernus
gheipō intr AIa sob hippitō
gheislos mas ghweistlo- ? hostage obses
ghelbō intr AIa boast glorior
ghelijō intr growl grunniō
ghelnom neu lip labrum
ghelō intr incise insecō
ghelus fem tortoise testudō
ghelwos neu es vegetable olus

ghelwos mas ghelHwos green uiridis

ghēmi intr BIIb arrive perueniō
ghenghō intr AIa step uadō
ghēr mas (gherós) hedgehog ēr
gherdhō tr AIa encircle circumdō
gherghros fem pod siliqua
gherijai tr desire desiderō
gherō tr lend commodō
ghertom neu butter butyrum
gherús small exiguus
ghēsṛ neu (ghésenos) cf. ghestos hand manus
ghesris fem glove digitābulum
ghestos neu cf. ghēsṛ hand manus
ghētis fem jo arrival aduentus
ghetlā fem handle stīua
gheughō tr AIa veil obumbrō
gheusō AIa hear audiō
gheutis fem mould fūtis
gheutlom ∂n vase bacārium
ghéwejā hollow fouea
ghewos es space spatium
ghi ind certainly certō
ghighējō intr come back redeō
ghirrijō intr whine hirriō
ghjājō inc gape hiō
gheims; cf.
ghjems mas (ghjmos) winter hiems
gheimṛ
ghlaghos mas crossbeam patibulum
ghlastos adI ghḷ(H)-sto- blue caeruleus
ghlēiwos adI splendid splendidus
ghlēmi intr glimmer renideō
ghlendhō tr AIa study pertractō
ghleumi intr joke nugor
ghloidos mas luxury sumptus
ghloumos joke nuga
ghḷtnós adII golden aureus
ghḷtom neu gold aurum
ghlustis adI flourishing fluorescentia
ghṇdhus mas cancer cancer
ghṇdō tr AVIc receive accipiō
ghneumi tr BIIIb caress mulceō
ghodos mas anus ānus
ghoilos adI joyful alacer
cf. ghelus
gholwā fem caluum caput bald head
'testudō'
ghórdejom neu barley hordeum
ghordhos mas cf. ghortos enclosure saeptum
ghorḗjai cau encouragement hortor
ghornim ind pleasantly libenter
399
ghoros mas intestine intestīna

ghorsējō cau erect horreō
ghortos mas cf. ghordhos garden hortus
ghosóm tr (aor. ab edmi) ate ēdī
ghóstipots adII jo guest hospes
ghostis and ej foreigner aduena
ghouros adI terrible terrens
ghowējō tr pay attention faueō
ghradjai dur step gredior
ghrāsmṇ neu en grass grāmen
ghrāsom ∂b ghreH2-so grass herba
ghrebhō tr AIa bury inhumō
ghrēdhus mas hunger fames
ghrbh / ghr-i-
ghreibhō tr AIa seize captō
bh
ghreim∂n neu ointment unctiō
ghṛējō den be empty uacuus sum
ghremō intr AIa grumble fremō
ghrendhā fem cornice corona
ghrendhos neu es ghrōn lock cirrus
ghrendō intr AIa gnaw frendō
ghrewō cau AIa grind conterō
ghrewō fall into ingruō
ghromos mas roaring fremitus
ghronos mas mark signum
ghroudos mas ball pila
ghrowā fem pebble calculus
ghudjō do harm damnō
ghundō cau pour fundō
ghwerā fem beast fera
ghwērīnós ghwerīnós beastly ferīnus
ghwēr; ghwer;
ghwērós adI wild ferus
ghwerós
ghwobhros mas smith faber
gibbā fem hump gibba
gignō cau genH1 beget gignō
gigrós adI sharp acūtus
gjewō tr AIa chew mandō
gl∂gjēs fem ice glaciēs
glabhō tr plane ēfodiō
gladhros adI even glaber
glagh fem protest querēla
glakti neu milk lac
glegos adI docile infirmus
gleibhō tr AIa adhere adhaerō
gleis mas (glisós) mouse glis
glēkis adI intelligent callidus
glembhō cau AIa include inclūdō
gleubhō tr AIa peel glūbō

glínāmi intr BIVa stick adhaerō

globhos mas globe globus
glōghis fem point cuspis
gloidos mas rubber glūtinum
gloijós adI sticky glutinoosus
gloitṇ neu gloitnós glue glūten
glokijō intr clack glociō
glomos neu es yarn glomus
glōs fem (glēsos) gH2lōw sister-in-law glōs
glujō tr AIIIu swallow glūtiō
gnājō tr produce (to) gignō
knH2; cf.
gnāmi tr kanmā, kṇmā, gnaw (to) adrōdō
knāmā
gnās m/f (gnājós) offspring prōlēs
gnāskai inc gnH1-eH2-sk be born nāscor
gnH1-tó;
gnātós adII born nātus
comp. -gṇtó-
gnebhis fem fleece uellus
gnebhō tr AIa pluck uellicō
gneibhō tr AIa raze rādō
gneichō intr AIa lean nītor
gneidō tr AIa scrape abrādō
gnōros adI evident euidens
in
gnos ad native ingenuus
compositiōne
gnōtis fem knowledge nōtiō
gnōtlom neu sign signum
gnōtṓr mas knower nōtor
gnōtós adI gnH3tós known nōtus
gnoubhos mas bud geniculum
gnōwos wise nāuus
golbhnos mas dart acūmen
gombhos mas jaws dentes
gomos mas load onus
gonējō tr gonH1-eio/e- produce generō
gopos mas jaws fauces
gorbos mas wrinkle rūga
gorgnóm neu sadness tristitia
gorgós adI sad tristis
goulos mas oral buccale
gouros mas crimpy hair turbidō
grakijō intr cackle gracillō
grammā fem rheum grāmiae
grānom neu grH2-no- grain grānum
gṛbeinā hornbeam carpīnus betulus
gṛbējō den have wrinkle rugātus sum
gṛbhō tr AVIII scratch charaxō
grebhos mas net rēte
401
gredō tr AIa scratch scabō

gregs mas (grēcos) H2greg- herd grex
gremjom neu lap gremium
grendjom crown corōna
gretlom cradle cūnae
greubhō dur AIa go aside mē auertō
greugō intr AIa bend curuō
greumō tr AIa scrape off abrādō
greutō intr AIa solidify solidificō
grṇdhís adI grown grandis
grōbhos fem oak tree quercus suber
grōdis mas hail grandō
groumos mas crumb grūmus
grundijō intr grunt grunniō
grutis fem curd cheese lac passum
gudom bowels intestīnum
gugā fem ball globus
gupā fem cellar pitheūs
gurnos mas back dorsum
gusnō tr taste gustō
gutṛ mas (gútenos) throat guttur
idhei ind there ibī
ikjō tr H2yk reach ic(i)ō
ili neu (ílijos) groin intestīnum
AVIII
H1lH2 redupl.
īljō tr (lām-loja- send away amandō
H1i-H1lH3
leisō)
imde ind from there inde
immō adII more than that immō
nekmi tr BIIe H1nk convey apportō
ipjō oppress opprimō
is, id pron tab this is, ea, id
īsarnom neu iron ferrum
ita ind itH so ita
itājō freq journey itō
itaqe ind and also itaque
íteros adII different differens
itim ind likewise item
itṛ neu (ítenos) way iter
j∂kējō den throw iaceō
j∂kjō tr eject iaciō
jagjō tr jH2g-jo/e worship uenerō
jāgjus adI jeH2g-ju- pious pius
jāi ind yes certō
jālos mas conspiracy coniurātiō
jāmi intr yH2 pass transeō
jāmi ind already iam
ieH2;
jáneumi tr AIVb conspire coniurō
iH2neumi

jnuwā fem entrance iānua

jeghō tr persecute persequor
jegis mas ej ice glaciēs
jekō tr AIb tell narrō
jekos adI healthy sānus
jēlom neu desert desertum
jemō tr hold (to) contineō
jemós neu twin geminus
jentēr mas (jentrós) cousin cognātus
jeqṛ neu (-óneros) liver iecur
jesō AIb ferment fermentō
jeunis fem right way uia recta
jeus neu (jusós) broth ius
jewesdiks adII jo judge iudex
jewō intr AIa help adiuuō
jewom neu barley hordeum
jéwornjom fem cereal cereāle
jewos neu (jéwesos) law iūs
jṇdros adI exuberant laetus
jṇtō tr AVIa desire eagerly aueō
jod qid ind because quia
jodhei rel where (rel.) ūbī
joinkos mas bulrush iuncus
jom rel when cum
jomde rel from which unde
joqe ind and et
jori rel wherefore quapropter
jorkos mas roebuck gazella
jōrom neu yeHro- season tempus
jōrós mas conspirator conspirātor
jos (je), jā, jod rel tab that, the one that is quis
jṓsneumi tr BIVb begird cingō (to)
jota rel how quōmodo
jota sei ind alike quasi
jóugsmṇtom mas beast of burden iūmentum
jówestos adI just iūstus
jucis adII H2yu-gwiH3 eternal iūgis
judhējō tr kwid kwismei command iubeō
jugóm neu yoke iugum
jungō tr join iungō
júwenis adII young iuuenis
juwes / juwe pron tab you uōs
juwṇkós adII H2iw-wHṇkó- young iuuenis
júwṇtā fem youth iuuentus
juwōn adI (júwenos) H2iw-wHen-- young iuuenis
k∂ldos mas cf. k∂ldis wood lignum
k∂pjō tr kHp catch capiō
k∂psā fem box capsa
k∂ptos captive captus
403
k∂sējō den lack careō

k∂stos adI pure castus
k∂wējō den beware caueō
ka ind certainly sīc
kábṇlos mas colt equulus
kabōn mas (kábonos) horse equus
kadhō tr keep praeseruō
kadō prog fall cadō
kādos neu es trouble cūra
kadros adII saint sanctus
kaghlā fem opening caula
kaghos mas enclosure claustrum
kaidō cau cut caedō
kaikos adI blind caecus
kailom neu augur augurium
kaipā fem onion caepa
káisṛjēs fem long hair caesariēs
kaisrom neu hair capillum
kaitom neu heath silua
káiwelos neu exclusive exclusōrius
kákabā fem partridge perdix
kakkājō intr defecate cacō
kaklājō intr cackle cacillō
kákneumi tr BIVb promote foueō
kakō cau thinnen tenuefaciō
kaldējō den be experienced calleō
kaldos mas blister callus
mas/ (kalikós,
kalēiks kalīks cup calix
fem kalijós)
kalgōn (kálgenos) fog cālīgo
kālis fem spot macula
kalkis heel calx
kalwos adI kḷHwos bald caluus
kambos adI bent tortus
kāmi tr love amō
kamō tr kH2m press tightly comprimō
kampos mas land campus
kánāmi tr BIIIa dig fodiō
kandō tr glow candō
kánkestos mas colt equulus
kankus mas kanku /kākā branch ramulus
knH2;
kṇH2mā,
kanmā fem knāmā, leg crus
knH2mi-; cf.
gnāmi
kanmṇ neu (kánmenos) song carmen
kanō intr sing canō
kantos mas cf. witus wheelrim cantus

kaplos mas cf. skāpos tool instrumentum

kāpos mas land estate fundus
kaprā fem goat capra
kapros goat caper
kaput neu (kaputós) head caput
kareinā fem Har- keel carīna
karkar mas (karkarós) fortification mūnītūra
kárkarjō announce nuntiō
karkros crab cancer
karnājō tr AIIIa pin down carinō
karōn fem en limb membrum
kāros adI beloved cārus
karpō tr collect carpō
kárrēkā fem rock rūpēs
kartús adI kartus hard dūrus
kasnos mas grey cānus
kasterlom neu castle castellum
kastra neu (kastrõm) camp castra
kastrājō tr encamp castrō
katēsna fem chain catēna
katos mas fight pugna
katsājai intr meet congredior
katsājō tr gather cōgō
kattā fem cat fēlēs
kaukos mas vessel collectāculum
kaulis fem cabbage caulis
kaunós adI shameful pudendus
kawdō tr AIIa kH2w-d hit cūdō
kawō tr AIIb kH2w hit cūdō
káwonā fem owl noctua
ke kā kod (eke
pron this hic hae hoc
ekā ekod)
kei ind here hic
keidō intr AIa go down descendō
keimēx mas bug cīmex
keimoi inc lie iaceō
keimos neu kéimesos colorant colorans
keiros adI dark obscūrus
kéiwijos adII civil cīuīlis
keiwis and ej citizen cīuis
kekājō tr bind nectō
(kekātrikós,
kekātrīks fem scar cicatrix
kekātrijós)
kekō intr leap saltō
kékuros adI tame cicur
kēlā fem chamber cella
kēlājō cau hide cēlō
keldō tr strike percellō
kelgā fem mystery mysterium
405
kéliknom neu penthouse cēnaculum

kelmos mas helmet galea
kelō tr push impellō
kélodhros mas snake coluber
kēlom neu arrow sagitta
kelots mas (kéletos) boy ephebus
kelsō intr AIa be high excellō
kelujō intr travel iter facere
kelus fem road uia
kémelom neu heaven caelum
kémeros fem lotus lotus
kemjō tr hum cantillō
kemō intr AIb strain adnītor
kemos adII hornless incornis
kenēs fem (kensós) ash cinis
kenkai intr hesitate uacillō
kenklom tendon tendō
kenkō inc AIa weigh pendō
kenkos mas hook hamus
kenō intr kṇjō arise oborior
kentom mas rag pannus
kentrom neu prick centrum
kepō tr do harm infensō
keqō tr AIa dirty mancillō
ker∂srom neu kerH-s-ro- brain cerebrum
kérberos mas weasel mustela
kerdhjos mas herdsman pāstor
kerdhō tr AIa range (to) ordinō
kerdhos mas group grex
kerdos neu es profession ars
kerkō inc AIa grow thin tenuescō
kerkos fem hen gallīna
kernos mas excavator pāla
kernós mas frozen snow nix gelāta
kerom neu hair caesariēs
kersnā fem dinner cēna
kersō tr AIa mutilate mutilō
kersṛ , kersṇ,
kersṛ neu (kersenós) head caput
kerH1os
kerwos mas kerH2wo- deer ceruus
kesdō intr withraw cēdō
kēsmi tr ke(k)Hs-mi restrain reprimō
kesnus mas garlic ālius
kesō tr comb pectō
kētjā fem room cubiculum
keubō cau AIa curve curuō
keudhō AIa hide abdī
keukō dur warp inflectō
keulom neu swelling turgentia

keusō tr keusH rent locō

kēwējō intr sway oscillō
khákhatnos mas laugh cachinnus
khamos mas hook hāmus
khéderos fem ivy hedera
kighrós mas agitated agitātus
kikēr mas (kikrós) pea cicer
kkeumi intr BIIIb become vigorous uigescō
kikjā fem woodpecker pīca
kiklēskō tr (kiklēwa) invoke inuocō
kiklós adI kelH cold frīgidus
kíkōnjā fem stork ciconia
kīkus mas (kī´kewos) muscle mūsculus
kina ind from this side hinc
kingō tr gird cingō
kintos adII previous praecēdens
kippos mas peg cippus
kirknos mas compasses circinus
kirkos mas circle circus
kiskā fem biceps biceps
kistā fem basket cista
kíteros adI of this side citer
kitōd ind immediately citō
kitrōd towards this side citrō
kiwos mas colour colōr
kjējō cau activate ciō
klādis mas damage clādēs
kladjos mas sword gladius
klagjō intr clang clangō
klāmājō intr yell clamō
klambós adI mutilated mutilus
klāmi tr embank aggerō
klamrós adI klmH2-ro weak dēbilis
klāros mas tablet tabella
klaudos adI lame claudus
klawdō tr close claudō
klawos mas nail clāuus
klāws fem (klāwós) key clāuis
klawstós adI closed clausus
k∂lnis?; cf.
kḷdis fem mountain-path callis
k∂ldos
kleinos fem maple acer
kleitis fem hut casa
kḷējō den be hot caleō
kḷējō tr klH1 name nōminō
klepō tr AIa steal clepō
kleumi neu kluH listen audiō
kleumṇ neu hearing audītus
kléumṇtom neu reputation reputātiō
407
kleusō tr AIa obey oboediō

kleustis fem klustís obedience oboedientia
kleutis fem jo quoque klutis listening audientia
kleutō tr AIa raffle sortior
kleutrom neu story historia
klewō tr AIa wash purgō
klewos neu es glory gloria
klínāmi cau cause to slope clinō
klisrós adI gentle gentilis
kḷjō tr (s)kel divide diuidō
kleuH <*kḷ-
kḷneumi tr BIVb* hear audiō
ne-uHmi
klṇgō intr AIIc klH1-g sound clangō
kloiwos adI kloinos steep clīuus
klopnis fem jo valley uallis
klounis fem jo buttock clūnis
kḷpros mas wine-cask cupa
kḷtos adI hot calidus
klūtós adI kluH-tó famous audītus
kluwējō den hear clueō
kḷwijō tr defame difāmō
kmāmi prog kmH2 get tired dēfetiscor
kṃertos mas lobster langusta
kṃros curved camur
kṃti dh°r with cum
kṃtom ind hundred centum
knakos adI knH2-ko yellow glaesus
kṇjós adI recent recens
kṇksos mas articulation artus
knokos mas neck ceruix
knouks fem (kneukos) nut nux
kṇsējō tr opinate censeō
kṇstṓr mas kenstṓr spokesman orātor
knuwā fem walnut nux
kobom neu success euentus
kodējō tr thurify turificō
koilús adI koilus healthy sānus
kóilutāts fem jo health ualētūdō
koimā fem agreement pacta
koimos adI lovely cārus
koinos mas foenum hay
koisā fem occupation cūra
koitús fem (koitewós) manner modus
koksā fem hip coxa
kolignos mas dog canis
koljō tr stick adhaerō
kolmṇ neu en summit culmen
kolmos mas kolH2-mo- stalk calamus

kolH-ni-, kḷH -
kolnis fem ej ni-, kolH-wi, hill collis
kolH-wo
kolnom neu pile sublīca
kolnos adII one-eyed unioculis
nōn qolsos
quoniam gmc.
kolsos mas neck collum
nōn *hw
incipit
kólumbhos mas dove columba
kom ind with cum
kómāglom neu collection collectiō
kómjougos mas union coniunctiō
komjugs epi komjugós consort coniux
kómmoinis adII common commūnis
kommoinitts fem jo community commūnitas
komnom neu meeting congregātiō
kómnōmṇ neu surname cognōmen
kómopjom neu equipment armāmenta
kōmos mas mass globus
kómplēnos adII complete complētus
kómsqṛtos adI perfect perfectus
kómtḷtis fem patience patientia
komtrōd ind against contrā
kómwoirjom neu court curia
kómwoistis fem conscience conscientia
kōnājai inc try cōnōr
konkējō cau burn combūrō
konkhā fem shell concha
kōnos mas top turbēn
kophos mas hoof ungula
kopnos mas haven portus
kóqros mas dirt immunditia
koreibs mas (koribós) thread quālus
koris 12 acarian acarus
korjom neu leather corium
korjos neu army exercitus
korkos adI mud caenum
kormnos mas bleach aqua lixiuiae
kormōn mas (kórmenos) ermine mustēla erminea
kormos mas pain dolor
(kornikós,
kornīks fem crow cornīx
kornijós)
kornos cherry tree cornus
kṓrukos mas bag saccus
korw-,
korwos adI raven raucus
korweH2
kósolos fem hazel corilus
kostā fem H3osteH2 rib costa
409
koubos mas joint artus

koupā fem kūpā cup cūpa
koupnā fem lot copia
koutā fem hut mapālia
kowos adI hollow cauus
kowṛ neu (kówenos) kuH2-r cavern cauerna
krāmi tr Bib / BIVa krH2 / kṛneH2 mix permisceō
krasi ind tomorrow cras
krāsrōn mas en bumblebee crābrō
krātis fem ej krH2tis network crātis
kratsos plump crassus
kṛdḗn kṛdnos hinge cardō
kṛdhōn mas (kṛdhenós) carbon carbō
(kṛdejós /
kṛdi / kṛdjom neu heart cor
kṛdjī)
kṛdijai prog get angry stomachor
kṛdjō intr krH-d rock trepidō
kṛdsus fem shirt camisia
krd +
kréddhēmi tr believe crēdō
dhH1/dhH3
kreidhrom neu sieve crībrum
kreimṇ neu crime crīmen
kreitsō intr AIa shake agitor
krekō AIa weave texō
kremājō cau burn cremō
krēmi tr krH1 create creō
kremom neu beer ceruisia
krémusom neu onion caepa
krenghos mas ring anus
krenktis fem scar cicātrix
krépāmi intr crackle crepō
krepō intr AIa precipitate praecipitor
krēqā fem border limēs
krēskō prog grow crēscō
krētā fem chalk crēta
kretō tr AIa cut exsecō
kreugō intr AIa cry gemō
kreuks fem (krukós) cross crux
kreumi tr kru-H stock dēpositō
kreupō inc AIa get encrusted incrustor
kreutō tr AIa agitate permoueō
krēwō tr AIIf touch commoueō
krigā cry clamor
krinō tr kry; tab sieve crinō
kripsos adI curly crispus
krisnis fem jo mane crīnis
kristā fem crest crista
kristājō cau shuttle agitō
kritis fem difference differentia

kṛjēs fem rot cariēs

kṛklos adI slender gracilis
kṛnāmi tr krH1 rot corrumpō
kṛnos adI rotten corruptus
kṛnu neu kṛnewós tab horn cornū
krōbhtus mas devotion dēuotiō
krokijō intr shriek crociō
kroknos mas anorak peplum
krotjājō tr shake agitō
krous neu (kreusos) leg crūs
krowos mas shelter refugium
krH2pjo-;
kṛpjos mas shoe calceus
krāpjo-
kṛpos neu es body corpus
kṛsējō den be scratched carreō
kṛsnos black āter
kṛsō tr AIIh run currō
kṛstus mas course cursus
kṛsus mas cart currus
krustā fem icicle crustula
krūtis fem krūtís dome cupula
kruwós mas es kr(e)uH2- blood cruor
kṛwos adI curved curuus
kselwā fem forest silua
ksentis fem briar sentis
kserós adI dry siccus
kserós adI kse-ró arid aridus
ksnowājō tr shave abrādō
ksnowātlā fem razor nouācula
kúbāmi den lie cubō
kudājō intr reprove orbiurgō
kukulājō intr cockoo cucu facere
kukūlós mas cockoo cucūlus
kūlā fem hiding place latebra
kūleks mas (kūlkós) gnat cūlex
kūlos mas ass cūlus
kumbhā fem pot catīnus
kumbō intr recline accumbō
kúnejos mas wedge cuneus
kupjō tr demand exigō
kurnos mas foal pulllus
kusdhos mas treasure thesaurus
kusis mas kiss basium
kūtis fem ej kūtís skin cutis
kuwējō den be pregnant grauidus sum
kuwos mas whelp catulus
kúwṛos adI powerful potens
kwatsos mas cheese caseus
kweidos mas white candidus
411
kwōn mas (kwnos) dog canis

l∂bjom neu lip labrum
l∂kesājō cau tear lacerō
l∂kjō trap laciō
l∂kós mas tearing lacerātiō
l∂nchijóm neu lung pulmō
l∂pējō den be flat plānus sum
l∂pods mas (l∂pedós) stone lapis
l∂skējō fancy lascīuiō
l∂tējō den be concealed lateō
labhō tr take emō
laghā fem spade pāla
(s)leH2g; cf.
lāgō intr AIIe droop ēlanguescō
lṇgwō
laiwos adII left laeuus
lājō tr scold obiurgō
lajos neu fat adeps
lakertos mas forearm lacertus
lakus mas ew lake lacus
lalājo intr babble blaterō
lalu ind penis pēnis
lāmā fem poodle lāma
lmṇtom neu tell off obiurgātiō
landhom neu frypan sartagō
lāōs mas (lesos) home god lār
lāpos mas cow bōs
lapsā fem lamp lampās
latēks mas latkos liquid latex
latom mas day dies
lawō tr lH2; abl. benefit fruor
lāwós mas leH2wó- team squadra
lawtlom neu benefit lucrum
ledō tr lH1d release āmittō
leghō den lie occubō
leghos neu es lay fulcrum
leghskā fem settlement sēdēs
leghskós adI lazy pīger
leghtrom mas support destina
cf. ∂nghros;
l
leghús adI light leuis
leghus
légneumi tr BIVb wring out ēguttō
legō tr collect legō
legs fem (lēgos) law lēx
leibs mas (libós) drop gutta
leidō pro AIa happen accidō
leiglā fem spoon ligula
leigō intr AIa jump saliō
leiljom neu lily liilium
leimos mas mud līmus

leinō tr AIa avoid uitō

leinom neu flax līnum
leipā fem lime-tree tilia
leisā fem parterre līra
leitos neu léitesos seeside litus
lembō tr AIa hang suspendō
lēmi tr Bic lH grant indulgeō
lemsos mas phantom phasma
lendhā fem spring fons
lēnis weak lēnis
lentos fem juniper picea
lepō intr stutter balbutiō
lergos adI flat plānus
lesō tr pick carpō
leswos adI middling sublestus
lētis fem concession indulgentia
CELT. *pletro-
letrom neu leather corium
?, cf. lat. pellis
leubhos adI dear cārus
léudheros adI H1leudh free liber
leughō intr AIa lie mentior
leukō intr shine (to) luceō
leukós adI bright lucens
leuks fem (lukós) light lux
leuksmṇ neu en light lūmen
leups mas (lupós) leaf folium
lēwanks fem (leewankós) slate ardesia
ligājō tr bind ligō
likējō tr be allowed licēt
limpō den stick haereō
linghō tr lick lingō
līnō tr liH; lināmi oint linō
līnós adI ointed litus
linqō tr leave linquō
lippā fem rheum lippa
liprós adI lipH2ró greasy adipōsus
litājō appease litō
litwos mas rod lituus
lṃbō tr sip lambō
(s)leH2g; cf.
lṇcō cau AVIc tire fatigō
lāgō
lṇghros adI cf. leghús light leuis
lōbā fem crime dēlictus
lodi neu late tarde
loghjom neu site situs
loghos mas deposit dēpositus
loigos mas calf uitulus
loigós mas H3loigo- penury lack
loiqnom neu lend commodātus
413
loiqós adII remaining reliquus

loisā fem tablet līra
loisós adI mild mitis
loksos mas lax salmō
loksós adI slanting obliquus
loktos mas loktus fault culpa
londhom neu land regiō
londhwos mas hip lumbus
longhros mas worm lombrīcus
lordós adI twisted tortus
lorgā fem footprint uestigium
lorgos mas club uirga
lostos mas spear hasta
loudis mas ej praise laus
loughjom neu oath sacramentum
loukējō tr illuminate ilūminō
loukētjos adI radiant splendidus
loukos mas glade saltus
loukós mas radiance splendor
louksā fem window fenestra
louksnā fem moon lūna
louksos mas lynx lynx
lousēn fem (lusnós) louse pedis
loutsā fem whore merētrix
lowā fem hair coma
lowō tr lH3w wash lauō
lowtrom neu bath lābrum
lubhējō tr like libet (mihi)
lubhjā fem herb herba
lubhros mas bast liber
ludhóm intr (aor. a cemjō) went iī
lugējō den be broken fractus sum
lugjā fem hole ōrificium
lugnós adI flexible flexibilis
lugtos mas multitude copiae
lukējō den shine luceō
lukskējō tr light up incendō
lūnós adI unbound solūtus
lūtós adI unbound solūtus
luwō (lewō) tr lwH unbind luō
luwō apò tr acquit absoluō
m∂dējō den be wet madeō
m∂glos adI noble nōbilis
m∂gnán∂mos adI magnanimous magnanimus
mH1-g-nó
m∂gnos adI big magnus
/ mH1-gH2
m∂gsi ind more magis
m∂gtājō tr honour mactō
m∂rnamói tr -nH2moi plunder exspoliō

machos mas maghu- youngster iuuenis

machotis fem youth iuuentūs
mághneumi tr BIVb defend dēfendō
maghos mas field pratum
magō tr form configurō
mājō prog prosper mātūrō
mākājō cau pit maciō
makēn mas (maknós) pouch crumēna
mākesjā wall mūrus
mkōn mas mkenos poppy papauer
makrós adI slender macer
mammā fem mum mamma
mān ind meH2n so etenim
mānājō intr spring mānō
mánnusos mas man homō
mānos adI good bonus
maqā fem girl puella
maqos mas boy ephebus
máreskos mas marsh mariscus
margōn mas margenós boundary margō
mari neu ej sea mare
markos mas horse equus
masdos neu mast mālus
mātējō tr designate dēsignō
mātḗr fem (mātrós) meH2-ter- mother māter
māterós mas solid solidus
mātérterā fem aunt mātertera
matlā fem hammer malleus
mauros adI gloomy fuscus
ṃbhros mas cf. nebh- storm imber
me pron H1me; aton. me mē
mē ind not nē
medai intr mH1d; cōgit. ponder medeor
medgós mas gull mergus
médhidjōws mas midday meridiēs
medhjos adII middle medius
medhu neu ew mead mel
medjom neu acorn glans
médneumi tr BIVb administrate administrō
med- / mēd-
médodiks epic doctor medicus
cf. regs
mēdos neu valuation aestimātiō
meicō intr AIa H1mygw move mutō
mei /meit
meidō tr AIa scrath out desculpō
/meid
meidos neu prestige auctoritās
meilēts mas (meiltós) warrior milēs
meinom neu purpose propositiō
meitō den AIa lack dēsum
415
meitrom agreement contractus

meiwijós adI smaller minor
mejājō intr mínāmi flow meō
mejnō inc AIa change mūtō
mejō inc exchange mūtō
mejtis fem jo quoque mjtis shift permutātiō
mēknos mas lip labrum
meldhjā thunderbolt fulmen
meldhō intr pray precor
melit neu mélitos honey mel
meljom neu millet milium
melkō tr AIa rub mulceō
melmṇ neu article articulus
melō tr AIb grind molō
melos adI strong robustus
melsō tr AIa deceive mentior
melwom neu flour farīna
membhō tr AIa punish puniō
mēmi tr measure metior
mēmsóm neu memsóm meat carō
mendhai intr cogit. be interested interest
mendhō tr AIa stir up torqueō
mendō tr suck sūgō
mendom neu fault mendum
menghos adI frequent frequens
mengō tr AIa disguise uestiō
menis mas dace phoxinus
menmṇ neu en intellect intellectus
menos neu es sense sensus
meH1ns-,
mēnsis mas ej month mēnsis
mH1nt-
mentā fem rod uirga
mēqos neu es meH1-Hu-os moment mōmentum
mergā fem fork furca
merghā fem snare laqueus
mergis fem filth situs
mergō cau AIa merg/mezg sink mergō
merkēds fem (merk∂dós) charge naulus
merkō cf. bherkō flimmer fulgeō
mérneumi tr BIVb worry turbō
meros adI simple merus
mersō tr block inctercludō
merwos insipid insipidus
mesgō tr AIa communicate communicō
meslā fem blackbird merula
mestis fem memstis ? measure mensūra
mētā fem post mēta
meti ind in the middle in mediā parte
mētijai tr measure mētior

mētis fem meH1-ti- dimension dīmensiō

metō tr AIb reap metō
mētrom 2º
metrom neu measure mensūra
comp.
meudos adI proud superbus
meugō intr AIa cheat dēlūdō
meukō tr AIa scratch ērōdō
meus / muskós neu (mūsós) muscle mūs
mighlā fem mist uapor
míkāmi dur flimmer micō
miljom neu red ochre minium
mimdō inc meet accurrō
mímnāskō
intr AVc cogit. remember memini
(memna)
míneumi cau BIVb reduce minuō
minghō intr piss mingō
mínusi ind less minus
misdhom neu salary sālārium
misgā fem whey sērum lactis
miskējō cau mix misceō
mlājō cau weaken dēbilitō
mlākós adI ml-H2kó stupid stultus
mlātóm neu mlH2tó flour farīna
mḷdhos adI permissive permissīiuus
mḷdsnos adI softened ēmollītus
mḷdus adI ml-du; tab soft mollis
mḷduwijō tr soften molliō
mḷgājō tr anounce nuntiō
mlīnós adI slack ēneruis
mḷjos adI false falsus
mḷkāmi intr BIIIa weaken ēlanguescō
mḷnejós adI dark mulleus
mlōdhrós adI lofty excelsus
mlōskō intr mlH3 appear appareō
mḷsos mas slow lentus
mḷwā fem mḷH-weH2 mallow-plant malua
mṇdōmi tr commit mandō
mṇējō den remain maneō
mṇijai omc tower ēmineō
mṇjō den mnH2 consider opīnor
mṇkos adI cf. m∂nwos defective mancus
mṇkstrom neu shaker mixtarium
mṇsjai neu intend intendō
mṇtijai tr put on mentior
mṇtis fem jo mentis mind mens
mṇtō tr mH2t chew mandō
mṇtom neu chin mentum
mṇtos mas mention mentiō
mṇtrājō tr wipe abrādō
417
mṇus fem (m∂newós) hand manus

mṇwos adI cf. m∂nkos scant insignificans
mō ind but sed
modos neu es measure modus
moghjos adI pleasant amoenus
moghō tr AIId mH3gh can possum
moghtis fem jo might potestās
moghtrom neu means remedium
moighos mas pee uriina
moilos adI mild comēs
moinijai tr fortify mūniō
moinis adI obliged mūnis
moinja neu walls moenia
moitājō tr exchange mūtō
moitmos mas méitimos thanks grātes
moitwos adII mutual mutuus
mojnos mas exchange commūtātiō
moksi ind soon mox
molā fem coast litus
moldhā fem occipital occipitium
moldhos mas prayer prex
moleinā fem mill molīna
mōlestos adI annoying mōlestus
molgējō tr milk mulgeō
mōlis fem ej mass mōlēs
molos neu es effort mōlimen
molpā fem praise superbia
molqos adI wet madidus
mondō tr adorn ornō
mondós mas whelp cattulus
monējō cau warn moneō
mongos fem neck collus
monīli neu monH- collar monīle
monos mas neck ceruix
montis mas ej hill mons
morā fem delay mora
somnus
morā fem nightmare
terrorificus
morcos dark obscūrus
mordējō tr bite mordeō
morignā fem woman mulier
morjods mas ed thigh poples
mórmoros mas panic horror
morom neu berry mōrum
moros fem cf. mṛtis fatality infortūnium
mōros /mēros
mōros adI cf. yōrom renowned nōbilis
/yērom
mōrós adI stupid mōrus

mōs mas (mosós) character ingenium

mosgom neu cerebellum cerebellum
moukos mas mucus mūcus
mouros mas mounos slop illuuiēs
mousos fem weed alga
moutos mas penis mūtō
mowējō cau move moueō
mreghmós mas skull caluaria
mṛējō den deserve mereō
mṛghús mas short breuis
mṛijai intr die morior
mṛjos mas pubescent pūbes
mṛkā carrot carota
mṛkējō den H2mr-k be withered marceō
mṛkos adI disabled murcus
mṛktos adI cf. bhṛktos speckled uarius
mṛmeikā fem ant formīca
mṛmrājō murmur murmurō
mṛtājō tr crush conterō
mṛtāsjom neu mortar mortārium
mṛtis fem jo cf.moros death mors
mṛtos adII dead mortuus
mṛwos adII dead mortuus
mūdlom neu detergent dētersīuum
mūdnós clean mundus
mudstos mas must mustus
mugijō intr moo mugiō
munkō tr AVIa blow out ēmungō
mūs neu (mūsós) muH-s-; mews mouse mūs
muskā fem fly musca
muskos mas moss muscus
músnāmi tr BIVa secrete abdō
mūtrom neu mud lutum
muttijō den mutter muttiō
muttis adI speechless mutus
ṇ ind un- in-
n∂tis fem nates natis
nantis fem courage audacia
nāsis fem ej neH2s-i nose nārēs
(natrikós,
natrīks fem serpent natrix
natrijós)
nawāgós epic sailor nauta
nāws fem (nāwós) neH2w- ship nāuis
ṇbhudhnóm neu abyss abyssus
ṇcḗn fem H1ngw groin inguen
ṇdha ind H1ndh- then deinde
ṇdherós adI tab underly inferior
ṇdhētós adII unmade infectus
ṇdhi ind in excess magis etiam
419
ṇdwojos adI sincere sincērus

nē ind no nē
nebhis fem ej cloud nūbes
nebhlā fem fog nebula
nedis fem ej nettle urtīca
nedjos adI nHed-yo- near propinquus
nedō tr AIb nHd link nōdō
nedsā fem net nassa
nedskō tr Ava nHd-skō bind nectō
neghō tr AIa penetrate penetrō
neghrōn mas en kidney rēnis
nei ind not at all nequaquam
neicō tr wash lauō
neidō tr AIa humiliate humiliō
neikō tr AIa winnow ventilō
neitom neu rivalry inimicitia
neiwós adI depressed dēpressus
nékāmi tr kill necō
nekopīnós mas unexpected necopiinus
neks mas (ṇkos) death nex
némētom neu sanctuary sanctuārium
nemō tr n-em distribute distribuō
nemos neu es forest nemus
nemots epic. (németos) enemy inimīcus
nepēts mas (népotos) grandson nepos
neptis fem jo grand-daughter neptis
neqe ind and not neque
neqid pron. nothing nihil
neqis nobody nemō
neqom ind never nunquam
neqos pron. someone quisquis
neros mas H2ner(o)- soldier milēs
nérteros adII lower inferus
nertos adI strong robustus
nesros adI neHs-ro modest modestus
ṇeu ind without sine
neudō tr AIa spend impendō
neukos adI myop myops
new(ij)os adI new nouus
newājō tr renew nouō
newṇ ind H1newn nine nouem
nouenus
néwṇos adII ninth
(nōnus)
newō intr AIa nod nuō
newotāts fem (newotātjos) newness nouitās
ṇgnōtós adI unknown ignōtus
nī ind down sub
nijóm (aor. a bherō) lead dūxī
niktis fem corn grānum

nínāmi tr BIIa, BIVa H3nH2; nāmi befriend (to) faueō

nīqos adII inclined prōnus
nisdos mas nest nīdus
nitējō den *nei- shine niteō
nteros adI tab inferior inferior
nitjos adI usual usitātus
ṇjousjom neu unjustice iuiuria
ṇjoustos adI unfair iniustus
ṇkējō tr AIIIe need necesse est
H2nk; cf.
nṇkskai; pf.
ṇkneumi tr BIVb arrive perueniō
H2eH2nó(n)k
H2e = ānoka
ṇmrótijos adII ṇmṛtó- immortal immortālis
nṃtos mas bending plecāmentum
h2n-h2nk-sk- ;
nṇkskai tr AVc find by chance nanciscor
cf. ṇkneumi
nocējō cau put off exuō
nogwod(h)o-
nócodos adII /nogwoto naked nūdus
/nogwno-
nōdos mas knot nōdus
noibhos adII holy sanctus
nōinos pron nōinlos none nullus
nokējō cau destroy deleō
nom ind so num
nom nē ind do not? nonne
H3neHu3-mn,
nōmṇ neu en name nōmen
H3nHu3-mn,
nōmnājō tr name nōminō
nomṛ neu nómenos precision subtilitās
noqtis neu jo night nox
nosējō cau free recipiō
nōunā fem noH2u- famine esuriēs
ṇprobhwos adI wicked improbus
ṇqijētós adI restless inquiētus
ṇserós adII our noster
ṇsis mas jo sword ensis
ṇsloimis adII unmuddy illimis
ṇsme pron tab we nōs
ṇswodhros adI extraordinary rārus
nū ind now nunc
numki ind ki num now nunc
ṇwidis adI ignorant ignārus
obhi ind middle (in the) ob
óbrusjā fem flask obrussa
ochis mas cf. enghwis worm lombrīcus
odáugjai intr aggravate exulceror
odējō tr smell olō
421
odhrom neu enclosure claustrum

odjō (ōda) tr H 3d hate ōdi
ōdjom neu hatred ōdium
odós mas es odor odor
oghlējō cau trouble inquietō
oghlos mas annoyance molestia
ogmos mas H2og-mo track orbita
oidējō den H3eid be swollen tumeō
oighai intr depart proficiscor
oimos mas march itus
óinoikos adII single ūnicus
oinos adII H1oi-no- one ūnus
simultaneously in eōdem
oinowṛstós adII
made tempore factus
oisjā fem H3iH2s-? rudder tēmō
oisos adII that one iste
oitos mas oath sacrāmentum
oiwos fem H3eiwo- yew taxus
okējō den doubt dubitō
ókētā fem harrow occa
oktōu (āi oi) H1oktō(u) eight octo
oktowos adII eighth octāuus
H3ku-/eH3ku-
ōkúpteros mas + -ptero- hawk accipiter
/-petro-
H1eH3k-u-;
ōkús adI swift rapidus
ōkus
olējō cau ol- / al- ? heat adoleō
olējō H3el destroy aboleō
olgjā fem tendril cincinnus
ōlim ind formerly ōlim
oljoi oljāi olja pron pl. all omnes
olmos fem elm ulmus
ōlnā fem H3olH1-neH2 elbow ulnā
ólteros adI further ulterus
óltṃos sup. furthest ultimus
oltrōd ind over there ultrā
olwā fem sedge ulua
omos adI firm firmus
ōmós adI eH3mH2 raw crūdus
omsos mas H1omH-so shoulder umerus
onbhlos mas H3nbh- navel umbilicus
onchis mas ej H3nghw-i fingernail unguis
oncṇ neu (óncenos) h3engwṇ ointment unguen
oncō tr AVIII H3engw oint unguō
oncōl mas (ṇclós) H1ongw-ōl coal carbō
ondos neu óndesos rock saxum
onējō tr H3enH2 blame culpō
ónerjos mas dream somnus

onghlos mas nail clāuus

onjos adII another alius
onkājō groan uncō
onkos mas hook uncus
onos neu es H3en-os- load onus
ónteros adII second secundus
ópitjos adII last ultimus
opjō tr choose ēligō
opnā fem wealth substantia
ópopā fem hoopoe upupa
opos neu (ópesos) H3ep-os- work opus
opos esti intr be necessary opportet
ops mas (ēpos) riches ops
oqō tr see uideō
oqos mas H3okwo- eye oculus
ōrā fem edge ōra
ōrājō tr pray ōrō
H3erbhi-; cf.
orbhis mas disk orbis
orghis
orbhjom neu inheritance hērēditās
orbhos adII H3erbho- orphan orbus
pordhos ? cf.
ordhos mas hammer malleus
gr. perqw
orgājō tr H3erg beat up contundō
H3erghi-; cf.
orghis fem ej ball pila
orbhis
ormos adI poor pauper
ōs neu (ēsos) H1eH3s- mouth ōs
osbhos mas knot nodus
osdos mas H2osdo- branch rāmus
osēn mas (osnós) H3esH3en autumn autumnus
oskos fem H3es-ko- /-kā ashtrē frāxinus
ósonos fem H3es-no- ashtree ornus
H3estHi-;
ostis mas ej H3estHṛ- / bone os
H3estHṇ -
ōstjom neu entrance ōstium
oudṇ neu (óudesos) land terra
ougros adI cold frigidus
ousis fem H2ousi- ear auris
ṓw(ij)om neu H1oH2w-yo egg ōuum
owājō tr cheer ouō
H3ewi-,
owis fem sheep ouis
H2owi-
pH1g-ro
p∂grós adI sure constans
pH1g-no
p∂rnāmi tr BIVa prH2 sell uendō
p∂tējō den ptH1 /pH1t lie open pateō
p∂tēr mas (p∂tros) pH2-ter; tab father pater
423
p∂ter fem saucer patera

p∂tjai tr suffer patior
p∂trjā fem fatherland patria
p∂trjos adII fatherly paternus
p∂trujós mas uncle patruus
p∂wējō den fear paueō
pādhlom neu peH2-dhlo/tlo- sustenance pābulum
pagos mas region pagus
pags fem (pāgos) peace pax
pālājō tr protect protegō
pálejā fem straw palea
pálowos adI grey pallidus
palpājō tr touch tangō
pámponos mas vine-leaf pampinus
pandos mas bent pandus
panknos swelling pannus
pankō intr swell tumescō
pannos mas rag pannus
pāpeljos mas butterfly pāpiliō
paplā fem swelling papula
pareikā fem concubine paelex
pārējō intr come out pāreō
parkō tr AIIb refrain from parcō
parsā fem sparrow parra
pasknis mas ej food pābulum
pāskō tr peH2-sk feed pāscō
pāsós mas relative familiāris
pastos adI fix fixus
pāstus mas pasture pastus
pau ind tab a bit paucum
paukos adI tab little paucus
paulos adI tab small paruus
pāwṛ neu (pwnós) peH2w-r- fire ignis
pedjós adI II worse dēterius
pedlom neu sandal sandalia
pedom neu pedóm ? footprint peda
pegtos neu es chest pectus
peidō prog AIa grow fat pinguescō
peigō tr AIa annoy molestō
peikā fem woodpecker pīca
peikō tr AIa adorn ornō
peikos mas magpie pīcus
peiks fem (pikós) pitch pix
peimis adI quick celer
peitus mas resin resīna
pējō tr AIa insult insultō
pekō tr comb pectō
pektēn mas (pektnós) comb pecten
pektō tr AIa comb pectō

peku neu (pékewos) cattle pecu

peldō tr AIa impel pellō
pelkō intr AIa move migrō
pelnis fem jo skin pellis
pelō tr AIb make money lucror
pelom neu surface superficiēs
pelsā fem rock rūpēs
pelu ind pelH1u much multum
pelupoikos adI variegated varius
pēlwis fem dish peluis
pḷHwo-,
pelwos neu es polHwo-, dust puluis
pḷHwi-
pēmṇ neu damage dētrimentum
pendō tr hang pendō
work with a
penō tr cum fīlō laborō
thread
penom neu mud lūtum
penos neu es provision prouisiō
penqadkṃta adII fifty quinquaginta
penqdekṃ ind fifteen quindecim
penqe ind five quinque
penqstis fem jo fist pugnus
penqtos adII fifth quintus
pēnsús mas sand/gravel saburra
pentō tr AIa track indāgō
peqō tr AIa cook coquō
peqtis fem cooking coctiō
peqtṓr mas cook coctor
peqtós adI cooked coctus
per(i), per(ti) ind about per
perijō tr experience experiō
perístānom neu religion religiō
perknā fem cf. pṛqos trout tructa
pérkūnjom neu mountain mons
perṃos absolūtus
perṃós adII absolute absolūtus
perom ind besides praeterea
peróm neu feather plūma
peros ind farther prorsum
pérperṇks ind turned aside perperām
perqos fem oak quercus
persā fem pers(n)eH2 heel calx
persnā fem ham perna
persō intr AIa splash respergō
pertā fem pole pertica
perti ind otherwise altrinsecus
péruti ind last year anno praeterito
pesdō intr fart pedō
425
pesnis mas jo penis pēnis

peterós mas wing āla
pétḷos adI pétH2los meager petilus
petō intr ptH1 fly aduolō
petsnā fem feather penna
petsnós mas bird uolucrēs
peumi tr understand intellegō
pewō tr AIa pwH clean purgō
pibō tr peHi3 drink bibō
pigējō den be annoying molestus (esse)
pikrós adI sharp picans
pilos mas hair pilus
pīmós adI fat crassus
pingō tr paint pingō
pinjos neu stab baculum
pinsō tr crush pinsō
píperi neu ej pepper piper
pipjājō intr squeak pipiō
piptō tr (pepta) fall down praecipitor
piskis mas ej fish piscis
pitús mas food cibus
piwōn adI (fem. píweryā) fat pinguis
plabrājai intr babble garriō
plākējō cau advise suadeō
plākos adI flat plānus
plākos adI wide latus
plānos adI plH2-no flat plānus
plārom neu floor contabulātiō
plātom neu planitiēs campus
plātús adI plH2-tu; plātus broad latus
plautos adI flat-footed plautus
pḷdājō intr paddle plaudō
plēdhwis fem ej crowd multitūdō
plékāmi cau fold plicō
plektō tr AIa plait plectō
plēmṇ neu filling plētūra
plēnós adI plH1-nó full plēnus
plētis fem filling plētūra
pletjā fem coll. shoulder-blades scapulae
plētós adI plH2-to full plēnus
pleudō tr AIa pleu-d flood inundō
pleumōn mas en lung pulmō
plewō intr AIa flow fluō
plighā fem appendix appendix
pḷmā fem plH2meH2 palm palma
pelH2; cf.
pḷnāmaí intr approach (to) appropinquō
peldō

plH1; plḗnāmi,
pḷnāmi inc BIVa pḷnēmi; cf. fill pleō
pímplēmi
plṇgō tr AVIc plH2-g strike plangō
plousmā fem feather plūma
ploutos mas board tabula
plówijā fem rain pluuia
plówijom neu cf. plowós ship nāuis
plowós mas cf. plówijom boat ratis
pelH-, ḷHp -;
pḷowós adI grey albogiluus
polHwós
pḷtáwijā fem pḷtH2wiH2 earth terra
plH2t-H2no; cf.
pḷtnos mas flatness planitiēs
plātús
pḷtom coat sagum
plúwaidhom neu lead plumbum
pḷwods mas (pḷwedos) swamp palus
pṇdēks mas (pṇdkos) paunch pantex
pneusō intr AIa breathe anhelō
pṇgō tr pH1g nail pangō
pṇtō tr ptH1 /pH1t spread out pandō
podjom neu relief podium
pods mas (pedos) foot pēs
poimēks mas poimkós pumice pūmex
pōimōn mas en poH2i-mōn shepherd pāstor
pojējō cau get drunk inebriō
polis fem (pólejos) (t)pḷH-i- city urbs
polkā fallow ueruactum
polnēks mas (polṇkós) thumb pollēx
polnō intr pH3l fall cadō
polpos mas scene pulpitus
poltos mas pelH- porridge puls
pondos neu es weight pondus
pōnom neu drinking pōtus
pontis mas ej way uia
poqós mas cook coquus
porā fem air aer
porējō cau provide asportō
porkos mas pig porcus
pornós mas cf. pratis 'filix' feather plūma
porsis mas bull bouuculus
porsōd ind far procul
portājō tr carry portō
pos(ti) ind after post
pósteri ind afterwards postea
pósteros adI tab subsequent posterus
póstṃos sup. tab last porstrēmus
postrōd ind backwards retrō
potējō tr hold possideō
427
poti ind towards uersus

potijai inc abl acquire potior
potis mas ej master dominus
pōtis fem jo drink pōtiō
pōtlom glass pōculum
potnjā fem mistress domina
pōtṓr mas drinker pōtor
pougā fem buttocks pūga
poughos adI virginal uirginālis
pougnos mas fist pugnus
pounā fem swelling turgentia
poutos mas penis pēnis
powējō cau clean purgō
póweros mas boy puer
powros adI pure pūrus
pṛa ind close to iuxta
prāi ind prH1i before prae
práighesto ind at hand praestō
práiloghos adII present praesens
práinōmṇ neu en name praenōmen
práiteri ind along praeter
prāmos sup prH2-mo- first prīmus
cf. pornós
pratis fem ej fern filix
'plūma'
prāwos adII first prīmus
preistos adI preceding anterior
prējō intr fan flabellō
aliquid ab
prekō tr beseech precor
aliquō
preks fem (prēkos) plea prex
premō tr AVIII press premō
prepō intr AIa look like uideor
presō tr AVIII press premō
pretjom neu price pretium
pretō tr AIb realise percipiō
préwijos adI es previous anterior
prewō dur AIa hover pullulo
pṛgā fem portico porticus
pṛijō tr prH3 give birth pariō
prijós adI dear cārus
prījós adII (prījesos) foremost prīmus
prīskos adI *preiskwú ? ancient priscus
prīsmos sup. first prīmus
prītós adI satisfied contentus
pṛk fem furrow sulcus
pṛknos adI motley uarius
pṛkskā fem question quaestiō
(bhewom
pṛkskō tr ask poscō
kwomēd)

pṛH-nó, perH-
pṛnos adI past praeteritus
nó
prō(d) ind forwards prō
próbhoudhos mas attention attentiō
probhwājō tr prove probō
probhwos adI probhú- good bonus
prod∂tṓr adII traitor próditor
prṓddōmi tr put forth prodō
prōi ind in the morning mane
proitis fem departure profectiō
prokós mas suitor procus
prokos adI advanced prouectus
promos sup principal prīmus
proqēd ind near prope
proqos adI nigh propinquus
pṛos ind before prae
prósēdjom neu kindness beneficium
próstōrnos adI extended extensus
prostos mas promontory tumulus
prīmus (a
próteros adII first (of two)
duobus)
proti ind against contrā
prōtós neu prH3-tó assigned attribūtus
prousijō intr irritate irritō
pṛptus (pṛptewós) form forma
pṛqos adI cf. perknā coloured uarius
pṛsnā fem prH3sneH2 piece fragmentum
pṛsom neu leek porrum
pṛstis mas prominence prominentia
pṛtis fem part pars
pṛtus mas (pṛtwos) ford portus
prunsō tr freeze gelō
prúsneumi tr BIVb water rigō
prusw fem frost pruīna
pteljā fem lime-tree tilia
pujō inc puH molder putēscō
pūjós adI cf. pūtós righteous pius
pukos mas tail cauda
pulgā fem lock of hair crīnis
pūlós adI cf. pūterós putrid puter
pungō tr punch pungō
pūpos mas child pūpus
pūrós mas puHro- core nucleus
pusbhis mas H3pu-s-bhi groom pubēs
pusjō tr inflate infō
puslēks mas pusḷkós flea pūlēx
pustlā fem pustule pustula
pūtējō cau be rotten pūteō
pūterós adI cf. pūlós rotten puter
429
putlom neu child infans

pūtós adI cf. pūjós clean putus
puwējō tr reckon computō
puwos neu es puH pus pūs
q∂ddrom neu square quadrum
q∂tjō tr shake quatiō
q∂trus ind four times quater
q∂trusnos adII four each quaternī
q∂twṛádkṃta adII kwtwH3r- forty quadrāgintā
q∂twṛádkṃtṃ
adII fortieth quadragēsimus
os
q∂twṛatnjom neu four years quadriennium
q∂twṛdekṃ ind fourteen quattuordecim
q∂twṛdjówijo
neu four days quadriduum
m
q∂twṛes adII ktwH3r-; tab four quattuor
q∂twṛkṃtémt quadrigentesim
adII four hundreth
ṃos us
q∂twṛkṃtos adII four hundred quadrigenti
q∂twṛpods adII jo quadruped quadrupēs
q∂twṛtos adII fourth quartus
qād ind which quā
qālis adII how quālis
qām ind kweH2m as quam
qāqos pron whoever quisque
qasjos mas basket cista
qwṇtos pron how great quantus
qdnos adI magic magicus
qe ind (encl.) and que
qedos mas angle angulus
qedos neu magic force magia
qeisō tr kwei-s/kwei-t feel sentiō
qeistis fem AIa quoque kwistis consideration considerātiō
qejēskō intr qiH1 rest quiēscō
qejō tr compose compōnō
qejtis fem quoque qjtis collection collectiō
qeklom neu wheel rota
qekō tr AIa gaze prospectō
qeli ind far (from) procul
qelō dur AIa kwelH2 circulate uersor
qelos neu group caterua
qelpō tr AIa ciurve incuruō
qemō tr swallow uorō
qentos adII holy sacer
qerpō inc AIa turn reuertor
qésai intr complain queror
qestis fem part pars
qidpe ind indeed quippe
qijētis fem rest quiēs

qijētós adI peaceful quiētus

qínumoi tr claim uindicō
qíqeimi tr BIId estimate aestimō
qis qid int tab what qui quae quod
quisquis
qisqis qidqid pron anyone
quidquid
qṃdō int when quandō
qṇtjō tr suffer patior
qodhei int where ubī
qoi ind where quō
qoin fem retaliation ulciscātiō
qoinom mas dirt excrēmentum
qoitrós,
adI fair weather serēnus
koitrós
qolkā fem cushion culcita
qolus fem (ew) distaff colus
qom ind when cum
qomde ind where unde
qondhros fem angelica angelica
qori ind why ? cūr
qorjom neu cauldron catīnus
qos qā(i) qod rel tab who, which quī quae quod
qostā fem cough tussis
qot(j)os int how many quot
qota int how ut
qote int whither quō
qóteros dh°r which uter
qotrēd ind whither quō
qotrōd ind wherefrom unde
qṛeumi dur BIIIb kwrH; qerjō handle gerō
qrínāmi tr kwrei-H2 buy emō
qrītóm adII bought emptus
qṛmis mas (qṛmejós) worm uermis
qṛsnos mas bush arbustus
qṛtus mas (qṛtewós) cf. krwtis time uix
r∂bhjō intr rage rabō
r∂djom neu rtH ray radium
r∂gājō tr wet rigō
r∂pjō tr snatch rapiō
r∂tis fem (r∂tjos) reason ratiō
rādō rac H(w)rH2d shave rādō
rāpom neu turnip rāpum
rārós adI dispersed rārus
rastós adI smooth glaber
raudos neu es roudho- ? metal metallum
raukos adI tough rudis
rāwos adI grey rāuus
ṛdhjō intr grow crēscō
ṛdhwos adI Hrdh-wo- steep arduus
431
rebhā fem leap saltus

rebhājō intr jump saltō
rebhō tr AIa shield tegō
rebhrus mas tube conductus
recos mas H1eregwo- ; pl. darkness tenebrae
rēd/re ind dis- re(d)
regeinā fem rēgnī queen regīna
regjos adII kingly regius
regnom neu regjom kingdom regnum
regō tr H3reg direct regō
regs mas (rēgos) king rex
regtós mas right rectus
reidhō tr AIa ride equitō
reidhos adI easy facilis
reigō tr AIa bind alligō
reimā fem reiwā crack rīma
rēimṇ neu en rīmo-, rīmā- list seriēs
rēis fem (rijós) *HreH1-i- propriety rēs
reiwos mas reiH2- brook rīuus
rējō intr AVIII H1rH row rēmō
rekā tick ricinus
rékneumi tr BIVb range ordinō
remō intr AIb relax requiescō
rēmoi neu H2rH1 reckon reor
rentus mas property possessiō
rēpō intr crawl rēpō
resgō tr AIa plait plectō
resgtis fem rope restis
H1reH1-smo /
rēsmos mas oar rēmus
(-t-smo ?)
rēti neu strainer colum
retō intr AIb run currō
retrōd ind back retrō
reubō intr AIa scrape out abrādō
reudhos adI red (-haired) rūfus
reudō /
reudō intr AIa cry rūdō
reudmi
reudos adI wild rudis
reughmṇ neu dough pasta
reugō intr AIa H1reu-g belch ructō
rumor (to
reumi rūmorem faciō
produce)
reusmṇ neu rūmen rūmen
reusmnājō intr ruminate rūminō
rew ind outdoors forās
réwesnā fem ruin ruina
rewis mas Hrew planet planēta
rewmṇ neu hair capillum
rewō inc / tr AIa H3rw / rwH3 break off dēfringō

rews, rows; cf.

rewos neu (réwesos) open land rūs
jewos, weis
ṛghējō tr incite sollicitō
rigjō tr torture tormentō
ṛijai inc set out orior
rikjō tr ruin ruinō
rínāmi tr BIVa H3ry flush away egerō
ṛkējō den tr AIIIe H2rk contain arceō
ṛkēslom neu door-bar repagula
ṛklā fem chest arcula
ṛneumi intr BIVb H 3r move cieō
ṛnutis fem jo movement mōmentum
robhos mas H3robho- roof tectus
rōdhí ind (abl./instr.) on account of causā
rōdhjō tr endeavour conitor
rōdō tr H(w)rH2d tear rōdō
rōdos adI joyful alacer
roinos mas dam agger
ros mas (rēsos) spray ros
rōstrom neu beak rōstrum
rotā fem rotH-eH2 wheel rota
ṛots mas et charioteer auriga
roudhstos mas rust rōbīgō
roudos mas crying plōrātus
rounā fem ruH-nā; rūnā secret secrētum
roupis fem rock rūpēs
routos mas intestiones intestīnum
rowā fem pause cessātiō
ṛsjā fem envy inuidia
ṛskai intr H1r go eō
ṛtís fem jo farewell abitiō
ṛtkos mas H2rt-ko- bear ursus
rudhrós adI red ruber
rudlós adI rude rudis
rugijō intr roar rugiō
ruktus mas tunic tunica
rumpō tr break rumpō
runkō tr AVIa H3ruk weed runcō
rupús adI rupus shoddy insincērus
ruspājai tr rummage rūspor
rwtós adI H3rw-to collapsed rutus
s(w)ei neu whenever sī
s(w)eike ind thus sīc
s∂kesnā fem pickaxe sacēna
s∂ksom neu stone saxum
s∂pijō tr have taste sapiō
sāgijō tr sH2g seek sāgiō
sagom neu mantle sagum
saipis mas fence saepēs
433
saitā fem hair (strong) saeta

saitlom neu lifetime saeculum
saiwos adI fierce saeuus
sājō den be furious saeuiō
sákrodhokjom neu sacrifice sacrificium
sákrodhots mas et priest sacerdos
sakros adI holy sacer
sal neu (salós, sálejos) sali salt sal
saldō cau salt sallō
(salikós,
salēiks fem salīks willow salix
salijós)
saleiwā fem saliva salīua
salom neu swell salum
salús adI salus dirty immundus
sām∂n neu quietness quiēs
samdhos mas sand sabulum
sāmis adI quiet quiētus
samos mas sṃos, sṃā summer aestas
sH2;
sH2neumi;
sánāmi tr BIVb satisfy satisfaciō
sātijō (cf.
westijō )
sáneumi tr BIVb snH perform efficiō
sankijō tr enact sanciō
sapos fem juice succus
sasjom neu crop messis
sātis fem satisfaction satiās
sauros adI sour acerbus
seH2w-l/n;
swel(jos) sun sōl
sw-ṛ/n
se pron (sewe) tab himself se
se/sos sā/sī tod pron tab this iste ista istud
sēd ind apart sē
sēdājō cau appease sēdō
sedējō den be sitting sedeō
sedējō ambhí den besiege circumsedeō
sedlā fem chair sella
sedm∂n neu settlement conditus
sedos neu es residence sēdēs
segēts fem (segtós) sowing satiō
sghedhlā,
seghdhlā fem plough handle buris
seghedhlā
seghō tr AIa hold retineō
seghos mas victory uictoria
ségneumi tr BIVb trap capiō
segnom neu trap pedica
segō tr AIb sow serō
seikā fem club fustis
seikō tr spill effundō

seilō intr AIa drip exstillō

seimā fem seiH-meH2 band uitta
seimṇ neu H2sei-mn secretion secrētiō
seinus mas seiH-nu- chain catēna
sējdhlom neu sieve cōlum
sējō tr AVIII sH1y sieve cōlō
sékāmi tr cut secō
sēknis adI calm calmōsus
seks / sweks ind six sex
sekstos adII sixth sextus
sekūris fem axe secūris
selgō tr AIa shoot disparō
seljos adI pleasant amoenus
selkō intr AIa s-(w)elk- ? drag trahō
selō tr AIb buy emō
solos, solā,
selom neu residence domicilium
solis
sēlom neu sowing sementis
selwā fem property possessiō
sēmi- adII half medius
semjō tr aquam a naue bilge out excupāre
semli ind once semel
sēmṇ neu sḗmenos seed sēmen
semos mas semo- / sṃo- one ūnus
senchō intr sing canō
senos; senH1,
senēks mas (senós) old senex
senH2
senqō inc AIa sink mergō
sentos neu es path sēmita
sepēlijō tr bury sepeliō
sépeltrom neu tomb sepulcrum
sepō tr provide parō
septṃ ind seven septem
séptṃos adII seventh septimus
seqai dur follow sequor
seqi ind vis-à-vis aduersum
seqō tr say dīcō
serō tr AIa connect serō
serom neu liquid serum
sēros adI long-lasting sērus
sérpenos mas snake serpens
serpō intr AIa crawl serpō
sesmi sleep dormiō
sesqos fem sedge spartum
setis epic. visitor uisitātor
sḗtjosi less sētius
seugō tr AIa suck sūgō
seutō den AIa boil ferueō
sewājō prog lessen minuō
435
sewe igenes. self sui

séwijos adII his suus
sewō tr seuH stir up (to) permoueō
silējō intr silent (to be) sileō
síneumi tr BIVb syH(w) bind ligō
sinísteros adI propice idōneus
sinō tr place sinō
sisdō intr sit down sīdō
sísghrāmi tr smell olfaciō
síslāwos adI beneficial benignus
sisō tr sHi1 sow serō
sisqos adI dry siccus
sHi-tu, cf. sisō;
sītús adI far-reaching sparsus
sītus
sjewm∂n neu sjuHm∂n seam sūtūra
sjewō tr AIa syHw sew suō
syHw -
sjūdhlā fem sewer's awl sūbula
(dh)leH2
sjūtós adI sewn sūtus
skabhjēs fem scabies scabiēs
skabhnom neu stool scamnus
skabhō tr scratch scabō
skaiwós adI left-handed scaeuus
skalpō tr carve scalpō
skandō dur mount scandō
skandslā fem ladder scāla
skāpos mas handle manubrium
skatējō dur gush scateō
skatō inc spring scatō
skedō intr AIa scatter dispergor
skegō intr hasten festīnō
skejō den AIa shine luceō
skekō intr AIa burst in irrumpō
skelō tr AIa shall debeō
skelos neu es evil scelus
skemō tr cover uelō
skerbhō tr AIa hollow out excauō
(s)keHr(-
skerdā fem shit merda
deH2) \Hr/Hn
skerdō AIa castrate castrō
skerjō tr split scindō
skerō intr spring exsultō
skeubhō inc AIa escape effugiō
skeudō tr AIa shoot ēmittō
skeumō tr AIa cover obruō
skeuros adI dark obscūrus
skeutō tr AIa s-kuH-t cover operiō
skewō tr AIa H2kw- inspect (to) inspiciō
skidjō tr decide dēcernō

skijō tr know sciō

skindō tr split scindō
skīwṛ neu (skīwṇós) (s)kiHu- shin-bone tībia
skḷiqā fem pod siliqua
skḷjō tr (s)kel split scindō
skḷneumi BIVb deflect deflectō
skṇgjō intr limp claudicō
sknidā fem nit ouum
skodhos mas harm damnum
skoidos mas woodpiece lignum
skoirsās adII clown scurrā
skoito-s,
skoitom neu shield scūtum
skeito-m
skojā fem shade umbra
skolmā fem small pillar columella
skōlos mas element ēlementum
skolpos mas shelf pluteus
skortom neu whore scortum
skostrom neu canopy umbraculum
skotos mas shadow umbra
skouros mas nord septentriō
skousā fem trousers pantalōnus
skreibhō tr AIa write scribō
skreidō tr AIa carve caelō
skrobhis fem pit scrobis
skroupos mas sherd scrūpus
skroutos mas skeletton larua
skubtis fem omoplate scapulae
skutājō tr maim truncō
skūtos mas skuH-to covering operīmentum
slabai intr slip labor
slagós adI slH2gó- slack laxus
slakō tr hit offendō
slatā fem rod ferula
sleibō AIa slip prolabor
sleidhō intr AIa glide surrēpō
sleigō AIa smooth explanō
sleimā fem sleH1i-meH2 file līma
sleimājō tr polish līmō
sleimāks mas jo snail cochlea
sleimos mas mud līmus
sleiwos adI violet liueus
sleH1i-u-,
slējús adI smooth lēuis
slējus
sleubō inc AIa slip prolabor
sleugō tr AIa devour uorō
sligōn mas en mattock ligō
sḷijai inc spring saliō
sloidhos mas mass massa
437
sloiwom neu plum prunum

slougos mas crowd multitūdō
slṛgjō tr gulp lurcō
sṃ ind together cunctim
smā ind certainly certō
smH1-lo,
smalos mas animal animal
smeH1-lo
smegō tr AIa desire cupiō
smeidhō tr AIa carve caelō
smeighsli neu thousand mille
smeikā neu crumb mīca
smeirai tr wonder admīror
smeirātlom neu miracle mirāculum
smeiros adI wonderful mīrus
smeitō tr AIa send mittō
smejō intr AIa smile arrideō
smekslā fem chin mentum
smelgā fem turfgrass agrostis
smelō dur AIa burn urō
smemorjā fem memory memoria
smḗneumi inc BIVb s-mH(i)-(d) stain maculō
smerdā fem shit merda
smerdō intr AIa stink foeteō
smeros neu es defect mendum
smerwā fem marrow medulla
smeughō intr AIa smoke fūmō
smitlā fem stain macula
sṃlis adI similar similis
sṃloghós fem wife uxor
sṃoitis fem accordance concursus
sṃóp∂tōr epi sṃóp∂tros sibling fraterculans
smoughos mas alleyway angustiae
smoughos mas smoke fūmus
smudhnō intr AVId acc. uel cōgit. contrive machinor
smúghneumi tr BIVb slip in irrēpō
sn∂ghjō intr creep rēpō
snadhō tr cut off amputō
snāmi intr Bib snH2 swim nō
sneighs fem (snighwós) snow nix
sneitō tr AIa curtail dēminuō
sneitos adI scanty exiguus
(s)-nH1;
snēmi tr spin neō
sneH1-ye/o-
snēmṇ neu yarn nēmen
snerō intr AIa whirl contorqueō
snētjā fem embroidery intextus
sneubhō tr AIa marry nūbō
sneudhs fem (snudhós) (aerea) smog turbulentia
sneurom neu cable mitra

sṇi ind apart separātim

sníncheti den snow ninguit
snoghā snake serpens
sṇstus intelligence sensus
sṇtējō think cōgitō
sṇterí ind missing absente
snusós fem daughter-in-law norus
sodējō tr settle instituō
sōdjā mas soot fūlīgō
sodjom neu seat solium
sodóm intr (aor.ab eimi) went iī
sognos mas rope retinaculum
soitos mas soiH(w)-to magic uenēficium
sōlājai tr give joy sōlor
solkos mas furrow sulcus
solpos mas oil oleum
soḷH2-wo,
solwos pron whole tōtus
sḷH2-wo
solwotāts fem (solwotātjos) totality integritās
somējō tr make equal (to) aequō
somós adII somHó-; sṃos equal aequus
sontējō cau send mittō
sontis adI guilty sons
soqjos mas allied socius
sorā fem flow fluxus
sorbhējō tr sip sorbeō
sorbhos fem rowan tree sorbus
sorwā fem entrails uiscus
soujós adII left sinister
soukos mas swoqós juice sūcus
sówijā fem kiss sauia
spakos mas drop gutta
spáneumi BIVb extend extendō
sparos mas post sparus
sparwos mas sparrow parra
speikā fem head of cereal spīca
speiksnā fem prickle spīna
speimis adI thin tenuis
spekjēs fem aspect speciēs
spekjō tr look speciō
spelghā fem spleen lien
spelgis mas pole asser
spelō intr recitate recitō
speltā table tabula
spēmi prog extend extendī
spēnos mas psteHn ?? nipple tetta
speqos mas cave specus
sperdhō tr AIa compete certō
sperghō intr AIa hurry festīnō
439
sperjō tr scatter (to) spargō

spes fem (spēsos) hope spes
speudō tr hurry accelerō
spingjā fem finch passer
spjewō intr AIa spit spuō
digitālis
spjonos fem foxglove
purpurea
spjwtos adI spit sputus
spleidō tr AIa split secō
spleighō intr AIa retire sēcēdō
splighstós mas side latus
spḷndējō den be bright splendeō
spḷtājō tr AIa cut off separō
spṇdō intr s-pH1d flutter coruscō
spoimā fem foam spūma
spoisājō intr perspire spirō
spoisnā fem breath halitus
spoljom neu dispossession spolium
spondējō tr promise spondeō
spondhā fem bed lectus
spōnos mas stick uirga
sponstós mas betrothed sponsus
sportā fem basket sporta
spoudā tr haste coactus
spṛāmi tread calcō
spreigō den AIa abound abundō
spreudō intr AIa accelerate accelerō
sprewō tr AIa excite excitō
spṛgō tr AIIh spH2r-g burst displōdō
spṛnō cau move away spernō
spṛos mas ankle talus
sqalos mas large fish squalus
sqeros neu es portent prodigium
sqijā fem thorn spīna
sredhō intr sredh / sret billow aestuō
sremsō intr AIa fray diffilor
srenkō intr AIa snore sternuō
srewō intr AIa flow fluō
srewtis fem quoque srwtis strom fluxus
srīgējō den be cold frigeō
srīgos neu es cold frīgus
sṛijō weed sarriō
sṛkijō tr repair sarciō
srodhos mas sea heaviness aestūs maritimī
sroknā fem beak rostrum
srowos,
srowmos mas stream cursus
srewmṇ
sṛpā fem sickle falcicula
sṛpijō cleanse putō

sṛwājō tr observe seruō

ṛ sicut twṛkos
sṛwos mas et non er sicut guardian custōs
kerwos
steH2ti- /
st∂tis fem standing post statiō
stH2ti-; stātis
st∂tus mas position status
stādhlom neu stall stābulum
stagnom neu pond lacus
stagō den remain (water) remaneō
staknom neu pool stagnum
stālos mas couch solium
stāmṇ neu arrangement institūtiō
stānējō tr place condō
stānom neu place locus
stārós adI stable stābilis
stātlom neu platform catasta
staurējō tr set instaurō
stauros mas stoH2u-ro stake adminiculum
staurós adI stūrós staked adminiculātus
stāwō tr AIa stop dētineō
steighō intr AIa walk ambulō
steipēts fem (steiptós) stick stīpēs
steiwā fem plough handle stīua
stejō inc AIa condense spissō
stejsjā fem icicle stīria
stelghō intr AIa flow down dēfluō
stelō tr put pōnō
stelōn (stélenos) cf. tálejā offshoot stolō
stelpō intr AIa stare intueor
stembhō tr AIa stamp on conculcō
stemō intr stumble titubō
sterbhnjom neu dry skin pellis sicca
sterbhō intr AIa decline decadō
stergō tr AIa love amō
sterkos neu es shit stercus
sterkos neu es shit stercus
sterlā fem H2s-ter-leH2 star stella
sternom neu entrails intestina
sterH1-nó/
sternós adI rigid rigidus
sterH1-yó
sterō tr AIa rob fūror
stérolis adI sterile sterilis
steros mas H2ster- star stella
stērps mas (stṛpos) trunk stirps
stertō intr AIa snore stertō
stertos mas pinnacle pinaculus
steugō inc AIa get injured ferior
steumi tr inform ēnuntiō
441
steupō tr AIa hit quatiō

steutō tr AIa support sustineō
stigājō tr stick instigō
stiprós adI safe secūrus
stlāmṇ neu plate lamina
stlātos mas s-tlH2-to side latus
stlītis fem ej legal suit lis
stlokos mas place locus
stṃnos mas trunk truncus
stṇtējō den be delayed moror
stobhos mas pillar sublicā
stoghos mas trestle uara
stoighos mas street uia
stoipējō cau densifiy stīpō
ruler (in
stolbos mas uirga
topography)
stolgos mas force uis
stōmṇ neu es palate palātum
storējō cau straighten (to) corrigō
stoudjom neu study studium
stoupā fem oakum stūpā
strāmṇ lay strām∂n
strātos army exercitus
strātós adI strH2-tó spread strātus
streibā fem line linea
streidō dur AIa streid / streig hiss stridō
streigō tr AIa draw stringō
streigs fem (strigós) night bird strīx
strengō AIa restrict obstringō
strengom string corda
strēnwos adI active strēnuus
strepō intr AIa make noise strepō
streubhō tr AIa make bitter acerbō
streudō dur AIa fight certō
strewō tr AIa str-w strew sternō
strigājō intr stop strigō
strigjā fem line stria
stringō tr AVIa draw tight stringō
stṛneumi intr BIVb pster sneeze sternuō
stṛnō tr s-trH2 spread sternō
stṛnos mas extension strātus
strudsmā fem pipe canna
strutjos mas ancestor abauus
struwis fem ej heap struēs
studējō den thrash studeō
stupējō den rigid (to be) stupeō
stupos mas stick pālus
stupróm neu dishonour dedecus
sū lois H1su-(H) well benē

sudhjom mas beer zythum

sujō tr spill effundō
sūkós mas piglet porcellus
suljā fem dregs colluuiēs
súnoros mas vigorous uiridis
sūnús mas ew son filius
sup ind under sub
supā fem soup ius
supājō tr throw iaciō
sūs mas (suwós) suH-; sews pig sūs
susājō intr buzz susurrō
H2sus- /
H2suso /
susdos mas H2susk(w)o-/ dry siccus
H2susdo-
/H2souso-
suwids adI expert doctus
swādējō cau recommend suādeō
sweH2d-u-;
swādús adI pleasant suauis
swādus
swāi ind so sīc
become
swēdhskō inc suēscō
accustomed
swēdhus fem ew custom mos
sweidō blaze flagrō
sweidos neu es star sīdus
sweighlājō intr whistle sībilō
sweigō prog AIa seesaw oscillō
sweisdō AIa whistle siffilō
swekō intr AIa smell good fragrō
swekos adI fragrant fragrant
swekros mas father-in-law socer
swekrús fem ew swekrúH2 mother-in-law socrus
swelā fem sunlight aprīcum
swelājō tr swell tumefaciō
swelāks mas (swélakos) seal phoca
sweljos mas relative familiāris
swelō intr AIa glare splendeō
swelom neu sleeper traversa
swelplos neu es sulphur sulpur
swemōr dur be followed secūtus ueniō
swénāmi intr BIIIa sound sonō
swendhō prog AIa s-wndh swindle dēcrēscō
swepō dur AIa sleep dormiō
swepṛ neu (swépenos) dream somnium
swerbhō inc AIa swr-bh turn gyrescō
swerghō tr AIa take care cūrō
swerō intr AIa whisper susurrō
swērús adI swērus important sērius
443
swerwos adI snappy transpuntorius

swesōr fem er sister soror
swesreinos mas sister's son sobrīnus
swīnós adII porcine porcīnus
swoidājō intr sweat sūdō
swólejā fem ground solea
swombhós mas fungus fungus
swonos mas swonós ? noise sonus
swōpijō cau fall asleep sōpiō
swoplom neu broom everriculum
swopnjājō intr cog. dream somniō
swopnjom neu dream somnium
swopnos mas sleep somnus
sworā fem wade sūra
swordis fem ej rubbish sordēs
sworēx (sworkós) shrew sorēx
sworos mas stick pālus
swṛneumi tr BIVb wound uulnerō
swrswrājō intr whisper susurrō
t∂kējō inc silent (to be) taceō
tādējō tr qualify qualificō
tādhēskō intr melt tābēscō
tādhis fem ej tH2-dh/k/w corruption tābēs
tagjō tr put in order ordinō
taismos mas dough massa
tājō tr steal fūror
tājots mas (tjetos) tāyus = tātis burglar fur
tálejā fem cf. stelōn stab talea
tālis adII such tālis
tām ind at that point tam
tarsós mas belly uenter
tárudos adI slow tardus
tātā neu dad pappa
tauros mas bull taurus
tausnim ind silently silenter
tausos adI silent silens
twṇtos pron so much tantus
teglā fem tile tegula
tegnom neu beam tignum
tegō tr cover tegō
tegos neu es shrine aedicula
tegtom neu ceiling tectum
tegús adI tegus dense crēber
teibhjā fem shin-bone tībia
teknom neu creature crātūra
tekō tr AIb receive accipiō
tekslā fem axe secūris
teksnā fem technique ars
teksō tr AIa tek(s) fashion fabricor

tekstā fem bowl testa

tekstlom neu web tēla
tekwō intr AIa tHkw run away ēcurrō
tel-H2m / tel-
telmṓn neu sm ? cf. strap infula
wolsnos
telpō intr AIa get in a space locus mihi est
telH2o-,
telsus fem ew telH2mōn ground tellus
(télH2menos)
tembhō tr AIa spurn contemnō
temesras fem pl. darkness tenebrae
temH-lo
temlom neu temple templum
/temH-no
temos neu es obscurity obscuritās
tēmos mas drunken ēbrius
tempos neu es time tempus
tenā fem ribbon taenia
tendō tr extend tendō
tenghō tr AIa drag away abstrahō
tengō tr impregnate tingō
teni ind until tenus
tenjō tr AIa extend prolongō
tenjom neu temple tempus
tenkō prog result ēueniō
tenos neu es ligament ligāmen
tensō extend prōtēlō
tentrom neu string fūnis
tepējō den be warm tepeō
tepnos neu es fever febris
teqom neu passage trāiectiō
tercō tr AIa threaten minor
téredhrom neu auger terebra
*trigwō ? cf.
tergō tr AIa wipe tergō
gr. tribw
tergslom neu towel mantellum
terjō tr rub teirō
termēn mas (terṃnós) end terminus
trHu1;
terō tr BIVb cross transeō
tṛneumi
terpō intr AIa enjoy oneself oblector
terptis fem jo quoque tṛptis enjoyment delectātiō
tersā fem earth terra
tersai intr get dry serescō
tersējō intr make afraid terreō
tersós mas es terror terror
térunos adI teren feeble tener
tetkōn mas (tétkenos) woodworker lignārius
tettā fem teat tetta
445
téturos mas turkey pavō

teukmṇ neu progeny progeniēs
teukō AIa dig out effodiō
teupō inc AIa knee genuflector
teurō tr AIa stop up obtuurō
teusmṇ neu lot cumulus
teusqa neu (tesqõm) desert desertum
teutā fem teuteH2 people populus
tewai tr observe tueor
tewos neu es force impetus
tibhjā neu stalk tibia
timējō tr be afraid metuō
titijō intr chirp titiō
telH2; cf. tḷnō,
tlāmi den endure resistō
tḷnāmi
tlātjos adI patient patiens
tḷijō den rest requiescō
telH2; tḷnāmi;
tḷnō tr raise tollō
cf, tlāmi
tloqai intr speak loquor
tmāmi tr cut secō
tṃpus adI elastic diffusilis
tṇējō den tr comprehend teneō
tṇghus adI fat obēsus
tṇgō tr touch tangō
tṇkros adI dense crēber
tṇktos adI legitimate legitimus
tṇtos adI stretched tentus
tṇus adI tnH2-u- thin tenuis
togā fem garment toga
toi ind certainly profectō
tōkslos mas hatchet bipennis
toksos fem juniper iuniperus
tokwós adI fugacious fugax
tolājō tr call for aduocō
tolkos mas bran furfur
tom ind then tum
tom-ke ind then tunc
(s)tenH2 /
tónāmi intr BIIIa resonate tonō
(s)tonH2
tondējō tr shave tondeō
tonējō tr extend (to) extendō
tongējō tr give one's opinion opīnor
tonslis fem fierceness tūlēs
tonstṓr adII jo hairdresser tonsōr
tóntenos mas noise strepitus
tontrom neu thunder tonitrus
topnos mas warmth tepor
toqe ind also quoque

torcós adI threatening minax

tori ind therefore propterea
tórkmṇtom neu tension (engine) tormentum
torós adI loud penetrans
torpējō cau want delectō
torqējō cau turn torqueō
torqis fem ej necklace torquēs
torsējō cau dry torreō
torsmṇ neu thunder tonitrum
tot(j)os adII so many tot
totrēd ind towards there eō
totrōd ind from there inde
toughā fem luck fortūna
touknā fem thigh perna
trabhis fem ej beam trabs
traghō tr drag trahō
traghsmā fem weft trāma
trāntis ind through trāns
trebhō den AIa trb(h) dwell habitō
tregsnos mas brave audāx
treistis adI sad tristis
trejes trija
adII tab three trēs
trísores
tremō dur AIa tremble tremō
trenkō tr AIa incite incitō
trepō tr AIa pass perambulō
tresō AVIII shiver tremō
treudō cau AIa force in intrūdō
treughos adI miserable miser
treukō tr AIa cut out abscindō
tríj∂tos mas sea mare
triplós adII threefold triple
trípḷtis fem triplication triplicātiō
trĩs ind three times ter
trisnôs three in a go trīnī
tristis adII ej witness testis
tritjos adII third tertius
trītós adI triH-tó rubbed trītus
tṛmēts fem (tṛmtos) wedge cuneus
tṛmos mas termite tarmes
tṛnā fem thorn spīna
troghos mas posterity subolēs
trogjā fem sow porca
trogos mas pig porcus
tropos mas way uia
troughi ind alas uae
trowā fem ladle trua
trowō tr AIId gnaw away corrōdō
tṛpējō den torpid (to be) torpeō
447
tṛrpis adI ugly turpis

tṛsdos mas thrush turdus
tṛsējō den tṛsyō be thirsty sitiō
tṛstis fem thirst sitis
tṛstos adI dry siccus
tṛsus adI dry siccus
trudskā fem leprosy leprae
trudsmós adI annoying molestus
truks epi (trukós) slaughterer interfector
tū pron (tewe) you tū
tumējō den be swollen tumeō
tumlós mas mound tumulus
túmolos mas turmoil tumultus
tundō tr strike tundō
turgējō den swell turgeō
tūrós mas cheese caseus
tursis fem ej tower turris
tusjai intr rejoice oneself delector
tusnā fem wave unda
tustijō intr cough tussiō
tustis fem ej coughing tussis
twakos neu es armour armatūra
twenkō tr AIa force compellō
twerō tr AIa enclose amplexor
twoisós adI violent uiolentus
twṛbhōn mas (twṛbhnos) whirl turbō
twṛkos mas boar aper
twṛmā fem troop turma
twṛtos adI quick uelox
uchējō den wet (to be) umeō
údcris fem excess excessus
úderos mas uter úterus
ūdhṛ neu (ūdhenos) H1uHdh-ṛ/n udder ūber
ūdhros adI udder ūber
ūdhús adI ūdhus immediate immediātus
uksōn and en ox bos
uksōr fem (úkseros) wife uxor
ululājō intr howl ululō
unksrā fem unksnā shadow umbra
upelos adI H2wp-elo bad malus
úperesū ind very well optimē
uperi ind H2u-per over super
úperos adI high superus
upo ind under sub
upóqrijom neu commission interpretium
upósēdjom neu fundament fundamentum
upóstānom neu service seruitium
úpselos adI upsēlós high altus
upsi ind above supra

uqnós mas cf. aukslā owen fornus

urús adI H1ur-u; urus wide amplus
ustós adI burnt ustus
uta ind rather potius
uti, ud neu out ex
w∂drā fem otter lutra
w∂gājai intr roam uagor
w∂rbhis fem ei perimeter circumductus
wadhis mas ej caution uas
wadhō intr walk uādō
wadhom neu river ford uadum
wageinā fem sheath uagīna
wāghijō intr cry uāgiō
wai ind alas uae
wailos mas humble humilis
wailós mas wolf lupus
wakkā fem cow uacca
walgos adI bandy-legged ualgus
walnom neu wall uallum
(aor. a
walóm intr died mortus est
chenmi)
wapējō den foggy, to be nebulosus sum
waplājō den scream clamō
warnā fem little owl noctua
wāros mas asunder-legged uārus
wāstos adI empty uānus
wātis mas ej poet uatēs
watjos adI legbent uatius
we encl or ue
webhō tr Hwebh weave texō
wédhneumi tr BIVb link ligō
wHedh /
wedhō tr lead addūcō
Hwedh
wedhṛ neu wédhenos weapon arma
wedhrom neu weather tempus
wedhskō tr strike caedō
wedmṇ neu utterance locūtiō
wedō tr AIb tell narrō
weghjā fem way uia
weghō tr carry uehō
weghtis fem jo leuer uectis
weghtlom neu vehicle uehiculum
weghtṓr mas transporter uector
wegō dur AIb be strong uegeō
wegō tr AIb weave texō
weidhō tr AIa divide dīuidō
weidos neu es presence praesentia
mas/
weiks (wikós) cf. woikos house domus
fem
449
wéiktomā fem victim uictima

weimṇ neu en loom textrīnum
weipō tr AIa wrap inuoluō
weiros mas wire fūnis
weis neu (wīsós) weiH-s/os/es strength uis
weisnā fem vein uēna
weisō den AIa flow fluō
weitēks fem (weitkós) agnus castus uitēx
weitis fem ej vine uītis
weitō cau AIa arch incuruō
wéiwersā fem ferret uiuerra
wejes / weje pron wei-; tab we nōs
wekmi tr desire desiderō
wekō intr AIb arch flectō
weksós adI convex conuexus
Hwl; cf.
weldō tr tear off uellō
wḷeumi
welīks fem (welikós) wḷēiks bracelet armilla
welmi tr will uolō
welnā fem wḷnā wave unda
welnos neu es hair uellus
welō tr AIb see uideō
welpō tr AIa expect expectō
weltis fem wḷtis will uoluntās
wélwṃen neu wrapping tegmen
welwō tr H1wl-w turn uoluō
wélwtrom neu envelope inuolūcrum
wémāmi tr vomit uomō
wēmos adI beautiful pulcher
wḗnāmoi tr aspire appetō
wendhō intr AIa attack oppugnō
wenēsnom neu love potion uenēnum
wenjā fem family familia
wenō dur desire concupiscō
wenos neu es love amor
wenseikā fem blister uensīca
went suff wentjos equipped with praeditus
H2weH1-ṇto-
wentos mas wind uentus
/ H2wH1ento-
weqtis fem thing rēs
weqtlom neu expression dictus
wēr neu (wṛos) door forēs
werbos neu es H1wr-b whip flagellum
wereinā fem sect secta
wergō den AIa head towards uergō
wergom neu work labos
weri neu Hwr; wēr, wēri water aqua
wernā fem alder betullla
wēros adI true uērus

werpō tr AIa wrap out ēuoluō

wersis mas male mās
wersmṇ neu en wart uerrūca
wersō AIa drag uerrō
werstidhlom neu hall uestibulum
wertm∂n neu direction directiō
wertos mas value ualor
wertrom neu defence dēfensiō
wérunos mas belt (for safety) cinctus
weskai neu eat uescor
wēskō tr squeeze exprimō
wésnāmi tr AIVa prick instigō
wesnējō tr bargain negotior
wesnom neu sell uēnum
wesō den AIb H2wes stay maneō
wésolis adI cheap uīlis
*we-
'exclūsīuum'
wespros mas we-skw(e)ro- / evening uesper
wesp(e)ro- /
wekero-
(wesenós /
wēsṛ neu spring uēr
wesentós/)
wēsros mas morning matina
westā fem food pulmentum
westijō tr cf. wosējō dress uestiō
westis fem jo cloth uestis
westos mas feast daps
westus mas dwelling domicilium
H1wesu-;
wesu-/wēsu-
wēsus adI excellent excellens
/wosu-;
we-H1su?
*we-
wétāmi tr forbid uetō
exclūsīuum
wetlos mas calf uitulus
wetos neu es time tempus
annucula
wetsós wes one-year creature
creātūra
wetwos adI es old uetus
wī ind separate sē
wibrājō cau vibrate uibrō
wid fem appearance appārentia
widējō tr see uideō
wídhewā fem H1wídheweH2 widow uidua
widhus fem willlow salīx
widjom fem widjā wisdom scientia
wigējō den be strong uigeō
wijējō den be curved uieō
451
wijēskō inc wither uiēscō

wikis fem ej chance uicis
wikjō dur contend certō
wikkā fem witch uenēfica
wíklutom adII widely known satis constans
windō tr AVIb find out comperiō
windō peri fac investigate inuestigō
windos adI apparent appararens
winis fem cable cable
winkijō tr shackle uinciō
winkō tr win uincō
winsō cau AVIa cause causō
wiHró-,
wīrós mas weiHro-, man uir
woiHro-
wisējō den sprout uireō
wiskom neu mistletoe uiscum
wísogā fem club uirga
witājō intr turn around circumeō
complementāriu
wíteros adI supplementary
s
wītj fem wHi- framework textus
witjom neu curve curua
witus mas cf. kantos wheelrim cantus
wíweqmi tr AIa speak loquor
wḷbhontis mas H1wlb(h)o-nt- camel camēlus
wḷd fem feast conuiuium
wlH2dh;
wḷdhējō tr rule imperō
cf. wḷēyō
wḷeiqos neu es liquid liquor
wḷeisō tr AIa beat uerberō
wlH2;
wḷējō den be fit ualeō
cf. w∂ldhēyō
wḷepējō den whip lepeō
Hwel; cf.
wḷeumi tr BIIIb pillage diripiō
weldō
wlewā fem lion leō
wḷghis fem basin uallis
wḷiqējō den liquid (to be) liqueō
wḷnā fem H1wl-neH2 wool lāna
wḷōrom strap lōrum
wḷqos mas wolf lupus
wḷtis fem tuff of hair caesariēs
wḷtus mas impression adspectus
wṇdā fem wave unda
wṇghējō den complexed (to be) tortus sum
wochējō tr H1wgh vow uoueō
wodā fem water aqua
wodṛ neu (wédenos) wedṛ water aqua

woghējō cau induce (to) addūcō

woghnos mas car uehiculum
woghos mas transport uectiō
wogsmis mas ploughshare uomer
woida tr know sciō
woidējō tr orient dirigō
woidlos mas basket uidulus
woidwṓs adII (woidwesos) fem: widw∂syā knowing conscius
woighos fem elm ulmus
woikā fem vigour uigor
woikos mas cf. weiks village uīcus
woikós adI wikrós steadfast peruicax
woikslā fem farm uilla
woinā fem punishment poena
woinos mas weinom wine uīnum
woisos mas poison uenēnum
woitā fem hunt uēnātus
wolējō tr choose ēligō
wolgos neu es people uulgus
wolmos mas roll spīra
wolos mas wōlos choice ēlectiō
wolós mas willing uolens
wolpis fem ej fox uulpēs
wolHno,
wolsnos neu es wolsno; cf. wound uulnus
telmṓn
wolsom neu damage perniciēs
wolwós adI round rotundus
wondhējō cau wind torqueō
wondhos wondhsos hair caesariēs
wōnós adI empty uānus
wopjā fem water aqua
wopsā fem wop-seH2 wasp uespa
woqs fem (weqs) voice uox
worgjom neu cannabis cannabis
wormis mas worm uermis
wornos mas colour color
worós mas policeman tresuir
wortējō cau invert (to) inuertō
wosējō tr cf. westijō dress uestiō
wosis mas H1ws turban tiara
wosmós adI wet madidus
wṛaghmṇ neu backbone spīna
wṛdhom neu word uerbum
wrH2d-iH2; cf
wṛdjā fem root rādix
wṛādēiks
wṛegis mas enclosure clausūra
wṛeikā fem veil rīca
wṛéikonjom neu webbing ricinium
453
wṛeinā Hwr harn urīna

wṛējai tr respect uereor
wṛēn mas (wernos) lamb ueruēx
werjō,
wṛeumi tr BIIIb close claudō
wṛneumi
werjō apo,
wṛeumi apo tr BIIIb open aperiō
wṛneumi apo
wṛgā fem vigor uigor
wṛgējō den attack (to be in) urgeō
wṛgjō tr/intr work laborō
wṛgos wrH-go- attack impetus
wṛijō tr close claudō
wṛisdējō intr laugh rīdeō
wṛnāmi tr AIVa persecute persequor
wṛṇgai intr grumble ringor
wṛonkā fem hand manus
wṛonkis fem dip fouea
(wṛādikós, wrH2d-eiH-;
wṛrādīks fem root rādix
wṛādijós) cf.wṛdyā
H2wrs;
wṛstā fem rain pluuia
worsos, worsā
wṛstis fem turn uersiō
wṛstos mas row uersus
wṛtō tr AIIh turn uertō
wṛtom neu enclosure saepimen
wṛughis mas ej rye sēcale cereāle

Appendix II: Proto-Indo-European Phonology
APPENDIX II: PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN PHONOLOGY
II.1. DORSALS: THE PALATOVELAR QUESTION
1. Direct comparison in early IE studies, informed by the Centum-Satem isogloss,

yielded the reconstruction of three rows of dorsal consonants in Late Proto-Indo-
European by Bezzenberger (1890), a theory which became classic after Brugmann
(Grundriss, 1879) included it in its 2nd Edition. The palatovelars *kj, *gj, and *gjh were
supposedly [k]- or [g]-like sounds which underwent a characteristic phonetic change in
the satemized languages – three original “velar rows” had then become two in all Indo-
European dialects attested.
NOTE. It is disputed whether Albanian shows remains of two or three series (cf. Ölberg 1976,
Kortlandt 1980, Pänzer 1982), although the fact that only the worst known (and neither isolated
nor remote) IE dialect could be the only one to show some remains of the oldest phonetic system is
indeed very unlikely.
After that original belief, then, The centum group of languages merged the palatovelars
*kj, *gj, and *gjh with the plain velars *k, *g, and *gh, while the satem group of languages
merged the labiovelars *kw, *gw, and *gwh with the plain velars *k,* g, and *gh.
NOTE. Such hypothesis would then support an evolution [kj] → [k] of Centum dialects before e
and i, what is clearly against the general tendence of velars to move forward its articulation and
palatalize in these environments.
2. The existence of the palatovelars as phonemes separate from the plain velars and
labiovelars has been disputed. In most circumstances they appear to be allophones
resulting from the neutralization of the other two series in particular phonetic
circumstances. Their dialectal articulation was probably constrained, either to an
especial phonetic environment (as Romance evolution of Latin [k] before [e] and [i]),
either to the analogy of alternating phonetic forms. However, it is difficult to pinpoint
exactly what the circumstances of the allophony are, although it is generally accepted
that neutralization occurred after s and u, and often before r or a; also apparently before
m and n in some Baltic dialects
NOTE. The original allophonic distinction was disturbed when the labiovelars were merged with
the plain velars. This produced a new phonemic distinction between palatal and plain velars, with
an unpredictable alternation between palatal and plain in related forms of some roots (those from
455
original plain velars) but not others (those from original labiovelars). Subsequent analogical
processes generalized either the plain or palatal consonant in all forms of a particular root. Those
roots where the plain consonant was generalized are those traditionally reconstructed as having
“plain velars” in the parent language, in contrast to “palatovelars”.
Many PIE linguists still believe that all three series were distinct in Late Proto-Indo-
European, although newest research show that the palatovelar series were a later
phonetic development of certain Satem dialects, later extended to others; this belief was
originally articuled by Antoine Meillet in 1893, and was followed by linguists like Hirt
(1899, 1927), Lehmann (1952), Georgiev (1966), Bernabé (1971), Steensland (1973),
Miller (1976), Allen (1978), Kortlandt (1980), Shields (1981), Adrados (1995), etc.
NOTE. There is, however, a minority who consider the labiovelars a secondary development
from the pure velars, and reconstruct only velars and palatovelars (Kuryłowicz), already criticized
by Bernabé, Steensland, Miller and Allen. Still less acceptance had the proposal to reconstruct only
a labiovelar and a palatal series (Magnusson).
There is residual evidence of various sorts in the Satem languages of a former

distinction between velar and labiovelar consonants:
• In Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonant consonants

(denoted by R) become iR after plain velars but uR after labiovelars.
• In Armenian, some linguists assert that kw is distinguishable from k before front
vowels.
• In Albanian, some linguists assert that kw and gw are distinguishable from k and g
before front vowels.
NOTE. This evidence shows that the labiovelar series was distinct from the plain velar series in
Late PIE, and cannot have been a secondary development in the Centum languages. However, it
says nothing about the palatovelar vs. plain velar series. When this debate initially arose, the
concept of a phoneme and its historical emergence was not clearly understood, however, and as a
result it was often claimed (and sometimes still is claimed) that evidence of three-way velar
distinction in the history of a particular IE language indicates that this distinction must be
reconstructed for the parent language. This is theoretically unsound, as it overlooks the possibility
of a secondary origin for a distinction.
3. The original (logical) trend to distinguish between series of “satemizable” dorsals,

called ‘palatovelars’, and “non-satemizable” dorsals, the ‘pure velars’, was the easiest

explanation found by neogrammarians, who apparently opened a different case for each
irregularity they found. Such an initial answer should be considered erroneous today, at
least as a starting-point to obtain a better explanation for this “phonological puzzle”
(Bernabé).
NOTE. “Palatals” and Velars appear mostly in complementary distributions, what supports their
explanation as allophones of the same phonemes. Meillet (1937) establishes the contexts in which
there are only velars: before a, r, and after s, u, while Georgiev (1966) states that the palatalization
of velars should have been produced before e, i, j, and before liquid or nasal or w + e, i, offering
statistical data supporting his conclusions. The presence of palatalized velar before o is then
produced because of analogy with roots in which (due to the apophonic alternance) the velar
phoneme is found before e and o, so the alternance *kje/*ko would be leveled as *kje/*kjo.
Arguments in favor of only two series of velars include:
A) The plain velar series is statistically rarer than the other two, is entirely absent from
affixes, and appears most often in certain phonological environments (described above).
B) Alternations between plain velars and palatals are common in a number of roots
across different “Satem” languages, where the same root appears with a palatal in some
languages but a plain velar in others. This is consistent with the analogical
generalization of one or another consonant in an originally alternating paradigm, but
difficult to explain otherwise:
• *ak/ok-, sharp, cf. Lith. akúotas, O.C.S. ostru, O.Ind. asrís, Arm. aseln, but Lith.
asrùs.
• *akmon-, stone, cf. Lith. akmuõ, O.C.S. kamy, O.Ind. áśma, but Lith. âsmens.
• *keu-, shine, cf. Lith. kiáune, Russ. kuna, O.Ind. Svas, Arm. sukh.
• *bhleg-, shine, cf. O.Ind. bhárgas, Lith. balgans, O.C.S. blagu, but Ltv. blâzt.
• *gherdh-, enclose, O.Ind. grhá, Av. gərəda, Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Lith.
zardas, Ltv. zârdas.
• *swekros, father-in-law, cf. O.Sla. svekry, O.Ind. śvaśru.

B) The existence of different pairs (“satemized” and “not-satemized”) in the same
language, as e.g.:
457
• *selg-, throw, cf. O.Ind. sṛjáti, sargas

• *kau/keu-, shout, cf. Lith. kaukti, O.C.S. kujati, Russ. sova (as Gk. kauax); O.Ind.
kauti, suka-.
• *kleu-, hear, Lith. klausýti, slove, O.C.S. slovo; O.Ind. karnas, sruti, srósati,
śrnóti, sravas.
• *leuk-, O.Ind. rokás, ruśant-.
NOTE. The old argument proposed by Brugmann (and later copied by many dictionaries) about
“Centum loans” is not tenable today. For more on this, see Szemerény (1978), Mayrhofer (1952),
Bernabé (1971).
C) Non-coincidence in periods and number of satemization stages;
• Old Indian shows two stages,

1. PIE *k → O.Ind. s, and
2. PIE *kwe, *kwi → O.Ind. ke, ki, & PIE *ske, *ski > O.Ind. c (cf. cim, candra,
etc.).
• In Slavic, however, three stages are found,
1. PIE *k→s,
2. PIE *kwe, *kwi→č (čto, čelobek), and
3. PIE *kwoi→koi→ke gives ts (as Sla. tsená).
D) In most attested languages which present aspirated as result of the so-called

“palatals”, the palatalization of other phonemes is also attested (e.g. palatalization of
labiovelars before e, i, etc.), what may indicate that there is an old trend to palatalize all
possible sounds, of which the palatalization of velars is the oldest attested result.
E) The existence of ‘Centum dialects’ in so-called Southern dialects, as Greek and

some Paleo-Balkan dialects, and the presence of Tocharian, a ‘Centum dialect’, in
Central Asia, being probably a northern IE dialect.
NOTE. The traditional explanation of a three-way dorsal split requires that all Centum languages
share a common innovation that eliminated the palatovelar series. Unlike for the Satem languages,
however, there is no evidence of any areal connection among the Centum languages, and in fact
there is evidence against such a connection -- the Centum languages are geographically

noncontiguous. Furthermore, if such an areal innovation happened, we would expect to see some
dialect differences in its implementation (cf. the above differences between Balto-Slavic and Indo-
Iranian), and residual evidence of a distinct palatalized series (such evidence for a distinct
labiovelar series does exist in the Satem languages; see below). In fact, however, neither type of
evidence exists, suggesting that there was never a palatovelar series in the Centum languages.
4. It is generally believed that Satemization could have started as a late dialectal ‘wave’
(although not necessarily), which eventually affected almost all PIE dialectal groups. The
origin is probably to be found in velars followed by e, i, even though alternating forms
like *gen/gon caused natural analogycal corrections within each dialect, which obscures
still more the original situation. Thus, non-satemized forms in so-called Satem languages
are actually non-satemized remains of the original situation, just as Spanish has feliz and
not *heliz, or fácil and not hácil, or French uses facile and nature, and not *fêle or *nûre
as one should expect from its phonetic evolution. Some irregularities are indeed
explained as borrowings from non-satemized dialects.
5. Those who support the model of the threefold distinction in PIE cite evidence from
Albanian (Pedersen) and Armenian (Pisani) that they treated plain velars differently
from the labiovelars in at least some circumstances, as well as the fact that Luwian
apparently had distinct reflexes of all three series: *kj > z (probably [ts]); *k > k; *kw > ku
(possibly still [kw]) (Craig Melchert).
NOTE 1. Also, one of the most difficult problems which subsist in the interpretation of the
satemization as a phonetic wave is that, even though in most cases the variation *kj/k may be
attributed either to a phonetic environment or to the analogy of alternating apophonic forms,
there are some cases in which neither one nor the other may be applied. Compare for example
*okjtō(u), eight, which presents k before an occlusive in a form which shows no change (to suppose
a syncope of an older *okjitō, as does Szemerényi, is an explanation ad hoc). Other examples in
which the palatalization cannot be explained by the next phoneme nor by analogy are *swekru-,
husband’s mother, *akmōn, stone, *peku, cattle. Such (still) unexplained exceptions, however, are
not sufficient to consider the existence of a third row of ‘later palatalized’ velars (Bernabé, Cheng &
Wang), although there are still scholars who come back to the support of the three velar rows’
hypothesis (viz. Tischler 1990).
NOTE 2. Supporters of the palatovelars cite evidence from the Anatolian language Luwian,
which supposedly attests a three-way velar distinction *kj→z (probably [ts]); *k→k; *kw→ku
(probably [kw]), defended by Melchert (1987). So, the strongest argument in favor of the
459
traditional three-way system is that the the distinction supposedly derived from Luwian findings
must be reconstructed for the parent language. However, the underlying evidence “hinges upon
especially difficult or vague or otherwise dubious etymologies” (see Sihler 1995); and, even if those
findings are supported by other evidence in the future, it is obvious that Luwian might also have
been in contact with satemization trends of other (Late) PIE dialects, that it might have developed
it’s own satemization trend, and that maybe the whole system was remade within the Anatolian
branch.
6. A system of two gutturals, Velars and Labiovelars, is a linguistic anomaly, isolated in

the PIE occlusive subsystem – there are no parallel oppositions bw-b, pw-p, tw-t, dw-d,
etc. Only one feature, their pronunciation with an accompanying rounding of the lips,
helps distinguish them from each other. Labiovelars turn velars before -u, and there are
some neutralization positions which help identify labiovelars and velars; also, in some
contexts (e.g. before -i, -e) velars tend to move forward its articulation and eventually
palatalize. Both trends led eventually to Centum and Satem dialectalization.
II.2. PHONETIC RECONSTRUCTION
II.2.1. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN SOUND LAWS
A few sound-laws can be reconstructed, that may have been effective already in Late
PIE dialects, by internal reconstruction.
• Sievers’ Law (Edgerton’s Law, Lindeman’s option)

• Hirt’s Law
• Grassman’s Law
• Bartholomae’s Law
A. SIEVERS’ LAW
Sievers’ Law in Indo-European linguistics accounts for the pronunciation of a

consonant cluster with a glide before a vowel as it was affected by the phonetics of the
preceding syllable. Specifically it refers to the alternation between *ij and *j, and possibly
*uw and *u, in Indo-European languages. For instance, Proto-Indo-European *kor-jo-s
became Gothic harjis “army”, but PIE *kerdh-jo-s became Proto-Germanic *herdijas,
Gothic hairdeis [hɛrdĩs] “shepherd”. It differs from an ablaut in that the alternation is
context-sensitive: PIE *ij followed a heavy syllable (a syllable with a diphthong, a long

vowel, or ending in more than one consonant), but *j would follow a light syllable (i.e. a
short vowel followed by a single consonant). This was first noticed by Germanic
philologist Eduard Sievers, and his aim was to account for certain phenomena in the
Germanic languages. He originally only discussed *j in medial position. He also noted,
almost as an aside, that something similar seemed to be going on in the earliest Sanskrit
texts (thus in the Rigveda dāivya- “heavenly” actually had three syllables in scansion
(dāiviya-) but say satya- “true” was scanned as written). After him, scholars would find
similar alternations in Greek and Latin, and alternation between *uw and *u, though the
evidence is poor for all of these. Through time, evidence was announced regarding
similar alternations of syllabicity in the nasal and liquid semivowels, though the evidence
is extremely poor for these, despite the fact that such alternations in the non-glide
semivowels would have left permanent, indeed irreversible, traces.
The most ambitious extension of Sievers’ Law was proposed by Franklin Edgerton in a
pair of articles in the journal Language in 1934 and 1943. He argued that not only was
the syllabicity of prevocalic semivowels by context applicable to all six Indo-European
semivowels, it was applicable in all positions in the word. Thus a form like *djēus, “sky”
would have been pronounced thus only when it happened to follow a word ending with a
short vowel. Everywhere else it would have had two syllables, *dijēus.
The evidence for alternation presented by Edgerton was of two sorts. He cited several
hundred passages from the oldest Indic text, the Rigveda, which he claimed should be
rescanned to reveal hitherto unnoticed expressions of the syllable structure called for by
his theory. But most forms show no such direct expressions; for them, Edgerton noted
sharply skewed distributions that he interpreted as evidence for a lost alternation
between syllabic and nonsyllabic semivowels. Thus say śiras “head” (from *śṛros) has no
monosyllabic partner *śras (from *śros), but Edgerton noted that it occurred 100% of
the time in the environments where his theory called for the syllabification of the *r.
Appealing to the “formulaic” nature of oral poetry, especially in tricky and demanding
literary forms like sacred Vedic versification, he reasoned that this was direct evidence
for the previous existence of an alternant *śras, on the assumption that when (for
whatever reason) this *śras and other forms like it came to be shunned, the typical
collocations in which they would have (correctly) occurred inevitably became obsolete
461
pari passu with the loss of the form itself. And he was able to present a sizeable body of
evidence in the form of these skewed distributions in both the 1934 and 1943 articles.
In 1965 Fredrik Otto Lindeman published an article proposing a significant

modification of Edgerton’s theory. Disregarding Edgerton’s evidence (on the grounds
that he was not prepared to judge the niceties of Rigvedic scansion) he took instead as
the data to be analyzed the scansions in Grassmann’s Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda. From
these he concluded that Edgerton had been right, but only up to a point: the alternations
he postulated did indeed apply to all semivowels; but in word-initial position, the
alternation was limited to forms like *djēus/dijēus “sky”, as cited above—that is, words
where the “short” form was monosyllabic.
B. HIRT’S LAW
Hirt’s law, named after Hermann Hirt who postulated it originally in 1895, is a Balto-
Slavic sound law which states in its modern form that the inherited Proto-Indo-European
stress would retract to non-ablauting pretonic vowel or a syllabic sonorant if it was
followed by a consonantal (non-syllabic) laryngeal that closed the preceding syllable.
Compare:
• PIE: *dhūmós “smoke” (compare Sanskrit dhūmá and Ancient Greek thumós) →
Lithuanian dū́mai, Latvian dũmi, Croatian/Serbian dȉm.
• PIE *gwrīw “neck; mane” (compare Sanskrit grīv) → Latvian gr
ĩva,
Croatian/Serbian grȉva.
• PIE *pln
̥ ós “full” (compare Sanskrit pūrṇá) → Lithuanian pìlnas, Latvian pil̃ns,
Serbian pȕn.
Hirt’s law did not operate if the laryngeal preceded a vowel, or if the laryngeal followed
the second component of a diphthong. Therefore, Hirt's law must be older than then the
loss of laryngeals in prevocalic position (in glottalic theory formulation: to the merger of
glottalic feature of PIE voiced stops who dissolved into laryngeal and buccal part with the
reflexes of the original PIE laryngeals), because the stress was not retracted in e.g. PIH
*tenh₂wós (Ancient Greek tanaós, Sanskrit tanú) “thin” → Latvian tiêvs, and also older
than the loss of syllabic sonorants in Balto-Slavic, as can be seen from the
abovementioned reflexes of PIH *pl̥h1nós, and also in e.g. PIH *dl̥h1ghós “long” (compare

Sanskrit dīrghá, Ancient Greek dolikhós) → Lithuanian ìlgas, Latvian il̃gs,

Croatian/Serbian dȕg.
It follows from the above that Hirt's law must have preceded Winter's law, but was
necessarily posterior to Balto-Slavic oxytonesis (shift of stress from inner syllable to the
end of the word in accent paradigms with end-stressed forms), because oxytonesis-
originating accent was preserved in non-laryngeal declension paradigms; e.g. the
retraction occurs in mobile PIH *eh2-stems so thus have dative plural of Slovene goràm
and Chakavian goràmi (< PBSl. *-āmús), locative plural of Slovene and Chakavian goràh
(< PBSl. *-āsú), but in thematic (o-stem) paradigm dative plural of Slovene možȇm (<
PBSl. *-mús), locative plural of Slovene možéh and Chakavian vlāsíh (< PBSl. *-oysú).
The retraction of accent from the ending to the vowel immediately preceding the stem-
ending laryngeal (as in PBSl. reflex of PIH *gwrH-) is obvious. There is also a strong
evidence that the same was valid for Old Prussian (in East Baltic dative and locative
plural accents were generalized in non-laryngeal inflections).
From the Proto-Indo-European perspective, the importance of Hirt’s law lies in the
strong correspondence it provides between the Balto-Slavic and Vedic/Ancient Greek
accentuation (which more or less intactly reflects the original Late PIE state), and
somewhat less importantly, provides a reliable criterion to distinguish the original
sequence of PIH *eH from lengthened grade *ē, as it unambiguously points to the
presence of a laryngeal in the stem.
C. GRASSMANN’S LAW
Grassmann’s law, named after its discoverer Hermann Grassmann, is a dissimilatory

phonological process in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit which states that if an aspirated
consonant is followed by another aspirated consonant in the next syllable, the first one
loses the aspiration. The descriptive (synchronic) version was described for Sanskrit by
Panini.
Here are some examples in Greek of the effects of Grassmann’s Law:
• [thu-oː] θύω ‘I kill an animal’

• [e-tu-theː] ἔτυθη ‘it was killed’
• [thrik-s] θρίξ ‘hair’
463
• [trikh-es] τριχές ‘hairs’

• [thap-sai] θάψαι ‘to bury (aorist)’
• [thapt-ein] θάπτειν ‘to bury (present)’
• [taph-os] τάφος ‘a grave’
• [taph-e] ταφή ‘burial’
In the reduplication which forms the perfect tense in both Greek and Sanskrit, if the
initial consonant is aspirated, the prepended consonant is unaspirated by Grassmann’s
Law. For instance [phu-oː] φύω ‘I grow’ : [pe-phuː-ka] πεφυκα ‘I have grown’.
DIASPIRATE ROOTS
Cases like [thrik-s] ~ [trikh-es] and [thap-sai] ~ [taph-ein] illustrates the phenomenon of
diaspirate roots, for which two different analyses have been given.
In one account, the “underlying diaspirate” theory, the underlying roots are taken to be
/thrikh/ and /thaph/. When an /s/ (or word edge, or various other sounds) immediately
follows, then the second aspiration is lost, and the first aspirate therefore survives ([thrik-
s], [thap-sai]). If a vowel follows the second aspirate, it survives unaltered, and therefore
the first aspiration is lost by Grassmann’s Law ([trikh-es], [taph-ein]).
A different analytical approach was taken by the ancient Indian grammarians. In their
view, the roots are taken to be underlying /trikh/ and /taph/. These roots persist
unaltered in [trikh-es] and [taph-ein]. But if an /s/ follows, it triggers an “aspiration
throwback” (ATB), in which the aspiration migrates leftward, docking onto the initial
consonant ([thrik-s], [thap-sai]).
Interestingly, in his initial formulation of the law Grassmann briefly referred to ATB to
explain these seemingly aberrant forms. However, the consensus among contemporary
historical linguists is that the former explanation (underlying representation) is the
correct one.
In the later course of Sanskrit, (and under the influence of the grammarians) ATB was
applied to original monoaspirates through an analogical process. Thus, from the verb
root gah ‘to plunge’, the desiderative stem jighakha- is formed. This is by analogy with
the forms bubhutsati (a desiderative form) and bhut (a nominal form, both from the root
budh ‘to be awake’, originally PIE *bhudh-).

D. BARTHOLOMAE’S LAW
Bartholomae’s law is an early Indo-European sound law affecting the Indo-Iranian

family, though thanks to the falling together of plain voiced and voiced aspirated stops in
Iranian, its impact on the phonological history of that subgroup is unclear.
It states that in a cluster of two or more obstruents (s or a stop (plosive)), any one of
which is a voiced aspirate anywhere in the sequence, the whole cluster becomes voiced
and aspirated. Thus to the PIE root *bheudh “learn, become aware of” the participle
*bhudh-to- “enlightened” loses the aspiration of the first stop (Grassmann’s Law) and
with the application of Bartholomae’s Law and regular vowel changes gives Sanskrit
buddha- “enlightened”.
A written form such as -ddh- (a literal rendition of the devanāgarī representation)

presents problems of interpretation. The choice is between a long voiced stop with a
specific release feature symbolized in transliteration by -h-, or else a long stop (or stop
cluster) with a different phonational state, “murmur”, whereby the breathy release is an
artifact of the phonational state. The latter interpretation is rather favored by such
phenomena as the Rigvedic form gdha “he swallowed” which is morphologically a
middle aorist (more exactly ‘injunctive’) to the root ghas- “swallow”, as follows: ghs-t-a >
*gzdha whence gdha by the regular loss of a sibilant between stops in Indic. While the
idea of voicing affecting the whole cluster with the release feature conventionally called
aspiration penetrating all the way to the end of the sequence is not entirely unthinkable,
the alternative—the spread of a phonational state (but murmur rather than voice)
through the whole sequence—involves one less step and therefore via Occam’s Razor
counts as the better interpretation.
Bartholomae’s Law intersects with another Indic development, namely what looks like
the deaspiration of aspirated stops in clusters with s: descriptively, Proto-Indo-European
*leigh-si “you lick” becomes *leiksi, whence Sanskrit lekṣi. However, Grassmann’s Law,
whereby an aspirated stop becomes non-aspirated before another aspirated stop (as in
the example of buddha-, above), suggests something else. In late Vedic and later forms of
Sanskrit, all forms behave as though aspiration was simply lost in clusters with s, so such
forms to the root dugh- “give milk” (etymologically *dhugh-) show the expected
devoicing and deaspiration in, say, the desiderative formation du-dhukṣ-ati (with the
465
root-initial dh- intact, that is, undissimilated). But the earliest passages of the Rigveda
show something different: desiderative dudukṣati, aor. dukṣata (for later dhukṣata) and
so on. Thus it is apparent that what went into Grassmann’s Law were forms like
*dhugzhata, dhudhugzha- and so on, with aspiration in the sibilant clusters intact. The
deaspiration and devoicing of the sibilant clusters were later and entirely separate
phenomena – and connected with yet another suite of specifically Indic sound laws,
namely a ‘rule conspiracy’ to eliminate all voiced (and murmured) sibilants. Indeed,
even the example ‘swallowed’ given above contradicts the usual interpretation of
devoicing and deaspiration: by such a sequence, *ghs-to would have given, first, *ksto (if
the process was already Indo-European) or *ksta (if Indo-Iranian in date), whence
Sanskrit *kta, not gdha.
E. BRUGMANN’S LAW
Brugmann’s law, named for Karl Brugmann, states that Proto-Indo-European *o (the
ablaut alternant of *e) in non-final syllables became *ā in open syllables (syllables ending
in a single consonant followed by a vowel) in Indo-Iranian. Everywhere else the outcome
was *a, the same as the reflexes of PIE *e and *a. The rule seems not to apply to “non-
apophonic *o”, that is, *o that has no alternant, as in *poti-, “master, lord” (thus Sanskrit
pati-, not *pāti, there being no such root as *pet- “rule, dominate”). Similarly the form
traditionally reconstructed as *owis, “sheep” (Sanskrit avi-), which is a good candidate
for re-reconstructing as PIH *h3ewi- with an o-coloring laryngeal rather than an
ablauting o-grade.
The theory accounts for a number of otherwise very puzzling facts. Sanskrit has pitaras,
mātaras, bhrātaras for “fathers, mothers, brothers” but svasāras for “sisters”, a fact
neatly explained by the traditional reconstruction of the stems as *-ter- for “father,
mother, brother” but *swesor- for “sister” (cf. Latin pater, māter, frāter but soror; note,
though, that in all four cases the Latin vowel in the final syllable was originally long).
Similarly, the great majority of n-stem nouns in Indic have a long stem-vowel, such as
brāhmaṇas “Brahmins”, śvānas “dogs” from *kwones, correlating with information
from other Indo-European languages that these were actually on-stems. But there is one
noun, ukṣan- “ox”, which in the Rigveda shows forms like ukṣǎṇas, “oxen”. These were

later replaced by “regular” formations (ukṣāṇas and so on, some as early as the Rigveda
itself), but the notion that this might be an *en-stem is supported by the unique
morphology of the Germanic forms, e.g. Old English oxa nom.singular “ox”, exen
plural—the Old English plural stem (e.g., the nominative) continuing Proto-Germanic
*uχsiniz < *uχseniz, with two layers of umlaut. As in Indic, this is the only certain Old
English n-stem that points to *en-vocalism rather than *on-vocalism.
Perhaps the most startling confirmation comes from the inflection of the perfect tense,
wherein a Sanskrit root like sad- “sit” has sasada for “I sat” and sasāda for “he, she, it
sat”. It was tempting to see this as some kind of ‘therapeutic’ reaction to the falling-
together of the endings *-a “I” and *-e “he/she/it” as -a, but it was troubling that the
distinction was found exclusively in roots that ended with a single consonant. That is,
dadarśa “saw” is both first and third person singular, even though a form like *dadārśa
is perfectly acceptable in terms of Sanskrit syllable structure. This mystery was solved
when the ending of the perfect in the first person singular was reanalyzed as PIH *-h2e,
that is, beginning with an a-coloring laryngeal: that is, at the time Brugmann’s Law was
operative, a form of the type *se-sod-h₂e in the first person did not have an open root
syllable. A problem (minor) for this interpretation is that roots that pretty plainly must
have ended in a consonant cluster including a laryngeal, such as jan- < *genh1- “beget”,
and which therefore should have had a short vowel throughout (like darś- “see” < *dork-
), nevertheless show the same patterning as sad-: jajana 1sg., jajāna 3sg. Whether this is
a catastrophic failure of the theory is a matter of taste, but after all, those who think the
pattern seen in roots like sad- have a morphological, not a phonological, origin, have
their own headaches, such as the total failure of this “morphological” development to
include roots ending in two consonants. And such an argument would in any case cut the
ground out from under the neat distributions seen in the kinship terms, the special
behavior of “ox”, and so on.
Perhaps the most worrisome data are adverbs like Sankrit prati, Greek pros (< *proti)
(meaning “motion from or to a place or location at a place”, depending on the case of the
noun it governs) and some other forms, all of which appear to have ablauting vowels.
They also all have a voiceless stop after the vowel, which may or may not be significant.
467
And for all its charms, Brugmann’s Law has few supporters nowadays – even Brugmann
himself eventually gave up on it, and Jerzy Kuryłowicz, the author of the brilliant insight
into the sasada/sasāda matter, eventually abandoned his analysis in favor of an
untenable appeal to the agency of marked vs unmarked morphological categories.
Untenable because, for example, it's a commonplace of structural analysis that 3rd person
singular forms are about as “unmarked” as a verb form can be, but in Indic it is the one
that “gets” the long vowel, which by the rules of the game is the marked member of the
long/short opposition.
F. WINTER’S LAW
Winter’s law, named after Werner Winter who postulated it in 1978, is a sound law
operating on Balto-Slavic short vowels *e, *o, *a, *i and *u, according to which they
lengthen in front of unaspirated voiced stops in closed syllable, and that syllable gains
rising, acute accent. Compare:
• PIE *sed- “to sit” (that also gave Latin sedeō, Sanskrit sīdati, Ancient Greek
hézomai and English sit) → Proto-Balto-Slavic *sēd-tey → Lith. sė́sti, O.C.S. sěsti
(with regular Balto-Slavic *dt→st change; O.C.S. and Common Slavic yat (ě) is a
regular reflex of PIE/PBSl. long *ē).
• PIE *ābl- “apple” (that also gave English apple) → Proto-Balto-Slavic *ābl- →
standard Lithuanian obuolỹs (accusative óbuolį) and also dialectal forms of óbuolas
and Samogitian óbulas, O.C.S. ablъko, modern Croatian jȁbuka, Slovene jábolko
etc.
Winter's law is important for several reasons. Most importantly, it indirectly shows the
difference between the reflexes of PIE *b, *d, *g, *gw in Balto-Slavic (in front of which
Winter's law operates in closed syllable), and PIE *bh, *dh, *gh, *gwh (before which there
is no effect of Winter's law). This shows that in relative chronology Winter's law operated
before PIE aspirated stops *bh, *dh, *gh, merged with PIE plain voiced stops *b, *d, *g in
Balto-Slavic.
Secondary, Winter’s law also indirectly shows the difference between the reflexes of PIE
*a and PIE *o which otherwise merged to *a in Balto-Slavic. When these vowels lengthen

in accordance with Winter’s law, one can see that old *a has lengthened into Balto-Slavic
*ā (which later gave Lithuanian o, Latvian ā, O.C.S. a), and old *o has lengthened into
Balto-Slavic *ō (which later gave Lithuanian and Latvian uo, but still O.C.S. a). In later
development that represented Common Slavic innovation, the reflexes of Balto-Slavic *ā
and *ō were merged, as one can see that they both result in O.C.S. a. This also shows that
Winter’s law operated prior to the common Balto-Slavic change *o→*a.
The original formulation of Winter’s law stated that the vowels regularly lengthened in
front of PIE voiced stops in all environments. As much as there were numerous examples
that supported this formulation, there were also many counterexamples, such as OCS
stogъ “stack” < PIE *stógos, O.C.S. voda “water” < PIE *wodṓr (collective noun formed
from PIE *wódr)̥ . Adjustment of Winter’s law, with the conclusion that it operates only
on closed syllables, was proposed by Matasović in 1994 and which, unlike most of the
other prior proposals, successfully explains away most counterexamples, although it's
still not generally accepted. Matasović's revision of Winter's law has been used in the
Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. Other variations of blocking mechanism for
Winter’s law have been proposed by Kortlandt, Shintani, Rasmussen, Dybo and Holst but
have not gained wide acceptance. Today Winter's law is taken for granted by all
specialists in Balto-Slavic historical linguistics, though the exact details of the restrictions
of law remain in dispute.
II.2.2. CONSONANTS
NOTES: 1 After vowels. 2 Before a plosive (p, t, k). 3 Before an unstressed vowel (Verner’s Law). 4
After a (Proto-Germanic) fricative (s, f). 5 Before a (PIE) front vowel (i, e). 6 Before or after a (PIE)
u. 7 Before or after a (PIE) o, u. 8 Between vowels. 9 Before a resonant. 10 Before secondary (post-
PIE) front-vowels. 11 After r, u, k, i (RUKI). 12 Before a stressed vowel. 13 At the end of a word. 14
After u, r or before r, l. 15 After n.
469
PIE Skr. Av. OCS Lith. Arm. Toch. Hitt. Gk. Lat. O.Ir Gmc.
*p p [p] p [p] p [p] p [p] h p [p] p p [p] p [p] Ø; ch *f; *β 3;

[h]; [p] [x] 2 *p 4
w
[w] 1
*t t [t] t [t] t [t] t [t] tʽ [tʰ] t [t]; c t; z t [t] t [t] t [t]; *θ; *ð 3;
[c] 5 5 th [θ] *t 4
8
*k̂ ś [ɕ] s [s] s [s] š [ʃ] s [s] k; ś k k [k] k [k] c [k]; *x; *ɣ 3;
[ɕ] 9 [k] ch [x] k4
*k k [k]; k [k]; k [k]; č k [k] kʻ
8
c [c] c [ʧ] 5 [ʧ] 5; c [kʰ]
*kʷ 5 [ʦ] 10 ku p; t 5; k qu [kʷ]; c [k]; *xʷ; *ɣʷ,
[kʷ] 6 c [k] 7 ch [x] *w 3; kʷ
8 4
*b b [b] b [b] b [b] b [b] p [p] p [p] p b [b] b [b] b [b] *p

[p]
*d d [d] d [d] d [d] d [d] t [t] ʦ [ʦ]; t [t] d [d] d [d] d [d]; *t
ś [ɕ] 5 dh [ð]
8
*ĝ j [ɟ] z [z] z [z] ž [ʒ] c [ʦ] k [k]; k g [g] g [g] g [g]; *k

ś [ɕ] 9 [k] gh [ɣ]
*g g [g]; g [g]; g [g]; ž g [g] k [k]
8
j [ɟ] 5 j [ʤ] [ʒ] 5; dz
*gʷ 5 [ʣ] 10 ku b [b]; d u [w]; b [b]; *kʷ
[kʷ] [d] 5; g gu [gʷ] m, bh
[g] 6 15 [w] 8
*bʰ bh b [b] b [b] b [b] b p [p] p ph [pʰ] f [f]; b 8 b [b]; *β

[bʱ] [b]; [p] m, bh
w [m,
[w] 8 w]8
*dʰ dh d [d] d [d] d [d] d [d] t [t]; c t [t] th [tʰ] f [f]; d 8; d [d]; *ð
[dʱ] [c] 5 b [b] 14 dh [ð]
8

*ĝʰ h [ɦ] z [z] z [z] ž [ʒ] j k [k]; k ch [kʰ] h [h]; h g [g]; *ɣ

[ʣ]; ś [ɕ] 5 [k] [h]/ g gh [ɣ]
z [z] [g] 9 5
*gʰ gh g [g]; g [g]; ž g [g] g

[gʱ]; ǰ [ʤ] [ʒ] 5; dz [g]; ǰ
*gʷʰ ku ph [pʰ]; f [f]; g g [g] *ɣʷ
h [ɦ] 5 [ʣ]] 10 [ʤ]
[kʷ] th [tʰ] 5; [g] / u
5 5
ch [kʰ] 6 [w] 8;
gu [gʷ]
15
*s s [s]; h [h, s [s]; x s [s]; h s [s]; š h [h]; s s [s]; r s [s] *s; *z 3

ṣ [ʂ] x]; s [x] 11 š [ʃ] [h]; ṣ [ʂ] [s] [s] 2; [-] [r] 8
11 [s] 2; 11 s [s] 8
š [ʃ] 2; [-]
11 8
*m m m [m] m [m]; ˛ m m m m m [m]; m [m] b [b]; *m; Ø 13

[m] [˜] 13 [m]; [m]; [m]; [m]; n [n] 13 m, bh
n [n] n [n] Ø 13 n [m, w]
13 13 [n] 8; n
13 [n] 13
*n n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n]; n n [n] n [n] n [n] *n

ñ [ɲ] [n]
*l r [r] r [r] l [l] l [l] l [l], l [l] l [l] l [l] l [l] l [l] *l
(dial. ɫ [ɫ
l [l]) > ɣ]
*r r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [ɹ] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] *r
*i̯ y [j] y [j] j [j] j [j] Ø y [j] y [j] z i [j]; Ø 8 Ø *j

[?zd/ʣ
> z] / h
[h]; Ø 8
*u̯ v [ʋ] v [w] v [v] v [ʋ] g [g] w [w] w w > h / u [w > f [f]; Ø *w
/ w [w] Ø [w > v] / w
[w] h / -] [w] 8
471
II.1.3. VOWELS AND SYLLABIC CONSONANTS
PIE Skr. Av. OCS Lith. Arm. Toch. Hitt. Gk. Lat. O.Ir Gmc
PIH
.
*e *e a a e e e ä e, i e e e i; ai
[ɛ]2
*h1e
*a (*a o a a ā ha, a a a a a
3)
*h2e
*o *h3e o, a a, e a o o o
a, ā a, ā
*o
4 4
*ə *h1 i i, Ø Ø Ø a, Ø ā a e a a a, Ø
*h2 h a
*h3 o
*- *h1 Ø Ø e (a?) Ø a e (o) Ø Ø Ø
*h2 a ha a
*h3 a a, ha o
*ē *ē ā ā ě ė i a/e?; e, i ē ē ī ē
ā? 8
*eh1
*ā (*ā a o a a (A); a, ah ā>ē ā ā ā

3) o (B)
*eh2
*ō *ō uo u a/ā?; a ō ō ā; ū 8
ū? 8
*eh3
*i *i i i ь i i ä i i i i i
*ī *ih1 ī ī i y [i:] i ī ī ī ei [i:]

i or yā ī or (j)ā?
*ih2
(j)a? 7 7
ī or (j)ō?
*ih3
7
*ei *ei ē ōi, ei, ie i e ei ī īa, ē

aē 4 5 6
*h₁e
i
*oi *oi ě ai, ie5 e oi ū oe ai
*h3e
i
*ai (*ai ay ai ae ae
3)
*h2e
i
*ēi *ēi āi; ā āi; i āi > ēi ī? ai

8 ā(i)
*ōi *ōi y; u 8 ai; ui ai āi > ēi ō u 8
8
(*oe 8
i)
*āi *eh2 ě āi > ēi ae ai

ei
*u u u ъ u u ä u u u u; o 1 u; au
*u
[ɔ] 2
*ū *uh1 ū ū y ū u ū ū ū ū
u or wā ū or
*uh2
(w)a? 7 (w)ā? 7
ū or
*uh3
(w)ō? 7
*eu *eu ō ə̄u, ju iau oy u u eu ū ūa; ō iu

ao 4 9
*h1e
u
473
*ou *ou u au ou; o, ou au

au
*h3e
u
*au (*au aw au au
3)
*h2e
u
*ēu *ēu āu āu u iau ū? au
*ōu *ōu ō
*m̥ a a ę im̃; am äm am a em em um
*m̥
um̃14 am
*m̥ ̅ ā ā ìm;ù ama mā mē,mā, mā mā

*mH
m 14 mō
*m̥ am am ьm/ъ im;u am am em am

m m m 14
*n̥ a a ę iñ;uñ an än an a en en un
*n̥
14 an
*n̥ ̄ ā ā ìn; ùn ana nā nē, nā, nā nā

*nH
14 nō
*n̥ n an an ьn/ъ iñ; uñ an an en an

n 14
*l̥ ṛ ərə lь/lъ il̃ ; ul̃ al äl al la ol li ul

*l̥
14
*l̥ ̄ īr; arə ìl; ùl ala lā lē, lā, lō lā lā

*lH
ūr 13 14
*l̥ l ir; ar ьl/ъl il; ul al, la al el al

ur 13 14
*r̥ ṛ ərə rь/rъ ir̃ ; ur̃ ar är ar ra or ri aur

*r̥
14

*r̥ ̄ īr; arə ìr; ùr ara rā rē, rā, rā rā

*rH
ūr 13 14 rō
*r̥ r ir; ar ьr/ъr ir; ur ar ar ar ar

ur 13 14
NOTES: 1 Before wa. 2 Before r, h. 3 The existence of PIE non-allophonic a is disputed. 4 In open
syllables (Brugmann’s law). 5 Under stress. 6 Before palatal consonants. 7 The so-called breaking is
disputed (typical examples are *proti-h₃kwo- > Ved. prátīkam ~ Gk. πρόσωπον; *gwih₃u̯o- > Ved.
jīvá- ~ Arm. keank’, Gk. ζωός; *duh₂ro- > Ved. dūrá- ~ Arm. erkar, Gk. δηρός) 8 In a final syllable.
9 Before velars and unstressed 10 Before ā in the following syllable. 11 Before i in the following
syllable. 12 In a closed syllable. 13 In the neighbourhood of labials. 14 In the neighbourhood of
labiovelars.
II.3. THE LARYNGEAL THEORY
1. The laryngeal theory is a generally accepted theory of historical linguistics which

proposes the existence of a set of three (or up to nine) consonant sounds that appear in
most current reconstructions of the Proto-Indo-European language, which usually target
Middle PIE or Indo-Hittite (PIH), i.e. the common IE language that includes Anatolian.
These sounds have since disappeared in all existing IE languages, but some laryngeals
are believed to have existed in the Anatolian languages.
NOTE. In this Modern Indo-European grammar, such uncertain sounds are replaced by the
vowels they yielded in Late PIE dialects (an -a frequently substitutes the traditional schwa
indogermanicum), cf. MIE patér for PIH *ph2tér, MIE ōktō(u), eight, for PIH *h3ekteh3, etc.
Again, for a MIE based on the northwestern dialects, such stricter reconstruction would give
probably a simpler language in terms of phonetic irregularities (ablaut or apophony), but also a
language phonologically too different from Latin, Greek, Germanic and Balto-Slavic dialects.
Nevertheless, reconstructions with laryngeals are often shown in this grammar as ‘etymological
sources’, so to speak, as Old English forms are shown when explaining a Modern English word in
modern dictionaries. The rest of this chapter offers a detailed description of the effects of
laryngeals in IE phonology and morphology.
2. The evidence for them is mostly indirect, but serves as an explanation for differences
between vowel sounds across Indo-European languages. For example, Sanskrit and
Ancient Greek, two descendents of PIE, exhibit many similar words that have differing
vowel sounds. Assume that the Greek word contains the vowel e and the corresponding
475
Sanskrit word contains i instead. The laryngeal theory postulates these words originally
had the same vowels, but a neighboring consonant which had since disappeared had
altered the vowels. If one would label the hypothesized consonant as *h1, then the
original PIH word may have contained something like *eh1 or *ih1, or perhaps a
completely different sound such as *ah1. The original phonetic values of the laryngeal
sounds remain controversial (v.i.)
3. The beginnings of the theory were proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1879, in an

article chiefly devoted to something else altogether (demonstrating that *a and *o were
separate phonemes in PIE). Saussure’s observations, however, did not achieve any
general currency until after Hittite was discovered and deciphered in the early 20th
century. Hittite had a sound or sounds written with symbols from the Akkadian syllabary
conventionally transcribed as ḫ, as in te-iḫ-ḫi , “I put, am putting”. Various more or less
obviously unsatisfactory proposals were made to connect these (or this) to the PIE
consonant system as then reconstructed. It remained for Jerzy Kuryłowicz (Études
indoeuropéennnes I, 1935) to propose that these sounds lined up with Saussure’s
conjectures. Since then, the laryngeal theory (in one or another form) has been accepted
by most Indo-Europeanists.
4. The late discovery of these sounds by Indo-Europeanists is largely due to the fact that
Hittite and the other Anatolian languages are the only Indo-European languages where
at least some of them are attested directly and consistently as consonantal sounds.
Otherwise, their presence is to be seen mostly through the effects they have on
neighboring sounds, and on patterns of alternation that they participate in; when a
laryngeal is attested directly, it is usually as a vowel (as in the Greek examples below).
Most Indo-Europeanists accept at least some version of laryngeal theory because their
existence simplifies some otherwise hard-to-explain sound changes and patterns of
alternation that appear in the Indo-European languages, and solves some minor
mysteries, such as why verb roots containing only a consonant and a vowel have only
long vowels e.g. PIE *dō- “give”; re-reconstructing PIH *deh3- instead not only accounts
for the patterns of alternation more economically than before, but brings the root into
line with the basic consonant - vowel - consonant Indo-European type.

5. There are many variations of the Laryngeal theory. Some scholars, such as Oswald
Szemerényi, reconstruct just one. Some follow Jaan Puhvel’s reconstruction of eight or
more (in his contribution to Evidence for Laryngeals, ed. Werner Winter). Most scholars
work with a basic three:
• *h1, the “neutral” laryngeal

• *h2, the “a-colouring” laryngeal
• *h3, the “o-colouring” laryngeal
Many scholars, however, either insist on or allow for a fourth consonant, *h4, which
differs from *h2 only in not being reflected as Anatolian ḫ. Accordingly, except when
discussing Hittite evidence, the theoretical existence of an *h4 contributes little. Another
such theory, but much less generally accepted, is Winfred P. Lehmann’s view that *h1 was
actually two separate sounds, due to inconsistent reflexes in Hittite. (He assumed that
one was a glottal stop and the other a glottal fricative.)
Some direct evidence for laryngeal consonants from Anatolian:
PIE *a is a rarish sound, and in an uncommonly large number of good etymologies it is

word-initial. Thus PIE (traditional) *antí, in front of and facing > Greek antí “against”;
Latin ante “in front of, before”; (Sanskrit ánti “near; in the presence of”). But in Hittite
there is a noun ḫants “front, face”, with various derivatives (ḫantezzi “first”, and so on,
pointing to a PIH root-noun *h2ent- “face” (of which *h2enti would be the locative
singular).
NOTE. It does not necessarily follow that all reconstructed PIE forms with initial *a should
automatically be rewritten as PIH *h2e.
Similarly, the traditional PIE reconstruction for ‘sheep’ is *owi-, whence Skt ávi-, Latin
ovis, Greek óïs. But now Luvian has ḫawi-, indicating instead a reconstruction *h3ewi-.
But if laryngeals as consonants were first spotted in Hittite only in 1935, what was the
basis for Saussure’s conjectures some 55 years earlier? They sprang from a reanalysis of
how the patterns of vowel alternation in Proto-Indo-European roots of different
structure aligned with one another.
6. A feature of Proto-Indo-European morpheme structure was a system of vowel

alternations christened ablaut (‘alternate sound’) by early German scholars and still
477
generally known by that term, except in Romance languages, where the term apophony
is preferred. Several different such patterns have been discerned, but the commonest
one, by a wide margin, is e/o/zero alternation found in a majority of roots, in many verb
and noun stems, and even in some affixes (the genitive singular ending, for example, is
attested as -es, -os, and -s). The different states are called ablaut grades; e-grade or “full
grades”, o-grade and “zero-grade”.
Thus the root *sed-, “to sit (down)” (roots are traditionally cited in the e-grade, if they
have one), has three different shapes: *sed-, *sod-, and *sd-. This kind of patterning is
found throughout the PIE root inventory and is transparent:
• *sed-: in Latin sedeō “am sitting”, Old English sittan “to sit” < *set-ja- (with
umlaut) < *sed-; Greek hédrā “seat, chair” < *sed-.
• *sod-: in Latin solium “throne” (Latin l sporadically replaces d between vowels,
said by Roman grammarians to be a Sabine trait) = Old Irish suideⁿ /suð’e/ “a sitting”
(all details regular from PIE *sod-jo-m); Gothic satjan = Old English settan “to set”
(causative) < *sat-ja- (umlaut again) < PIE *sod-eje-. PIE *se-sod-e “sat” (perfect) >
Sanskrit sa-sād-a per Brugmann’s law.
• *sd-: in compounds, as *ni- “down” + *sd- = *nisdos “nest”: English nest < Proto-
Germanic *nistaz, Latin nīdus < *nizdos (all regular developments). The 3 pl. (third
person plural) of the perfect would have been *se-sd-r̥ whence Indo-Iranian *sazdṛ,
which gives (by regular developments) Sanskrit sedur /sēdur/.
Now, in addition to the commonplace roots of consonant + vowel + consonant

structure there are also well-attested roots like *dhē- “put, place”: these end in a vowel,
which is always long in the categories where roots like *sed- have full grades; and in
those forms where zero grade would be expected, before an affix beginning with a
consonant, we find a short vowel, reconstructed as *ə, or schwa (more formally, schwa
primum indogermanicum). The cross-language correspondences of this vowel are
different from the other five short vowels.
NOTE. Before an affix beginning with a vowel, there is no trace of a vowel in the root, as shown
below.
Whatever caused a short vowel to disappear entirely in roots like *sed-/*sod-/*sd-, it

was a reasonable inference that a long vowel under the same conditions would not quite

disappear, but would leave a sort of residue. This residue is reflected as i in Indic while
dropping in Iranian; it gives variously e, a, o in Greek; it mostly falls together with the
reflexes of PIE *a in the other languages (always bearing in mind that short vowels in
non-initial syllables undergo various adventures in Italic, Celtic, and Germanic):
• *dō- “give”: in Latin dōnum “gift" = Old Irish dán /dāṅ/ and Sanskrit dâna- (â
= ā with tonic accent); Greek dí-dō-mi (reduplicated present) “I give” = Sanskrit
dádāmi. But in the participles, Greek dotós “given” = Sanskrit ditá-, Latin datus
all < *də-tó-.
• *stā- “stand”: in Greek hístēmi (reduplicated present, regular from *si-stā-),
Sanskrit a-sthā-t aorist “stood”, Latin testāmentum “testimony” < *ter-stā- <
*tri-stā- (“third party” or the like). But Sanskrit sthitá-“stood”, Greek stasís “a
standing”, Latin supine infinitive statum “to stand”.
Conventional wisdom lined up roots of the *sed- and *dō- types as follows:
Full Grades Weak Grades

sed-, sod- sd- “sit”
dō- də-, d- “give”
But there are other patterns of “normal” roots, such as those ending with one of the six
resonants (*j w r l m n), a class of sounds whose peculiarity in Proto-Indo-Eruopean is
that they are both syllabic (vowels, in effect) and consonants, depending on what sounds
are adjacent:
Root *bher-/bhor-/bhr̥- ~ bhr- “carry”
• *bher-: in Latin ferō = Greek phérō, Avestan barā, Old Irish biur, Old English
bera all “I carry”; Latin ferculum “bier, litter” < *bher-tlo- “implement for
carrying”.
• *bhor-: in Gothic barn “child” (= English dial. bairn), Greek phoréō “I wear
[clothes]” (frequentative formation, *”carry around”); Sanskrit bhâra- “burden”
(*bhor-o- via Brugmann’s law).
479
• *bhr̥- before consonants: Sanskrit bhṛ-tí- “a carrying”; Gothic gabaurþs

/gaborθs/, Old English gebyrd /yebürd/, Old High German geburt all “birth” <
*gaburdi- < *bhr̥-tí-
• *bhr- before vowels: Ved bibhrati 3pl. “they carry” < *bhi-bhr-n̥ti; Greek di-
phrós “chariot footboard big enough for two men” < *dwi-bhr-o-.
Saussure’s insight was to align the long-vowel roots like *dō-, *stā- with roots like
*bher-, rather than with roots of the *sed- sort. That is, treating “schwa” not as a residue
of a long vowel but, like the *r of *bher-/*bhor-/*bhr̥-, an element that was present in the
root in all grades, but which in full grade forms coalesced with an ordinary e/o root
vowel to make a long vowel, with ‘coloring’ (changed phonetics) of the e-grade into the
bargain; the mystery element was seen by itself only in zero grade forms:
Full Grades Zero Grade

bher-, bhor- bhr̥- / bhr- “carry”
deX, doX- dẊ- / dX- “give”
* Ẋ = syllabic form of the mystery element
Saussure treated only two of these elements, corresponding to our *h2 and *h3. Later it
was noticed that the explanatory power of the theory, as well as its elegance, were
enhanced if a third element were added, our *h1. which has the same lengthening and
syllabifying properties as the other two but has no effect on the color of adjacent vowels.
Saussure offered no suggestion as to the phonetics of these elements; his term for them,
“coéfficiants sonantiques”, was not however a fudge, but merely the term in general use
for glides, nasals, and liquids (i.e., the PIE resonants) as in roots like *bher-.
As mentioned above, in forms like *dwi-bhr-o- (etymon of Greek diphrós, above), the
new “coéfficiants sonantiques” (unlike the six resonants) have no reflexes at all in any
daughter language. Thus the compound PIH *mns̥ -dheh- “to ‘fix thought’, be devout,
become rapt” forms a noun *mn̥s-dhh-o- seen in Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdha- whence
Sanskrit medhá- /mēdha/ “sacrificial rite, holiness” (regular development as in sedur <
*sazdur, above), Avestan mazda- “name (originally an epithet) of the greatest deity”.

There is another kind of unproblematic root, in which obstruents flank a resonant. In

the zero grade, unlike the case with roots of the *bher- type, the resonant is therefore
always syllabic (being always between two consonants). An example would be *bhendh-
“tie, bind”:
• *bhendh-: in Germanic forms like Old English bindan “to tie, bind”, Gothic
bindan; Lithuanian beñdras “chum”, Greek peĩsma “rope, cable” /pēsma/ <
*phenth-sma < *bhendh-smn̥.
• *bhondh-: in Sanskrit bandhá- “bond, fastening” (*bhondh-o-; Grassmann’s
law) = Old Icelandic bant, OE bænd; Old English bænd, Gothic band “he tied” <
*(bhe)bhondh-e.
• *bhn̥dh-: in Sanskrit baddhá- < *bhn̥dh-tó- (Bartholomae’s law), Old English
gebunden, Gothic bundan; German Bund “league”. (English bind and bound
show the effects of secondary (Middle English) vowel lengthening; the original
length is preserved in bundle.)
This is all straightforward and such roots fit directly into the overall patterns. Less so
are certain roots that seem sometimes to go like the *bher- type, and sometimes to be
unlike anything else, with (for example) long syllabics in the zero grades while at times
pointing to a two-vowel root structure. These roots are variously called “heavy bases”,
“dis(s)yllabic roots”, and “seṭ roots” (the last being a term from Pāṇini’s grammar. It
will be explained below).
For example, the root “be born, arise” is given in the usual etymological dictionaries as
follows:
A. PIE *gen-, *gon-, *gn̥n-
B. PIE *genə-, *gonə-, *gn̥̄- (where n̥̄ = a long syllabic n̥)
The (A) forms occur when the root is followed by an affix beginning with a vowel; the
(B) forms when the affix begins with a consonant. As mentioned, the full-grade (A) forms
look just like the *bher- type, but the zero grades always and only have reflexes of syllabic
resonants, just like the *bhendh- type; and unlike any other type, there is a second root
vowel (always and only *ə) following the second consonant:
481
*gen(ə)-
• PIE *genos- neut s-stem “race, clan” > Greek (Homeric) génos, -eos, Sanskrit
jánas-, Avestan zanō, Latin genus, -eris.
• Greek gené-tēs “begetter, father”; géne-sis < *genə-ti- “origin”; Sanskrit jáni-
man- “birth, lineage”, jáni-tar- “progenitor, father”, Latin genitus “begotten” <
genatos.
*gon(e)-
• Sanskrit janayati “beget” = Old English cennan /kennan/ < *gon-eje-

(causative); Sanskrit jána- “race” (o-grade o-stem) = Greek gónos, -ou
“offspring”.
• Sanskrit jajāna 3sg. “was born” < *ge-gon-e.
̥ -/*gn̥̄-
*gnn
• Gothic kuni “clan, family” = OE cynn /künn/, English kin; Rigvedic jajanúr
3pl.perfect < *ge-gn̥n- (a relic; the regular Sanskrit form in paradigms like this is
jajñur, a remodeling).
• Sanskrit jātá- “born” = Latin nātus (Old Latin gnātus, and cf. forms like
cognātus “related by birth”, Greek kasí-gnētos “brother”); Greek gnḗsios
“belonging to the race”. (The ē in these Greek forms can be shown to be original,
not Attic-Ionic developments from Proto-Greek *ā.)
NOTE. The Pāṇinian term “seṭ” (that is, sa-i-ṭ) is literally “with an /i/”. This refers to the fact
that roots so designated, like jan- “be born”, have an /i/ between the root and the suffix, as we’ve
seen in Sanskrit jánitar-, jániman-, janitva (a gerund). Cf. such formations built to “aniṭ”
("without an /i/") roots, such as han- “slay”: hántar- “slayer”, hanman- “a slaying”, hantva
(gerund). In Pāṇini’s analysis, this /i/ is a linking vowel, not properly a part of either the root or
the suffix. It is simply that some roots are in effect in the list consisting of the roots that (as we
would put it) ‘take an -i-’.
The startling reflexes of these roots in zero grade before a consonant (in this case,
Sanskrti ā, Greek nē, Latin nā, Lithuanian ìn) is explained by the lengthening of the
(originally perfectly ordinary) syllabic resonant before the lost laryngeal, while the same
laryngeal protects the syllabic status of the preceding resonant even before an affix

beginning with a vowel: the archaic Vedic form jajanur cited above is structurally quite
the same (*ge-gn̥h₁-r̥) as a form like *da-dṛś-ur “they saw” < *de-dr̥k-r̥.
Incidentally, redesigning the root as *genh- has another consequence. Several of the
Sanskrit forms cited above come from what look like o-grade root vowels in open
syllables, but fail to lengthen to -ā- per Brugmann’s law. All becomes clear when it is
understood that in such forms as *gonh- before a vowel, the *o is not in fact in an open
syllable. And in turn that means that a form like O.Ind. jajāna “was born”, which
apparently does show the action of Brugmann’s law, is actually a false witness: in the
Sanskrit perfect tense, the whole class of seṭ roots, en masse, acquired the shape of the
aniṭ 3 sing. forms.
There are also roots ending in a stop followed by a laryngeal, as *pleth₂-/*plt̥ h₂-
“spread, flatten”, from which Sanskrit pṛthú- “broad” masc. (= Avestan pərəθu-),
pṛthivī- fem., Greek platús (zero grade); Skt. prathimán- “wideness” (full grade), Greek
platamṓn “flat stone”. The laryngeal explains (a) the change of *t to *th in Proto-Indo-
Iranian, (b) the correspondence between Greek -a-, Sanskrit -i- and no vowel in Avestan
(Avestan pərəθwī “broad” fem. in two syllables vs Sanskrit pṛthivī- in three).
Caution has to be used in interpreting data from Indic in particular. Sanskrit remained
in use as a poetic, scientific, and classical language for many centuries, and the multitude
of inherited patterns of alternation of obscure motivation (such as the division into seṭ
and aniṭ roots) provided models for coining new forms on the "wrong" patterns. There
are many forms like tṛṣita- “thirsty” and tániman- “slendernes”, that is, seṭ formations to
to unequivocally aniṭ roots; and conversely aniṭ forms like píparti “fills”, pṛta- “filled”, to
securely seṭ roots (cf. the ‘real’ past participle, pūrṇá-). Sanskrit preserves the effects of
laryngeal phonology with wonderful clarity, but looks upon the historical linguist with a
threatening eye: for even in Vedic Sanskrit, the evidence has to be weighed carefully with
due concern for the antiquity of the forms and the overall texture of the data.
Stray laryngeals can be found in isolated or seemingly isolated forms; here the three-
way Greek reflexes of syllabic *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ are particularly helpful, as seen below.
• *ḥ1 in Greek ánemos “wind” (cf. Latin animus “breath, spirit; anger”, Vedic
aniti “breathes”) < *anə- “breathe; blow” (now *h₂enh₁-). Perhaps also Greek
483
híeros “mighty, super-human; divine; holy”, cf. Sanskrit iṣirá- “vigorous,

energetic”.
• *ḥ2 in Greek patḗr “father” = Sanskrit pitár-, Old English fæder, Gothic fadar,
Latin pater. Also *megḥ₂ “big” neut. > Greek méga, Sanskrit máhi.
• *ḥ3 in Greek árotron “plow” = Welsh aradr, Old Norse arðr, Lithuanian
árklas.
The Greek forms ánemos and árotron are particularly valuable because the verb roots
in question are extinct in Greek as verbs. This means that there is no possibility of some
sort of analogical interference, as for example happened in the case of Latin arātrum
“plow”, whose shape has been distorted by the verb arāre “to plow” (the exact cognate to
the Greek form would have been *aretrum). It used to be standard to explain the root
vowels of Greek thetós, statós, dotós “put, stood, given” as analogical. Most scholars
nowadays probably take them as original, but in the case of “wind” and “plow”, the
argument can’t even come up.
Regarding Greek híeros, the pseudo-participle affix *-ro- is added directly to the verb
root, so *isḥ1-ro- > *isero- > *ihero- > híeros (with regular throwback of the aspiration to
the beginning of the word), and Sanskrit iṣirá-. There seems to be no question of the
existence of a root *ejsh- “vigorously move/cause to move”. If the thing began with a
laryngeal, and most scholars would agree that it did, it would have to be *h1-, specifically;
and that’s a problem. A root of the shape *h1ejsh1- is not possible. Indo-European had no
roots of the type *mem-, *tet-, *dhredh-, i.e., with two copies of the same consonant. But
Greek attests an earlier (and rather more widely-attested) form of the same meaning,
híaros. If we reconstruct *h1ejsh2-, all of our problems are solved in one stroke. The
explanation for the híeros/híaros business has long been discussed, without much result;
laryngeal theory now provides the opportunity for an explanation which did not exist
before, namely metathesis of the two laryngeals. It’s still only a guess, but it’s a much
simpler and more elegant guess than the guesses available before.
The syllabic *ḥ2 in PIH *pḥ2ter- “father” is not really isolated. The evidence is clear that
the kinship affix seen in “mother, father” etc. was actually *-h2ter-. The laryngeal
syllabified after a consonant (thus Greek patḗr, Latin pater, Sanskrit pitár-; Greek
thugátēr, Sanskrit duhitár- “daughter”) but lengthened a preceding vowel (thus say

Latin māter “mother”, frāter “brother”) — even when the “vowel” in question was a
syllabic resonant, as in Sanskrit yātaras “husbands’ wives” < *jn̥̄t- < *jn̥-h₂ter-).
LARYNGEALS IN MORPHOLOGY
Like any other consonant, Laryngeals feature in the endings of verbs and nouns and in
derivational morphology, the only difference being the greater difficulty of telling what’s
going on. Indo-Iranian, for example, can retain forms that pretty clearly reflect a
laryngeal, but there is no way of knowing which one.
The following is a rundown of laryngeals in Proto-Indo-European morphology.
*h1 is seen in the instrumental ending (probably originally indifferent to number, like
English expressions of the type by hand and on foot). In Sanskrit, feminine i- and u-
stems have instrumentals in -ī, -ū, respectively. In the Rigveda, there are a few old a-
stems (PIE o-stems) with an instrumental in -ā; but even in that oldest text the usual
ending is -enā, from the n-stems.
Greek has some adverbs in -ē, but more important are the Mycenaean forms like e-re-
pa-te “with ivory” (i.e. elephantē? -ě?)
The marker of the neuter dual was *-ih, as in Sanskrit bharatī “two carrying ones
(neut.)”, nāmanī “two names”, yuge “two yokes” (< yuga-i? *yuga-ī?). Greek to the
rescue: the Homeric form ósse “the (two) eyes” is manifestly from *h₃ekw-ih1 (formerly
*okw-ī) via fully-regular sound laws (intermediately *okwje).
*-eh1- derives stative verb senses from eventive roots: PIE *sed- “sit (down)”: *sed-eh1-
“be in a sitting position” (> Proto-Italic *sed-ē-je-mos “we are sitting” > Latin sedēmus).
It is clearly attested in Celtic, Italic, Germanic (the Class IV weak verbs), and Balto-
Slavic, with some traces in Indo-Iranian (In Avestan the affix seems to form past-
habitual stems).
It seems likely, though it is less certain, that this same *-h1 underlies the nominative-
accusative dual in o-stems: Sanskrit vṛkā, Greek lúkō “two wolves”. (The alternative
ending -āu in Sanskrit cuts a small figure in the Rigveda, but eventually becomes the
standard form of the o-stem dual.)
*-h1s- derives desiderative stems as in Sanskrit jighāṃsati “desires to slay” < *gwhi-
gwhṇ-h2s-e-ti- (root *gwhen-, Sanskrit han- “slay”). This is the source of Greek future
485
tense formations and (with the addition of a thematic suffix *-je/o-) the Indo-Iranian one
as well: bhariṣyati “will carry” < *bher-ḥ1s-je-ti.
*-jeh1-/*-ih1- is the optative suffix for root verb inflections, e.g. Latin (old) siet “may he
be”, sīmus “may we be”, Sanskrit syāt “may he be”, and so on.
*h2 is seen as the marker of the neuter plural: *-ḥ2 in the consonant stems, *-eh2 in the
vowel stems. Much leveling and remodeling is seen in the daughter languages that
preserve any ending at all, thus Latin has generalized *-ā throughout the noun system
(later regularly shortened to -a), Greek generalized -ǎ < *-ḥ2.
The categories “masculine/feminine” plainly did not exist in the most original form of
Proto-Indo-European, and there are very few noun types which are formally different in
the two genders. The formal differences are mostly to be seen in adjectives (and not all of
them) and pronouns. Interestingly, both types of derived feminine stems feature *h2: a
type that is patently derived from the o-stem nominals; and an ablauting type showing
alternations between *-jeh2- and *-ih2-. Both are peculiar in having no actual marker for
the nominative singular, and at least as far as the *-eh2- type, two things seem clear: it is
based on the o-stems, and the nom.sg. is probably in origin a neuter plural. (An archaic
trait of Indo-European morpho-syntax is that plural neuter nouns construe with singular
verbs, and quite possibly *jugeh2 was not so much “yokes” in our sense, but “yokage; a
harnessing-up”.) Once that much is thought of, however, it is not easy to pin down the
details of the “ā-stems” in the Indo-European languages outside of Anatolia, and such an
analysis sheds no light at all on the *-jeh2-/*-ih2- stems, which (like the *eh2-stems) form
feminine adjective stems and derived nouns (e.g. Sanskrit devī- “goddess” from deva-
“god”) but unlike the “ā-stems” have no foundation in any neuter category.
*-eh2- seems to have formed factitive verbs, as in *new-eh2- “to renew, make new
again”, as seen in Latin novāre, Greek neáō and Hittite ne-wa-aḫ-ḫa-an-t- (participle)
all “renew” but all three with the pregnant sense of “plow anew; return fallow land to
cultivation”.
*-h2- marked the 1st person singular, with a somewhat confusing distribution: in the
thematic active (the familiar -ō ending of Greek and Latin, and Indo-Iranian -ā(mi)), and
also in the perfect tense (not really a tense in PIE): *-h2e as in Greek oîda "I know" <
*wojd-h2e. It is the basis of the Hittite ending -ḫḫi, as in da-aḫ-ḫi “I take” < *-ḫa-i

(original *-ḫa embellished with the primary tense marker with subsequent smoothing of
the diphthong).
*-eh3 may be tentatively identified in a “directive case”. No such case is found in Indo-
European noun paradigms, but such a construct accounts for a curious collection of
Hittite forms like ne-pi-ša “(in)to the sky”, ták-na-a “to, into the ground”, a-ru-na “to
the sea”. These are sometimes explained as o-stem datives in -a < *-ōj, an ending clearly
attested in Greek and Indo-Iranian, among others, but there are serious problems with
such a view, and the forms are highly coherent, functionally. And there are also
appropriate adverbs in Greek and Latin (elements lost in productive paradigms
sometimes survive in stray forms, like the old instrumental case of the definite article in
English expressions like the more the merrier): Greek ánō “upwards”, kátō
“downwards”, Latin quō “whither?”, eō “to that place”; and perhaps even the Indic
preposition/preverb â “to(ward)” which has no satisfactory competing etymology.
(These forms must be distinguished from the similar-looking ones formed to the ablative
in *-ōd and with a distinctive “fromness” sense: Greek ópō “whence, from where”.)
PRONUNCIATION
Considerable debate still surrounds the pronunciation of the laryngeals and various
arguments have been given to pinpoint their exact place of articulation. Firstly the effect
these sounds have had on adjacent phonemes is well documented. The evidence from
Hittite and Uralic is sufficient to conclude that these sounds were “guttural” or
pronounced rather back in the buccal cavity. The same evidence is also consistent with
the assumption that they were fricative sounds (as opposed to approximants or stops), an
assumption which is strongly supported by the behaviour of laryngeals in consonant
clusters.
The assumption that *h1 is a glottal stop [ʔ] is still very widespread. A glottal stop would
however be unlikely to be reflected as a fricative in Uralic borrowings, as appears to be
the case, for example in the word lehti < *lešte <= PIE *bhlh1-to. If, as some evidence
suggests, there were two *h1 sounds, then one may have been the glottal stop [ʔ] and the
other may have been the h sound [h] of English “hat”.
487
Rasmussen suggests a consonantal realization for *h1 as [h] with a vocalic allophone
[ɘ]. This is supported by the closeness of [ɘ] to [e] (with which it coalesces in Greek), its
failure (unlike *h2 and *h3) to create an auxiliary vowel in Greek and Tocharian when it
occurs between a semivowel and a consonant, and the typological likelihood of a [h]
given the presence of aspirated consonants in PIE.
From what is known of such phonetic conditioning in contemporary languages, notably

Semitic languages, *h2 (the “a-colouring” laryngeal) could have been a pharyngeal or
epiglottal fricative such as [ħ], [ ʕ], [ʜ], or [ʢ]. Pharyngeal/epiglottal consonants (like the
Arabic letter ‫( ح‬ħ) as in Muħammad) often cause a-coloring in the Semitic languages.
Rasmussen suggests a consonantal realization for *h2 as [x], with a vocalic allophone
[ɐ].
Likewise it is generally assumed that *h3 was rounded (labialized) due to its o-coloring
effects. It is often taken to be voiced based on the perfect form *pi-bh3- from the root
*peh3 "drink". Based on the analogy of Arabic, some linguists have assumed that *h3 was
also pharyngeal/epiglottal [ʕw ~ ʢw] like Arabic ‫( ع‬ayin, as in Arabic mu‫ع‬allim =
“teacher”) plus labialization, although the assumption that it was velar [ɣw] is probably
more common. (The reflexes in Uralic languages could be the same whether the original
phonemes were velar or pharyngeal.)

APPENDIX III: ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
III.1. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN VOCABULARY
This is a synoptic table of words that helped reconstruct part of the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary.
5.Ind.-Ira., Ana,
PIE 1.Italic 2.Celtic 3.Germanic 4.Greek 6.Balto-Slavic
Arm., Toch
1a.Latin 1b.Other 2a.Western 2b.Eastern 3a.Western 3b.East.
6.1.- O.C.S. 6.2.-
4.1.-Ion-Att.
Russ. 6.3.-
4.2.-Aeol 5.1.-Skr.
2a0.-Ogham. 3a1.-Ger. Lith 6.4.-
1a0.-Lat. 1b1.-Osc. 2b0.-Gal/Brit 4.3.-Dor 5.2.-Ved.
2a1.-O.Ir. 3a2.-Eng. Latv. 6.5.-
1a1.-Gal- 1b2.-Umbr. 2b1.-Welsh 3b0.- 4.4.-Boeot. 5.3. Avest.
2a2.-M.Ir. 3a3.-Nor. Da. Sr. 6.6.-
Rom. 1b3.-Volsc. 2b2.-Corn. Goth. 4.5.-Phyg. 5.4.- Arm.
2a3.-Mod.Ir. 3a5.-Du. Pol.
1a2.-Pren. 1b4.-Pelig. 2b3.-Bret. 4.6.-Mac. 5.5.- Hitt.
2a4.-Sco. 3a6.-Low Ger. 6.7.- Tch.
4.7.-Ac-Kyp. 5.6.- Pers.
6.8.- Slo.
4.8.-Myc.
6.9.- O.Pruss.
dádāti, dānam damь, datь; danъ
duass <*dovestã διδωµι, aor.
(dí)dōmi dō, dōnum 5.4.-tam 5.5.- 'dōnum'
'dōnum' εδωκα dahhi 'emō' 6.3.-dúomi 'id'
itar·gninim, kunnan, jñāta-, jñāyáte
gnōuī, 1b2.-naratu Ate-gnatus
asa·gninaim kunnan, kennen, kannjan; 5.4.-čanač'em znati
(gí)gnōskō ignōrō, 'narrātō', 2b1.-gwn, atwaen
(gnōwa)
'sapiō', ad·gnin können kann γιγνωσκω <*canač'em 6.3.-žinaũ, žinóti
ignārus, naraklum 2b2.-gon,aswom
'agnoscit' 3a2.-know <*gonne <*gnH3sky-, aor. 6.4.-zinât
narrāre 'nūntiātiō' 2b3.-gounn/gonn
<*gninu- 'potest' caneay
αησι
vāti, vāyati; vāyú 'id'
(Hom.); αησυ
uannus; wehen waían 5a3.-vāiti;vāyu vejo, vejetъ
()wēmi ροσ 'uentōsus'
uatillus 3a2.-wāwan waíwō 'uentus' 6.3.-vejas 'uentus'
αοσ (Ηεσ.) 'π 5.5.-huwant
νευµα'
(jí)jēmi iaciō, iaceō ιηµι 5.5.-i-ja-mi 'faciō';
pi-ja-mi 'mittō'
hār 'cōs' 3a2.- śiśāti (śi-śī-tē),
catus, cōs
(kí)kēmi cath 'doctus' hone 'id' καινοσ 'glarea' śyáti, part. śitá-;
(cōtis)
3a3.-hein 'id' 5.3.-saēni- 'cuspis'
lán 'plēnus, píparti, pūryáté,
(pím)plēmi plēnus πιµπληµι
lín 'numerus' prānah
super, -rus, -
rior, suprā, 1b1.-gor-, gwar- ubari, ubiri , über upári
1b2.-super;
(s)úperi suprēmus, for(-) 1b2.-gor- 3a2.-over ufar υπερ 5.3.-upairi
subra 'supra'
superne, 1b3.-gour- 3a3.-yfir 5.4.-ver(oy)
summus
1b1.- supruis obaro, obere
ufarō
(s)úperos superus 'superīs' 3a2.-yferra úpara-
'suprā'
1b2.-superne <*uperizō
(s)upmos
-tau 'sum'; -
2b1.-gwastad
sissiur, -sissedar
'plānum'
(sí)stāmi stō 'stō' ; foss stoþ (part.) ιστηµι tiṣṭhati stati
<upóstato
'seruus'
2b2.-goustad
fossad 'firmus'
(sí)stāmi
antí/prāi
(sí)stāmi visthala- 'locus
apó
abstō, distō Abstand αφιστηµι
recondictus'
ιεµαι 'eō,
intendō'
vḗti 'persequitur' povinǫti 'subiciō'
(δ)ιωκω 'pers
vēnati 'anhelat'
(wí)weimi inuītō -āre equor' vojьna 'bellum'
5.3.-vīvāiti , vayeiti
παλιωξισ 'reu 'id' 6.3.-vejù, výti
ersus in
proeliō'
obrěsti <*wr-t
wraton 'iter sъ-rěsti
(wí)wermi ·fúar ευρισκω
facere' 'conuenīre'
6.3.-su-rė̃sti

Appendix III: Etymological Notes
'capere' <*wr-t
η, αν−ωγα
∂gjō aiō 1b2.-aiu 5.4.-asem
'iussī'
∂gtis
āpnoti
apīscor, 5.3.-apayeiti, 3. Pl.
coepī, aptus, απτω 'ligō';
āp∂nte <āpwantai
cōpula; ape αφη
∂pjō
(imperat.); 'tactus'; αφα(τ 5.4.-unim <pn?
apud<ap- τ)ω 'tangō' 'possideō'
wod 5.5.-eipmi 'emō' 3.
pl. appaanzi
∂snātis
Abella
avallo apls? ablъko, jablъko
(malifera
ábelos aball <ln 2b1.-afal apful KRIMGOT: 6.3.-obulas (fr.),
sec.
2b2, 2b3.-aval apel obelìs (arb.)
Vergilium)
irl. Opunn, t-
abhnos op 'repentīnus' αφνω abьje 'citō'
/ obann, tobann
abrs 'uī'
abraba
'multō'
abhro- abor- 'multō' 2b1.-afr- 'multō' 3a3.-afar 'multō'
biabrjan
'stupōre.
excitārī'
agnus;
1b2.- 2b1.-oen (pl. wyn) 3a2.-ēanian,. to (j)agnę, (j)agnьcь
agnīle, úan proto-celt. αµνοσ <
acnos habina(f) 2b2.-oin/oan/on yean <*-gwhn- 'auillus'; jagnilo
auillus, *ognos *αβνοσ
'agnīnae' 2b3.-oan (pl. ein) 'sicut agnus esse' 'agnīle'
agnīnus
az; zagēn, zougen
az; adpud ad- (v.g. ad- at; at-
3a2.-æt; tōgian ha<ad-ghe; t-saráti
ad ad 'quoad' adgládur 2b2.-add-; a(g) augjan
'timeō' 'reptat'
1b2.-ar- 'appellō') 'cum' <ad-ghe 'monstrō'
3a3.-at
2b2.- ad, pl ada 'mōs'; addas 'correctus'; zil, Ziel 'fātum' til, ga-tils
adējō
arsie<adio adas 'pertinens' eddyl 'fās' 3a2.-til 'correctus'; 'correctus'
491
'sanctē'; til 'tenus';

arsmor<adm 3a3.-til 'tenus'
on 'ritus';
arsmatiam<a
dmatio-
'rituālem';
armamu
'ordināmini'
admṇ
atisk <*-
5.5.-hattar; hat- TOK A, B.-āti
ados ezzisca 'sēmen' esko
'siccus esse' 'grāmina'
'aruum'
ág∂lis agilis ajirá-
*ogan (og);
αχοµαι
agis
egis-līh 'terribilis' 'afflīgor'; αχοσ
(agisis)
āghar ·ágathar 3a2.-ege (i-), awe '-ctiō'; οχλοσ
'timor';
'timor' 'onus,
unagands
'audax' multitūdō'
αχερων ozero
ágherom ILLYR.-Oseriates
'Acherōn' 6.3.-ẽžeras
ag allaid ahī 'bōs'
ael 'id'; eilion
aghjā 'ceruus', ál 5.3.-azī 'forda'
<*agliones 'equī'
'catulus' 5.4.-ezn 'bōs'?
agis
'αισχροσ'
agliÞa, aglō
'tribulātiō'
αχοµαι
álad? 'uulnus' eglian 'aegrotāre' us-agljam agha 'prāuus'
'afflīgor';
aghlós aeleu<aghlowo 3a2.-egele 'tribulāre' aghala 'malum'
'dolor' 'repugnans' οχλοσ 'onus, 5.3.-agō 'prāuus'
aglus,
multitūdō'
agluba
'difficile'
aglaitei
àselgeia'
aghlóws 2b1.-glaw, 'pluuia' αχλυσ 5.4.-aɫǯaɫǯ 6.9.-aglo 'pluuia'
2b3.-glav 'id' 'tenebrae' 'obscūrus'

ághneumi αχνυµι
aglā ál ael αγελη 'grex'
agmen,
agm∂n ájman-
exāmen
acum 'agere' atom-aig 'adigit
2b1.-agit/â 'it' ájati
agō agō 1b2.-aitu me' áin <*agni- 3a3.-aka 'condūcō' αγω
2b2-2b3.-a 5.3.-azaiti
'agitō' 'ductiō'
ekel 'damnum' αγοσ
gas- 'culpa';
agos 3a2.-acan, ōc 'culpa'; αναγη
'doleō' σ 'innocens' ánāgas- 'innocens'
ajá- 'ariēs'; aj
koza (k cf. kostь)
ALB.-dh 'capra' ajína-m
agós ag, agh ?? 'cerua' (j)azno 'pellis'
'capra' 'pellis' 5.4.-ezn?
6.3.-ožì nis
'bōs' ? 5.6.-azak,
'caprīnus'
azg 'capr.'
2b1.-hair/aer
agrā ár αγρα 'uenātiō'
2b3.-air pl. airou
2b1.-aeron
agoda, jagoda
áirne 'prūnus 'baccae', eirin ackeran, Ecker akran
ágrēnom 6.3.-úoga 'bacca'
spinōsa' 'prūnī' 2b3.- 3a2.- æcern 'fruit'
6.4.-uôga
(h)irin 'prūn. sp.'
agróqolās
agros ager 3a2.-æcer akrs αγροσ ájra-
agslā
agtós actus ακτοσ
aiwiski
αισχοσ
ekeln 'repudiō' 'uerecundi 5.5.-iskuna(hh)
<*aigʷh-s-kos осохъ 'ignōminia'
aichesājō 3a2.-æwan a' 'iniuriō' TOK
'uerecundia'; α *ai>*au !!
'contemnō' aiwiskōn B.-yäsk 'mancillō'
'repudiō' ισχυνο(µαι)
aidhis
aedes, eit 'ardor' ; ast inddhé; édhah
aed (aeda) αιθω, αιθοσ 6.7.-nisteje
aidhō aestas, Aedui (VN) 'siccātor' 'cremium' ; vīdhrá-
aestus
<*aidhu- 'ignis'
3a2.-ād 'ardor'; αιθηρ 'sūdus'; iṣṭaka 'later 'caloriferum'
493
<*aidh-stu- 'cremium'; oast 'aer', ιθαροσ combustus' 5.3.-

(cf. irl. tess 'sicc' 'sūdus' aesma 'cremium'
*tep-stu-) 5.5.-ay- 'caleō'
eih κραταιγοσ, αιγ
aigā aesculus ?
3a2.-ác ιλωϕ
3a2.-ācol 'agitātus' bába jagá
ALB.-ke-ék `prāuus'
inca 'dolor' 'uenefica'
<*ke + *aigio-
aigros aeger 3a3.-eikja, eikla jedza 'morbum,
TOCH A ekro B
'tormentō'; ekki ira' 6.3..-ingas
aik(a)re
'dolor' 'piger'
αιχµη < ∗κσµ ' igla 'acus'
aikō icō, iciō hasta'; ικταρ 'p 5.3.-ishar 'protinus' 6.3.-iẽšmas,
rope' jiẽšmas 'hasta'
áimneumi
imāgō,
aimom aemulus, 5.5.-himma
imitor
ainō enant 'domitus'
αινυµαι 'potio 5.5.- pai- (pe+ai)
áinumoi aemulus
r' 'dō'
aiqos aequus eka 'ūnus'
αιρα 'mala
airā erakā 'herba' 6.4.-aĩres, aĩrenes
herba'
aistan αιδεοµαι < ∗αι īdē (p.pt īdya)
aisdai
'caueō' σδεσοµαι 'honorō' <*aisd-
aisdhom
iskra 'scintilla';
ésca, éscae 'lūna'
aiskrós 5.5.-asara-, esara- jasnъ
<H2eiskjo-
6.3.-áiškus, iškùs
aisusis
'sacrificiis' ēra /Ehre aistan αιδοµαι < αισδ īdē (p.pt īdya)
aisō
esono- 3a2.-ar 'honor' 'caueō' οµαι 'honorō' <*aisd-
'sacer'
eiscurent eiskōn, heischen eshati 'quaerit', iskati 'quaerō';
áisoskō aeruscāre
'arcessierint' 'poscō' eshah, icchah iska 'desiderium'
3a2.-āscian, āxian 'desiderium' 6.3.-ieskoti

'poscō' ishma- 'deus 6.4.-ieskat
amoris' 5.3.-ishaiti
'desiderat'
eisca 'postulātiō'
icchā 5.4.-
aisskā 3a2.-æsce iska
aic̣ 'inuest.'
'inuestigātiō'
αισα
aeteis`partis' < αιτια
áes 'aetas' <ait- 5.3.-aēta 'multa,
aitis aíttíúm 2b1.-oes 'aetas' 'pars,
to punītiō'
'portionum' destīnum'
αιτια 'causa'
io 3a2.-
áiw(es)i ā, ō aiw αιω, αει
3a3.-æ, ei
Aesus
2b1.-oes αιων 'tempus, yuḥ (āyušaḥ) 'uis ALB.eshë <
áiwesos áis, aes, óis, oes
2b2.-huis/oys/ūz saeculum' uitālis' *aiu̯esi̯ā
2b3.-oet, oat, oad
ēwa <*-ā 'tempus,
aiws <*aiwi
aeuus, aeternitās' δην−αιοσ TOK A.-āym-
aiwós 'tempus,
longaeuus 3a3.-ǣvi <*-i, æ 'longaeuus' 'spiritus, uita'
mundus'
'uita, aetās'
áiwotāts
ēwa <*-ā 'tempus,
aiws <*aiwi αιων <*ay-wen
aeternitās' TOK A.-āym-
aiwu aewum 'tempus, 'tempus, yu-; yuḥ (āyušaḥ)
3a3.-ǣvi <*-i, æ 'spiritus, uita'
mundus' saeculum'
'uita, aetās'
αερι, ηρι; ηερι
ēr, ehe, eher
οσ;
ájeri 3a2.-ær, ere air 5.3.-ayar (ayan)
3a3.-ár αριστον
'ientāculum'
ájesnos
ēr 3a2.- áyah 'ferrum,
ajos aes aiz
ār 3a3-eir metallum'
495
5.3.-ayō
ahorn
ákeris acer
3a3.-aer
ákeswos
ekka, Ecke
'angulus' ακισ (ιδοσ)
akjēs aciēs osla<*osъla 'cōs'
3a2.-eggja 'cuspis'
3a3.-egg
ακµηνοσ 'sine kąsъ 'buccella?'
akmā ham, hamm
morsō' 6.3.-kumuo^ss
ακµων kamy, ка́мень
aśman- (aśnas)
akmōn (ακµονοσ) 6.3.-akmuõ;
5.5.-aku
'incūs' ãšmens 'lāmina'
ακαινα ; ακαν
agana, Ahne 'id' ahana η 'cōs'; 6.3.- ašnì s 'id'
aknā agna aśáni-ḥ 'hasta'
3a2.-egenu 'id' 'foenum' ακανθοσ 6.4.-asns 'germen'
3a3.-agn
ακυλοσ aśnāti á śanam
'inescatorium';
áknāmi 'glans'; akolos 'cibus' 5.3.- -āsa
æja <ahjan
'esca' '-uorus'
'pāscōr'
exācum
'centaurion lepton'
3a3.-ag 'cladium osoka 'cаrех'
2b1.-dieuc
akōkós mariscus'; agge, ακωκη 'cuspis' 6.3.-ãšaka 'spīna',
<*dēāko- 'puter'
ugg 'cuspis, dens' furfur
2b3.-eok <eksāko-
'matūrus, blandus'
αχνη
acus (aceris); ahir, Ähre *ahiz
<aksnā,
aceruus (cf. 'id' 3a2.-ear
akos ahs 'spīca' αχυρον 'palea'
Minerua *ahuz 3a3.-ax
<*Meneswā) 'spīca' οξυσ 'acūtu
s'
1b1.-akrid a(i)cher 2b1.-arocrion
acer, acris, 3a3.-ǫgr <*akro- aśrís 'cuspis' ostrъ
akris 'acrī' / 'uiolentus 'atrocia' ακη 'cuspis'
acre 'perca fluuiālis' 5.4.-aseln 'acus' 6.3-ašrùs, aštras;
'acriter' (uentus)' <*- 2b3.-acer-uission
1b2.-peracri ero-? 'cum acūtīs digitīs' ašerỹ s'perca flu.'

'opīmus' 6.4.-ass 'acūtus'
ágra- 'cuspis'
akrom ακρον 5.4.-aseln 'acus'
5.5.-hekur 'mons'
achhus, Axt
áksijā ascia aqizi αξινη 5.5.-ates(s)a-
3a2.-acus æx axe
2b1.-achel, echel ahsa osi
aksis axis αξων áksah
2b3.-ael 3a3.-oxoll 6.3.-ašìs
ostъ, ostъnъ
aksteinos aittenn <2b1 2b1.- eithin 'cuspis'
6.3.-akstìs,
ãkstinas 'id'
3a2.-egle, ails
2b3.- ebil <*ak̂u̯-
ákulos aculeus 'arista'; āwel <*- osla <*osъla 'cōs'
īli̯o-
wolo- 'furca'
оsъtъ 'carduus'
acus (acūs),
akus 5.5.-akus 'cōs' 6.3.-akúotas
acia <*acu-i̯ā
'arista'
αλαλα 'hurra'
ole(le)
alā! αλαλαζ
6.3.-aluoti 'salutō'
ω 'bellō clamō'
αλαοµαι, αλαι
νω
'errō'; αλητησ
'mendīcus';
6.4.-aluot,
ālea, ambulō, αλυω 5.5.-alwanzatar
alājai afslaunan? 'furō' aluotie^s 'errō'
alūcinor 'alūcinor', 'frutilla'
āl'a 'amens'
αλευοµαι, αλυ
σκω 'uitō';
ηλεοσ
'confūsus'
Alafaternom, albiz, elbiz 5.4.-alauni
2b1.- Αλφειοσ (flumi lebedь< *olb-edь
albhos albus Alafis 3a2.-aelbitu, <*alabhn?
elfydd<álbhiyo nis nōmen) 'cygnus'
'Albius' ielfetu 3a3.- 'columba'
497
elptr, olpt 'cygnus' 5.5.-al-pa-áš? 6.3.-bal-añdis

'nubēs' 'columba'
αλφη árhati 'debet, meret;
'adquisitiō' arjati 'lucrātur'
αλφανωµ, αλ arghah ''ualor';
alchos φειν 'lucror' ar∂jaiti 'ualēt' alga 'adquisitiō'
αλφεσιβοιοσ ' 5.5.-halkuessar
bouium 'messis' 5.6-
adquisitor' arzīdan 'lucror'
ladiji, alъdiji
3a2.-ealdoÞ, 'phasēlus'
aldhōn
3a3.-olda 6.3.-eldijẽle
'sartagō'
alēiks alica αλιξ halki- 'grānum'
Eller, Erle
3a2.-elor, ellen, ólьcha
*alisa > ΜΑΚ−αλιζα 'p
álesnos alnus ellern,elder ALB.-halë 6.3.-elk/al̃ ksnis
ESP aliso opulus alba'
3a3.-jolstr 6.4.-àlksnis
<*elustrā
3a3.-elgiar, elgur
alghējō algeō
'aqua-nix'
2b1.-eil/ail
alttram
aljos alius, alter aile 2b2.-(e)yll αλλοσ
àlteram'
2b3.-eil
áljote aljaþ αλλοσε
αλεξω; αλαλκε
3a2.- ιν; αλκαθω; α
ealgjan<algoojan rakṣati elkas, alkas
alhs λκαρ 'protecti
alkējō ealh 'templum' 5.4.-aracel 'nemus sacrum'
'templum' ō', επαλξισ, αλ
3a3.-aluh 'protectiō' 6.4.-elks 'idolus'
'amulettum' κη 'uis'; αλκιµ
οσ 'potens'
ëlho, Elch <*olkis
alkis alcēs <gmc. αλκη <gmc. ṛśa-ḥ ṛ́śya-ḥ losь <*olkis
3a2.-eolh, elk
alō alō alim 2b1.-allt 'mons' alt 'uetus' alan αλδαινω; αναλ an-ala- 'ignis';

2b2,b3-aot,aod 3a2.-ald, old 'id' 'crēscō' τοσ 'insatiābili rdhnóti/áddhi

'litus' aliÞs s' 'procreat'
'adipōsus'
αλαπαδνοσ
'dēbilis'
αλαπαζω 'ha álpa 'paruus'
uriō' 5.5.-alpanda 6.3.-alpti
alpos
λαπαροσ 'dēbilis' ?; alpu- 'debilitor'
'flaccus' 'suauis'
λαπαθο
σ 'specus'
álteros
alþeis
altjos altior, altius alt(a)e 'ēductus'
'uetus'
2b1.-allt 'clīuus'
2b2.-als 'litus' αλσοσ < altyos
altós altus alt/allt 'litus'
2b3.-aot, aod 'silua'
'litus'
ālú-ḥ, āluká m-
lujos ālium, ālum *allō <*aliā αλλασ 'rādix'
`bulbus'
alūta, al-schaf 'pōculum' olъ
álumṇ
alūmen 3a2.-ealu(đ) 6.3.-alùs
ammen 'alō,
amājō amō, amīcus
ēducō'
ampt;
amvíannud
ambigō, 'circuitu';
amputō, 1b2.-ambr;
ambhi-tah
amiciō; am amboltu, 2b1.-am- bi, bei bi (cf.
ambhí imb-, imm- αµφι (σ) 5.3.-aiwito
(arc.); aferum 2b2,2b3.-am-, im- 3a2.-ymbe, be- bī- obhi)
5.4.-ambolj 'sospēs'
anceps, 'circumferre';
sollemnis anferener
'circumferen
di'
ambhíagto ambactus (lat.) ambaht, be-Amt-e andbahts
499
s 2b1.-amaeth 3a2.ambiht
ámbhinom
ambhíqolo ancilla,
s αµφιπολοσ
anculāre
ambhírēm
os
ambō, beide, bēde bai (m) αµφω, αµφοτερ oba
ambhou ubhāu
ambae, ambō 3a2.-bā-tha ba(n) οσ 6.3.-abu
ámeikā
amēiks
ALB.-ame 'id et 6.3.-anýta (cf
ámetā
māter' anus)
angō; amhas 'metus'
cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf-)yng,
angustus, angi, engi, eng 'id' aggwus αγχω, αγχονη, 5.5.- ožǫ, oziti;
amghō 'angustus' wng 2b3.-
angiportus, 3a2.-enge 'angustus' αγχου 'près' hamank/enk/ink vežǫ, vezati 'ligō'
2a3.-cumhang enk(<eks·ang)
angīna 'ligō'
cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf-)yng, aṁhu-bhēdī 'strictē
angi, engi, eng
amghús 'angustus' wng 2b3.- aggwus uagināta' ǫzъ-kъ
3a2.-enge
2a3.-cumhang enk(<eks·ang) 5.4.-anjuk
angust, Angst
ámghustis angustiae ǫzostъ
'metus'
Ammaí/ae
ammā 3a1, a3.-amma αµµασ, αµµια amba TOK; В ammakki
'Matrī'
vyāmá 'ulna
āmós āmes (mensūra)' samāmá
'longitūdō'
`(Sauer)ampfer
3a2.-ampre;ōm
amrós amārus amlá-, amblá
'oxyd.'
3a3.-apr 'acūtus'
5.4.-aur, awr
amros - TOK A omäl, В
amrei ηµερα 'diēs' <*awur
<*H1eH2mōr 'diēs' emalle 'calidus'
an an αν 6.3.-an-gu 'uel'
animus, 2b1.-anadl us-anan
an∂mos anál ανεµοσ voniati 'foetēre'
anima 2b3.-alazn/alan 'exspirō'
νησσα
anut, Ente oty
an∂ts anas (anitis) 4.3. ātíh 'auis aquatica'
3a2.-ened (i-) 6.3.-ántis
−νασσα
1b2.-antentu
'intenditō';
anhelō ana, an anu 5.3.-
anseriato an-dess 'ab 6.3.-anóte, anót
ana <an+anslō, 3a2.-on ana ana, anu
'obseruātum' meridiāno', etc 'secundum'
antemnā 3a3.-ā 5.6.-anā
; anglar
'oscines'
2b1.-anner
ándhesā ainder, aindir 'uitulus' ανθοσ 'flos'
2b3.-ounner 'id'
andabata 'c.
andhos andhá-; 5.3.-anda-
gladiātr.'
áŋgam 'membrum';
ancha, enka f. αγγοσ 'aula;
aŋgúli-/ri- 'digitus'
'ceruix'; enkel 'id' dolium';
ai(n)gen aŋguṣ̌ṭhá 'pollex'
anglos angulus 3a2-ancléow, αγκων 'cubitus' og(ъ)lъ 'angulus'
'sartagō' 5.3.-angušta- 'id'
ankle 'femur' <*ank, αγκοσ ' 5.4.-ankiun/giun
3a3.- okkla 'femur' uallis' <*ank 'angulus'
5.4.-hanem
αντλον 'sentīn
5.5.-han(iya)
anjō a', αντλεω 'excupō'; hanessa-
'excupō' 'ligula'
αγκοσ. ογκοσ ' a(n)̃ cati 'uiet"
ancus, barbamentum' akna-, akta-
uncus, ango, angul,
. αγκων 'cubitu 'aduncus'
aduncus, écath 'hamus angeln
ankos 2b1.-anghad s' aŋkurá-ḥ 'propago' og(ъ)lъ
unculus, piscis" 3a2.-onga 'puncta'
αγ 5.3.-aka-
ungustus, 3a3.-ankr 'colpus'
κυλοσ 'aduncu 5.5.-5.5.-hink
ancrae
s' 'prosternō'
anaks 6.3.-anksta,
ūhta, uohta 'subitō'; áñjas, áñjasā 'citō, ankstù 'mānē'
anksi
3a2.-ūht,, ūht,e *uhtwō protinus' (adi, adv.),
'aurōra' anksti(ẽ) (n)
501
*uhtiugs
'opportūnu
s'
ánksitjom
annā
anos anus áinne < āininyo 5.4.-anur
Öse 'id' ηνιον 'habēna'
6.3.-asà; asótas
ansā ansa, ansātus ē(i)si 'habēnae' 3.3.-æs <*ansjō 4.3.-ania
6.4.-uosa
'anus ling. calceī' <*ansia
ansātos ansātus 6.3.-asótas
ásu 'halitus uitae,
mundus'; ásura
RUN. a[n]suR; got-lat
'dominus'
ansus Ase; 3a2.-ōs anses
5.3.-aŋhu- 'id';
3a3.-āss 'sēmidei'
ahura 5.5.-
hassu 'rex'
and;
end 'antea'
and(a)-;
anta 3a2.-enti 'id' αντα añt, anta
andeis
3a3.-endr, enn 'id'
'fīnis'
ātā, ātāḥ
3a3.-ond
antas antae 5.3.-aiθyā
'uestibulum'
5.4.-dr-and
anti; ánta-ḥ 'fīnis'
étan *antono-
ante, enhyt, ennyd 5.4.-∂nd
'frons'; éata αντι; καταντεσ
antí antiquus, 'tempus' <anti-iti- 5.5.-ha-an-ti
'aetās' <*ant- 'clīuus'
antēs, antiae ? (hanti); hantiyai
odio-?
'cūrō'
ántijos
ántitjos 5.5.-hantezziya
andi, 'frons, -tis'
antjās antiae
3a3.-enni 'id"
enti, Ende
antjom anta
3a2.-end
antrom αντρον 5.4.-ayr (g.pl. ayric)

5.4.-han
ano, Ahn; Enkel 5.5.- ha-an-na-aš
anus anus, anna αννισ (Hes) 6.3.-anýta 'socrus'
'patruus' (hannaš) 'mater,
auia'
uover / Ufer απειροσ / ηπει
peros 5.4.-ap'n
3a2.-öfer ροσ 'ripa'
amm, ám
apmṇ αµµα 'nōdus'
'manus'
Abona
ap-, āpah 'aqua';
2b1.-afon Ασοποσ (flumi
apnis amnis abann abdah 'nubēs' 6.4.-ue 'aqua'
2b2.-auon nis nōmen)
5.5.-hapa-
2b3.-Pont-aven
ab,
aperiō <ap-
aba, ab 5.1.,5.3.-apa
weryō; 1a2.-apehtre 6.3.-apačià ?
apo 3a2.-æf, of af, ab-u απο, απο, αψ 5.5.-a-ap-pa (apa)
asporto<abs; 'ab extrā' 'infera pars'
3a3.-af 'retrō'
pōnō<posnō;
porrigō
apóqitis αποτισισ ápaciti-
расстояние
abstantia, visthala- 'locus
apóst∂tis Abstand αποστασισ 6.3.-atstùs
distantia recondictus'
'longinquus'
aften aftaro,
apóteri 3a2.-æftan, after aftuma, απωτερω apataram
3a3-aptan aftumists
apóteros
4.8.-a-pe-o
apehwn, a-pe-
apowésent absens o-te vivasati 'abest';
abwesend
is (<sum) apehontes; a- apavāsa 'extinctiō'
pe-a-sa
apehansai (es)
ápowoiks
αππα, απφα, α
appās TOK B: appake
πφα
503
1a2.-apruf,
ebur / Eber καπροσ; εβρο veprъ
apros aper abrof (acc. vupar
pl.)
3a2.-eofor σ ? 'capra' 6.3.-vepris
osína *opsīna
aspa, Espe απελλον
apsā 6.3.-apušẽ, epuše
3a2.-æspe, asp αιγειροσ Hes. 6.6.-osa,osina/ika
aha, Ache 'id'
3a2.-ēa 'id'; īg, īeg ahva
aqā aqua oká
'flūmen'
<*aq-j 'insula'
6.3.-ar̃ 'et, quoque'
αρ, αρα, ρα 'q
ar TOK. В ra- emphat 6.4.-ar 'et, at,
uia'
tunc'
airid <*-jeti;
erien <*arjō arjan αροω; αρτοσ ? oriǫ, орю́, orati
arājō arō arbar? 'frūmen', 2b1.-arddaf/erddi
3a2.-erian, ear <*arjō 'pānis' 6.3.-ariú
arán 'pānis'
αραρισκω
pf. αραρα; αρµ aram, álam 'satis';
ará-ḥ 'rortae radius'
οττω; αρεσκω
'mihi decet'; аrа-tí- 'seruus'
arma,
οαρ 'coniux' 5.3.-arānte
armentum, 6.6.-ko-jarzyć
árarjō αρετη 'fixāntur'; ar∂m
ars, artus, 'ligō'
rītus 'uirtus' 'decenter' 5.4.-
αριστοσ arnem 'faciō';
'optumus'; pr.arar
αρθµοσ 5.5.-har-ap- ?
'uinculus'
2b1.-aradr
αροτρον <H2r
arātrom arātrum arathar 2b2.-aradar 5.4.-arawr
H3trom
2b3.-arazr/arar
(ε)ρωδιοσ
árdejā ardea 3a3.-arta 6.5.-roda
'ardea, ibis'
ardis aird αρδισ ali
Argantomagus rajatám
airget
árgṇtom argentum 2b1.-arian(t) αργυροσ
2a3.-airgead 5.3.-∂r∂zat∂m
2b2.-
argans/arhans 5.4.-arcat'
2b3.-arc'hant 5.5.-harkant- ?
5.6.-ardatam
árjuna- TOK A.-ārki;
argós αργοσ
5.5.-harki TOK B ārkwi
argujō arguō 5.5.-arkuwai
airech 'nobilis'; ar(i)yá-, āryaka
arjos Ario-mānus
aire 'primas' 5.3.-airyō 'arius'
*Aírmana-
αρµοσ 'artus'
reiks
Ermenrīch; 'id' αρµοττω
armentum, 'Hermeneri 5.4.-y-armar
ármṇtom 3a3.-jormuni 'adaptō' jarьmъ 'iūgum'
arma cus'; 'decens'
'iūmentum' αρµα
Herminone
s 'uehiculum'
īrmá-ḥ
ramo 'umerus'
aramō 'furca', arms 5.3.-аr∂mа-
armos armus 3a1, a2.-arm 6.3.-armaĩ
*aramones ` <*armi- 5.4.-armukn 'a.currus'
'cubitus'
arom harundō αρον ALB.-dalëndyshe ?
3a2.-earh, arrow rakita 'salix'
arcus, arçlataf arhvasna αρκευθοσ
arqos 3a3.- or (orvar) 6.4.- ẽ(r)cis
arquus àrculātās' 'sagitta' 'iuniperus'
'id' 'iuniper.'
5.4.-ard 'nunc
arti αρτι 6.3.-artì 'prope'
ipsum'
art
ars, iners, ṛtí-ḥ 'modus,
artis 3a3.-einarđr
sollers, artiō pactus'
'simp.x'
αρτυσ; ṛtá- 'rectus'; ṛtám
'fas; ṛtú-ḥ
αµαρτη
'tempus bonum, t.
'simul'
annī, ordō'
artus artus, artē αρτι 'nunc, 5.3.-ar∂ta-, ∂r∂ta-
artì 'prope'
dudum' 'id' 5.4.-
αρτιοσ ard (ardu)
'adeptus' 'structūra' 5.6.-
505
arta- 'lex'
αρυα
árusā 'ηρακλειωτικα ALB.-arrë 'nux' орѣхъ, orec 'nux'
καρυα' (Hsq)
ορεα 'intestīna'
arwā arvīna αρβιννη κρεα
σ (Hs)
2b1.-erw urvarā 'terra
aruum; 1b2.-arvam- arbor 'grānum' αρουρα; αρωµ
arwom 2b3.-eru, ero fēcunda' 5.4.-
aruus -a. um en 'in aruum' <*H2rH3-wens α
'sulcus' haravunk`
aasai 'in ārā'
essa, Esse 'cam.'
āsā āra 1b2.-are hassa 'camīnus'
3a3.-aRina, arinn
'ārae'
āreō, aridus, αζω <asdyō TOK A.-asatär B
essa, Esse <asyōn
āra ardeō aasai 'in ārā' 'siccō' āsa-h 'cinis' osotär <*-wōs- a
án 'candidus, 'āra'; erin 'solus';
āsējō (pt. assus) 1b2.-are azgo 'cinis' ασβολοσ 5.4.-azazim <*azgh part. perfectō
nōbilis' <asnos ? Asche 'id'
ārea (cum 'ārae' <ασγ−βολοσ 'siccō' 6.8.-ozditi
3a2.-ash 'cinis'
ōrā?) 'cinis' 'maltam torrēre'
asca <*asgōn
ασβολοσ <ασγ āsa-h 'cinis'
āsos 3a2.-asce, æsce azgo 'cinis'
−βολοσ 5.4.-ačiun
3a3.-æsce
astur
astris αστραλοσ
(asturis)
astus,
astus 5.5.-astayarat(t)ar
astūtus
ot-, otъ 'ab' <
ategnatus ati; atah 'inde'<atos
at, atauus, aith, ad (ante oh 'sed' <at-ge аÞ-Þan , ac ατ−αρ 'sed' atos?
ati 'pergnōtus' 5.3.-aiti 'ultra'
atnepōs tonum) 'rursus'
2b3.-aznat
3a2.-ac 'sed' 'sed' (cf. αυταρ) 5.6.-atiy
6.3.-at-, ata-, atō-
'ab'
atiloiqos atirḗka- otъlěkъ
6.3.-atìs, õtas
atis attilus ετελισ
6.4.- ãte
haimōþli 5.3.-āΘwya-
adal, edel αταλοσ 'tener'
atlos 'patrimoni TOK A ātäl 'homō'
3a2.-aeđele αταλλω Θraētaona's 'pater
um'
'ēducō' Θ'
1b1,1b2.-
annus, aÞnam
akno-; per-
atnos perennis, (dat. pl.); átati 'it'
acni, sev-
sollemnis at-aÞni
akni
2b1.-a(c)
atqe atque, ac
2b3-2b3.-ha(g)
átharvan 'flamen
Aadíriis
igneus' 5.3.-
ātros āter, ātrius 'atrius' 1b2.- áith 2b1.-odyn vátra 'ignis'
ātarš 'ignis' 5.4.-
atru, adro
airem 'ūrō'
attā 'mātēr'
attās atta atto atta αττα оtьcъ <attikós
5.5.-at-ta-aš, attaš
al-ōd 'plena
2b1.-udd audahafts'f
potestās'; kleinod
2b3.-ozac'h ortunātus';
audhos 'gemma'; 3a2.-ōd
'dominus'<udakko audags
'pertinentia'; ōdan
s 'beātus'
'fortunātus'
ALB.-agoj
αυγη 'radius,
aug 'amanescit', agume iugъ? 'meridiēs'
lumen'
'alba matinālis'
augējō
āugējō
augmṇ
ṓjas- 'uis'; ugrá-
wachsen
augō augeō aukan αυξω, αυξανω 'fortis' 5.5.- áugti
3a2.-weaxan, wax
ukturi- 'durābilis'
augur
3a2.-eáca, eke 6.3.-augestis
augos (animātus), ṓjas- 'uis'
'additāmentum' 'augmen'
augustus
6.3.-áukštas 'altus'
augtós augtós
6.4.-aukts 'id'
3a3.-aul, aule, jōl αυλοσ ε 5.4.-ul(i) 'uia'; ulica 'uia'
aulos aluus, alueus 'angelica ναυλοσ 'alueu yli 'pregnāns' ulьjь 'pannāle'
siluestris' s'; αυλων 5.5.-halluwa- 6.3.- aulãs;
507
'canālis' 'cauus, profundus' aulỹs, avilỹs

'fauus' 6.4.-
ula 'axis'
aúhns ιπνοσ (i schwa ukhá, ukh
2b1.-offen 'cupa 3a1, a2.-ofen 'id'
auqslā aulla, āula <uknós secundum) 'fu 5.5.-happina
petrea' 3a3.-oghn 'id'
'furnus' rnus' 'flamma''
ausijō hauriō 3a3.-ausa (εξ)αυω, αφυω
áuksas, ausas
ausom aurum 5.4.-os-ki
6.9.-ausin
ηωσ (εοοσ), εω uṣāh (ac. uṣāsam) utro <*ustro
2b1.-gwawr
σ, αωσ, αFωρ, vāsara 'diēs, matīna' <*usro- 'matīna'
ausōsā aurōra fáir? (cf. wēsros) 2b3.-gwere laouen
αυρι 5.3.-usā (ac. 6.3.-ausrà
'stella matutīna'
ον 'cras' usāñham) 6.4.-austra
utro <*ustro
αυριον <*ausr
ausrom Easter 'Pascha' uṣár- <*usro-
jom 'cras'
6.3.-ausrà 'aurōra'
uccati
áussketi 6.3.-aũšta
5.3.-usāusaiti
za ustra 'mane'
6.3.-austrinis
áusteros auster
'uentus a NE'
6.4.-austrums
aut, auti,
αυ, αυ−τι
autem
ouh 'etiam, sed' αυ−γε
1b2.-ute, ote; odid 'rārus' <*aw- auk 'tamen, 6.3.-aurà, aure
aw aut, au-tem úathad 'paucitās' 3a2.-ēak 'iterum' avar 'hic'
uru 'illō', tītos (=diffusus) donec' 'ibi, uide!'
3a3.-auk δευρο (de-
ura-ku 'ad
illam' uro?)
Auentīnus
awā Avara, Avernus avani 'flūmen' avuõts
(mons)
ávati 'postulat';
Avicantus ενηησ 'beneuo
aueō, auidus, avas- 'satisfactiō'
2b1.-evyllys awi-liuÞ lus'
awējō audeō, con-ói 'protegit' 5.3.-avaiti
'uoluntās' 'gratia' αιτ
auārus 'prouidet'; avah
2b3.-eoull, youll α 'amīcus' 'auxilium' 5.4.-
aviun 'libidō'
2b1.-awel
αελλα
áweljā cf. aura ahél, aial 2b2.-auhel/awel
'tempest.'
2b3.-avel
ovьsъ
awigsnā auēna αιγιλοψ ? 6.3.-avižà
6.4.-àuzas (pl.)
áwijā
vih, véh
5.3.-vay(as)-
awis auis οιωνοσ 'coruus'
5.4.-haw
5.5.-suwais
αιθανοµαι; αι ud/para-avati
ω umъ<aumos
'comperō' 5.3,4.-
audiō, 'intellectus';
awisdhijō 'audiō', επαιστ avis 'nōtōrius'
oboediō aviti, javiti
οσ 'celeber' 5.5.-a-uš-zi 'uidet'
<α(F)iσ 5.6.-āškār 'clārus' 'monstrō'
awṇ
ιαυω, αυλισ
wuorag 'ebrius' 'casa'; αυλη vāyati? 'fatigātur'
awō 3a2.-wōrag, wōrig, 'ātrium' 5.4.-aganim, awt'
weary 'fatigātus' ωροσ 'somnus' 'refugium' <H2outi-
(kall.)
áwontlos
avontir 'auunc'
2b1.-ewythr 'id.'
auus, aue 'nepōs'/óa, 5.4.-hau 'auus' uji 'auunculus'
awos 2b2.-euitor ōheim 'aūnculus' awō 'auia'
auunculus úa 5.5.-huhha 6.3.-avynas
2b3.-
eontr<awentro
u 'dē'; u-(myti)
au-tagis 'diataxis'? 5.1, 5.3.-ava 'ab, ex' 'abluō' u-bejhati
au-ferō, au-
awou ó 'de, cum, per' 2b1.-o, hou 'de, αυ, αυχαττειν 5.1.-ávara 'inferior' 'aufugiō'
fugiō
cum' 5.3.-aora 'dē' 6.3, 6.4.-au 'ab'
6.4.-aumanis
509
'amens'
awti
awtim
2b1.-afer 'uānus'
2b2.-ufer 'id' ōdi, öde αυσιοσ; αυτω
awtjos úabar 'uānitās' ALB.-hut
*auberos 2b3.- 'desertum' σ 'irrītē'
euver 'id'
badjos badius buide
baitā
pfeit 'camisia' paida βαιτη
3a2.-pād 'tapēte' 'bracca' 'tentorium'
baculum, βακτρον, βακτ
1b2.-bach <l.? 6.3.-bàksteleti
baktlom bacillum, bacc <lat. ? ηρια, βακτηρι
1b3.-bac'h <l.? 6.4.-bakstit
imbēcillus ον
barbarus, baba 'anus'
babae,
βαρβαροσ, βα bababā-karōti bъbl'u, bъbati
papae, bābe, bōbe
bálbalos
babaecalus
blaesus baby 'infans'
'auia' βαζω; βαζω 'l 'balbūtiō'; bāla? 'balbūtiō'
oquor' 'puer' 6.3.-balbãsyti
balbus,
blaesus 'garriō'
balbos
βοµβοσ 'uagor'
βοµβ búbenъ
bammeln
bámbalos 'strepere' υλιοσ 'crabrō' 6.3.-bim̃balas,
3a3.-bumba βοµ bim̃bilas 'crabrō';
βψξ 'pulca' bambéti 'resonō'
2b2.-badus
'lunaticus' βαταριζω
2b3.-bat, bad 'balbūtiō'
batā bata 'oh'
'hebetātiō'; bada, βαττο
badaoui 'sine λογεω 'nugō'
sensu loquī'
6.3.-baũbti
baubājai baubor βαυζω
'grunniō' (boues)
bēbō, bālō, 2b1.-beicchio bāh; blöken bekati;
bebājō beiccithir 'mugit' βληχαοµαι bekura 'uox'
bēlō 'mugīre' 3a3.-bekri 'ariēs' blek(ot)átь
6.4.-bê, beku, biku

boljьjь `maius',
βελτιων, βελτε bala, balīyan,
belom dēbilis bolje Adv. `magis,
ροσ, βελτιστοσ balistha
plus'
bélowents
bend/benn
bendā 2b1.-2b3.-ban ? pint 'penis'
'cornū'
5.5.-pintanza
bendlā 3a2.-pintle
'clāuus'
οµφα
'fragrantia' ambu 'aqua';
bewō imbuō
ευοµφοσ ámbhas- 'pluuia'
'fragrans'
bh∂skō fascinō, -inus φασκω bhiṣ̌ ákti'sānat'
fatuus;
anda-bata 'glad. bótatь 'agitō'
batt(u)ō
bh∂tjō caecus'; bathu
<gall.; batъ 'baculum'
'monētam b.'
fāmex?
1b2.-fons
bhávā samátsu no
'fauens', báe 'praestantia'
bh∂wējō faueō vṛdhé 'faue nōbis in goveti
foner <bheHwiyo-
proeliīs'; bhavya-
'fauentēs'
bōna
bobъ
bhabhā faba 3a2.-bēan φακοσ 'lens'
3a3.-baun 6.3.-pupà
πηχυσ
buog, Bug 'cubitus'
bāhu 5.3.-
bhāghus 3a2.-bōg 'umerus' 4.2,
bāzāu-š
3a3.-bōgr 4.−παχυσ 'cubi
tus'
bahhan, backen baží tь, bažá tь ?
bhagjō φωγω
3a2.-bacan 'desiderō'
bhajati 'diuidit'
bhagō φαγειν 'edere' bogъ 'diuisiō'
bhakta 'prandium'
511
bhakšati 'uorat' bogъ 'deus'

bhikšate 'uorat'
5.3.-bag- (bažat̃) bogatъ 'diuēs'
baxta 'prandium'
5.4.-bag 'deus'
TOK..-A pāk В
bhagaḥ 'sors, bonu.' ubоgъ, nеbоgъ
bhagos pāke; pāc̨iṃ
5.3.-baga-, 'pauper'
'thesaurus'
φηγοσ
buohha bōka
bhāgos fāgus 4.3.−φαγο buzina
3a2.-bēce, beech 'littera'
σ
bulle 'vulva', bille
ball <*ln 'penis' φαλησ, φαλλο
bhalnós
'menbrum' 3a2.-beallucas σ
'testiculī', ballock
αφηµονεσ αρρ
bhām∂n affāmen ητοι (Ηεσ.); φη
µα
bhāmā fāma φηµη
bannan 'multāre' sa-bha
faamat 3a2.-baen φηµι, φασκω, φ 'congregātiō'; baju, bajati
for, fātum,
bhāmoi 'appellat'; 'rogātiō; boian ωνη, φαµα, φα bhanati 'narrō'; basnь
fābula
fatium 'fāri' 'glorior' ' σισ 5.4.-ban<bhānis 'fābula'
3a3.-bōn 'uerbum'
φαινω 'appāre bhāti, bhāsati
bōnen, bohnen ō', fut. 'lucet'; bhāna, bhāti,
bouhhan <bau- πεφησεται; φα bhāma, bhasa 'lux';
taikna? 'signum vībhāvah
νεροσ 'clārus', 6.5.-baju, bać so
bháneumi bán 'albus' igneum' 'splendens'
φασµα 'signum 'micō, ardeō'
3a2.-bōnian 5.3.-bāmya, bānu
'polīre' bēacen ', φασισ 'ortus 'lx.' 5.4.-
'signum' stellae', φαοσ < banam 'aperiō' (aor.
φαFοσ 'lux' batsi)
bhānis 3a3.-bōn 'prex' φωνη 'uox' 5.4.-ban 'et uerbum' basnь 'fābula'
bhānom

bhānús bán 'albus' φανοσ bhānú-

iubar <*dyu- φαοσ, φαωσ, φ
bhās (orig. basc? 'ruber';
3a2.-basu, baso οοσ, pamph. φ bhs-, bhsaḥ;
bhāos adiect.?); cf. bot .i. tene 'ignis'
dēgener, <bhōzdo-?
'purpura' α(F)οσ (φαεοσ, subhs-'bene lucens'
bicorpor φωτοσ)
baíra-
bear-berry 'ūua borъ 'milium
bhar far bagms
ursī' quodam'
'morus'
bart; barta 'ascia' brada
3a2.-beard 6.2.-boroda;
barba < barha 'plumae gallī
bhardhā 'barba'; barda borozda 'sulcus'
farda caudae'
'ascia' 6.3.-barzda
3a3.-barđa 'ascia' 6.4.-bārzda
brk 'cuspis,
bharkos barc 'hasta' 2b1.-barch 'id'
mystax'
bharseinā
1b1,1b2.-far; bairgen/bairghe 3a2.-bere'
farrāgō, 2b1-2b2.-2b3.- bariz-eins
bharsjom 1b2.-farsio, an <*barigenā /- hordeum' brašьno 'farīna'
farīna bara 'farīna'
fasiu 'farrea' onā 3a3.-barr 'id.'
3a2.-bearu 'silua'
bharwos borъ 'picea'
3a3.-borr 'arbos'
fascis 2b1.-baich 'onus' βασκιοι, φασκι
bhaskis 1a1.- basc 'collāris'
ambibascia
2b3.-bech/beac´h δεσ
φηνη <−σν− 'a
bhāsos bhāsah
quila'
fātiō
bhātis φατισ 'fāma' 5.4.-bay (bayi)
(=uerba)
babhrúh bibrъ, bobrъ
bhebhros fiber, feber bibro-, bebro- bibar
5.3.-bawrish 6.3.-bebrus, béras
φεβοµαι, φοβεο
bebu, bežá tь
bhecō µαι., φοβεω
'fugiō, timeō' 6.3.- bégu, begti
513
bida
beta 'rogātiō'; 'rogātiō'
беда́ 'aduersitās'
bitten 3a2.- bidjan, etc bdhate 'premit'
biddan; cnēow- 'rogāre' TOK В peti, A 6.3.-bodetis
bbhatsate 'ōdit' 'repugnārī' ;bãda-
bhedhō gebed, kneo-beda etymologia poto
'genuflexiō' ; disceptāta 'honorātiō' jñu-bdh s 'famēs'
3a3.- kne-beð 'id'; <*gwedh- / 6.4.-bads, badus
'genuflectens'
biđja 'rogō' bhedh / 'id'
bheidh
bhanákti perf.
babháñja 'frangō' 6.3.-banga 'unda'
2b1.-dyvwng 3a3.-banga 4.5.−βεκοσ ?
bhegō bongid 'frangit' bhaŋga 'unda' 6.4.-buogs 'turma'
'inflexibilis' 'battuō' 'pānis'
5.4.-bekanem !
'frangō'
baidjan
beitten; bītan πειθω 'suādeō';
fīdō, fidēs 'obligō';
bheidhō 3a2.-bædan, bid; πειθοµαι
<bhideH1- ? beidan
bīdan 'exspectō' 'oboediō'
'exspectō'
fīcus <linguā συκον, 5.4.-t'uz
bheikos
medit. beot. τυκον 5.5.-sigga, has(s)ik
2b1.-beg-eg(y)r bia <*bigwa, bini bъčela, bьčela
bheiqlā 2a1.-bech
'crābrō' 3a2.-béo, bee 6.3.-bitìs
bihal, bihel, Beil
bheitlom biail <*beiāli- ?
3a2.-bil, bill 'ensis'
bolt(e), Bolz
'sagitta' 6.3.-beldu, beldeti
bheldō
3a2.-bolt 'id' 6.4.-belzt
3a3.-bulta 'battuō'
φαλαρισ 'fulic
bhelēks fulix, fulica belihha,, belche balāka /-kā 'grus'
a'
buil 'effectus, οφελλω 'et aṙ-avelum;
bheljō
ūsus' uerrō' avelum 'uerrō'
óibell 'fauilla' bala φαλοσ 'albus'; bhālam 'splendōr' belъ <ē 'albus'
2b1.-beleu 'marta'; belihha, belche
bhelō fulix, fulica <opi-bhelo;
ufel 'fauilla' 'fulica'
'pallidus φαλαρισ 'fulic sam-bhālayati 6.3.-bãlas, baltas
bel-tene; equus' a' 'prospectat' 'albus'
Belenos balākā 'grus' 6.4.-bãls 'pallidus'

(Apollo); 5.4.-bal 'pallōr'
Belisama
(Minerva)
belen, bellen
bhaṣá-ḥ `latrans'
'latrō' boln 6.3.-bìlstu, bilaũ,
(*bhel-s-);
'clamō'; buldern, bìlti 'loquescor'
bhelō bhāṣ atē 'loquitur';
poltern 3a2.- 6.4.-bilstu, bilžu,
bhaṇḍatē <lnd 'id.';
bylgan 'clamō' bilst 'loquī'
bháṇati 'id.'
3a3.-belya 'id.'
bluwan, bleuen
balwa-
'battuō'
wēswei
2b2.-bal 'aegrotās' 3a2.-bealo bolъ 'aeger';
bhelu 'malum'
2b3.-baluent 'id.' 'malum'; blow(e) boléti 'aegrotāre'
bliggwan
3a3.-bol
'battuō'
'infortunium'
filix, filex, belinuntia, bil(i)sa, Bilme
bhélunā belenъ, belena
felix, filix βελενιον 3a2.-beolone
bedró, бедро́
bhemṛ femur
<*bhemró
πενθεροσ 'soce
offendō, r'
dēfendō ? ; buinne bintan 3a2.- badhnti, bandhati
benna 'genus πεισµα<νθ 6.3.-binda 'pecus';
bhendhō offendix, <bhondhyaa bindan bindan bandhu 'familiāris' beñdras 'sodālis'
offendiment 'nexus, armilla'
uehiculī'
3a3.-binda σ 'ligāmen'
πασχω 5.3.-bandayaiti
um
'patior'
πενθεροσ bándhuh 'cgnātus'
bhendhros bindan beñdras 'socius'
'famīliāris' 5.6.-bandaka
2b1.-ban
bhandate 'exsultat,
bhendos binn 2b3.-bann
beātē clamat'
'canora'.
ban(o) 'mors'; banja
epit <eks-bhen- 5.3.-banay°n
bhenjom 2b2.-bony 'ascia' Bahn? 'uulnus,
tī 'culter' 'aegrum faciunt'
3a2.-benn 'uulnus' contusiō'
bherāgs frāxinus 2b1.-berth birihha baírhts bhūrjah beresta
515
<*bhrH2gsen 3a3.-biork 5.5.-parkuiš 6.3.-béržas

o-; farnus
<*bhrH2gsnó
-
bergan 3a3.- brego, brešti
bherghō bargā 'casa' beorgan bairgan 'cūrō' 6.2.-
3a3.-bjarga beregú, beréčь
in brahua
Briccius brehen bhrśatē
brecc <*bhṛktos augins φορκον λευκον
bherkō 2b1.-brych 'id" 3a2.-bregdan 5.5.-pár-ku-iš
'uarius' 'subitō' (Ηεσ.)
2b2.-brygh 'id' 'rapidē mouēre' 'pūrus'
<bhrows?
1b2.-fertu φερω; φωρ ∋φρ
berim; bhárati, bhárti, berǫ, bьrati 'emō'
ferō, forda, 'feritō', ferest cymeraf, cymryd gebären
bhermi brath 'iudicium'; ∋ bíbharti, bibhárti brezda 'grauis'
fertilis, 'feret', <*bhrt 'emō' 3a2.-beran, bear baíran
(bherō) cobrith φοροσ ∋γραυι 5.3.-baraiti 6.3.-beriù 'sternō'
fortūna, fūr 1b3.-ferom brawd 'iudicium' 3a3.-bera
'auxilium' σ∋ 5.4.-berem bernas 'puer'
'ferre'
bhermṇ φερµα bremę
BULG.-bъ́rna 'ōs'
bhernā bern, berna 5.4.-beran 'ōs'
6.3.-burnà 'bucca'
2b1.-brys 'rapidus' brъzo 'id'
festīnō;
bhersi bras 'rapidus' 2b3.-bresic, 5.5.-pars- 'fugiō' 6.3.-bruzgùs
cōnfestim
brezec 'rapidus'
feruō, berbaim; breó ? 2b1.-berw
φορυσσω bhurváṇi 'inquiētus'
bherwō fermentum, <*bhriwo- 'feruens' 2b3.-
'manipulō' 5.4.-bark 'acerbus'
dēfrutum 'flamma' bero, beru
ψυχω; ψιχη
'anima';
bábhasti; bhasát
bhesmi ψυχροσ 'frigid
'podex' `
us'; ψυθυροσ
'susurrāns'
bódhati 'comperit' biditu 'vigilat'
2b1.-bodd πευθοµαι, πυν
buide, buidechas biotan 'offerō' budhyatē bunoti 'expergisc.'
bheudhō 'uoluntās' 2b2.- θανοµαι
'gratiās' gibot 'iussus' 'expergiscitur' bljudu 'obseruō'
both 'percontor' bodhayati 6.3.-budéti
'expergef.' 5.3.- 6.3.-bundù

baodah 'conscientia' 'expergisc.'
baoidis 'odor'
bhujiṣyà- 'liber'
usbaugjan 5.3.-baog-, bunja-
bheughō biuchen 'lixiuiīō'
'ēuerrīō' 'liberīō'
5.4.-bužem 'id'
fid-bocc 'arcus buc 'putris' biogan, biegen, biugan; bhujáti; bhugná-
6.3.-bauga und
bheugō ligneus'; bog ` 2b3.-amsir poug bücken, bûckeln bugjan ? 'flexus' ; bhúja-
baũgurs 'tumulus'
'mollis' `temps mou' 3a2.-bīegan; bow 'emō' 'brachium'
bheurō φυρω 5.5.-purut 'lutum'
2b1.-budd 3a3.-búti 'permut.'
buaid 'uictoria'
bhéwedā 'benefic.' 2b3.- 3a5.-būte /buit
2a3.-buaidh
bud 'bradium' 'captiō'
bhávati <*bhéweti,
fuī, fiō, 2b1.-byddaf bim, bin
fufans 'erant' bauan aor. abhūt, inf.
futūrus; 2b2.-bethaf 3a2.-beon, be; byti
bhewmi 1b2.-fust bíu 'sum' 'habitō, φυω 'germinō' bhavitum
superbus, 2b3.- būan <*bhūwono- 6.3.-būti
'erit' colō' <*bhewHtum
probus bezaff/bezann 'uīuō'
5.3.-bavaiti
ALB.-banë
búan 'constans' 2b1.-bun 'regīna, bhavana-m 'domus,
bhéwonom 'domus'
<*bhouno- domina' nascentia, cōgitātiō'
<*bhou̯onā
bhū́ti-ḥ, bhūtí-ḥ bytь 'esse'
bhewtis buith 'ens' φυσισ
'essentia' 6.3.-bū́ti, būtìs 'id'
bōdel 6.3.-būklà
'patrimonium', bōl 'domicilium';
φυτλα 'natūra,
bhewtlom 'praedium' bhavítram 'mundus' būklas 'cubīle'
secus'
3a2.-bold, botl 6.7.-bydlo <*dhlo-
'domus' ; build 'id'
bháyate, bhibhāya bojo, bojati se
bibēn, Beben
foedus -a - πιθηκοσ, πιθω 5.3.-bayente, byente 6.3.-bijaũs, bijótis;
bhíbheimi 3a3.-bifa, bifra (cf.
um
titran) ν 'simius' 5.4.-bāk<bháyaka baile, bailùs,
'timor' baime 'timor'
πιθοσ, φιθακν
fiscus<dhsk; 3a3.-biða, bide,
bhidhós η 4.1.−φιδακν
fidēlia <sl bidne
η
517
bittar, bitter
bhidrós 3a2.-biter, bitter baitrs 5.4.-birt
3a3.-bitr
bili-, bila-, bil;
bilewiz, bilwiz
'nomus'; Unbill
bhilis bil Bilicatus, Bilicius billīch φιλοσ 'cārus'
'adaequātus'
3a2.-bilawit
'simplex'
2b1.-benaff 'putō'
benim; rubaid
perfines 2b3.-bitat
bhínāmi 'interficit' *pro- bijǫ, bi-ti
'perstringas' 'resecāret'
bhei-
etbinam 'laniō'
bibdu
bīzzan, beiBen beitan
bhindō findō, fisūra 'culpābilis' φειδοµαι bhinadmi, bhedati
3a2.-bite; bitter 'mordeō'
<*bhebhiduōts ?
ro-bíth 'tusus (raz)bít, zabíta;
bhītós est'; bithe <- пробитый; bíta
*tyos 'tusus' 'pāla'
bhl∂gsmā
bhlādhrom
Messap.
bhlaghmṇ flāmen brahmán
blamini
flagrum,
flāgitō, 3a3.-blaka, blakra, blaškaũ, bloškiù
bhlagō
flāgitium, blekja 'pullullō'
conflages
bledъ 'pallidus'
3a2.-blāt ALB: bleronj
bhlaidos 6.3.-blaĩvas
'albimentum' 'uiridis'
'sobrius'
bláhyj
φελγυνει, ασυν
'malus, foedus'>
bhlakkos flaccus ετει 'nescit' ? 6.3.-blõgas 'id'
(Hes.) 6.4.-blāgs 'dēbilis'

blāen, blāsan
bhlāmi flō
3a2.-blow
flāuus,
Flaviies blár 'candidē 1b2.-blawr blāo, blau 'id' 6.3.-blãvas <gmc.
bhlāwos flōrus.
'Flauiii' maculātus' 'cinereus' 3a2;-blue 'caesius' 6.4.-blãvs <gmc.
fuluus?
uz-ar-pulzit
indlaidi 'ebullit' cf.
bhledō φλεδων 6.4.-blaadu, blaazt
'gloriatur' platzen,
plätschern
2b1.-blif
blizь, blizъ
flīgō, flīxī, 'catapulta,
bhleicō φλιβω (i longa) 'prope=quatiens'
flīctum ballista'; blifaidd
'celeriter' 6.3.-blaĩzĩt, bliẽzt
φλιδαω
'exstillō' 6.4.-bli^stu,
φλοιδ bli^du, bli^zt et
bhleidō bláed 'rumor' 2b1.-bloedd 'id' 3a2.-bloat
αω 'fermentō' blie^žu, -du, -st
φλοισβοσ 'condensor'
'rumorōsu'
blæjen, blāzan
'bālō' ; plär(r)en
3a2.-blætan, βληχη, βληχα bleju, blejati 'bālō'
bhlēmi fleō
bleat; blare; οµαι 'ballō' 6.4.-blẽju, blet 'id.'
blagettan,
blægettan 'clamō'
bledu, blesti 'errō,
fornicō'
blinds
gmc. blint, blind bledь 'farsa'
'caecus'
bhlendhos *blundaz>lat 3a2.-blind bradhnah 'ruber' 6.3.-blendžiù,
blandan sik
. blondus 3a3.-blindr blẽsti 'dormiō'
'misceor'
6.4.- blendu,
blenst 'male uideō'
fluō, flūmen, 2b1.-blyngu? φλυω; φλυζω
bhleucō fluuius, irascor 'obruō'; οινοφ
conflūgēs 2b2.-blouhi λυξ 'ebrius';
519
'puniō' φλυκτισ 'bulla'

bhleugsmṇ
bhleumi
blūs 'falx' ; <*euk-
bluhhen, bliehen blъštati?
'incandēscō' περιφλυω, περι 'splendeō'
bhleusō
3a2.-blyscon, πεφλευσµενοσ 6.3.-blunkù, blù̀kti
blush 'rubēscō', 'pallescō'
blysa 'flamma'
fulgeō, blecchen, blecken blagъ 'bonus'
flagrō, 'uidērī' ; blæc 6.3.- blágnytis
Flagiui
bhḷgējō flamma umblissiu 'nīger' φλεγω bhargas 'fulgor' 'incandēscī'
'fulgurātores'
<gsm, 3a2.-blæcern 6.4.-balgans
fulmen 'lūmen' 'albus'
bólozno 'taeda,
fulciō, fustis'
2b1.-balog Balke, Block φαλλαγξ; φαλκ
bhḷkjō fulcrum; bhurijāu 'arma'
sufflāmen ?
'pinnaculum' 3a2.-balca, bealca τησ 'carīna' 6.3.-balžienа
'trabs'
bhlokos floccus blaha 'rudis sindō'
bhlōros
fluusaí 2b1.-blawd
'flōrae' 2b2.-blodon bluomo
bhlos flōs bláth blōma
fluusasiaís 2b3.-bleusuen (- 3a2.-blōstm
'florālibus' sm-)
bhlosējō
blázgu, -éti intr.,
blosc (bloisc)
bhloskos blázginti
'strepitus'
'resonāre'
2b1.-blawd bluot 'tālea,
TOK A pält, B
2b2.-blodon folium 3a2.-blēd,
bhlōtis bláth pilta <PT *pältā
2b3.-bleusuen (- blade 3a3.-
'petalum, folium'
sm-) blat<*blōdi 'id'
pinguis bungo παχυσ π bahu 'multum';
bhṇghus (cont. 'tuberculum' αχυλωσ bahula 'crebrē' 6.4.-bìezs
*finguis et 3a3.-bingr, bunga 'crebrē' 5.3.-bazah 'altitūdō,
opīmus) 'aceruum' profunditās'

2b1.-bedd
βοθροσ, βοθυν bodo, bosti 'figō'
'sepulcr'. 2b2.- badi
bhodhjō fodiō
beth 2b3.-
3a2.-bed
'lectus' οσ 'fouea, 5.5.-pèda- 6.3.-bedù, besti
cāuitās' 'id'
bez
bodb Ateboduus, 3a2.-beadu
bhodhwos
2a3.-badhbh Boduognatus 'proelium'
bhodjós
batiza,
batista
'optimus' bhadra 'bonus'; su-
bezzir(o), bezzist bhadra 'magnificus'
gabatnan
bhodrós 3a2.-bet(e)ra,
'fruor' 5.3.-hu-baδra
betst 3a3.-betr
bōta 'beātus'
'beneficiu
m'
bhodsā
bāgaudae bazel 'clamans'
bágim 'pugnō' bágu 'pugnō'
bhogā 2b1.-bwyo 'quatiō' 6.4.-buozties
combāg 'pugna' 3a3.-bágr 'imped.'
bai 'culpa' 'stomachārī'
bhogājō
búal <gl 'amnis'; bah, Bach
bhogjos búar<gr 3a2.-becc
'diarrhoea' 3a3.-bekkr
bah, Bach
búal; búar bhaŋgá-ḥ ? 'unda' bangà ? 'unda'
bhoglā 3a2.-becc
'diarrhoea' <*bheg? 'quatiō' <*bheg? 'quatiō'
<bhogyo
besъ <*bhoidso-
bhoidhos
foedus -a - πιθηκοσ 'daemonium'
um 'simius' 6.3.-baĩsas
'phasma'
bhoidos
bhoiqos fūcus 3a2.-bēaw
5.4.-boc; bosor
bhokos focus
'ruber'
521
Bulga
6.8.-blazína
2b1.-boly/bol, 3a2.-belly balgs
bholghis follis bolg 'puluīnum'
bola 2b3.- 'pantica' 'pellicula'
6.9.-balsinis 'id'
bolc'h 'cortex'
φυλλον (*bho
bileoc <*bheljo-
blat, Blatt > *bhu propter
bholjom folium 'foliculum';
3a2.-blæd Cowgill's
bile 'arbos'
legem?)
3a3.-bōl; schwed.
baile 'sedēs, mdartl. bylja, φωλεοσ, φωλει
bhōljóm
locus' bölja <*bulja οσ
'nīdiculum'
6.4.-buls/la 'aer
bholos bolad, -dh 'odor' 5.4.- bal 'cāligō'
cal.'
bholós
bansts
3a2.-bōsig, boose παθνη, φατνη 6.3.-bandà 'pecu,
bhondhsā <*bhondhs
3a3.-bāss <∗βηΓδην pecora'
ti-
5.4.-burn 'manus,
bhōr fūr, -is φωρ (φωροσ)
uis'
ποροσ ∋ριφιχ
bhorājō forō, feriō 3a2.-bore
ιυµ∋
borb, borp 6.4.-bar^gs
bhorcos 5.4.-bark 'uiolentus'
'rudis' 'strictus, seuērus'
bhoros
parrēn 'supīnus'
parrunga
2b1.-bwrr
bhorsos borr 'superbus' barsch
2b1.-borr
'raucus'
3a3.-abiēs
bar 'nūdus' bosu
ψιλοσ<−σλ−
bhosos 3a2.-baer 'nūdus' 5.4.-bok 6.3.-bâsas
'rāsus'
3a3.-berr 6.4.-bass
bhoudhējō
bhougā
bhougājō
bhāvya- 'fūtūrus,
bhōwijós báe 'praestantia'
faciendus'
bræhen <bhrēyō;
bhragrājō fragrō bracko, Bracke
'canis uēnātor'
bratronos 2b1.-
fratrum brawd pl brodyr
brōthar 3a2.- bhrātā, bhrātr
1b2.-fratrum, 2b2.- φρατηρ, φρητη bratrъ, bratъ
bhrātēr frāter bráthir brōthor, brother broþar 5.3.-brātar
fratrom broder/bruder ρ, φρατωρ 6.3.-broterelis
3a3.-brōðir 5.4.-elbayr
(g.pl.) 2b3.-breur -
bredeur
bhrātreino
s
bhrtrijos
bhrājatē
beraht, berht 'id' brezgъ 'aurōra'
2b1.-berth 'clārus, baírhts 5.5.-parkui
bhrēgō 3a2.-beorht, 6.3.-brékšta/ko
pulcher' 'clārus' 'limpidus' 5.6.-
bright 'id'
brāzaiti
frīgō;
1b2.-frehtu bhrjjáti <*bherg 6.3.-bìrgelas
bhreicō fertum<*firc
'coctus' 5.6.-biriš-tan 'ceruisia'
tum
brummen; βρεµω; βροµο
bremo, Bremse σ 'strepitus'
bhremō fremō 2b1.-brefu brezgъ; brjákatь
'frēnum' βροντη
3a2.-bremman 'tonitrus'
*bredъ
brenn<bherndh
wā 'profūsiō'; 'sarmentum'
bhrendhō 3.-bréstu,
bebarnatar, do-
eprinn; bruinnid bréndau, brésti
'mātūrō'
3a2.-brant 'clīuus'
frōns 3a3.-brandr 6.4.-bruodinš
bhrenō braine 'arista' 2b3.-brenniat 'id'
(frōntis) 'acroteria nauium 'cuspis tectī'
et domūm'
bhresjō brissid 2b3.-bresa brestan 'ērumpō' 5.5.-parsiya- 6.3.-braszleti
523
(*bhrésteti) 'pugnāre' 3a2.-burst 'frangō' 'rumpī'

'frangit'; brosc,
broscar
'strepitus'
fruor, fruktatiuf
frūniscor, (*frūgetātiōn brūhhan,
brukjan
bhréucai fructus, s) 'frūctus'. Brauchen 3a2.-
'opus esse'
frūmen, frūx 1b2.-fri(f) brūcan
(frūgis) 'frūgēs'
bhreugs
bhreugsm
ṇ
bhreugtis
brúsiti 'acuō';
Breuci, Breucus;
brósitь 'iaciō'
Breucomagos
bhreukō 6.3.-braukiù
(Brumath in
Alsacia) braukiaũ braũkti
6.4.-brucina^t
3a1,a2.-brūn briaunà 'ōra,
brú (bruach)
bhrēunā 'acūtus' corōna'
<*bhrū́wākos
3a3.-brūn limbus' <*bhrēunā
brú (bronn)
'pantica' briustern; brjúcho, brjúxo
<bhrusōn Brausche 'tumor'; 'pantica'
2b1, b2, b3.- brusts
bhreusō bruinne 'pectus' brust 'pectus'
bron(n) 'pectus' 'pectus' brъstъ 'gemma,
<bhrusnyo 3a2.-brēost,
brollach <slāk breast, brisket pampinus'
'sinus'
brucca, Brücke;
brügel, Prügel
bhrēwā Brīua 'uirga' brъvъno 'trabs'
3a2.-brygc
3a3.-brū
briuwan, brauen;
bruth 'ius, TRHAK.−βρυτ
bhrewō defrūtum prođ 'i, f' ; brōt 'p' bruja 'fluxus'
feruor'
3a2.-brēowan; οσ 'ius,
brođ 'i,f'; brēad feruor'

'pānis'
tipra<to-eks-
brunno φρεαρ (φρεατο 4.4.-albiur, albeur
bhrewṛ bhrewr brunna
3a2.-brunna σ) 'fons'
(tiprat)
Berg 'mons'; burg baúrgs bṛhant-, f. bṛhatī
Brigit Admageto-briga
for(c)tis, arc. 'urbs' 'urbs' πυργοσ ? barháyati 'auget'
bhṛghos bri (ac. brigh) 2b1.-bryeint 'priuil bregъ 'ripa'
for(c)tus 3a2.-barrow bairs 'mūrus' 5.4.-barjr
'collis' 2b2-2b3.-bre
'mons'; burg 'mons' 5.5.-parku-
brešú,'clamō'
3a2.-beorcan, φρυγιλοσ < φρι br̀gljati 'garriō'
bhrigijō frigō bark γυλοσ 'auis bergléz 'pīca'
3a3.-berkja 'latrō' quaedam' 6.3.-burgéti
'antipat. esse'
friō, refrīua бре́ю, брить
briathar
faba, 2b1.-brwydr brīnanti
bhrijājō 'uerbum, causa' 'rādō'; bridъ
friuolus, 'pugna' 'iniuriantur'
<*bhreitrā
fricō 'dumēs'
φαροω 'uellō';
berjan, bern φαρυγξ
'quatiō' 3a2.-
'guttur'; αφαρ bhṛnāti (?) 'secat'; borjo, brati
barae, bara 'īra' ; bered 'concussus',
bhṛijō
feriō, forma;
barrad 'rāsūra'
2b1.-bar, baran
bor 'ōrificium' οσ 'inuulsus'; bhárvati 'dēuorat' 'pugnō';
forō 'īra' φαραγξ 5.6.-burrad 'secat', 6.3.-burti
2a2.-bairenn 3a3.-berja
'barranca'; bárdhaka 'culter' 'incantāre'
'quatio'; bora
'ōrificium' περθω 'destruō
'
bhríkāmi
φρασσω
barc 'impetus' 'agglutinō,
bhṛkjō farciō, fartus
(undae) fortificō'
part. φρακτοσ
bhṛksnos
bhṛktos
ALB.brimë
bhṛmā forma
'ōrificium'
525
braigid (vn. brehhan, brechen;

frangō, 6.3.-braškù,
braimm) 'pēdit' prahhen, prägen
fragilis, braca 'bracca' brašké ti<gskō
bhrṇgō t-air-brech 'premō' brikan brháti 'scinditur'
fragmentum, 2b2.-bram 'pēdus' 6.4.-brakškēt,
'rumpere'; 3a2.-brekan,
suffrāginēs brakstēt
bróc 'bracca' break
φρισσω, πεφρι
3a3.-brikja 'erigō';
bhroigos 2b1, 2b3,.brig κα 'erigor'; φρι braj 'rigor membrī'
brikna 'hilaritās'
ξ 'undulāt.'
brot 'spīna'; 2b2.-bros 'id' ALB.-breth,
bhrosdhos brart 'margō'
brostaim 'figor' 2n3.-brod 'di' bredhi 'abiēs'
briune, brūne brъsnǫti 'scabō'
bhrounóm fris-brudi 'reicit' 'abdōmen, uulua'; bhrūṇ á-m 'embryō' 6.4.-braũna,
breoðan 'frangere' braũṅa
bronъ 'albus
φρυνοσ, φρυνη
3a1, 3a2.-brūn equus'
bhrounos 'testudō, cf. babhrú
3a3.-brūnn brynétъ'candidus,
rāna'
pallidus'
frūstum, bronnaim
bhroustom 2b1.-briw 'uulnus' brýsan 'frangō'
frūstra ? 'damnō'
2b1.-amrant
frons abra (pl. abrait) 2b2.-abrans MAKED.- 5.3.-bruvadbhi
bhrówṇtis
(frontis) 'supercilium' 'superc.' aβρουτεσ ? 'supercilīs'
2b3.-abrant
fastigium; Cunobarrus
burst 'cerda'
fastus -us, barr 'extrēmum, 'superbus sicut
bhṛstís 3a2.-byrst bhṛstíh 'cuspis' borshchъ 'ungula'
fastidium cacumen' canis' 2b1.-bar
3a3.-burst
<*fastitid.? 2b3.-barr
breth <*bhṛtā- uergobretus
'portātiō'; bráth 2b1.-bryd 'mens'; ga-baúrþs bṛtí-ḥ
bhṛtis fors giburt 'partus'
<*bhṛtu- brawd 'iudicium' 'partus' 5.4.-bard 'molēs'
'iudicium' 2b2.-brys
2b1.-brwynen
brognena 3a, a3.-brogne
bhrughnos 2b2.-brunnen
'rāmōrum' 'rāmus'
2b3.-broennenn

frūmen<frug 3a3.-barki 'collum' φαρυξ > φαρυν 5.4.-erbuc 'pectus'

bhṛugs
smen <*bhor-g- ξ (ad λαρυγξ) <*bhrugo-
bruuad (gen. οφρυσ (οφρυ[F
frons bhrūh (bhruváh) bruvi, бровь
bhrūs du.), abrait 3a2.-brū ]οσ) ΜΑΚ. αβ
(frontis) 5.3.-brvat- 6.5.-óbrva
(nom. pl.) ρουτεσ
bronnaim
'damnō', sub.
brōs(e)m(e)
robria; brū́ 2b1.-breu, brau
'mīca' 3a2.-
bhrúsnāmi frustum 'quatiō'<bhrusiō 'fragilis'
briesan<ausj;
, brúire, bruan, 2b2.-brew 'fractus'
bruise
bruar
'fragmentum'
bruinne
2b1.-bronn 'id' brunjō
<*bhusnyo- brunja, brunna,
<*bhrusnā 'lōrica
bhrusnjā 'pectus'; Brünne id'
2b3.-bronn, bron scutulāta'
brúasach 3a2.-byrne 'id'
'id' <celt.
'mgnipectis'
brú <*bhrusō
2b1.-bru 'uenter, brust brjúcho, brjúxo
bhrusos (bronn <*-snos)
uterus' 3a2.-brēost, breast 'pantica'
'id'
bhrustóm
broth 'barba, briezen, brōz
bhrutēks frutex
capillum' 'tumor'
2b1.-brut/brwd
'ardor' 2b2.- prut, brut <*-tis
bruth 'feruor'
bhrwtom dēfrutum bredion 'coctiō' 3a2.-prod, brōd
<*-tis
2b3-brot/broud 'ius'; 3a3.-broth
'ius'
bodam, Boden
budhna-
fundus, 3a2.-botm,
bhudhmṇ bond, bonn πυθµην 5.3.-bunō
profundus bottom
5.4.-bun
3a3.-bytna (vb)
bhudhnos
bhugjō fugiō 3a2.-bow biugan φευγω, φυγη bhujati 6.3.-bū́gstu,bū́gti
bhugos boc(c), po(c) boc (boekes), Bock bukkah 'ariēs' 6.3.-bū́gstu, bū́gti
527
boccánach 3a2.-bucca, buck 5.3.-būza 'ariēs' intr. 'terreō', kaus.

'phasma' 3a3.-bukkr, 5.4.-buz 'agnus' baugìnti baugùs
bokkr/i 5.6.-buz 'caper' 'timens'
ALB.-butë
bhukús bo, bocc 'suauis' 5.4.-but' <*któ 'heb.' 6.3.-bukùs 'hebes'
'suauis'
biule, Beule; pull
buri-ḥ, buli-ḥ 'pūga'
bolach <*bulno- 'caput, ufbauljan βυλλα βεβυσµ 6.3.-bulìs,bùlė,
bhulj 5.4.-boil (gen. pl.
<*bhulāk- apex' 'tumefaciō' ενα (Hes) bulic̣ multitūdō)
bulė̃ 'pūga'
3a2.-byle; pulse
Samn> It.l
bhulkos su/bubulcus φυλαξ −ακοσ
bifolco
bhūm fuī εφυον ábhūt 'fuit'
bhunkte
'oblectātur',
bubhukṣā 'famēs;
ALB.-bungu, bunk
bhúncai fungor bhṓga- 'oblectām.'
'abies nutritīuus'
5.4.-boyc
<*bhoug(w)os
'cibus'
bus, pus
Buss(erl), bussen 6.6.-buzia
bhusājō 'labrum'; busóc, 5.6.-bōsīdan
3a2.-buss 'osculum, buccula'
pusóc 'osc.'
3a3.-büsia 'uī
bhūsjō bhū́ṣati 'conitor' бы́стрый 'celer'
effluō'
buode, Bude
bhūt both 'casa' 6.3.-bùtas 'domus'
3a3.-bōþ
bibdu
fūstis, 'culpābilis' boz(z)an <*bhud
bauþs
fūsterna, <*bhebhutwōs 3a2.- bēatan, beat
bhutjō būstis 'truncus' 'surdus,
confūtō, cf. bhindō; fo- 3a3.-beysta
mutus'
refūtō, fūtuō botha <*butāt (forem)
'minātu'
futūrus
ro-both <*pro- byti, bytъ 'esse,
<*bhūtú-,
bhūtós bhūtós; both bhūtáh (part. esse) modus, uiuendī'
futāre
'casa' 6.4.-bũt
<*bhūtós
2b1.-bust
bistlis bīlis 2b2.-bistel/bystel
2b3.-bestl
*bločьšīca >UCR.
blaktā blatta 6.3.- blãkē <yā
'cimex'
blaterō,
blatsājō pla(d)der(e)n
blatiō
blēkājō blöken βληχαοµαι blek(ot)átь
2b2.-banne,
buinne
bṇdus banna 'nōn gutta' bindú
'scaturigō'
2b3.-banne
2b1.-byddar
bodar
bodhrós 2b2.-bothar badhirá-s
2a3.-bodhar
2b3.-bouzar
boc 5.3.-būza
bokkos bocc
3a3.-bokkr 5.4.-buc 'agnus'
5.4.-pɫpjam
bólboljō bulliō
'collabor'
belach 'rupēs,
2b1.-bwlch 'Spalte'
bolkos uia'; bolg 5.4.-pelem 'fodiō'
2b3.-boulc'h
(contam. tolg?)
bóchna 'mare' puche, pochen bučati 'resonō'
βυκτησ bukkati 'latrat'; búk-
boukājō (=tonans) 'quatiō' 6.3.-bukùoti;
'ululans' kāra-ḥ 'rugītūs'
<*boukanyā 3a2.-poke 'pungō' bùkčius 'balbus'
PRAC.- múhu-
brenghos brong(a)ide βραγχοσ 5.3.-mrzujīti 'b.
uitae'
1a1.-brochus, 6.6.-Brok 'nōmen
brokos brocc 2b1, 2b3.-broch
bronchus flūminis'
βυασ, βυζα; β búk-kāra-ḥ 'rugītus' búchatь 'surdē
5.3.-bučahin-
būbō, būtio, οαω 'clamō'
bughōn 'ululans' 5.4.- strepō 6.3.-
būteo βοη 'clamor' bu, buēč 5.6.- baublỹs 'būtio';
βυκτησ būm bùkčius 'balbus'
529
'ululans'
pfüchen, Pfoch
3a2.-pohha,
6.3.-pũkšti
bukkā bucca pocca, pocket puggs 'id.'
'exclamāre'
'follis, saccus'
3a3.-poki 'id.'
2b1.-boddi
'imbuor' βαθοσ 'profun
cadhō ba(i)dim 'mergō' ghatē 'mergit'
2b2.-bedhy 'id' ditās'
2b3.-beuziff 'id'
βηµα (βηµατο pra/ ví-gāman- 6.3.-ga^jums 'et
cāmṇ
σ) 5.3.-gā-man- seriēs'
βεβηλοσ
cécālos jagat <-nt 'mundus'
'profānus'
δεννοσ
quetzen,
'contumelia' gandhayate 'feriō' 6.3.-gadinù,
quetschen
cedhō <*gʷendhno- gandhá-ḥ 'olor' gadìnti ; intr.
'opprimō, tundō'
; φθονοσ 5.3-gantay- 'foetor' gendù, gésti
3a3.-kvadda 'id'
'inuidia'
2b1.-bwyd 'cibus' Hom.
biad živú, žitь
uīuō; iūgis 2b2.- jīvati 5.4.-
cejwō <*gwejHtom βεοµαι < βειε 6.3.-gyjù, gýti
<H2yu-gwi- buit/boys/būz keam
'cibus'
2b3.-boed/boued σοµαι 'uiuam' 'sānō'
quellen želějǫ, želěti
5.4.-kelem
cēlējō 3a2.-quellian 'depolorō'
5.5.-guls- 'pingō'
3a3.-kvelia 6.3.-gélti 'pungere'
želudь<*želǫdъ
gula- 5.4.-
célṇdis glans βαλανοσ 6.3.-giléndra
kalin
'anōna'
gálati 'defluit,
uolō -āre; 2b1.- βαλλω, βαλαν
quellan 'scatō', ēuanescit' garút
celō balneum blif<*gwlēmo?
Quelle ειον; βληµα 'ei 5.4.-∂nkenum; ∂n
<gr. 'catapulta' ectus' kēc 'iēcit'
kiol, Keule 'nāuis γυαλον gōla 'pila'
celom uola
q.' 'pantica, 5.4.-kalum 'carpō'
3a2.-cēol 'id' trulla'; γυλιοσ

'follis'
kúmbened βαινω <∗γωΧϕ
quïman, queman, gácchati <*gwṃ-sk; TOK A.-käm,
ueniō, conj. 'conuenit', , βασκω <∗γω
cemjō qiman, kommen qiman jígāti <*gwi-gwā kum-, B käm-,
aduenam cebnust Χ−σκ; βιβηµι 5.4.-jamaiti, jasaiti
3a2.-come kam-, śem
'uēnerint' <∗γωι−γω
qino, qens jani- 5.4.-
2b1.-benyw βανα žena
cenā ben (mna, ban) <pgmc. kin 5.5.-
2b2.-benen γυνη 6.9.-genna
*kwēniz LUW wana(tti)
βραπτειν εσθιε
cerbhō 5.5.-karip 6.3.-gróbas 'ilia'
ιν (Ηεσ)
δειρασ; gora
girí-ḥ <*gʷrH-i-.
ceri βορεα 6.3.-gìre, girià 'id'
σ 'aquilō' 5.3.-gairi- 6.4.-garš 'silua'
5.4.-korusanem
'ruinō'; koreay
kurre 'id' 6.3.-gùrty 'decedō'
qaírrus 'morior'
cerjō 3a3.-kuirr, kyrr TOC A kur, B
'mitis' 5.5.-karussiya-
'id' ikwär 'senescō'
'sileō'; kariya
'sistō'
grṇti, grṇītḗ
brateis gūrtí-ḥ=grātēs 'laus'
'gratiae' bardus
grātēs, bard 'bardus' δειριαν λοιδορ gūrtá-ḥ=grātus giriù, gìrti
cerō 2b1.-bardd queran 'suspirāre'
grātus, grātia βρατωμ <*gwr-d(h)o-s εισθαι (Ηεσ.) 5.3.-aibi-g°r°nte 3p 6.4.-dzir̃ties
'bardus'
'mūnus' 5.4.-kardam
'clamor'
6.3.-žiūrḗti
jvarati; jvara-
cerō korts 'febris' 'speciō'
'febris'
6.4.-žũ re^t 'nictō'
1b2.-berva krūt, Kraut?
βρυω?
'uerua', 'herba' qaíru
ceru uerū bi(u)rn 'hasta' 2b1, b2, b3.-berf 'germinō'; εµβ 5.3.-grava- 'hasta'
berus 3a2.-krūd 'pālus'
'ueribus' <*krūdā ρυον 'germen'
cérurom berrum biror/biolar kresso
531
ugasitiúžas?'pauor
σβεννυµι
bás <*gwōs-to-? qistjan jásate 'esuriō' ' 6.3.-
césneumi
'mors' 'ruinō' ασβεστοσ 5.5.-kist gesaũ, gèsti
'inexting.' 6.4.-dzisu, dzist
quispel 'brocha';
βοστρυχοσ
cespis uespicēs questa, Quast guṣpitá 'entramado' 6.5.-gwozd 'silua'
'caesariēs'
'gerra'
2b1.-bedw
<*betuā 'b' cuti, Kitt 'gluten'
be(i)the
bitūmen, 2b2.-bedewen 3a2.-cwudu
cetus <*betuyā játu 'gumma'
betulla 'popl.' 'mastix'
`buxus'
2b3.-bezuen 3a3;-kvāða
'betula'
ogaviti `vexāre'
quad, Kot
buadraim 2b1.-budr gáditь 'polluō'
ceudhos būbināre 3a2.-cwēad,
'conturbō' 'immundus' 6.3.-geda
squash 'quatiō'
'dedecus'
φαικοσ λαµπρ 6.3.-gaĩsas 'lux
οσ (Ηεσ.); φαι caelestis'; giẽdras
chaisos
δροσ, φαιδιµο 'c' 6.4.-gaišs
σ 'clārus'; 'clārus'
CELTIB.-(g. ποθεω
pl.) uediíumí ? 2b1.- 'desiderō'
chedhō guidimm
kueðontikum gweddi 'rogātiō' θεσσασθαι
? 'implorō'
cheldi fel galla χολοσ zhlici, zlici
3a3.-gildra/i
chelō (ε)θελω želěti, želati
'pedica'
φονοσ 'nex' hanmi, pf. jaghāna
gonim 'feriō'
chendō fendō θεινω 'necō' 5.5.-
guin 'uulnus'
'tundō' kunatar 'nex'
2n1.-gwan(u) hanmi, pf. jaghāna ženǫ, goniti,
gonim 'feriō' 3ª φονοσ 'nex'
'quatiō' 'necō'
chenmi dē-, of-fendō gonaid; gáetaid 2b2.-gwane 'id' θεινω <*ghw 5.4.-ganem, jnem
gъnati 'agō'
denom. a 2b3.-goan- 'id' enjō 'tundō' 'q.' 5.5.-kuenz, pl. 6.3.-genù, giñti
<*ghwṇ to-; kunanzi; kunatar 'agō'

guin <ghwoni 'nex'
'uulnus';
chentis
gorim 'calefaciō'; grějǫ, grěti ,
2b1.-gori 'alō' gerwen 'praeparō' θεροµαι ghṛṇṓti 'luceō'
cherō fo-geir; gor goritъ, goreti
2b3.-gor 'calor' 3a2.-gierwan 'id' 'calefiō' 5.4.-jernum 'calefiō'
'calor, pus' 'ūrō';
požarъ
2b1.-gor gor 'stercus' háras- 'ardor' 'incendium'
cheros θεροσ 'aestās'
'incubātiō, pus' 3a2.-gyre 'id' 5.4.-jer 'et sūdum' 6.3.-gãras 'uapor,
desiderium'
2b1;-gi-au ži-ca ; žila 'ueena'
5.4.-jil 'corda,
chislom fīlum 'tendōnes, 6.3.-gijà; gýsla 'id'
monīle'
ligamina' 6.4.-dzi(k)sla 'id'
hváratē 'uiet';
hválati, hruṇāti zъlъ 'malus'
φηλοω, φαλοω; 'errat' 6.3.-; žvalù s
fallō, falsus;
chḷnō φαλυπτει µω 'obliquuus';
fallax 5.3.-zbar∂mna
ραινει (Hes) pažvil-ti, -au
'tortus'; zūrah
'nitor'
'fallācia'
fax, arc.
διαφασσειν δι ALB.-dukem
facēs;
chōks αφαιν. φωψ 'speciō, uideor'; duk žvã kė 'candēla'
facētus,
φαοσ (Hes)? 'aspectus'
facētia
αφενοσ
'abundantia' ghaná- 'densus,
gone(je)ti 'sufficiō'
ευθενησ ' massa' 5.4.-
chonós 6.3.-ganà 'satis'
diuēs' yogn 'multum'
6.4.-gana ` 'id'
παρθενοσ? 5.6.-āganiš
'uirgō'
θερµοσ ∋χαλιδ 5.3.-garǝma-;
υσ∋; θερµασσα garma-pada- 6.3.-gorme 'calor'
chormos formus
<∗−µΓτια− ∋φ 'mensis q.' 5.4.- 6.4.-gar^me 'id'
υρνυσ∋ jerm
533
fornus,
ghṛṇá- 'ignis' 5.4.-
chornos furnus, gorn 'ignis' GRANNOS grъnъ, gorn 'ăēna'
jernum 'calefiō'
fornāx
grís 'ignis'; 2b1.-gwres 'calor ghramsá- 'insolātiō,
chrensós grían (gréne) sōlis' splendor'; grīsmá-
<gwhrensnā 'sōl' 2b3.-groez, grouez 'aestās'
5.5.-kururiyahh-
furō, furiō,
chṛjō 'bellum agō'; kurur
furōr
'hostīlis, hostīlitās';
baïd 'moritur'
jígāti 'it' lit. dial. góti 'īre'
<*gwH2-yeti, 2b1.-bad 'pestis' βιβω; βιβηµι, β
cícāmi 5.4.-kam 'stō' (=a.i. ALB.-ngā 'currō'
do·bá; pf. at- 2b3.-bad 'torpēdō' ιβαζω 'uadō' aor. agām 'iī' <*ganiō
bath; bás (n)
cijā 1b2.-bio 3a3.-kvē
jinti ; jáyati
βια 'uincit'
6.3.- iguju, iguti
cínāmi 3a3.-kveita 'uis'; βιαω 'obl jyyān 'potens' 'assequī'
igō'
5.3.-zināt̃ 'nocēt'
5.6.-adināt 'sustulit'
cīrós uireō jīrá- 'uiuāx, celer'
2b1.-bys zwisila? 'rāmus,
cistis bisi ega 'stiriae' 2b2.-bis, bes furca'
2b3.-biz 3a3.-kvistr 'rāmus'
Biturīges 'rēges
bith (betho) <*-
m.' 2b1.-byd jīvita- 5.3.- životъ
tu-; bethu
cītā uita 'mundus', bywyd gaeθā 'mundus, 6.3..-gyvatà
(bethad)
2b2.-bit/bys 'id' opes, domus' 6.4.-dzĩtu
<*gwīwotut-
2b3.-bed 'id'
jīvaka- (*-ko suff. a 6.3.-gyvókas
cīwāks uīuax (-ācis)
nōmine uel adiect.) 'uīuus'
2b1, 2b2.-biw
cīwos βιοσ
'pecu'
2b1.-2b2.-byw živъ
cīwós uīuus bivus 'uīuōs' beo qius ζωοσ jīvá-
2b3.-beo 6.3.-gývas

TOK.-
śaiyye životъ
cīwotos beath(aidhe)ach ζωον 5.5.-LUW huitumar
'capra, 6.3.-gývulis
ouis'
2b1.-gwellt
gula,
gelim 'pāscor' 'grāmen' δελεαρ, βλοµο glotátь 'uorō';
ingluuiēs, kela, Kehle
cḷā
glūtus,
gelt-both 2b2.-gwels
3a2.-ceole σ 'cibus glot, glotók
'pabulum' 2b1.-guelticion piscibus' 'fauces'
glūt/t/ō
'fen.'
cḷājō
cḷēnós 2b1.-2b3.-blin glāná 'dēbilitātus'
5.4.-kelem žalь 'dolor'
quelan 'patī'
οβελοσ 'uerō'; 'tormentō'; kel 6.3.-gélti
uallessit ? at-baill 'perit' 2b1.-aballu 'pereō' 3a2.-cwelan
cḷnāmi βελωνη <gwel-no-/so-/Ho- 'pungere'; gìlti
'perierit' <*eks-id-gwaln 2b2.-bal 'pestis' 'morior'; cwellan
'cuspis' 'uulnus' 5.5.- 'indolescere';
'necō'
guls- 'pingō' giltine 'mors'
vultur, βλοσυροσ; −ω
cḷturós
voltu(us) πισ
kúmbennieís gaqumþs
cṃtis conuenti-ō cumft βασισ gáti-ḥ
(g.) 'conut.'
Quappe 'piscis q.' 5.4.-kaw (-oy) žaba, 'testūdō'
cobhōn
3a2.-quab 'palūs' 'argilla' 6.9.-gabawo 'rāna'
jīna-; jīla-ḥ
coinos bían 'pellis"
'conductus'
gárbhah 'mātrix'
kilbur, chilburra, sá-garbhya-ḥ
αδελφεοσ <σΧ
uolua Kalb 3a2.- 'couterīnus'
colbhos δελφεσοσ; αδ žrebe 'pullus equī'
1a2.-galba cilforlamb 'agna 5.3.-gar∂wa;
māter'; calf ελφοσ
g∂r∂buš 'pullus'
aja-gara-
corós carni-uorus βοροσ 6.3.-gara
'*capriuorus'
bottos 'axis' 2b1.- quast, haste alb.-ghethi ? gvozdь 'clāuus'
cosdhos bot, bod 'pēnis'
both 'axis' 'hasta' 'folium' 6.6.-g(w)ózdź
cotējō quedan 'id' qiþan gadati ? 'dīcit'
535
3a2.-cweðan, 'dīcit'; un- 5.4.-koč̣ em 'uocō,

quoth qēþs inuit'
3a3.-kveða 'id' 'inenarrābil 5.6.-žāy°m, žam
is'
quiti 'uulua' qiþus
3a2.-cwidele 'stomachus
bél 'labrum'
cotlós botulus <1b 'pustula, varix' ; uenter';
<*gwetlos?
3a3.-kviðr, qiþuhaftō
kviðugr 'praegnans'
gū-thạ; guváti
'cacat', gūnam govno;
MAK γοταν υ
coucis būbināre 'cacatum' guditi 'calumniar'
ν (Hes.) ? 5.3.-gū-qa- (dh)
5.4..-ku, koy `
coudhros
kaha, kā 'cornīx' hava 'coruus'
cówijā gāuia 3a2.-kaa 'coruus 6.8.- ga^vǝc
frugilegus' uanellus
εννεα−βοιοσ
gávya-, gavyá-
cowijós 'nouem cum
5.4.-kogi 'butyrum'
bubus'
2b1.-bugail
cówqolos buachaill βουκολοσ
2b2-2b3.-bugel
gáuḥ (g. góḥ , loc.
gávi) 5.3.-
*govędo
cows bōs bó (bou) chuo βουσ gāus 5.4.-
6.4.-guws
gov
5.5.-wawa
kaúrus, pl.
bair; baire βαρυσ; βαρυν gurú >gárīyān,
2b1.-bryw 'robur, kaúrjōs; 6.3.-gùrstu, gùrti
cṛ(āw)ús grauis 'grāuitās' ω 'onerō'; gāriṣ ṭha
robustus' kaúrjan 'remittō' (uentus)
bruth 'pndus' υβρισ<ud-g 5.3.-gouru-
'onerō'
cr∂tos brūtus <1b 6.4.-grũts 'grauis'
βιβρωσκω, βορ giráti, giláti, grṇti
uorō, uorāgō, 2b1.-breuad querdar, Köder pоžъro, požreti
cṛājō tuarae 'esca' α 'esca'; 5.3.-jarait
gurguliō 'uermes' 'cibus laqueī' 6.3.-geriù, gérti
βαραθρον 5.4.-kèrem
'guttur' 'abradō'; ker, kur

'esca'
6.4.-dzirts
crātós grātus gūrtáh
'exsultātus'
2b1.-breuan
TOK B.- grāvan- žrъnъvi
cṛwenus bró, bráo 2b2.-brou 3a2.-quern kuairnus
kärweñe 'lapis' 5.4.-erkan 6.3.-gìrnos
2b3.-breo
cṛcestjom
gárgara;grīv
gurges, quer(e)kela, griva 'iuba'
δερη <gwerwā 'collum'̣
cṛcots gurguliō, querka 6.3.-gargaliúoju
'collum' nigalgalīti/jalgulīti
gurgustium 3a3.-kverk 'tōlēs' 'stertō'
'uorat'
brommach < *-
cṛebhos βρεφοσ
ombhāko
grustь 'cūra';
brón 'cūra' 2b1.-brwyn gryzo, grysti
creughos βρυχω 'ringor' `'rōdō 6.3.-
*<brugnos 'mordens dolior'
gráužiu, gráužti
'id'
2b1.-
abalbrouannou
bráge, brágae βροχθοσ
croghos 2b2.-briansen krage
'collus' 'guttur'
'guttur' 2b3.-
Brehant
crotsos grossus bras 2b1, b2, b3.-bras
croughnos brón 2b1.-brwyn βρυχω 'ringor'
tri-garanus
chranuh žeravь
cṛús grus (Taruos) 2b1- γερανοσ 5.4.-krunk
3a2.-cran 6.3.-gérve
b3.-garan
dā δη, δα da
dails<*dail dti, dyáti; dātá r
teil 'pars' ; Zeit, zīt δαιοµαι; δαιτυ
os 'pars';
fo-dálim ? arcanto-danos 'tempus' *<daitis σ, δαιτρον 'diuīsor'; dtu,
daimoi RUN- delъ ? 'pars'
'seiungō' 'monetārius' 3a2.-dǣl, tīd 'portiō'
da[i]liþun dātrá m
'aestus' δαιτροσ
'diuidēre' 'distribūtiō';
537
'dīuīsor'; dtram 'falx'

δαινυµι 'hospit
diná, ditá 'dīuīsus'
iō' δανοσ 5.4.-dāra 'salārium'
'usūra';δαιµων
zīt, Zeit
3a2.-tīd; tide
daitis 5.4.- ti (tioy) 'aetās'
'aestus'
3a3.-tīð 'id'
zeihhur devár- deverь
daiwēr leuir δαηρ
3a2.-tācor 5.4.-taygr 6.3.-dëverìs
2b1.-deigr áśru
lacrima<dacr 2a1.-dér 2b2.-dagrow (pl.) zahar 3a2.- 5.3.-asrū- 6.3.-ašarà, ãšara
dakru tagr δακρυ
uma 2a3.-deór 2b3.-dacrlon téar 5.4.-artawsr TOK A.-ākär
(ūdus) 5.5.-ishahru
2b1.-dauu 'cliens'
dám <*dāmā δηµοσ, δαµοσ
dāmos 2b2.-dof gener
'comitātus' 'populus'
2b3.-deuff
dā-na 'fluxus horm.
(elephantiacum)'
Dānuvius, 5.3.-dānu 'flūmen, Don,Dnieper,Dnie
∆αναοι; δηµα
Condate fluxus' 5.4.- str <Danaprius,
dānus
'confluens'; σ 'adeps tamuk 'madidus'; Danastius <*apara
Donwy (*dānuuiā) animālis' tamkanam 'madefiō' * nazdya-
5.5.-dame(n)k-
'pluō'
dápnāmi
δαπανη 'impen
sa'; 5.4.- taun, tawn
dapnom damnum 3a3.-tafn 'hostia'
δαπαναω 'insū <dapni 'festa'
mō'
tappen 'decerpō'
dāpayati 'diuidit'
daps, 3a2.-tappen δαπτω<∗δαπιω
daps 5.4.- taun, tawn TOK A.-tāp 'ēdit'
damnum 'tundō' 3a3.-tapa 'scindō'
<dapni 'festa'
'perdō'
dáwētā

dóud davathu
dáwetus duellum
'incendium' 'inflammātiō'
dóím 'ūrō'; δαιω; δαισ
2b1.-deifio,
dōud zuschen 'ūrō' 'taeda'; δυη dunṓti, dāvayati
bellum, arc. cynnud 'id' - 6.3.-džiá uti 'siccō'
'incendium' = ai. 3a2.-tēona m., 'damnum'; δυε 'urit" doman-
dáwneumi duellum gr. δα(ε)λοσ <dyēw 'caelum' ?
davathu; tēone 'damnum' ροσ 'incendium'; dū
<*dáwetlom 2b3.-devi, 6.4.-žaut 'id'
connad, condud 3a3.-deleō' 'miser'; δυοωσ 'damnum'
keuneud 'id'
'cremium' ι 'ruinant'
connad, condud
δαηθµοσ 'ince
dawtis <*komdauto
ndium'
'cremium'
tađa 'tunc' ;kad , kudá 'quo, ubi',
dē, dēterior, dat 2b1.-di, y, i
zādal < *dē-tlom tade 'inde', jeda
dē dēmum, 1b2.-daetom dí 2b2.-the yad 'cum'
'paupertās' 'cum' 6.3.-
dēnique 'delictum' 2b3.-di
5.3.-tađa, yađa 'id' tadà 'tunc'
6.5.-depim,-iti
δεφω, δεψω; δι
debhō depsō <deyw 5.4.-topel 'quatiō' 'flīgō'
φθερα 'corium' 6.6.-deptac 'calcō'
zittaroh 3a2.- dadruka- 'eruptiō
dedrus 6.3.- dedervinė̃ '
teter cutanea, lepra q.'
dega (degaid) Zecke
deghā 'blatta 3a2.-ticia, tick; 5.4.-ti
quercinea' tickle 'titillāre'
deikm∂n
deíkum,
deicum δεικνυµι, disháti, dideSTi
deikō dīcō zīhan ga-teihan
teitu, deitu δικη 'iustitia' 5.5.-tekkuššanumi
'dicitō'
zīch 'forum'.
3a2.-tīg, tīh deśá-ḥ 'locus' ; diś-,
deikos δικη 'iustitia'
'pratum' 3a3.- diśā 'directiō'
teigr 'fundus'
in/bi-ziht
δειξισ 5.3.-ādišti-š
deiktis dictiō 'accusātiō' 3a2.-
'indicātiō' <*dikti- 'indicātiō'
tiht 'id'
539
deiwā
déiwijos dius, diuus déa διοσ divyáh
Deuognata Zīo dēvá-s
deívaí divъ
deiwos deus (dīuī) dia (dé) 2b1.-duiu-tit 3a2.-Tīwes-dæg 5.3.-daēvō
(diuae) 6.3.-dëvas
'caput d.' 3a3.-tivar 'daemonium'
deiwotāts deitās devátāti
5.5.-asiwant-
deiwots dīues
'pauper'
daśasyáti 'honorat';
δεχοµαι
'accipiō'; daś 'stātus,
decet, decus,
δοκει µοι fātum' ; dīkšatē
dekējō dignus; tiçit 'decet' dech 'optimus'
'censeō' 'sacer fit' 5.4.-
dīscō, doceō
4.2.- das∂m 'patrim.';
δεκοµαι 'id' dāšta- 'adeptus'
1b2.-desen-
2b1.-deg zehan, zehn decetъ
dekṃ decem (duf) 'duo- deich n- taíhun δεκα dáśa
2b2.-2b3.-dek 3a2.-tien, tyn 6.3.-dẽšimt
decim'
digitus,
dékṃtulos δακτυλοσ 5.5.-kalulupa
digitulus
deknos
dech, deagh Dago- <*dego
dekos decus
'optimus'; dea- 2b1, b2.-da 'bonus'
Dexsiua
2b1.-deheu, deau
δεξιοσ <*deksi dákṣiṇa-, dakṣiṇá- desnъ
déksteros dexter dess 2b2.-dyghow, zeso, zesawēr taíhswa
dyow 2b3.- wó, δεξιτεροσ 5.3.-dašina- 6.3.-dẽšinas
dehou
zalōn; zāla
'periculum'
5.4.-toɫ 'linea'; toɫem
dolom, dolud 3a2.-talian; talk
deljō dolus <gr. δολοσ 'dolus' 'ordinō' 5.5.-
<gr. 'loquor'; tæl
tallija- 'inuocō'
'calumnia'
3a3.-tāl 'delūsiō'
dolō -āre; delb<delwā 2b1.-delu, delw 'id' toll(e) 'extremum δαιδαλοσ, δαι dálati, dālá yati
delō delvi (dъlъvi)
dolābra; 'figūra'; 2b2.-del ramī'; Zoll 'limēs'; δαλεοσ daṇḍá 'ferula'
dōlium; dolba(i)d Zelt 'tentorium' 'artibus 5.4.-tal 'impres, 'dōlium'; delъ?

doleō, dolor 'format' fo- creātum'; uersus'
'pars' 6.3.-
dālim ? Seiungīō δηλεοµαι
dylù, dìlti 6.4.-
'deleō'
delu, dil̃ t
demos
zangar 'acer', zāhi
'tenax', Zange δακνω ∗δΓκ−ν dáśati, pf. dadáṃśa
denkō 'forfex' ×; αορ. εδακο 5.3.- tiži-dastra
3a2.-tang, tōh, ν (adv.)
tange
δηνεα (H.) dámsas-
densō
'diuinātiōnes'; 'prodigium'; dasrá-
δαιφρων 'prodigiōsus'
'sensātus' 5.3.-daŋra 'habilis'
dens
desna 6.3.-
(dentis), 2b1.-2b3.-dant zand, Zahn dántam (ac. sing.),
dentis dét/déad tunþus οδων dantìs, dantu (g.
dentum (g. 2b2.-dans 3a2.-tōþ, tooth datáh (gen. sing.)
pl.)
pl. Var.)
zerben,
zirben drbháti
3a2.- u-dorobь 'aula'
δαρπη<δαρφη ' 5.3.-d∂r∂uda 'fascis'
derbhō tearflian dorób'ić 'torquere'
corbis' 5.4.-torn 'funiculus,
'rotō'; derébitь 'ēuellere'
torfian laqueus'
'iaciō'; turf
dremm zarga 'arista' δρασσοµαι
5.4.- trc̣ak
<drghsmos 2b3.-dramm 2b2.-targe 'capiō';
derghō <derghso-
'multitūdō 'fascis' 'litterāle' δραχµη;
'magnibus fascibus'
hominum' 3a3.-targa 'id' δραξ 'manus'
zeran, verzehren; drnāti explōdit';
2b1, 2b2, 2b3.- dis-taíran, δερω , δειρω
Zorn 'iira' ; dero, dьrati
derō darn 'portiō' (a.i. ga-taíran 'glūbō'; δερµα 5.3.-dar∂dar-
trennen 6.3.- diriù, dìrti
dīrná-) 'abscindō' 'pellis' 5.4.-terem
3a2.-teran, torn
dūrus<drūru dair, daur 2b1.-dâr/derwen δορυ 'lignum' drebo 'lignum,
deru 3a2.-trēo, tree triu 'arbos' dru (drós)
s? 'robur'; 2b2.-dar δενδρον 'arbo arbos'
541
dron<drunós 2b3.-derv-enn s' 'lignum' dárvih 6.3.-dervà 'lign.

'fixus'; derb δρυσ 'robur' 'ligula' 5.4.- pinī'
'certus'; drúi tram 'fixus'
'druida' 5.5.-taru, dat. taruui
dūcō, dux;
ziohan, ziehen Ηεσ: δαιδυκεσ
deukō arc. ab- non to-ucc dygaf 'afferō' tiuhan
3a2.-tēon θαι, ελκεσθαι
doucit
deuks
δεω, δευω
3a2.-teorian dūsáyati
deusō 'careō' ;
<tiuzōn 'cessō' 5.5.-tuhs 'desinō'
δευτατοσ
dūrá h, cimp.
dávīyas
δην ∋ολιµ∋; δη 'longinquus'; dūtá
cundrad ρον ∋λονγαευυ 'nuntius' ;doṣa
<*condūrad 'egestās'; 5.3.- dave, davnó
dūrō, dūrāre; 3&2.-tēorian, tire σ∋ (ηετεροχλ.
dew 'contractus' duvaištam 'olim'; davьnъ
dūdum, dum 'fatigō'' [/Γ)
doe <*dōuio- 'diutissime' ̣dūraē 'antiquus'
'lentus' 4.3.−δαν, δαρ 'id'; 5.4.-
ον ∋ιδ∋ tevem 'dūrō', tew '-
ātiō' 'dūrō'
5.5.-tuwa <*dwH2yo
dh∂tis
gedēfe 5.4.-darbin ?
ga-daban dobrъ 'bonus'
faber, 'opportūnus' 'ferrārius'
dhabhros 'opportet' 6.3.-dabnùs
effāfilātus 3a3.-dafna dhṛbhino-? /
gadōf 'id' 'ornātus'
'habilis' dhH2bhrono- ?
dill; Dill; dolde
pompedoula
3a2.-dile; dyle
'quinquefolium' θαλλω 'floreō';
duille *dolīniā 'anethum
dhalnā
'folia'
2b1.-dail 'folia'
graveolens' θαλλοσ 'propa 5.4.-dalar 'uiridis'
2b2.-delen gō'
3a3.-dylla
'folium'
'sonchus arvensis'
dhanu.- 'arcus'
dhanwos tanna 'ilex'
5.5.-tanau-

3a2-Dēana 'tribus af-dauiÞs θαυνον θεριον 5.3.-dvaidī

dhaunos faunus ILLYR.-Daunī davítь 'opprimō'
q' 'afflictus' (Hes) 'premimus'
situs ? 2b3.-tinsot
dhchínāmi tinaim, tinaid φθινω 'dissipō' kṣinmi 'deleō'
'paedor' 'sparsit'
dhchitis sitis φθισισ kṣití
dabhnōti 'nocet';
adbhuta 'mīrus'
dhebhō ατεµβω 'noceō' 5.3.-dab- 'fallō'
5.5.-tepu 'paruus';
tepnu- 'negligō'
dags 'diēs'
žegǫ, žešti 6.3.-
foueō, febris, daig (daiged) 2b1.-deifio 'adūrō' dac, Tag 'id' fidur-dōgs dáhati 'cremat'
dhechō τεφρα 'cineres' degù, dègti 6.4.-
fōmes 'ignis' 2b3.-devi 'cremō' 3a2.-dǽg 'id' 'quatriduus 5.3.-dažaiti 'id'
daglas 'crēmātūra'
'
θειοσ 'petruus'
dedъ; djádja 'id'
dhēdhjos deite, teite, 6.3.-dẽde/̃dis
τηθη 'auia';
Θετισ 'patr.'
2b1.-deddf
dhedhmós τεθµοσ
'decrētum, lex'
ksam-
dheghom humus dú (don) 'locus' χθων 6.3.-zẽme
5.5.-tekan
daig (dega, post. TOK B.-teki
dheghwis DEGO(S)
daiged) 'ignis' 'aegrotās'
Deich, Teich
1b2.-fiktu 'excavātiō' σφιγγω ? 6.3.-dýgstu, dýgti,
dheicō figō
'figitō' 3a2.-dīc 'fossus, 'premō' dëgiu, dëgti
canālis'
dhéicodhlā
denim 'sūgō',
fē-mina, fē- 1b2.-feliuf, dhayāmi, dháyati;
den(a)id caus. θησατο 'suxit'
dheimi lix, fellāre, filiu dhinṓti 'alit' caus. dojiti
filius 'lactantes'
<dhināti daddjan θηλυσ 'fēmina' 5.4.-diem
del 'tetta'
1b2.-feia
dhejō 5.5.-tiya- де́ну, де́ю, деть
'faciat'
543
cf. cf. dhānḥ

fēlīx, fēnus, - 6.3.-cf. dúona
δητται κριθαι 'grānum, pecunia;' 'pānis'
dhēlēiks oris, fēnum, 6.4.-
(Hes.) 5.3.-cf. dānōkarša
fēcundus cf. duõna 'id'
<dhēkya 'formīca q.'
2b1.-dal(a) tolch, Dolch
6.3.-dal̃ gis 'falx';
dhēlgs falx delg 'spīna' 'stigma' 3a2.-dalc 'Spange'
dilgùs 'acerbus'
2b2.-delc 'monīle' 3a3.-dalkr 'acus'
dhārú- 'lactans'
filius; fēlō, - 1b2.-feliuf, 6.3.-pirmdelẽ
del 'tetta, delech tila 'tetta' 5.5.-LYC
dhēljos āre., fētus, filiu θηλυσ 'femina' 'prīmō parens'
'lacte' 3a3.-dilkr 'agellus' tideimi<LUW
fēta `lactantes' 6;4.-de^ls 'filius'
*tittaimi
ge-telle 'pulcher'
3a2.-deall
dellrad
dhelō 'praeclār.' 5.4.-delin, 'clārus'
'splendor'
3a3.-Mardoll,
Dellingr
del <*dhelos,
3a2.-delu <*-lā
dínu 6.4.-dẽls (dẽla)
dhēlós 3a3.-del, däl
<*dhḗnumi, <*dhēlós
(dial.) <*dhelos
dinid 'sūgit'
dōms θηµα dhman- 'et lex,
2b1.-deddf <- tuom 'iudicium,
'iudicium, 'conditiō'; cubiculum' 6.3.-domė̃,
dhēmṇ dhmā 'decrētum, mōs, status' -ō-
lex' (cf. dedhmós) 3a2.-dōm 'opiniō'
fama' <*- θεµισ 'lex, 5.3.-dāman-, domesỹs 'attentiō'
ō- iustitia' dąman-
timber, timmer
dhámati 'inflat'
'o.'; dampf 'uapor' dъmo, doti 'inflō'
dem 'fuscus, θεµεροσ, σεµν 5.3.-dāđmainya-
dhemō '3a3.-daam 6.3.-dumiù, dùmti
āter'
'obscūrus et οσ 'obscūrus' 'turgens'
5.6.-dam 'atimus' 'id'
arōma'
dhḗmonā
daingen tunga 'stercus',
dǫga 'arcus'
'robustus'; Düngung
dengyn 'barbarus' 6.3.-degiu, dengti
dhenghō dingid, fording 3a2.-dung
<*dangeno- 'tegō'; dangus
'premit, 'stercus,
'caelum'
supprimit' geniceum, carcer'
<*dheigh?
dhānḥ
'frūmentum',
faenum; TOK B.-В δητται αιεπτισ dhānyá- 'id et
dhēnom
faenus; ae tāno µεναι κριθαι < diuēs', dhanin, 6.3.-dúona 'pānis'
non ē cf. 'frūmentu *dhē-k-i̯ā- dhanika 'di.' 6.4.- duõna 'pānis'
paeminōsus m' (Hes) 5.3.-dānō-karša-
'formīca q.'
5.6.-dāna 'grānum'
dhēnos
faber, verderben 'ruinō' 6.3.-dìrbu, dìrbti
dherbhō 5.4.-derbuk 'rudis'
effāfilātus 3a2.-deorfan 'laborō'
deren 'cornus'
2b1.-draen/drain tirnpauma τερχνοσ 'ramu
dherghnos fragum ? draigen drākṣā 'ūua' 6.3.-drìgnes
2b3.-dréan 'cornea' lus'
'Hyosciamus'
dṛ́ṁhati, -dhṛk
dringid 'tenens' (in comp.)
fortis, arc. 'ascendit'; 5.3.-drǝnǰaiti; держу́, держа́ть
dherghō fortis 'potius' 2b1.-dringo 'scālō'
forctus dréimm dražaitē 'tenet' 'teneō'
'scālātiō' TOK A tränk-, B
trenk- 'adhaerō'
terken 'polluō' 6.3.-der̃kti 'polluō'
dherghos derg
3a2.-deork, dark -rk-
fraces druosana θρασσω droska <dhṛghskā
(faēcēs, 'ferment.' 3a2.- 'sollicitō' 'fermentum'
dherghs 6.3. drages
floccēs) drosne/a 'id' ταραχη '-
1a1.-drasica 3a3.-dregg ūdō' <*dhr∂ghiās 'id'
6.3.-der̃kti
dherkō zurch 'caca' 6.4.-dā̀ rks
'eq.pictu.'
θρανοσ, θρηνυ dhārá yati; sadhríy- dórog ? 'cārus,
firmus,
2b1.-emdrit tarnen 'cēlō' σ, θρονοσ аñc- 'concentror' oner.'
frēnus,
dhermi
frēnum, ferē,
'decens"; dryd 3a2.-darian, tarry 'scamnum'; θω dhāraka- 'recipiens' 6.3.-derù/réti
'parsimoniōsus' 'maneō' ραξ; αθροοσ 5.3.-dārayeiti 'fungor'
fermē
'concentrātus' 5.4.-dadar 'quiēs' darãu, darýti
545
'faciō'
fēriae, arc.
fēsiae; fíísnam
θεοσ 'deus'; dhiṣṇya- 'deuōtus'
festus, 'templum'
dhēs
fānum 1b2.-fesnaf-e θεα <*dhH1sā 5.4.-di-k <dhēses
'dea' 'dī'
<*dhH1sno-; 'in fanum'
fas(tus)
vásudhiti-
missadēþs
dhētis 3a2.-dǣd, deed θεσισ 'mūnificentia' 5.3.-
'peccātum'
zrazdāti 'fidēs'
toug, taugt 'id'; τευχω
duháti,dógdhi dúžij 'robustus'
tuht 'habilitās" daug 'dispōnō';
dual 'sufficiens'; 'mulgeō' 6.3.-daũg
dheughō 3a2.-dēag 'id'; <*dhoughe τευχοσ
duan 'crēber' 5.3.-handugā 'multum'
gedīegan 'ūtile est' 'equipāmentu
'promulgātiō' dáuginti 'augēre'
'superāre' m'
3a2-Dēana 'tribus af-dauiÞs θαυνον θεριον 5.3.-dvaidī
dheukō faunus ILLYR.-Daunī davítь 'opprimō'
q' 'afflictus' (Hes) 'premimus'
diwans (απο−)θνησκω
ádhvanīt
<*dhéwon
touwen, 'morior' 'morior'; 'exstinguit'
fūnus ; dīth <*dhwītu- o- 6.4.-dvans,
3a2.- dōian, die dhvāntá- 'obscūrus'
'mortālis'; θανατοσ; τεθ
dheunos
fūnestus 'fīnis, mors' dvanums 'uapor'
'id' νηκα 'mortuus 5.3-apadvasaiti
dauþus
sum' 'ēuolat'
'mors'
tou, Tau<dawwa θεω, θειω,
dóe? 'mare' 3a2.-dēaw fut. θευσοµαι; dhávatē, dhvati
dhewō
<*dheuiā 3a3.- βοηθεω 'iuuō'; 5.6.-dawīdan
dogg(doggwar) θοοσ 'celer'
2b1.-doe
gistra-
dhghesi herī in-dé 2b2.-doy/de gestaron
dagis
2b3.-dech/deac'h
humuns
homō, 1b2.- duine -gdonio
dhghomōn guma 6.3.-zmogùs
humus homonus '- <*dhghomjo- 2b1.-dyn
ibus'
dhghusā giesen 'cyprinus' ιχθυσ 'piscis' 5.4.-jukn 'piscis' 6.3.-žuvì s 'piscis'

3a3.-gös 'perca' (i- prot.) 6.4.-zutis

'anguilla'
fakīad 'faciat'
fefakust
'fēcerit' dádhāti, aor. Ádhāt
tuon, tun tuon; ga- 5.5.-dai, tiya- 'pōno,
dhídhēmi- 1b2.- dedor 'fit'; dede deti
dh∂kjō
faciō 3a2.-do; deed 'res deþs 'res τιθηµι, εθεκα
feia/façia, 'posuit' /'dedit'? moueō', 1ª 6.3.-déti
gesta' gesta'
fakust tehhi/tiyami
1b3.-façia
'faciat'
6.3.-dỹgsnis
dhigsnis fīnis, fīniō
'pālum'
feíhúss déhmi, dehī
'mūrōs'; 'oppidum' 5.3.-
fifikus conutuing (con- daēzayeiti 'mūnit'
fingere, 'molieris' ud-ding) teig 'massa' daigs 5.4.-dizanem deža<dhoighyā
dhinghō τειχοσ 'mūrus'
figulus 1b2.-fikla, 'aedificat'; digen 3a2.-dough 'massa' 'cumulō' 5.6.- 'molde'
ficlam 'firmus' paridaiza
`fitillam, 'claustrum', didā
libum' 'oppidum'
flexuntes;
indulgeō? dligim 'mereō'
dliged 'lex' 2b1.-dylyed
Forsan
tamen dilgud 'clamātiō'; dlyu, dulgs
dhḷeghlā significātiō *dъlgъ, долг
'remissiō' dylyu 'dēbēre' 'debitum'
sic dēcurrit
2b3.-dellit 'dēbēre'
ius teneō --> <do·lugi)
'ius cēdō'
famēs, ad ru-deda
3a2.-demm, dim
dhṃis fatim, fatigō, 'evanescere,
'tenebrae'
fatiscō tabescere'
famel
famulus, 'familia' dhāman- 'sedēs,
dhṃos
familia 1b2.- famulī'
fameřias 'id'
daingen 'firmus, ταχυσ 'celer', daghnṓti
dhṇghus degъ: dogъ 'uis'
robust.' comp. θασσων 'consequitur'
547
<*dan/dengino- daghná 'consequens' <*dheugh?;

дя́гнуть 'corrigī'
6.3.-déngti
'currere'
faúrdammj
tapfar 'gravis'; an debelъ 'crassus'
dhobos tapfer 'firmus' 'mōlificō, 6.3.-dàbls ?
Damm 'dīcus' impedō' 'exuberans'
<dhobmo
dhochējō
tag, Tag áhar,áhaḥ (áhn-as) 6.3.-dagas,
dhochos 3a2.-dag, day dags ? 5.3.-asn-ąm ? 'aestus, messis'
3a3.-dagr 'diērum' 6.9.-dags 'aestās'
feíhúss daigs
dhoighos τειχοσ, τοιχοσ dēz 'cumulus'
'mūrōs' 'massa'
dals 'cauea, θολοσ; θαλαµ
Tal 'uallis' uallis' οσ dolъ ;
2b1.-dol 'uallis'
dholos 3a2.-dæl 'idl' dalaþ 'ab'; 'cubiculum'; dolu 'deorsum';
2b3.-Dol
3a3.-dalr 'arcus' dalaþa οφθαλαµοσ dole 'sub'
'sub' 'oculus'
(hraiwa-
)dūbō dobъ 'rōbur' (ad
tūba, Taube
(sine col.)
dhombhos 3a2.-dūfe,, dove
nasāle) 6.4.-dumbra zeme
3a3.-dūfa
dumbs 'nigra terra'
'mutus'
θωµοσ
tuom 'iudicium, dōms dúma 'cōgitātiō'
'cumulus'
dhōmós mōs, status' 'iudicium, 63.-domė̃, -sỹs
PHRYG.−δουµ
3a2.-dōm 'opiniō' fama' 'attentiō'
οσ 'concilium'
dhānā 5.3.-
6.3.-dúona 'pānis'
TOK B tāno dānokarša 'formīca
dhōnā 6.4.-duõna, duone
'grānum' q.' 5.4.-dāna
'portiō p.'
'grānum'
dhóncelos

tunkal, dunkel 5.5.-dankuiš, 6.4.-danga

dhoncos 1b2.-dew 'nebula'
3a2.-dank dunkela <*dhonguā 'palūs'
tenar/er 'plana
manus';Tenne
θεναρ 'palma, dhánuṣ- 'area,
dhónejā danea 'area' 'solum' dẽnis 'pons nauis'
solea' desertum'
3a2.-den(n)
'cauea'
APUL;- Ardaneae
dhanáyati 'currit'
dhontis fons, Fontus = Herdonia TOK.-tsän 'fluere'
5.6.-danuvatiy 'fluit'
(locus)
dristátь
3a2.-drītan, dirt δαρδαινει µολ
dhorjā foriō, foria 6.3.-der-k-iù
3a3.-drīta υνει
der̃kti
daubs
Dubis 'surdus' τυφοσ dobъ 'rōbur' (ad
toup, taub 'necius'
2b1.-dub/du 'āter' dumbs 'fūmus' 5.5.-duddumi col.)
dhoubhos dub 'āter' 3a2.-dēaf 'surdus'
2b2.-duw/du 'mutus' τυφλοσ 'surdus' 6.4.-dumbra zeme
3a3.-daufr
2b3.-du (hraiwa- 'caecus' 'nigra terra'
)dūbō 'col.'
Dubis τυφοσ
toup, taub 'necius'
2b1.-dub/du 'āter' daubs 'fūmus' 5.5.-duddumi
dhoubhús dub 'āter' 3a2.-dēaf 'surdus'
2b2.-duw/du 'surdus' τυφλοσ 'surdus'
3a3.-daufr
2b3.-du 'caecus'
dъno <*dъbno 'id'
dhoubnom domun 'mundus' dubnoreix 'rex m.' 6.3.-dùgnas
'solum'
dúlo 'armae
ostium'
dhūli-, dhūlī
dhoulis fūlīgo dúil 'desiderium' dúlьce 'tibiae
'puluis'
ostium' 6.3.-
dū́lis 'apis pipa'
TOK.-A, B tsu-
dhōunis fūnis θωµγξ
'adaptō'
dhraghō tragan 'portō' dragan doróžitь 'excauō' ;
549
3a2.-dragan, draw 'dūcō' draga 'uallis';

'trahō' 3a3.- doroga 'iter'
draga 'dūcō'
τρεχω
'currō'; τροχοσ
5.4.-durgn 'tornus 6.3.-drāžu,, drāzu,
dhreghō droch 'rota' 'rota'
fictiliārius' drāzt 'currō'
τροχοσ
'cursus'
treno, Drohne θρηνοσ; ανθρη *trǫdъ <trantis/
dhrēnos
'crabrō' νη (∗ανθοθρην dhrantis 'crābrō'
3a2.-drān drǣn η), τενθρηνη 6.3.-trãnas
'id' 'crābrō' 'crābrō'
θρυλεω, θρε(F)
drésacht treno, Drohne οµαι
1a1.-drēnsō, - dręselъ 'tristis'
'stridentia' 'crabrō' drunjus 'clangō'; , θρην dhráṇati 'tonat'
dhrensājō āre 'clamor 6.4.-duñduris
drécht 'cantus' 3a2.-drān drǣn 'strepitus' οσ 'flētus' 5.4;-drnč̣ im'clangō'
cygnōrum' 'uespa, crabrō'
<*dhrenktā 'id'; dora 'crabrō' θορυβοσ
'strepitus'
2b3.-drogn drugъ 'sodālis'
drungus drong 'copiae' truht- 'copia' driugan
dhreughō 'coetus'; drog 6.3.-draũgas
<ger. <ger. 3a2.-dryht 'id' 'militō'
'factio' <ger. 's.Itinr;'
drьkolь 'uirga'
dhrighsós
gairb-driuch θριξ, τριξοσ 6.3.-driẽkti 'fīlum
'fascis capilliī' (capil.) extendō'; drỹkti
'longīs fīlamentīs'
dhra;
dhṛmos firmus dhárma- 'uirtus,
lex'
θορνυµαι; θαρ
dar- , impf. no- νευει
dhrā 'cursus,
dhṛnumoi daired; nom. 1b1.-derig (Hes.); θρωσκ
Dáir (Dára) ω fut. gutta, sēmen'
θορουµαι θο

ροσ, θορη
'sperma'
dhroghno
m
dhroghós droch τροχοσ
infestus, 6.3.-dresù<-ensō
(gi)tar, (gi)turran gadaúrsan, θαρσεω, θαρρε dhrṣ-ṇṓ-ti, dhárṣ-
dhṛsō infestō, 6.4.-drùošs
3a2.-dear(r), dare gadars ω ati, pf. dadharṣa
manifestus 'audāx'
giturst
dhṛstis θαρσοσ dṛṣṭí-ḥ
3a2.-gedyrst
dhṛṣṇú-; dhṛṣú-
θρασυσ, θαρσ drьzъ (z?)
dhṛsus türre 'doctus' 5.3.-
υσ daršyu-, daršita- 6.3.-drąsùs
Tropfen 'gutta';
θρυπτω 'friō';
triofan, triefen
drucht <*-tu θρυµµα, τρυφο 6.4.-drubaža
dhrubhjō 'fluō' 3a2.-drop
'gutta' σ 'fragmentum 'fragmentum'
'gutta'; drēapian
'destillāre' '
dhrubhtis
6.3.-drùzgas
drullia 'ruinae' trōren 'id'; trūrec, driusan
'scrūpum'
dhruslijō 2b1.-dryll` traurig 'tristis' 'cadere, θραυω 'frangō' 5.5.-dhuwarnai- ??
6.8.-druzgati
'fragmentum' 3a2.-drēosan 'id' decadere'
'comprimō'
dubnoreix 'rex m.' diups
domun 'mundus'
2b1.-dwfn 'prof.' <*deupos βυθοσ, βυσσο
domain tief 'id' <*deupos TOK B.-tapre
dhubús 2b2.-down 'profundus' σ 'profunditās 6.3.-dubùs 'cauus'
'profundus' 3a2.-deep, dive 'id' <*dhubrós 'altus'
<*dhubni- ; taupjan maris'
<*dhubni-
2b3.-doun 'mergor'
duxtir (Larzac); Tochter 3a2.- duhitár-
dъšter-
dhugtēr fútir CELTIB.-tuater dohtor 3a3.- daúhtar θυγατηρ 5.4.-dustr
(K.1.3) dóttir 5.5.-túwatara 6.3.-dukter-
dhūmājō fūmō dhūmāyati
fūmus; dhūmá-ḥ;
dumacha,dumha dymъ
fūmō; toum θυµοσ; θυµιαω dhūmāyati
dhūmós ch <*dhumuko- 6.3.-dúmai
fimus
'nebulae'
3a2.-dōmian ; θυοσ 'tūs' 5.5.-tuhhui,
6.4.-dũmi
<*dhuimos tuhheššar
551
θυω 'reuoluor'
θυαζω
suffiō; fimus, donst, Dunst 'id'
'furiō'; θισ 'c.' dhūnṓti; dhūnāna-,
suffimentum 3a2.-dununga dauns
dhúneumi θυια dhūni- 'agitātiō'
, foeteō, 'deliramentum' exhalātiō'
'baccans' 5.4.-de-dev-im
foetidus 3a3.-dūni 'ignis'
θυελλ
α 'tempestās'
Donnos dosan, tusin
<*Dhwosnos `giluus'
fuscus, dhūsara-
dhuskos donn 2B1.-dwnn 3a2.-dox, dusk,
furuus 'puluerulentus'
'subfuscus, dosen, dun
aquilus' `spadix'
dhvárati 'nocet' durь 'stultitia'
fraus, -dis; frosetom
dhwerō αθυρω 'lūdō' 5.5.-dwarnahhun? 6.3.-padùrmai?
frūstra ? `fraudātum'
'frēgī' 'repens'
dhattūra <
doss ? 'frutex' 3a2.-dweorge- *dhvastūra,
dhwestus festūca
(cf. dousmos) dwostle 'pulicāria' dhustūra-
'stramonium'
τυρβιδ.,τριστι
dall 'caecus' tol, tulisc, toll 'id' dwals
2b1-2b2-2b3-.- σ∋ ∆υα
dhwolnos clūas-dall 3a2.-dull 'dēmēns,
dall λοσ 'Dionys.'
'surdus' 'obscūrus' necius'
(H)
θολοσ
'turbulentia'
θολερο
dhwolsā
σ
'turbid.,tristis'
donnal
tünen 'tonō' dhvana, dhuna,
dhwonos 'ululātus'
3a2.-dyne, din dhvani
<*dhwon-no
forēs, forās; 1b2.-furo, dorus; indorus doros, duros, turi, Tür dvāra 5.4.- dvьri, дверь
dhworis daúr θυρα
forum furu 'forum' 'intra' duron 2b1, 3a2.-duru, dor, dur-k' 6.3.-dūrys
b2, b3.-dor door

5.3.-dvarǝm
1b2.-furo,
dhworom forum 5.4.-i durs 'forās' двор
furu
5.5.-an-dur-za 'ibī'
θυω 'reuoluor'
dwās, Tor; stultus θυαζω duxъ, duša
furō<*dhusō getwās 'spectrus' 'furō'
furia tior, Tier 'id'; dhvamsati 'ruinat' 'anima'; dvóchatь
dūsius 'daemon dius θυια
bestia, bellua Dusel dhvasrá- 'ruinātus' 'id' . 6.3.-
dhwosos dasacht 'īra' immundus, 'bestia, 'baccans'
fimbria ?? 'hebetātiō,infort.' 5.5.-antuhsas ? dvasià 'spectrus'.
incubus' fēra' θυελλ
<*dhwénsriy 3a2.-dwæs 'homō' dvesiù, dvẽsti
ā 'id';dēor 'id' dizzi, α 'tempestās' 'spirō'
doze 'dormō' ενθυµοσ 6.4.-dust 'suspirō'
'inspirātus'
dīdyati 'splendet';
dídjāmi
δεατο 'apparui dīti 'splendōr'
t' 5.5.-tesha
'somnium'
dákšati<*dedk-
'quet'; dāś nṓti,
didkskō discō, doceō διδασκω
dšṭ i, dśati
'honorat'
ziga, Ziege διζα (Gr- 5.4.-tik 'pelle
dighā
3a2.-ticcen Thrak) caprīnum'
δινε(υ)ω 'rotō';
διω
'fugiō'; διωκω
dían 'celer'; déne (cont.) dyati 'uolat, deju, die^t 'saliō,
djejō
'celeritās' 'persequor'; δι uibrat' trepudiō'
ζηµαι ? 'quaer
ō' 4.2.-
διννηµι
diēs, iúveís (gen), 2b1.-dydd ζευσ (διFοσ), (pitā) dyáuh
djēws iuppiter diúveí (dat) die 2b2.- zīo ζευ πατε 5.4.-tiw 'diēs'
(iouis) 1b2.-iupater det/dyth/geyth ρ 5.5.-siwatt
553
2b3.-deiz
denus 'spatium
nundinae, len(gi)zin, dьnь 6.3.-
temporis', sinteins
djnos SCBacch. Lenz<langat-tin dína-m dienà
trédenus 'quotidiē'
noundinum 'mēnsis maius' 6.4.-dìena
'triduum'
delgu 'contineō'
2b1.-daly, dala,
coindelg ενδελεχεω
dal 'teneō' 2b2.- tulgus
dḷghējō indulgeō 'contractus, 3a2.-tulge 'firmē' 'permaneō,
dalhen 'tentus' 'firmus'
comparātiō' ēdūrō'
2b3.-delgim;
dalc'h 'possessiō'
γλυκυσ; δευκο
σ 'mustum'
dḷkus dulcis
4.8−δυ−ρυ−
κυ
dīrghá
3a1.-lang laggs; δολιχοσ; ενδελ
longus; longo- (nōmen 5.3.-dar∂ga dlъgъ
dḷḷnghos 3a2.-lang, lang; tulgus εχησ
indulgeō ? hominis) 5.4.-drang 6.3.-ilgas
tulge, tylg 'firmē' 'firmus' 'continuus'
5.5.-daluki-
3a2.-lengðu,
dḷḷnghotā dīrghatā dlъgota
length
dṃpedom
3a3.-topt, toft, δαπεδον
tomp <*tumf(i)tō 'solum'
dṃpus 5.5.-dampu- tǫpъ, tupoj
2b1.-daear 'solum'
dṃseghṛ ti-ezerk` 'mundus'
2b3.-douar 'terra'
jihvā, juhū́-
2b1.-tafawt/tafod zunga, Zunge 5.3.-hizvā-, hizū jezykъ <*ję̄zɨ̄kъ
lingua<ding tenge
dṇghwā fangvam 2b2.-tauot/tavas 3a2.-tunge tuggō h<z 6.3.-lezúvis
ua 2a3.-teanga
2b3.-teod 3a3.-tunga 5.4.-lezu (cont. (*legh)
*legh)
5.5.- dassuš (dat..ta-
dṇsus densus δασυσ
aš-śu-u-i) 'robustus'
dō dōnec, arc. do du-ci zuo, zu du da 'et, sed'

dōnicum, 2b1.-di <*dū 3a2.-tō, to (coniunctiō)

dōnique, 2b2.-ðe <*dū 6.3.-do
dōneque
tahjan
zagel 'et pēnis' 'uellō'; tagl daśā 'fimbria,
doklom dúal 'cirrus'
3a2.- tægl, tail 'singulum limbus'
capillum'
dolājō
5.4.-telam/em/um
2b3.-delt talg, Talg 'sebum'
dolghos delt 'pluō'; tel 'intensa
'humidus' 3a2.-tallow 'id'
pluuia'
dōljom dōlium *dьly
zala 'computus'
dolom, dolud 3a2.-tæl 'id et talzian
dolos dolus < gr. δολοσ
<gr. fraus'; talk 'doceō'
3a2.-tāl 'fraus'
dum, ,
nōndum,
agedum
da 'tunc'
quidum,
duci 'et' du; du- 6.3.-da-
dummodo, zuo, zu
dom do, du 'ad' 2b1.-di 'ad' ginnan (perfectīuum)
quandō, 3a2.-tō
2b2.-ðe 'ad' 'incipere' 6.4.-da 'ad'
dumnē,
da-iet 'inīre'
dumtaxat;
dō-ni-cum,
dōnec
damnaim 'equōs 2b1.-addef damayati, dāmyati
domō, 'confiteor' temmen, zähmen δαµαω, δαµαζ 5.5.-da-ma-aš-zi, ta-
dómāmi ligō'; fo·daimim ga-tamjan
domitus 2b2.-ansav 3a2.-temian, tame ω, δαµνηµι ma-aš-šir 'obligat,-
'patior' 'confiteor' uēre'
dam-liacc
zimbar, Zimmer ga-timan dámah, dámūnas
domus, 'domus δοµοσ; ενδον domъ
domos 3a2.-timbar 'geziemen, 5.3.-dami (loc.)
dominus lapidum'; aur- 'in' 6.3.- nãmas
3a3.-timbr adaptō' 5.4.-tam
dam 'prodomus'
dómūnā 6.2.-dom
555
dómūnos dominus dámūnas

dunum;
dōnum; dna- danь, darъ
dōnom duunated dán 2b1.- dawn δωρον
dōnō 5.4.- tur 6.3.-duõnis
'dōnāuit'
Dagodurnus ?
dorn <*durno-? 1b1.-dwrn 3a3.-tarra, terra
dornom δωρον 'palma'
'pugnus, manus' <*durno-? 'extendō'
2b3.-dorn
δουλοσ; δαι
'in bellō' dāsa 5.5.-
dōsos
zah(h) 'pugna'
4.8.−δο−ε−ρο
dōtis
branodunum,
zūn, Zaun 'uallum'
dounom dún lug(u)dunum
3a2.-tún
2b1.-dín
zūsach; zirzūsōn,
dūmus, zerzausen
dousmos doss ? 'frutex'
dūmmus 'dispectō'; zūse
'caesariēs'
dóṣ- (doṣṇáḥ) 6.3.-paduse
doé (doat); duais
dóusontos 5.3.-daoš- 'manica'
<*dousti-
5.6.-dōš 'umerus' 6.8.-pazduha 'id'
6.3.-dar(i)aũ,
drājō δραω darýti
6.4.-darit
drappos
drātis
drātṓr
6.3.-dardéti
deirdrethar
'crepō' 6.4.-
'clamat'; 2b1.-dwrd δορδα µελισσα dardurá-ḥ 'rāna,
dṛdrājō dardet 'crepō'
dordaid 'strepit'; 'strepitus' (Hes) tibia'
6.5.- drdljati
dord 'str.'
'garriō'
dremō zittarōm
(dídrāmi) αποδιδρασκω, drti 'currit', int.
'tremō';:
tremen εδραν; δραπετε dáridrāti 'pauper

'oscillō'; υω est'; drapayati
trame 'fugiō'; εδρρα 'fūgat' drámati,
'scāliculum µον, δεδροµα; int.dandramyate;
' 3a2.- δροµοσ drávati
trem, trym 'cursus' 5.3.-drāvaya-
'gradus'
3a3.-titra
<didrā
'tremō'
δρεπω drjápa-ju
drāpí- 'uestis, toga'
δρεπαν 6.3.-drãpanos
Drippia, trabe 'fimbria' drapsá- 'titulus'
drepō 1a2.-drappus ον 'falx' 'uest'
Drippōnius 3a3.-trof, trefr 'id' 5.3.-drafša-
δ 6.4.-drãna
'insignia'
ροπαξ 'drappus'
triogan, trügen;
drúhyati 'machinat'
Traum 'somnium'
5.3.-družaiti
aur-ddrach 3a2.-bidriogan;
dreughō 'mentītur'
'phasma' dream 'somnium'
5.6.-drauga-
3a3.-draugr
'mentītor'
'phant.'
6.3.-Drùv-intas
drewā Druentia drávati 'currit'
6.5.-Dráva
trū(w)ēn, trauen; triggws 6.3.-drutas
triuwi, treu 'frētus' 'frētus''; 'firmus' 6.9.-
drewō
3a2.-trewe, true triggwa druwīt 'credō'
3a3.-triggys, trūr 'indutiae' druwis 'creditus'
δριµυσ 'acerb 6.4.-drīsme
drismós
us' 'fissura pellis'
driss, dris- 2b1.-drysi
dristos δριοσ
tenach 2b3.-dreis 'uepres'
dṛkjai peri
ad-con-darc zoraht 'ēuidens'
1b2.- gatarhjan
'uīdī' (ad-cu) 2b3.-derc'h 'uisus' 3a2.-torht
dṛkjō terkantur 'agnōscō, δερκοµαι paśyati/dadarśa
derc 'oculus' erderc 'ēuidentis' 3a3.-
'uideant' consignō'
air-dirc 'celeber' Torget/torghatten
557
dṛkō
derco (Marcellus)
derc <*derkos 2b1.-drych 'imagō'
δρακοσ (δρακε
dṛkos 'oculus'; drech ks 2b3.-dremm dṛśa-
<*dṛkā 'uultus' <*derksmā οσ) 'oculus'
'uultus'
2b1.-drem 'uultus'
δεργµα, δεργµο
dṛksmos 2b3.-dremm <*-
ksmā σ 'conspectus'
an-dracht
dṛktā ALB.-dritë
'taeter'
dṛktis
dṛktis
καταδαρθανω,
drrati, drāyati/te dremlju dremati
dṛmijō dormiō εδραθον 5.4.-tartam 'lentus' 'obdormiscor'
(Hom)
2b1.-2b2.-2b3.-
dṛnos dīrná-s
darn
δουλοσ; δαι
'in bellō' dāsa 5.5.-
dsā
4.8 zah(h) 'pugna'
.−δο−ε−ρο
zumpfo, zumpf(e);
5.3.-duma-
zapfen 'clauicula'
dumbos dumna-? 'manus'
3a2.-tæppa, tap,
5.6.-dum, dumb
tip
zur- tuz-; tuz-
dus-/dur- dúṣyati dъždь, doždь
dus dis-, difficilis do-, du- 3a2.-torbegīete wērjan δυσ−
5.3.-duš-, duž- *duz-djus 'pluuia'
'difficile emptū' 'haesitāre'
domme 'pauper' durāpa-
dúsōpis cf. Inops
<dus-op-smyo- 'difficile adeptu'
duswids duí durvidya-
dvḗṣṭi 'ōdit'
δειδω < δεδFοι
dweimi dīrus 5.3.-dvaēš-
α 5.5.-kuwaya- 'timeō'

duenos, dúvas- 'dōnum,

zouwan, tun taujan ? δυναµαι ? 'pos
dwenos bonus, gratia'; duvasyáti
3a2.-do 'faciō' sum'
bellus, beō 'honorat'
2b1.-ugain
(ε)εικοσι < ε(F)
dwidkṃtói uigintii fiche 2b2.-ugens 5.4.-k'san
2b3.-ugent ι
bipēs διπουσ (διποδο
dwipods dvi-pád-
(bipedis) σ)
dvíḥ, duvíḥ
dwīs bis, arc. duis zwir <gmc. *tuis
5.3.-biš
zwisk 'duplus' 5.4.-kic` 'contiguus,
dwīskos
3a2.-twisk 'id' coniunctus'
zwēne
dvójni 'geminī'
dwīsnōs bīnī 3a2.-twēne, twin
6.3.-dvynaĩ
3a3.-tvennr
dwoiros
dwoplos duplus 5.4.-kul
dwóteros
dwou, 2b1.-dou/deu/dau dъva
zwā, zwō ,zwei dváu, dv
dwāu, duo, duae dau, dó 2b2.-dow twai δυω 6.3.-dù
dwou 3a2.twā, two 5.3.-dva
2b3.-dou/daou 6.4.-divi
ēchṛjos
attuh, attah jelь 6.3.-ẽgle
edhlos ebulus odocos
3a2.-aduk 6.4.-egle
etar 3a2.- οστριµον ? odr; odrъ 'lectus';
edhṛ
eodor 'et domus' 'stabulum' odrina 'stabulum'
hodiē <gho +
indiu ady, adyá <*e-
edjēw dyēw; e- heddyw <so+dyēw
<sind+dyēw 5.5.-anisiwat
quidem
ci-ni estar
εδω, εσθιω <i atti 5.4.- jamь (*emь), 3.
'quamuis non
mperat. utem *som+ ed (cf.
edat' <edstro, (g)ezzam, essen sg. jastъ (*estъ)
edmi edō edum 'edere' 2b1.-ys 'est' itan *esdhi; Hom ai. samatti, lat.
Fut. īss- (*i-ed- 3a2.-etan
fut.<sub. cumedō) 6.3.-édu, édžiau,
s-), pf. dofūaid
εδοµαι 5.5.-e-id-mi ésti
(*de-u(p)o-od-
559
e), Partiz. esse

<edtio
ѥдъва, edvá
edqis, ecquis,
ekkum 'idem' etwas 'ecquid' 'paene'
edqid ecquid
6.3.-vosnevõs 'uix'
edqos, -qā,
-qod
idu (idan), pl. fitan<f- 5.4.-erkn
6.3.-úodas 'culex'
edunā cūrae edāces idain 'dolores itan? οδυναι 5.5.-idalu 'malus'
6.4.-uôds 'id'
partūs' 'pariō' <edwḷ/ *edwn
ekorōdo 'solus,
egmo 'rēs' simplex'
egējō egeō, egestās
(crhma) 3a2.-ekla
'dēfectus'
igil, Igel ježь
eghjos εχινοσ 5.4.-ozni
3a2.-igil, igl, īl 6.3.-ežỹ s
5.4.-ezr 'limēs'; ti-
2b1.-daear 'solum'
eghṛ ezerk`<*dṃs- 6.3.-ežẽ 'limēs'
2b3.-douar 'terra'
'mundus'
νηφω<*ne 5.5.-ekumi 3ª pl.
ēbrius eghw 'sōbrius akuwanzi
ēghwṛ
sōbrius sum' *H1eghwmi
(arm. nawt'i) /H1ghwṇti
ognь
egnis ignis agní-ḥ
6.3.-ugnìs
egō egō ich 3a2.-iċ ik εγω(ν) ahám
ei; sa-ei
ei ει, ειθε i 'et, quoque'
'quālis'
Ant-aib, Burgund- οιφω, οιφεω;
eibhō aib, Weter-eiba, οιφολησ 'i yábhati jebú, jetí
Wingart-eiba ?? ndecens'
eigan; aigana, *aigan
śē, ṣṭē
eikō eigen 'proprius' <*óikonom
3a2.-āgan; āgen, (aih, (pf.<oikei)
own <éikonos aigum, 'possidet'; īś vará-

praet.II 'patrimon.' īṣ itar
aihta); 'p.tārius' 5.3.-
aigin iše 'domīnat', išvan
'proprietās'
eituns (set) do·eth <*-itjo-; éti, ímáh, yánti;
itūrī (sunt) ayate 5.5.-
do·feth 2b1.-wyf 'sum';
eimi eō eitōnes iddja 'iuī' εισι, ιµεν, ιασι iti 'it' 6.3.-eiti
wyt 'es'
1b2.-etu 'itō'; <*do+upo+itjo- 5.6.-aitiy 'it'
ēst 'ibit' ? 'uenit' 6.5.-it 'i' <eidhi
ιεροσ
'firmus'; ιοσ 's iṣṇti, íṣyati 'ciet'
3a2.-oast agitta' iṣirá- 'firmus'; íṣu- TOK B.-aise
eisā īra, irāscor 'festīnātiō' ιναω 'uac 'sagittta' 'potentia'
3a3.-eisa 'adorior' uō'; οιστοσ; 5.3-aēš (v),aēšma
οιµα 'adortus' (n)
eisāskai
5.3.-isu 'gelidus' inej<íniyos
eisom is 3a2.-is 3a3.-iss 5.4.-gesu 'gelidus', 'pruina'
aexa 'frīgus' 6.3.-ynis
eh- iz
ek(sí) ex ess, ass, a 2b1.-a εκ
1b2.-ehe 6.3.-iž
cf. anák- et 5.4.-
eksoqs exsops 'caecus' εξωπιοσ
anač' 'sine oculīs'
εχθαιρω
ekstar cf. instar 'ōdī', εξισταµα
ι τησ φιλιασ
2b1.-eithr 'sed,
éksteros exterus echtar 'foras'
praeter'
ékstṃos extimus 2b1.-eithaf
ektós extos 'sed' εκτοσ
ekwā equa açvā 6.3.-asvà
āś vīná 'equī iter
ekwīnós equīnus
singulī dieī'
561
eposognatus,
epona áśvah
aíƕatundi
ekwos equus ech 2b2.-2b2.-ebol 3a2.-eoh ιπποσ 5.3.-aspō
'ēruscus'
2b3.-ebeult 5.6.-asa
'equulus'
āla, Ahle
6.3.-ýla <got.
ēlā 3a2.-āl, āel, eal, rā
6.4.- ĩlens <got.
awl
ελαφοσ (cf. lat. (j)elenь, olénь
elit (fem.) <*elṇ- 2b1.-elain (fem.) columba, aesl. 6.3.-élnis,élnias,
elēn lamb ? 'agnus' 5.4.-eɫn
tī <*elǝnī iastrebъ), ellenis 6.4.-
ελλοσ al^nis
ulcus, árśas-
elkos ελκοσ
ulciscor 'haemorroides'
lačǫ, alъčǫ, lakati
3a2.-ill ? 'malus'
elc 'malus'; olc 'famem habēre'
elkós 3a3.-illr <*elhila?
'malus <wḷkwos 6.3.-álkti 'id'
'malus'
6.4.-al^kt '¡d'
anguilla
<*angu +
illa; 5.5.-illuy-ankas;
āl, aal εγχελυσ; (Β)ε
ellus ellu-essar-
illa σκοληξ ( 3a2.-ǽl, eel λλεροφοντησ 'ōrificium serpentis'
σκωληξ) · κλ
εινησ
úlleis, ulas
al; tall<to-al-nā,
elne elnā 'illius' 2b1.-alarch
elnod
ollus > ille anall 'ultra, ib,
1b2.-ulo, ulu 2b2.-elerhc
inde'
ìllo, illuc'
iyarti, rte 'moueō'
(intr.)
ιαλλω ; ελαυν 5.4.-elanim 'fiō';
elóm
ω, ελατο, etc elanem
'scandō';eluzanem
'promō'
5.5.-halāi 'trūdō';
elaniya 'incessō'
SUIZ.-wīss-
elg,birch-ilge ελεα, αλκυων?
elōr olor, alceedo elae <*elouio-
3a3.-alle,alfagel; 'auis quaedam'
alka
aruṇá-̣ 'ruber,
elwos Helvii, Helvetii elo, elawēr 'flāuus' aureus'
5.3.-auruša 'albus'
5.5.-wemiya?
emō emō 6.3.-imù
'inueniō'
imbi, Imme
εµπισ (εµπιδοσ
empis 'exāme.' 3a2.-
imbe 'id' ) 'culex'
essedon
en in-; ingen, in anīka<eniokw on-; vu(n)-
en in, arc. en <enisedom in εν, ενι, ενι
1b2.-en inigena 3a2.-in 'uultus' 5.4.-i 6.4.-ie-
2b1, b2, b3.-en
áhi-s 'serpens'
anguis, 2b1.-euod οφισ 'serpens' 6.3.-angìs
enchis esc-ung 'anguila' 5.3.-azish
anguil(l)a 'uormes' εχισ 'uipera' 5.4.-iž
6.6.-waz
endo endo, indu inne 'instestīna' ενδινα
endósēdjo
m
enim
ενωπη 'uisus,
2b1.-wyneb 'id' ánīka-m 'faciēs,
enīqā enech 'uultus'
2b3.-enep 'id' oc.'; pl. ενωπια aciēs'
'frons'
(ε)κεινοσ <ke-
íním, inim ienēr<onyo enos instr. anḗna, anáyā
jains < i + onъ
enis enim 1b2.-ene, 3a2.-geon 4.3. 5.4-so-in 'īdem'
oinos 'ille' 6.3.-añs, anàs 'ille'
enem 3a3.-enn, inn −κηνοσ<κε−εν 5.5.-an-ni-iš 'ille'
οσ
2b1.-hebrwng bringan, brahta briggan TOCH. B prank-, AB
enkō prō
<*s∂m+prō 'coeō' 3a2.-bringan 'afferō' pränk- 'auferō'
563
2b2.-hebrenchiat
'dux'
2b3.--hambrouc
'dūcō'
inn(a) 'in';
inne <*en-njā inna, inni, inne
ennós innuma.'int
'interior pars' 'in'
imus'
indnaide
énsēdjom insidiae prě-sěda
'praestolātiō'
6.3.-salà; ãtsala
'meātus,
enslā insula
meandrus'
6.4.-sala
cf. εχθαιρω
enstar instar 'ōdī', εξισταµα
ι τησ φιλιασ
undar < antar 5.3.- ątrь, нутро́,
anter 2b1.-ithr untar, untan
*ṇter
énteri inter 1b2.-anter, eter/eidir 2b2.-yntre 3a2.-under antar∂ внутрь; jątro
(cf.
ander 2b3.-entre, etre 3a3.-und 'sub' 5.4.-antar
ṇdherós) 'iecur'
énternos internus ątrьńь
énterom
āntra- 'intestīna'
εντερον ǫtroba, ątroba,
énteros interus entrai 3a3.-iðr 5.4.-∂nderk 'id'
'intestīna' утро́ба
5.5.-an-tū-ri-ias
énteros
inser 'uiscera
intus, 6.3.- istri 'renes'
entós edibilia' εντοσ antastya- 'intestīna'
intestiinus 6.4.-ìekša 'intern.'
3a3.-īstr, īstra 'id'
iar-n 'post'
apara- 'postea, ad
éperom siar, aniar 'ab/in afar 'post' απο 'ab'
occidentem'
occ.'
ob; iar n-, iar m- Ywerddon<epi- 3a2.-eofolsian iftuma, api
επι, επι 6.3.-ap-, api-; -pi
epi operiō<op- up, ob 'ad' <epirom; Ía- uerionos 'blasfemō'; aftuma 5.3.-aipi; ape 'ad'
MYC-o-pi 'ad'
ueriō ; daim 'claudō' 'Hibernia' eofut, eofot'culpa' 'ultimus'; 5.4.-ev, ew 'et,
oportet <op- (lat. obdō); ibdalja etiam' 5.5.-

uortet éithech 'descensus' appa 'iterum'
(cf. obhi) 'periurium' (cf.
epiorkew);
Ériu<epiweriō;
éibheall<epi-
bhel 'feruor'
ηπιοσ 'propitiu
ḗpijos āpí 'amīcus'
s'
ALB.-i èpërm
épiromos iarum 'post eum'
'superior'
οροβοσ ερεβιν
ercom eruum orbaind 'grānī' araweiz 'cicellus'
θοσ 'cicer'
1b2.-erietu jarina 'lāna'
erjos ariēs heirp, (h)earb εριφοσ 5.4.-or-oj 'agnus, -a'
'arietem' 6.3.-(j)éras
(h)erciscō 5.5.-ark (3ª s. arki,
ερχατοσ φραγµ aršýti 'scindere'
erkō (h < hērēs); pl. arkanzi, inf.
dissertiones οσ (Hes) arkuwanzi)
<*H1orkeHi-
ερωη cessātiō' 6.3.-rowa
2b1.-araf 'segnis, ruowa, Ruhe 5.3.-airime
ermi ερωεω 'stagnus'
lenis' <eremos 3a2.-rōw 'quiēs' 'quiescens'
'cēdō' 6.4.-rāwa 'id'
ermos
2b1.-araf 'segnis, ερεµοσ armās , armaka
lenis' <eremos 'desertus' 'ruinae'
3a3.-run(n)e
ernos ερνοσ 'rāmus' árṇa- 'fluctuōsus'
'rāmus'
erō orior ορνυµι ṛnóti
2b1.-eryr <*eriro-
aro <*h3érō, arn 5.5.-haran, hāras orьlъ <*orilo-
éroros irar/iolar 2b2.-er ara 'aquila' ορνισ 'auis'
3a2.-earn 'aquila' 6.3.-erẽlis
2b3.-erer
erc 'caelum';
erqō suairc 'pulcher' árcati 'et laudat' TOK A yärk, В
5.4.-erg 'cantus' yarke 'honorātiō'
<*su-erkʷis
ars 'cūlus' 5.4.-or
ersā err ορροσ
3a2.-ears 5.5.-arras
ersábhaljo e(a)rr(-ball) ars-bille 'clūnis'
565
m 'cauda' 3a2.ars-belli 'id'

αρσην/ερσην árṣati 'fluit';
aírzeis,
irre; rāsen 'festīnō' 'homō' rṣabhá- 'taurus'
aírziÞa 6.3.-aršù s
ersājō errō, rōrārii 3a2.-ræs 'cursus' ερωε 'impulsus irasyáti 'rabit'
'error'; 'impetuōsus'
3a3.-rās 'cursus' ' αρησ 5.5.-arsaniya-
Rēs(mēr)
'Mars' 'inuideō'
2b1.-erw 'campus',
ero; erda
pl. erwi, erwydd ερα; ερεσι−µετ
3a2.-earth aírÞa 5.4.-erkir (ad erkin
erwā 2b2.-erw, ereu ρη γεωµετριαν
3a3.-jǫrð; jǫrvi <*ertā 'caelum?)
2b3-eru/ero (Hes)
<erwan- 'arēna'
'sulcus'
súm, est, íst ásti, ábhut есть
bin, ist
esmi sum, fuī estud sent am, is immi ist 'est' ειµι, ηµι; εφυ 5.4.-em 5.5.- 6.3.-esmì
3a2.-am, is, be
1b2.-est, sent esmi; as-/es- 6.4.-ęsmu
āste
ēsmoi ηµαι
5.5.-e-es-zi
5.4.-išxan 'princeps'
esos erus
5.5.-ishas
as(s)er,
assarātum; ásrk, ásrt (asnáh) ̣
ēsṛ sanguis < εαρ, ειαρ, ηαρ 5.4.-ariun 6.4.-asins
5.5.-e-eš-ar (esanas)
*asen-gʷ- ?
ηυσ <*eH1su- 5.5.-assu- <*oH1su-
ēsús
?, ευσ ?
1b2.-etro- ALB.-ját(e)re 5.3.-atāra- 'hic e eterъ, jeterъ
éteros cēterus
'secundus' 'alius' duobus' 'quiscumque'
eti 'quoque, ultra'
ith- itwīz iÞ 'sed'; id-
etic 'et quoque'
eti et; etiam 1b2.-et 3a2.-ed 'rursus'; weit ετι ati 'ultra' 5.3.-aiti
2b1.-etmet
edwīt 'insultus'
'retunde'
etmṇ
athach 'halitus' ādhmōt, Atem
etō ātman
<atāko? 3a2.-æðm, āthum.
ētṛ inathar 2b1.-permed- ād(a)ra,, Ader 'id' ητορ, µεγαλητ 5.4.-xvāqra
'intestīna' interedou ? 'ilia' 3a3.-æðr 'uēna' οροσ 4.3. <*suātra? 'bonus

− ητρον animus'
'pantica'
THRAK.-
âtar 'celer' 6.3.-ãtrus
Athrus, TOK A atär, В etär ?
ētros 3a2.- ǣdre 'uiolentus'
Ieterus, Iatrus 'hērōs'
'promtus' 6.4.-atr 'celer'
'flūmen Jantra'
úcyati; učiti ` 'discō'
usurs to-ucc- εκηλοσ, ευκηλ
bí-ūhts ò́kas- 'domus' ukъ 'discipliina'
'uxōres' 'intellegō' οσ, Pind.
eukō uxōr <*unkto- 5.4.-usanim 'discō, 6.3.-jùnkstu/nkti
PELIGN.- ro-uicc, do-uicc ευκαλοσ
'assuētus' suescō'; amusin 'suescō'; ū́kis
usur 'id' 'attulit' <unk 'placidus' 'uxor' 'uilla'
óṣtami, uṣṭáh;
eusō ūrō 3a3.-ysia ευω
uccháti 'luceō'
5.3.-aoqr∂m
ind-uō, ex- 1b2.-an- fuan<upo- 'calceus' 5.4.- ob-uti, обуть
ewō uō, sub- ouihimu ownom ? aganim 'induō'
'calceor' 6.3.-
ūcula 'induitor' 'falda' 5.4.-awd 'calceus'
aũti 'calceor'
5.5.-unuwasha
'ornātus'
extrōd
gallus (uel 2b1.-gallw 'uocō' glagolati,
gall <ln 'fāma' 3a2.-ceallian, call gargara- ? Instrum.
gálgaljō *kanlos?, 2b3.-galu.- γλαζω 'cantō' gologólitь; го́лос
(quoque cygnus) 'uocō' musicāle quodam
got. hana) 'uocātiō' <*galso- 'uox'
2b1.-gallu 'posse'
gal 'audacia' 2b2.-gallos golemъ 'magnus'
galnos Gallī dí-gal 'potestās' γαλαται 6.3.-galiù, galéti
'uindicātiō' 2b3.-gallout 'posse'
'posse'
galnos
géoin, géim γαγγαινειν (Ηε
gangō 3a2.-ge-canc 'irr.' gañja-ḥ 'irrissiō'
'clamor' σ)
gar γαρ 'enim' argi 'reapse'
garsijō garriō, gáir(m) 'clāmor' 2b1.-gawr carron 'stridere' γηρυσ 'uox'; járatē 'tonat'; 6.3.-gùrti ` 'clamō'
567
garrulus gáire 'risus' 'clamor', gair 3a2.-ceorran γηρυω 'uocō, gargara 'instrum.q.'
grith 'clamor' 'uerbum' 'rumpō' narrō' (cf. golgol.)
2b1,2,3-garm 3a3.-kurra
'clamor' 'murmurō'
gaudeō gūaire γηθεω, αγαν 'ni
6.3.-džiaugiú os
gaudhējō <gāwedhēyō <*gauryos mis'; αγαυοσ <*gaudžiú os
gaudium 'nōbilis' 'nōbilis'
gaudhjom
γε 'et
mih, mich; dih, mik, þuk 5.5.-ammuk, tuk
ge equidem'; εµε− TOK.- k(e) (part.)
dich 'mē, tē' 'mē, tū' 'egō, tū'
γε etc.
5.4.-kc-u; kc-anem
gér 'acerbus' 6.3.-gìžti
geigō 'pungō'
<gigrós 'acerbescō'
ALB.-gjize? 'caseus'
chīnan, keimen;
chīmo 'propagō'; 6.3.-zẽiju, ziet;
5.4.-cil, ciul, cel
geimō kīl, Keil 'cuneus' (us)-keinan žý d(ži)u žydé ti
'propagō'
3a2.-cīnan; kīð 6.4.-zie^du, ziedet
'catulus'
PRHYG.−γισσ
geisā kis, Kies 6.9.-žiẽ zdros
α ? 'saxum'
kilþei jarṭú- 'uterus'
3a2.cild, -child; 'uterus' jaṭháram 'pantica' glota 'turba,
geltis
colt 'pullus' in-kilþō gaḍi-h, gali-ḥ familia' (neg.)
'praegnans' 'pullus'
kalt 'frigidus';
kühlen
3a2.-calan 'frigeō'
γελαν kalds γελανδρον ψυ chladъ `frigus'
gelu gelū, gelō cold 'frigidus';
'pruinam'
chill
'frigidus' χρον (Hes.) <*gol-do-.
3a3.-cala<goleiō
'id'
1b2.-gomia, 3a2.-cumbol, γεµω 'plēnus žьmǫ, žęti
gemō; gumia gemel 5.4.-čmlem
gemō kumiaf gefyn 'uinculum' cumul 'tumor, sum'; 'comprimere'
(deriu.) 'uinculum' 'comprimō'
'grauidas' uulnus' γοµοσ 'onus' 6.3.-gùmulas

3a3.-kumla 'glomus' 6.4.-

'premō' gùmstu, gùmt
'capiō'
jāmātar-
gemros gener, genta γαµβροσ
5.3.-zāmātar-
genesājō
γογγυλοσ gustъ 'pinguis'
'rotundus' 6.3.-gùnga,
jiŋginī, jhiñjhikā
gengā gingīua 3a3.-kokkr 'pila' γογγροσ gungulỹs 'pila'
'planta quaedam'
'tumor apud žinginis 'calla
oleas' palust.'
sama-kunjans οµο−γνιοσ
genjos genius 3a3.-chunni
'*aequisexis' 'coniugātus'
gein <*genṇ
germen,
genmṇ (gene), dat. jániman-, jánman-
germānus
ge(i)nim
jánas zetъ
genos genus -kunds γενοσ
5.4.-cin 'natūra' 6.3.-zéntas
zȅt 'gener'
1b2-natine 3a2.-(ge)cynd, γενεσισ
gentis gens, nātiō jātí-ḥ 6.3.-gentìs
'natiōne' kind 'indolēs' 'genitus'
'familiāris'
γενεθλον janítram 'locus n.'
gentlom 2b3.-genel 'parere'
'progeniēs' 5.4.-cnawl 'parens'
γενετηρ, γενετ janitár- ALB.-dhender
gentṓr genitor
ωρ 5.4.-cnaul *<-tlo- 'procus'
gentrīks genitrīx γενετειρα jánitrī
gentus genitus jantú- 'creātūra'
jnu; prajñú
γονυ (gonatos) 'proster.' 5.3.-
glún, glúin knio; kneo; knie
genū, kniu προ žnūm (ac.) 5.4.- TOK A.-kanwem
genu <*glūnos 3a2.-knee
geniculum <*gnewom χνυ cunr <*gonu 5.5.- B kenīne
<*gnūnos? 3a3.-knē
'prosternātus' gi-e-nu 5.6.-
zānū
genus gena, gi(u)n (geno) Genaua kinni, kinn kinnus γναθοσ; hánu-ṣ 'maxilla' 6.3.-žá ndas
569
genuīnus 'bucca' 2b1.-gwẽn 3a2.-cinn, chin γενυσ 5.3.-zānu- 'maxilla'

(dens) gen 'subrisus' 'subris.' 2b1.- 'mentum'
gẽn, genau γαναω
2b2.- 'laetus sum'
genau/ganow
2b3.-guen 'gena'
αγειρω<*H2ge
ryō; γρονθοσ gursti 'pugnus'
'pugnus', jarante
krammen 'rapiō, gurtati, gurnoti
'appropinquant',
capiō' αγοστοσ? 'scabō, fodiō'
cf. grex, cf. greig (grega) cf. 2b1-b2-b3.-gre gaṇá- <*gṛno- 'grex'
gercō 3a2.-krimman 'id'; 'manus'; gramada 'molēs'
gremium 'grex equōrum' 'id' grama 'pagus'
crammian αγορα, 6.3.-gurgulys
TOK B.-akart(t)e
'accumulāre' αγυρµα, αγυρµ 'crēbritās' ;
'prope'
οσ, grumulas 'grumus'
'congregātiō',
krāgo ''hamus' guṇá-ḥ ' 'fiilum' sъgrъčiti se
gergō
3a2.-crōk, crook, γυργαθοσ <*rrn 'contrahī' -k
crinkle 'id'; creek 'gerrae corbis' gárta-ḥ 'sella 6.3.-grežiù, grẽžti
'meandrum" currūs' <**grenžiō
3a3.-karskr, járate, caus.jā-gar-
gerjō kerskr 'uiuidus, εγειρω ti 5.3.- ALB.-ngrē
uiridis' jagārayant°m p.pr
gerlós
járati , jryati;
karal, Kerl 'homō' járant-
γηραω, γερων
3a2.-ceorl, churl 5.3.-zarta 'aetātis
gerō
3a3.-karl 'h. 'sēnēx'; γραυσ zьreti 'mātūrō'
'anus' dēbilitās'; zrvan-,
mātūrus' zrūn- ? 'tempus'
5.4.-cer 'sēnēx'
kerren/ehren
'uerrō'
2b1.-gyrr 'pecu γερρον 'uirga, 5.4.-car 'arbos, -
gersā gerra 3a2.-cierran
agere' pēnis' stus'
'uertō'
3a3.-kjarr
'arbustus'
gerwós
3a3.-kos
5.4.-acem
gesō gerō, gestus 'congeriēs'
5.5.-kis- 'fiō'
kasta 'iaciō'
jválati 'ardet', jvālá- зола́ 'cinis'
kol, Kohle 'carbō'
geulom gúal 'carbō' , jvālā 'taeda, lūmen' TOK B.-B śoliye
3a2.-col, coal 'id'
5.4.-hur, krak 'ignis' 'furnus'
geustis
govorъ 'strepitus';
γοαω
gikewen 'nominō' 'lāmentor'; govoriti 'strepō'
gewō gāuia? gavatē 'resonat' >'loquor'
3a2.-cīegan 'uocō' γοοσ
'lāmentum' 6.3.-gaudùs
'maestus'
hafiar
giban 'dō';
'habeatur'
gabei
hipid 'habuit'
2b1.-gafael <kómopyo habáć 'emere'
hipust geban 'dō'
gabim 'retineō' 2b2.- m 'opes' gábhasti-ḥ 'manus,
gh∂bhējō habeō 'habuerit' <*kom + ep ? Cf. gobьzь 'profusus'
'prehendō' havel 2b3.- gabeigs braccium'
2b2.-pre- Lat. coēpī 6.6.-gabać 'id'
kavout 'opulentus'
habia,
<*
prehubia
kom+ep?
'praebeat'
χαρµη; χαρια
garth 'mons' grāt 'cacumen' 6.6.-grot
gh∂rtā
(secus hortus) <*ghrētis βουνοσ 'mons' 6.7.-hrot
(Hes)
Gabalus 'patib' gibil 'hastiāle',
1a1.-gabalus gabul 'furca,
ghabhlom 2b1.-gafl 'fork' gabala 'furca' gabasti- 'pīlum'
'pīlum' patib.'
2b3.-gaol 3a2.-geafel, gafol
Gabro-magus
1b2.-habina gabor 2b1.-gafr
ghabhros
'agnas' 2a3.-gabhar 2b2.-gauar/gaver
2b3.-gaor/gavr
gaitein
ghaidīnós haedīnus geizzīn 'haedulus'
'haedulus'
571
geiz/geizīn -'īnus' gaits;

haedus,
ghaidos 3a2.-gāt/gæten gaitein
haedīnus
3a3.-gēt 'haedulus'
6.3.-gaištù, -aũ,
ghaisējō haereō gaĩšti haesitō;
gaišì nti 'deleō'
2b1.-gwaew
γαισοσ
gae gwayw 2b2.-
ghaisom 3a3.-geirr 'hasta' χαιοσ
2a3.-gaoi hochwuyu 'uen'
2b3.-guugoiuou 'hamus'
2b1.-gwayw
gaé; gāide gēr, geisila,
=ir.foga hḗṣas- 'missiile'; 6.3.-žeidžiù,
gaesum; 'gaesātus'; Geissel
ghaisom 2b2;-gew χαιοσ hinṓti 'disparō' žeidžiaũ, žeĩ sti
gaesātī gāetas `qui 3a2.-gār,
2b3.-guugoiuou 5.3.-zaēna- 'arma' 'feriō'
occidit' <ghoizd- 3a3;-geirr, geisl
dtpl.
gaīset <*ghait- χαιτη 'antiae 5.3.-gaēsa 'crispus
ghaitā
s- cap.' c.'
zolok 'uulnus'
galle 'uitium in 5.5.- kal-la-ar
2b1, b2.-galar nazóla 'cuura'
ghálerom galar 'aegrotās' equō, saxō' etc. (kallar) 'malus'
`luctus, planctus'; 6.3.-žalà
lat.<galla? <*kal??
'damnum'
χανοσ; χαινω,
κεχηνα; αχαν
ghanos 3a3.-gan
ησ 'patulus' (α
copul.)
gans 3a2.- gosi
ghansōr (h)anser géis(s) 'cygnus' χην hamsáh
gōs, goose 6.3.-žasìs
gat gartia <*gherdh ?
hostatu,
'sarpmentum'; cf. жердь gazds
ghastā hasta anostatu
tris-gataim 3a2.-yard 'cuspis'
'(in)hastātōs'
'perforō' <gherdh?
hávate, hváyati; zovǫ, zъvati
gutuater got, Gott 'id' guþ 'deus'
guth <*ghutu-s καυχαουµαι puru-hūtá-ḥ' 'Indra' 6.3.-žavė́ti
ghawō <**ghutu-pǝtēr 3a2.-god, pl. guda
'uox' 'glorior' 5.3.-zavaiti, zbayeiti, 'incantāre'
'flāmen quīdam' godfæðer <*ghutóm
zaozaomi 6.4.-zavēt
5.4.-jaunem 'malēdīcit'
'consecrō'
2b1.-geu, gau
'fals.'
gáu, gáo, gó
geaowc/euog
ghawōd haud 'falsus' gu-
'culpb.' 2b2.-
forcell 'f. testis'
gou 2b3.-
gaou
gibil Giebel
gibla
'timpanum'
ghebhlā 'pinaculum κεφαλη TOK A.-śpāl
gebel 'craneum'
'
3a2.-gafl 'cuspis'
3a2.-geat 'id' χεζω; χοδανο
hadati, hadate
ghedō 3a3.-gat σ 'cūlus, 5.3.-zaðah- 'cūlus'
'ōrificium' podex'
git, Geiz 'auaritia'
gell 'pignus' žido, žьdati
gīten 'aueō' grdhyati 'auet'
gheidhō gellaid 'exspectō'
3a2.-gītsian 5.3.-. grða- 'iussus'
'pollicētur' 6.3.-geidžiù geĩsti'
'iubeō'
ghei-ke 1b2.--hont; gha, ha (particula
2b1.-a(g) 'cum' < ου−, µη−/η−, ν ne jedinъ že 'ne
ghāi-ke hic era-hunt post negātiōnem);
ghod-ke 'eādem'
*ad-ghe αι−χι 'nōn, sīc' hi 'sīc' unus quidem'; -zi
hḗman 'hieme'
zima
gheimṛ hibernus χειµα 5.4.-jmeṙn
6.3.-žima
5.5.-gimmanza
gheimrīnó
s
hibernus χειµερινοσ 5.4.-jmeṙn 'hiems'
geifen, /ben, /pen
gheipō hippitō 3a2.-ji/ gibe
'nugō'
Congeistlus
2b1.-gwystl gīsal, gisel, Geisel
Gisla-
gheislos gíall 2b2.-guistel 3a2.-gīsl
mundus
2b3.-goestl 3a3.-gísl
'cautiō'
573
chrabьrъ
gelpfen, gelfen pra-galbhá-ḥ
ghelbō 'bellicōsus'
3a2.-gielpan 'animōsus'
6.3.-gul̃ binti
gellan, -en 'clamō';
gōljan χελιδων pra-galbhá-ḥ
ghelijō nahti-gala galitь-sja 'insultō'
'saluutō' 'hirundō' 'animōsus'
3a2.-giellan, yell
želḗti 'sūgō'
3a3,.gjɔlnar, gäl χειλοσ, χελλο
ghelnom 5,4.-jeɫun 'palatum' 6.4.-zele^t 'sūgō
'labia' σ et lambō'
halá- 'arātrum'
2b1.- gylym, geleu, gielde 'nullum γαλλοσ 5.4.- jlem 'arō'; jol
6.3.-žú olis
ghelō gely 'culter' lacte dans'; galza gilþa 'falx' 'sacerdōs 'pālus'
'truncus, lignum'
<*ghelmo 'porcus castrātus' cybelis' 5.5.-iskalla
'abscindō'
ghelus χελυσ, χελωνη želū, želъvь
(h)olus, arc. χλοη 'iuuenis
ghelwos zelije
helus, helusa herba'
hári-, hárita-
'flāuus'; híraṇya- zelenъ 'uiridis';
gel 'lucidus, χλωροσ, χλου 'aurum'; híri- zlakъ <*gholko-
heluos; gelo 'flāuus'
ghelwos
fuluos ?
albus'; gealach
3a2.-geolu 'id' σ; χλο(F)εροσ <ghḷH-i-'aureus'
'frons -ndis'
'lūna' 'et florulentus' 5.3.-zari-,zairita-
6.3.-žãlias
'id'; zaranya-
6.4.-zal's
'aurum'
κιχανω inf.
hom κιχηµενα
gēn ι, p.pr. jáhāti 'cēdit; desinit'
geen
ghēmi 3a2.-gān 'eō' κιχεισ; αναχα hāna-m 'profectus'
(Krimgot.)
3a3.-gā, ζω 5.3.-zazāmi 'linquō'
'repell.'; χαλα
ω 'cēdō'
cingim; Cingeto-rīx geggen, gehen; gaggan, jámhas- 'gradus, 6.3.-žengiù,
κοχωνη 'ingue
ghenghō céimm 2b1.-hy-gyngu; gang 'gradus' gaggida planctus'; jáŋghā žeñ gti;
n'
<*kenksmen cam 'gradus' 3a2.-gongang, go gagg 'tibia'; jaghána- žiñ gsnis 'gradus'

'gradus' 2b2.-cam 'id' 3a3.-ganga; gangr 'gradus' 'inguen'

cing (cinged) 2b3.-camm 'id' framgāhts 5.3.-zangam 'tibia'
'milees' 'progressus
'
ghēr (h)ēr (ēris) χηρ (Hes.)
grhá- 'domus'
bigaírdan
5.3.-g∂r∂ða- gordъ 'urbs'
gurten 'id' 'cingere' κορθισ σωροσ
gherdhō 'cauerna domestica' 6.3.-gar ̃ das 'ouīle'
3a2.-gyrdan 'id' gards (Hes.)
'domus' 5.5.-gurtas žá rdas 'area'
'oppidum'
κεγχροσ
'sorgum,
milium'; καχρ goróchъ 'cicer,
furfur <*for- υσ 'tostum siliqua'
gherghros gharṣati 'terit' 6.3.-gurùs `
for hordeum';
χερασ, χερµασ 'friābilis'; gùrti
'glarea, 'friō'
detriitus'
herest 'uolet'
heriam
gerōn 'iubeō'; gern χαιρω
'arbitrium,
'libenter; gierig faíhu-
horior, potestātem', gor 'pius'; goire 'gaudeō'; χαρι
gherijai 'coditiōsus' gaírns hary 'gaudeō'
'coditiōsus' σ 'gratia'; χαρµ
hortor Herentateís 'piētās'
3a2.-giernan,
`Veneris' η 'pugna'
yearn 'desiderō'
1b2.-heriest
'id'
gherō cohors κιχρηµι, χραω hárati 'emō, ferō'
ghertom gert <*-tā 'lacte' ghṛtá-m
gair, garait hrasvá; hrasati
χειρων, χερειω го́ре 'maeror'
>goirid; gerraim 'dētrah'
gherús
'scindō'; gaire ν 'peius'; χρεω 5.3.-zarahehīš ALB.- gerrān
'uitae breuitās' 'egeō' 'minima' 'castrātus equus'
χειρ (χειροσ)
5.4.-jern
ghēsṛ TOK.-A tsar B šar
5.5.-kessar
ALB.- dorë
575
ghesris χειρισ kisri- 'glomus'?

ocuis, ocus, agus αγοστοσ ? hástah
6.3.-pa-žastìs
ghestos praestō ? ? 'et' <*ad 'palma'; 5.3.-zastō
'axilla'
ghosti- ? χειρ < ghēs∂r 5.6.-dasta
ghētis
2b1.-haeddel
ghetlā εχετλη
2b3.-haezl/heal
3a3.-gyger gu/gū́hati
6.3.-gū̃žti 'protegō
gheughō 'raptor'; gyg 'abscondit'
gùže m.=ger. gyg
'subterran. deus' 5.3.-guzaēta, 'id'
ghṓṣati 'proclamat'
5.3.-gaoš- 'audiō'
gheusō heus
5.5.-kusduwai
'calumniō'
gheutis
FAL.-
gheutlom χυτλον hotrá- 'hostia'
huti[c]ilom
ghéwejā fouea χεια 'latebra'
gawi ` 6.3.-gomurỹs
gawi, Gau 'id'; χαοσ; χαυνοσ,
'territoriu 5.4.-gavar 'Gaumen'
ghewos goumo, Gaumen
m' (cf. χαυλι- 'territorium' 6.4.-gāmurs
'palatum' 'patens'
cwra) 'larynx'
nec
(negōtium, ου−, µη−/η−, ν -zi (part. post
ghi hí
haudōt., αι−χι 'nōn, sīc' pronōmen)
negāre)
ghighējō
grētan ?
girren, grollen salutor > gharghara-ḥ,
ghirrijō hirriō gъrkati `
3a2.-gierran grüssen, ghurghura-ḥ
greet
eehianasúm
'ēmittendāru gīēn, gähnen zejo, zino, zjati
ghjājō hiō, hiāscō m' 1b2.- 3a2.-giwian, χαινω, χασκω 6.3.-žió-ju, -ti
ehiato giowian 'poscō' 6.4.-. žã vaties
'ēmissōs'
Giamillus,
Giamon 2b1.- χιων 'nix'
gaim-red, gem- 5.4.-jiun, jiwn 'nix'
ghjems hiems gaem/gaeaf χειµων
rad <*ghiōmṃ
2b2.-goyf 'hiems'
2b3.-goañv
galga 6.3.-žalga(s)
galgo, Galgen
ghlaghos 'pālus, 5.4.-jak 'rāmus' 'hasta'
3a3.-galgi
crux' 6.4.-žalga 'uirga'
glastum (n.
glass 'uiridis, plantae) 2b1.-glas
ghlastos glast 'splendōr'
caeruleus' 'caer,vir.' 2b3.-
glas
ghlēiwos
glastum 'Isatis gluoen, glühen; zelenъ 'uiridis';
fel; (h)olus, tinctoria' gold 'aurum';
χολοσ; χολη golubój 'caerul.';
folus (arc. gel 'lucidus, 2b1, b2, b3.-glan galla, Galle 'fel'; hári-, hárita- 'flāuus'
'fel, īra' zlato 'aurum';
helus(a)) albus'; gealach 'mundus' gelo (Gelwes) híraṇya- 'aurum'
χλωροσ 'flaauu žlъtъ'fel''
fuluus?, 'lūna' 2b1.-gell 'giluus'; 'giluus' gulþ 5.3.-zari-,zairita-
ghlēmi s'
heluus glain 'uitrum' glas 'uiridis'; glain 3a2.-gold; gealla, 'aurum' 'id'; zaranya- 6.3.-gel̃ tas 'flāuus';
THRAK.-
1a1.-giluus, glass 'uiridis; 'gemma' geolo, gloom; , 'aurum' želiù, žé liau, žé lti,
galbus, caeruleus' 2b3.-gell <*ghel- gleam, glas; glare ζηλτα 5.6;-zāra- 'fel' 'uireō'; tulžì s 'fel';
galbinus no 'spadix, 3a3.-glana; 'aurum'? žal̃ vas, žel̃ vas
balanus' goll; gall 'fel' 'heluus'
·fo·gleinn .
gladeti, глядеть
inglennat glanz 'uisus';
6.3.-glendi
ghlendhō 'uestigant' 2b1.-dichlyn glänzen 'speciō'
'quaere', glenst
atgleinn 3a2.-glenten 'id'
'quaerere'
'dēmonstrat'
·a2.-glēo, glee 'id' 6.3.-gláudoti
ghleumi χλευη 'nuga'
3a3.-gly 'gaudium' 6.4.-glauda^t
glizzan, gleissen glitmunjan χλιδη; χλιδαω
ghloidos
3a2.-glītan 'splendeō' 'blandus esse'
glumen 'iubilō'
ghloumos 3a3.-glaumr glamiti se 'nugor'
'iubilum'
577
ghḷtnós
híranyam zlato>zóloto
ghḷtom gold gulth
5.3.-zaranim 6.4.-zelts
glosen, glosten
gluss <*ghlustu- 'luceō' ; klug
2b1.-glo 'carbō' glaggwō χλοοσ, χλουσ
'clāritās'; 'clārus'
ghlustis
gluair (*ghleuri-
2b2.-glow 'id'
3a2.-glower
'certō, 'giluus'; χλοη
2b3.-glaou 'id' profectō' 'iuuenis herba'
) 'clārus'; 'micō'; glōwan
`fulminare'
gund κανθαλη
ghṇdhus 3a1, a2.-gund 'pus' gadu ? Tonsillae
'tumor' 'tumor'
gataim 'rapiō';
2b1.-gann, genni χανδανω
ghṇdō pre-hendō ro-geinn 'locum
'arceor' 'capiō'
habet' ghṇdhn-
χναυω gnošati, gnušati
'fricō'; χναυµ 'repellō' ;
gnauwen 'grunniō'
α 'gracilitās'
3a2-gnēaþ gnusьnъ
ghneumi χναυροσ
'auarus' 'repellens'
3a3.-g-nūa 'tergō' 'gracilis'
χνοοσ 6.3.-gniū̃ sai
'spūma' 'bestiolae'
ghodos
gāel, gaol zelo 'ualdē'
geil gailjan
ghoilos 'familiāritās', 6.3.-gailas
3a2.-gāl 'beō'
amicitia 'imptōsu.'
kalo, ka(h)l
5.4.-glux (glxoy) golova, голова́ 'cp'
gholwā 'caluus' 3a2.-
<*ghōlu-ko- 'caput' 6.3.-galvà 'caput'
callow 'id'
ghórdejom hordeum gersta κρι, κριθη 5.4.-gari
gards gṛhá- <ghṛdho-
κορθισ σωροσ
gart 'circulus' 'domus' 'domus' 5.5.- gradъ 'oppidum'
ghordhos
3a2.-gard 'fundus' bigairdan (Ηεσ) gurtas 'oppidum' <-
ALB.-garth 6.3.-gar̃das
'cingō' to-?
ghorḗjai
ghornim

hīra, hillae garn 'filum'

híra-ḥ 'uitta'; hir
ghoros haru-spex; <*ghornā 3a3.- χορδη 6.3.-žarnà
hernia gorn (p. garnar) 'uēna'
χερσοσ 'contin
ens' hárṣatē, hŕṣyati
horreō, hirpus garb 'raucus' 3a2.-gorst 'herba χηρ 'ēr(icius 5.3.-zaršayamna-
ghorsējō hircus, 'lupus' 2b1.-garw
<gh∂rwos quaedam' )' 'explumans'
hispidus SAB.-fircus
χοιροσ 'porc 5.4.-jar 'iuba'
ellus'
garth 'claustrum'
hortus, χορτοσ 5.5.-gurtas
ghortos gort 'ager' 2b3.-garz
cohors 'atrium' 'oppidum' <-dho-?
'saeptum'
jagdhi 'esca'; ághas
hostia,
ghosóm (2, 3s.) 6.4.-gōste 'daps'
hostīre
5.3.-gah-
gospodь<-
ghóstipots hospēs
ostьpot-
gast
ghostis hostis 3a2.-giest gasts gostь
3a3.-gastr
qaurjan
gōrag 'miser' 'offendere'
ghouros ghōrá-ḥ žuryty 'piget'
3a2.-gyrn 'tristitia' gaurs
'afflictus'
1b2.-fons
'fauens',
faueō ? goumen 'id' gaumjan govejo, goveti
ghowējō foner
<*bhuH ? 3a2.-gīeman 'obseruō 'iēiūnō, honorō'
'fauentēs'
<*bhuH?
grędǫ, gręsti
do·greinn gritten; gritt griÞs
ghradjai gradior 'ueniō'
'persequor' 'gradus' 'gradus'
6.3.-gridi-ju 'eō'
ghrāsmṇ
grāmen gras, Gras; Grün grāsa 'bucella,
ghrāsom gras γραω 'uorō'
<grasmen 3a2.-gras; grōwan, morsum';
579
grow 'uiridēscō, γαστηρ <γραστ grásatē 'uorat'

crēscō'; græne, ηρ 'uenter'
green 'uiridis'
graban pogrebo, pogreti
ghrebhō 3a2.-grafan graban 6.3.- grebju, grebt
3a3.-grafa 'fodiō'
*grēdu-s; gladъ,го́лод
grātag 'auidus' ALB.-gɛrdɛs gṛ́dhyati 'desiderō';
*grēdōn; 6.3.-gardù
ghrēdhus 3a2.-Greed, grǟdig 'uenātor gardha-
grēdag-s '- 'succulentus'
'id' mulierum' 'desiderium'
elicus' 6.4.-gar^ds 'id'
grabh-, grab-, grebǫ, greti
gṛbhnti 'rapiō, rēmō'
grīfan
ghreibhō greipan 5.3.-grab <*ghrebh 6.3.-
3a2.-grapian
5.5.-karp 'emō, griebiù, griẽbti
terminō' 6.4.-gribet 'uolō'
grēme 'sordēs'
6.3.-graĩmas 'flōs
ghreim∂n 3a2, 3a3.-grīma χριµα, χρισµα
lactis'
'persona'
χηροστησ; χη
ρα 'uidua';
χατεω/ιζω
'careō'; χηροσ
gaidw
geisini 'egestās' 'uacuus';
ghṛējō hērēs 'egestās'
3a2.-gād, gæd 'id" χωρισ
<*ghi-tuó
'sine'; χωρεω 'c
ēdō'; χωροσ/α
'terra'
gremétь 'tonāre'
gremmen 'saeuiō' 6.3.-grumiù/éti
gramjan χρεµιζω, −µετι
ghremō Gram 'maestitia' 5.3.-gram- 'saeuitia' ''tn.'
'irāscor' ζω;
grimm 'horrendus' 6.4.-gremju
'murm.'
ghrendhā grunda, grintil 'tignus' gręda 'lectus'
suggrunda 3a2.-grindel 'id' 6.3.-grindìs

'tignum'
grennos 'barba'
2b1.-grann grana,'mystax' granōs
grenn 'barba' granь 'limes'
ghrendhos 'palpebra' 3a2.-granu 'id' (acc. pl.)
<*ghrendhno- gránka 'arbuscula'
2b3.- grann <*ghronā 'crīnes'
'cilium'
grunt, Grund χραινω 'terō'
3a2.-grind(an) grundu χρ 6.3.-gréndu, gresti
ghrendō frendō
'molō' grund 'terra' ονδοσ 'terō'
3a3.-grotti 'mola' 'grānum'
εγχραυω
'quatiō';
2b1.-gro, 'glarea' αχραησ 'intact
2b2.-grow 'id' grien 'glarea' us'
ghrewō
2b3.-grouanenn 3a3.-grjōn 'grāna' χρωσ
'id' 'cutis'
χρω(ι)
ζω 'tangō'
εχραον grúchnutь śa

'succedit' 'strepitosē cadere'
ingruō, 6.3.-griuvaũ griū́ti
ghrewō (Hom);
congruō, 'gruō'
ζαχρη
ησ 'repens' 6.4.-gŕaut
'fconterō'
χροµοσ
ghromos Gram 'maestitia' 'strepitus" 5.3.-gram- 'saeuitia' gromъ 'tonitrus'
(Hes.)
Granne 'arista'
ghronos
3a3.-grån, grǫn χρονοσ granь <*ghronis
'picea, abiēs' (= 'tempus' 'fīnis''
acus)
2b1, b3.-grud(d)
ghroudos grúad 'maxilla' 3a2.-grēada 'tetae'
'id'
ghrowā
581
6.3.-žūvù,
gúass 2b1.-gwst 3a2.-(ā-)gíetan
ghudjō žū́ti 'morior', fac.-
'periculum' 'morbum' 'feriō, interficiō'
daũ/ýti
fundō, fūtis, χεω (εχευα), χ
ghundō giutan juhoti
futtilis υδην
ghwerā
zvěrína
ghwērīnós ferīnus
6.3.-žverienà
θηρ <*ghwērs TOK B śer- 'uēnor' zverь; zverína
ferus, fera,
ghwērós A śaru B śerwe '- 6.3.-
ferīna
4.2.−φηρ ātor' žverì s;žverienà
gobae <*-bhṇts wa(f)fen 'arma'
dat. pl. gobedbi 6.3.-Gabe, Gube
ghwobhros faber (gobann <*- 3a2.-wæpen 'id'
2b1.-gof, pl. gofein 'ignis' <*-bhyā
ntsnos) <*-ēbhno-
gibba,
3a3.-keiv geibstù, geĩbti
gibbā gibbus,
'perperus' 'clinor, decadō'
gibber
ro·genar 'nātus γιγνοµαι
sum', ·gainethar knōt, knuot 'id' knōÞs 'ēueniō'; γνητο jánati 'prodūcit';
2b1.-geni 'nascor'
gignō gignō, nāscor < *gṇH1yetor 2b3.-genel 'pariō' 3a2.-cennan 'generus', σ 'nātus'; jyate .'nascitur' <
'gignō' sexus' γνωτοσ *ǵṇH1yetoi
‘nascitur’; gein
'familiāris'
'nascentia'
gigrós
kiuwan, kauen žьvo, žьvati
gjewō 3a2.-cēowan, 5.6.-jāvīdan 6.3.-žiá unos
chew 'maxilla'
glaciēs
<glagyēs
gl∂gjēs 3a3.-klaki
(propter
aciēm)
1a1.-gulbia gulban 2b1.-gilb γλαφω;
želobítь
glabhō 'scalprum, <*gulbīno- 'foratorium' γλαφυ
runcīna' 'cuspis, rostrum' gilbin 'acumine' 'cauitās' globà 'piipa'

2b2.-geluin globokъ
'rostrum' γλαφυροσ 'profundus'
2b3-golbina 'cauus'
'rostrata'
gladъ-kъ
glat, glatt
gladhros glaber 3a2.-glœd 'alacer' 6.3.-glodùs, -nas
3a3.-glaðr 6.4-glãstît
'mulceō'
garhā 'punitiō' ;
glām `clamōr, klaga, Klage
γλαζω 'canō' gárhati/te
glagh murmurātiō'' < 'protestātiō':
<*glagyō 5.3.-grzaiti
*glagh-smā klagōn (actus)
5.6.-gila
γαλα (γαλαχτο jálāsa 'sīōlācium'
glakti lac (lactis) σ); γλακτοφαγ 5.4.-kat'n 5.5.-
οσ galaktar 'id'
3a3.-kløkkva
BUL glézъ 'molliō'
glegos 'molliō' 3a6.- jálāsa 'sōlācium'
klinker 'tener' 6.3.-glẽžnas 'tener'
klebēn
gleibhō u-glьbl'o (eff.)
3a2.-clifian
glīs (glīris);
γαλεη >lat.
gleis galērus<*gra girí-ḥ, girikā
galea
ec.
glēkis glic(c) 'sapiens' klug
klamben
'agglutinō' ;
glomus, Klumpen POL;-glab, TCEK.-
glembhō
globus 'agglom..' hloub 'truncus'
3a2.-
clamb(er)'scalō'
klioban 'scindere'
gleubhō glūbō γλυφω
3a2.-clēofan
glūs, glūten, 2b1.-glynaf klenan, chlinu γλια, γλινη; glej glekъ 'lutus'
glenim <*gli-nā-
glínāmi glis, -tis,
mi 'adhaereō'
'adhaer.' 3a2.-clæg,clay γλοιοσ 'ad 6.3.-gliejù, gliẽti
glittūs, 2b3.-glenaff; geot 'arg' 3a3.-klina haesīuus' 'linō'; glitis
583
glūtinō 'grāmen' < *gel-tā 'linō' γλιχοµ 'muccus'

αι 'desiderō'
globus, Kalb 'uitulus'; 6.3.-glébiu, glébti
Galba, klāftra 'braccia' kalbō 'amplector'
globhos
galbeus, 3a2.-calf 'sūra et 'uitulus' SERB.-zglòbiti
glēba, glēbō uitulus' 'adaptō'
3a3.-kleggi γλοχισ; γλοσσ
glōghis glogъ 'spīna'
'frēnum' α 'lingua'
3a2.-clāte 'lappa'; 6.4.-glī̀ de^t
gloidos glóed 'glūten'
clite 'lutum' 'glutinōsus fierī'
*glěvъ; glej
3a2.- clǣg, clay
gloijós γλοιοσ 'lutum' 6.4.-
3a3.-klæg 'lutum'
glievs
glūs, -tis, γλιττον γλοιον
glytė̃ 'muccus';
gloitṇ glūten, -inis, 'glūtinōsus'.
glitùs 'glūtinōsus'.
glittūs (Hes.)
klukken klъcati 'battuō'
glokijō glociō
3a2.-cloccian 6.3.-klukšé ti
klimmen 'stringō' 6.3.-glomóju -ti
γλαµων
glomos glomus glomar 'frēnum' 3a2.-climman, 'amplector'
'glamōsus'
climb 'scālō' glẽmės 'lutum'
zolva
glōs glōs γαλωσ 5.4.-tal
6.5.-zäova
glūtiō,
glujō glotátь; glot(ók)
ingluuiēs
nascor,
gníu <*gnēyō 2b1.-adian 'prolēs' jā-s 'ingenuus (ad),
gnājō ignāuus,
'faciō' <*ati·gnā et prōlēs (nom)'
(im)praegnō
κνην (3. sg.
gnāmi cnáim nuoen, nöejen
κνη), κνηθω
2b1.-adian 'prolēs' jā-s 'ingenuus (ad),
gnās
<*ati·gnā et prōlēs (nom)'
gnāskai
gnātós nātus, PAEL.- aicned <*ad- Cintu-gnātus 3a2.- heofon-kund -kunds κασιγνητοσ 'fr jātá-ḥ 6.3.- žé ntas

cognātus, (- pälign. genǝ/gene-to- 'primogenitus'; '*caeligenus'; - 'oriundus' āter' 5.3.-zāta- <*genǝ-to- 'gener'
)genitus cnatois 'nātūra' gnātha, geneta cund 3a3.-kundr
'nātīs' 'filia' 'filius'
gnebhis
kneifen 'fricō'
2b1.-cnaif 'uellus' kniebiù, -̃bti 'fricō'
3a2.-hnæppan
gnebhō 2b2.-kneu κναφευσ 'fullō' knab-ù,-éti
'quatiō'
2b3.-kreoñ, kaneo 'glubō'
3a3.-hnafa 'secō'
gneibhō
3a2.-cnīf, knife 'id' γνιφων
3a3.-knīfr furrum?
conegos, (h)nīgan, neigen, hneiwan;
cōniueō;
kunikaz nicken 'inclinor'; *ga(h)nipn 5.5.-kaniniya- knimbù, knìbti
gneichō (cō)nītor -ī,
'conixus' hnaiw 'humilis' an <*gneib 'subsidō' 'flectere' <*gneib
nictō, -āre
=*conigātus 3a2.-hnīgan 'tristis esse'
6.4.-knide^t
cned 'uulnus' hnītan 'allīdō' κνιζω (*<dyō);
gneidō nīdor cnes 'pellis' 'prurīre' kniẽdet
<*knidā 3a3.-hniss 'nīdor ' κνιδη 'urtīca' 'pangere'
1b2.-naratu
ignārus, 'narrātō',
gnōros γνωριµοσ
narrō naraklum
'nūntiātiō'
singulus
gnos
<*sṃgno, Truticnos, aina-kla- νεογνοσ
mali/prīuign Coimagni 'singulus' 'recens nātus'
us
*knōþs
dat.knōdai pra-jñāti-ḥ znati, znatь 'scīre'
kunst 'ars'; γνωσισ 'nōtiō,
gnōtis nōtiō 'genus'; 'agnitiō'; jñātí-ḥ 6.3.-pažintì s 'agn.'
urchna^t 'agnitiō' necessitūdō'
kunþi 'necessitūdō' 6.4.-znuõts 'gener'
<gṇtí
einknuadil
6.3.-žėnklas
'insignis'
gnōtlom cf. nōbilis jñātra- 'intelligentia' 6.9.-ebsentliuns
beknuodilen
'dēsignātus'
'audibile fierī'
jñātá r-
gnōtṓr nōtor γνωστηρ
5.3.-žnātar-
585
nōtus; nota
<*gnota, eposognatus kund
kunþs
gnōtós notāre, gnáth 2b1.-gnawd 3a2.-cūþ, kūth γνωτοσ jnātáh 'nōtus' 6.4.-pazîts
'nōtus'
cognitus, 'usuāle' 3a3.-kuðr, kunnr
agnitus
Knopf;knüpfen
'ligō' gniáubti
gnoubhos gnobh
3a2.- 'amplector'
knobbe,.knob
Bodo-cnous
1b2.-go-gnaw 3a2.-. gecnæwe
gnōwos (g)nāuus
1b3.-gnou 3a3.-knār 'habilis'
'ēvidens'
2b1.-gilb(in)
'forator., acumine'
gulban, gulpan kolbo 'uirga'
2b2.-geluin
golbhnos <*gulbīno- 3a3.-kolfr
'rostrum'
'cuspis, rostrum' 'acumen'
2b3.-golbina
'rostratam'
kamb, Kamm já(m)bhatē, 'rapiō' ząbъ, zobъ 'dens'
'pecten' jambhah 'morsum, pro-zebati
gemma
gombhos 3a2.-camb, comb γοµφοσ 'dens' dens' 'pectinō' 6.3.-
<gembhnā
'id' 3a3.-
5.3.-h∂m, z∂mbayati žam̃ bas 'angulus'
kambr 'id' 6.4.-zùobs 'dens'
3a2.-cumbol,
1b2.-gomia, gomola 'glēba'
gemō; gumia cumul 'tumor,
gomos kumiaf γοµοσ 6.3.-gùmulas,
(deriu.) uulnus'
'grauidas' gumulỹs 'globus'
3a3.-kams 'glēba'
3a2.-cennan
gonējō janáyati
<*gonjan
kiver, Kiefer
zob 'pīcus', zobátь
'maxilla' 5.3.-zafar/fan
gopos gop, gob <*-bb-? 'edō'
Kâfer 'scarabaeus' 'fauces'
3a2.-cēafl, jowl 'id' 6.3.-žé biu, -eti 'id'
gorbos

gorgnóm
garg 'rudis'; groza 'horror'
gráin γοργοσ
gorgós graen 'maestitia' 6.3.-gražó ju-́ti
'repugnantia' 'horrendus'
<*gragnis 'minor'
goulos gūtus, uola
6.3.-gaũras 'uellus'
6.4.-gauri
kauern 'adesse' γυροσ
gouros gúaire 'u.pubicus'
3a3.-kaure 'circulus'
6.5.-guriti se
'plectī'
krächzen
krāhhon>ch graču, grakati
garjati 'tonat' <krag
gracillō, grāg 'resonō' 3a2.- 6.3.-gìrgždžiu,
grakijō 5.4.-karkač
graculus 'gracillaatiō' cracettan girgždé ti
'strepitus'
3a3.-krāka 'frumpere'
'coruus"
grьmeždь 'gram.'
3a3.-kramr
qrammiþa pogrožo
grammā grāmiae 'umidus, nix
'humiditās' 'summergō' 6.3.-
sēmirōrāta'
grim̃sti 'id'
2b1.-gronyn zrьno 6.3.-
korn
grānom grānum grán 2b2.-gronen kaúrn jīrná 'trītus' žì rnis 'pisum'
3a2.-corn
2b3.-greunenn 6.4.-zir̃nis 'id'
gṛbeinā 5.5.-GISkarpina- grabína
grubu 'dorsum,
krimpf, krampf,
gerbach conuuls.'; gorb
gṛbējō krumpf 'tortus' γρυποσ 'tortus' 5.4.-karth 'tibia' !!
'rugōsus' 'gibba' 6.4.-
3a3.-korpa 'ruga'
grumbt 'rug. fiō'
жребий 'alea,
kerben 'caelō' γραφω, γεγραφ tractus'
gṛbhō
3a2.-carve 'id' α 'et scrībō' 6.4.-grīpsta,
grīpste 'rasiō'
grebhos krebe 'corbis', γριφοσ 'rēte, grapsa, glapsa
587
Krippe corbis, 'fascis'

'iparulārium' enygma' (-ei-
3a2.-cribb 'id' scrībō,
σκαριφοσ)
krazzōn, kratzen ALB.-gërüj ;gërrusë,
gredō
3a3.-krota 'scalpō' krūs(ë) 'strigilis'
γαργαρα 'com
graig (grega) 2b1-2b2-2b3.-gre plūra'; cf.
gregs grex (gregis)
'grex equōrum' 'id' αγειρω
'congregō'
gremjom
6.3.-grandìs 'anu,
Kranz;-enze 'corb.' ar'
grendjom grinne 'fascis'
3a2.-cræt 'raeda' 6.6.-gredać sie
'torquērī'
kratto,Krätze grathnmi 'plectō';
gretlom 'corb.' 3a2.- grantha 'nodu.,
cradol, cradle corōna'
Kropf 'tollēs'; sich γρυποσ
SCOTT.-groban krüpfen 'flectere' 'tortus'; γρυψ ' grubinéti
greubhō
'cacumen' 3a2.-crēopan, crēp gryphus'; γρυπ 'uacillāre, labī'
'rēpō' οω 'torqueō'
kriochan, kriechen
gruc, grug 'ruga'
'rēpō' krucka;
greugō grucánach
Krücke 'baculum'
'rugātus'
3a2.-cryce, crutch
γρυµεα 'uetus
Krume 'mīca
rēs'
greumō grūmus pānis'
3a2.-crūma 'id' γρυ 'situs sub
ungue'
kroten 'premō'
gruth <*grutús ?
3a2.-crūdan;
greutō 'lacte putridum,
crowd
caseus'
curds 'caseus'

βρενθοσ
grṇdhís grandis grodь 'pectus'
'superbus'
1b2.-
grabātus
Grabovius PR.-wosi-grabis grab 'betulla'
grōbhos 'lectus'
'quercus 'euonymus' 6.4.-Gruõbina
<Illyr., Mac.
deus'
χερµασ ? 5.4.-karkut gradъ
grōdis grandō, -inis
'glarea' <*gagrōdo- 6.3.-grúodas
groumos
grunzian, grunnen
grundiō,
grundijō 3a2.-grunian, γρυζω
grunniō
grunt
kroten 'premō';
krot 'pressiō'
grutis gruth 3a2.-crudes,
curd(es); crowd
'glomus'
3a2.-kyte, kite γοδα εντερα (Η
gudom gudám
'stomachus' εσ.)
Kugel, kliuwa γαγγλιον 'tumo žьly, gúglja
glún 'genū'
3a2.-cyćǵel, r' gula-ḥ, glāu-ḥ 'tumor'
gugā galla gláo-snáthe
cudgel; claw γιγλυµοσ 4.6.-gūzak 'talus' 6.3.-gugà
'linea, norma'
'garra' 'cardō' 'promuntorium'
chubisi 5.3.-gufra
γυπη (Ηεσ.); goba 'lepra'
`tugurium' ; 'profundus'
gupā γυψ 6.3.-gum̃bas
Koben 'porcīle' 5.4.-gumbed
'uultur' 'cauit.'
3a2.-cofa, cove 'boueda'
6.3.-gur̃nas 'coxa,
gurnos 5.4.-kurn ( kran)
ossu q.'
kiusan;
kiosan, kiesen kausjan juṣátē 'delectat''
gustō, do-roigu 'ēlexit';
gusnō 3a2.-kiosan, 'examinō' γευοµαι 5.6.-daustar vu-kusiti 'gustō'
dēgūnō asagussim
choose gakusts 'amīcus'
'proba'
gutṛ guttur 3a2.-codd 'saccus' 5.5.-kuttar
589
2b1.-yd
1b2.-if; ifont ιθαγενησ 'hic iha
idhei ibī infig. -id- 2b2.- yz, yth
'ibidem' natus' 5.3.-ida
2b3.-ez
ikjō
Ilio-mārus
Ile; Islay 'insula 'magninguinis'
ili īlia, īle <gr.? ιλια (Hes.) jal'ity 'testiculī'
quaedam' 2b1.-il?
'fermentum'
iyarti, rte 'moueō'
(intr.)
ιαλλω ; ελαυν 5.4.-elanim 'fiō';
īljō
ω, ελατο, etc elanem 'scandō';
eluzanem 'prōmō'
5.5.-halāi 'trūdō'
imde
immō immō 5.5.-imma
aṁśa-ḥ 'portiō' nesǫ, nesti 'portō'
ενεγκον <enke
5.4.- hnjo-c̣ 'messis' 6.3.-nešù, nešiaũ,
nekmi nk- 'tulī';
5.5.- ḫi-in-ik-zi nèšti 6.4.-
ογκοσ 'molēs' 'attribuit', inclinātur nesu, nešu, nest
ipjō
ιπτω; ιπνοσ impai- 'dēpressus
'onus' sum'
izio,
is, id; ī- jo 'eum'; iako
idic/ídík; is- hé. Hed; ιν, µιν, νιν 'eu ay-am, id-am, iy-am
is, id dem, eis- 2b1.-eidau, eidi is, ita 'quālis'
id-um 'īdem'; a<(esyo, esyās) m' 5.6.-iyam
dem 6.3-jis
1b2-ere, erse
Isarnus, Iserninus
(<aes non
2b1.-haearn, īsarn
possiblile
īsarnom iarn, aiarann haiarn 2b2.- 3a2.-isærn, iron eisarn (<ayas)
propter
hoern/horn 3a3.-ísarn, járn
longa ī)
2b3.-houarn
ittham, iti 'ita'
ita ita, item, iti 1b2.-itek 2b1.-yd, yt 6.3.-it, itin 'rectē'
itthā, itthād 'hic'
itājō
itaqe

itarah 'alter';
íteros iterum
itaratah 'indirectē'
itim
iter, arc.
itṛ 5.5.-itar 'uia' TOK A.-ytār
itiner
j∂kējō
j∂kjō ιηµι
yájati; yajñá-ḥ
iēiūnus (Pl. αζοµαι ; αγιοσ
'sacer' ; yajas-
jagjō iāiūnus'), 'sacer'; αγοσ 'sacrificium'
iēientō 'sacrificium' 5.3.-yazaite
iēiūnus (Pl.
jāgjus yájyu-
iāiūnus')
jāi 1b2.-ie 'iam' 2b1.-ie 'sic' jē, jeh jai
jālos
yti 'it'; yna-ḥ jado, jachati 'eō'
á 'axis, carrus'
Επιασσα (∆ηµ 'uia, uehiculum' (in veh.)
jāmi iānua, iānus áth<yātus
ετηρ) 5.3.-yāh- 'crimen, 6.3.-jóju, jóti
'portus'
decisiō' 'equitō'
ju 'iam, ja 'sic'; ju, 'iam', ja ju
jāmi iam
3a2.-ju 'iam' 'sic' 6.3, 6.4.-jau
ζηλοσ (α)
'auiditās, yvan
inuidia'; ζητεω 'offensor';yātá r
iawl 'laus, iussus' 'quaerō'; ζητρο 'uindicātor';yātú jarъ 'uiolentus'
á(i)lid ` 'rogat, iolaf 'laudō' σ 'cruciātr' ; 'incantus' jarostь
jáneumi
desiderat' 2b3.-iolent ζαµια 5.3.-yātu 'exasperātiō'
'precentur' 'poena'; ζωροσ 'incantus/tor'; yā-sā 6.8.- ja^l 'inuidia'
'uiolentus'; επι 'desiderium'
ζαρεω 5.4.-janam 'molior'
'offendō'
jnuwā
(pra-)yakṣati
jeghō jagōn, jagen 'agitātur'; yahú,
yahvá
591
'inquiētus>filius'
ihilla < *jichilla
2b1.- iā
'stiria'
2b2.-yey, yeyn
jegis aig f. (ega) 3a2.-gicel(a), 6.5.-eka
2b3.-ien, yen
iceicle
'frīgus'
3a3.-jaki
2b1.-ieith/iaith giht 'ēnuntiātus.'
jekō iocus icht 'populus'
'populus, lingua' gehan 'ēnuntiō'
2b1.-iach 'sānus'
jekos (h)ícc 'sānātiō' 2b2.-yagh ακοσ 'sānātiō' yaśas 'honor'
2b3.-iac'h
-ialo-; Nantoialo- jályj 'sterilis'
jēlom > Nanteuil 6.4.- jels
2b1.-ial 'desertum' 'immatūrus'
redimiō, yámati, yácchati TOK A, B yām-
infula ? 'tenet' 'faciō, efficiō'; A
jemō
<*imdhlā, 5.3.- yam-, yasaitē yom-, B yäm-
geminus 'id' 'assequor'
yámati, yácchati
eban; eben 'aeq.' 'tenet'; yáma-
emon<*emno-
3a2.-efn, even 'id' ibns 'habēna'; yamá
jemós geminus ??? 'geminus'
3a3.-Ymir 'deus 'aequus' 'geminus'
emnaid 'duplex'
Hermaphr.' 5.3.-y∂ma-
'geminus'
εινατερεσ, ενα yatār- 'cognāta' jetry
jentēr ianitrīcēs (!!)
τρι 5.4.-ner 6.3.-jenter-
iecur ikra 'caviar'
i(u)chair 'ouae ηπαρ (ηπατοσ yákrt (yaknáḥ)
jeqṛ (iecoris, 6.3.-jãknos
piscis' −ντ) 5.6.- jigar
iecinoris) 6.4.-aknas
ias 'ferueō' et
gesan, jesan yasati 'efferuēt'
1a1.-iestā 'clamor, eruptiō'
jesō ess 'cataracta' 'fermentō' ζεω 'ferueō' 5.5.-is(sa)na-,
'spūma' 2b3.-gòell 'leuitus'
3a2.-giest, yeast ēssana- 'massa'
<*upo-ies-lo-
úain yṓni 'locus otiī';
jeunis 'occasiō=locus syona<suyouni
aptus, tempus 'placidus'
aptus' 5.3.-yaon∂m 'uia'

2b1.-iot, iwt/uwd juxa
híth 'pulsum'
'pulsum' 2b2.-iot ζυµη ? 'massa yūh 6.3.-jūshe
jeus iūs <*iutā? mlat. 3a3.-ōst 'caseus' ALB.-gjär
iotta
'pulsum' 2b3.-iod acer' ; ζωµοσ pra-yāuti 'agitō' 6.4.-jaut
'papillae' 'ammassō'
jewesdiks
3a2.-géocian yuyṓti 'uitāt,
jewō iūō -āre
'saluō' protegit'
yávah
ovin
jewom eorna ζειαι (Hom.) 5.3.-yava
6.3.-javaī
5.5.-ewa
jéwornjom
iūs (cf.
yóh
jewos iouestōd -
5.3.-yaosh-
lapis niger)
ıадръ, ядрый
jṇdros αδροσ indra- ? 'deus q.' 'celer' 6.3.-
Indrajà 'flum.q.'
Iantumarus,
yátate 'studēt'
jṇtō (h)ét 'inuidia' Adiatunnus 2b1.-
yatnás 'studium'
addia(n)t 'auidit.'
jod qid οττι yad, yena я́ко
jodhei οθι
eynholz,
iuncus;
joinkos áin<ioini- Einbeerbaum
iūniperus
3a3.einir-
jom
jomde
joqe jah 5.5.-ya, a; yakku
jori
2b1.-iwrch
ζορξ ζορ
jorkos 2b2.-yorch
2b3.-iourc'h κασ
jōrom hornus<ho- jār jēr ωρα, ωροσ 'te paryārinī<pari- jara 'ver', jarь
593
yōrnos? cf. 3a2.-geār mpus' yārinī 'post annum 'grānum aestātis'

ahd. 3a3.-ār prīmum pariens' 6.3.-jōre
hiuru<hiu 5.3.-yār∂ 'annus'
jāru
jōrós
οσ, η, ο; οτερο
jos (je), jā, σ 'uter' yas, yā, yad; yatara
i-ze, ia-ze
jod 'uter'
4.5.−ιοσ
5.3.-yasta- pojaśǫ,-jasati
ζωννυµι<∗yωσ
jṓsneumi 'cinctātus' 'cingō'; pojasъ
νυµι 'cingō' 5.5.-ish 'ligō' 'cinctus'
jota
jota sei
jóugsmṇto
m
iūmentum
iūstus, P.
jówestos Fest. iouiste huisse 'decens' istъ 'uērus'
'iustē'
5.3.-yavaējī-
jucis iūgis
5.4.-yavež 'semper'
ud-yōdhati
'turbulātur';
2b1b2,b3.-iud yúdhyati, yōdhati
'pugnat'; yúdh- ojьminъ ? 'miles'
judhējō
iubeō, iuba 'pugna' <youdhos υσµινη 'proeli
<'agitans' 2b1.-udd um' 'proelium, miles'; 6.3.- judù, -éti;
'dominus' yudhmá 'bellicōsus' judra 'turbulentia'
5.3.-yūiδyeinti
'pugnant'
2b1.-iou/iau juch, joch yugá 'pār'
igo (iga)
jugóm iugum ughaim 2b2.-ieu 3a2.-juk juk ζυγον 5.5.-i-u-ga-an,
6.3.-iungas
2b3.-ieo, geo 3a3.-ok yukan
untar-jauhta ζυγον, ζευγνυµ
jungō iungō yumákti 6.3.-jungiu
'subjugāuī' ι

júwenis
pl. yuvám du.
ir pl. yūs, du. yūyá m 5.3.-
juwes / 6.3.-yūs, du. yudu
juwe
2b1.-gē, gī yut υµµε−<∗υσµε− yūz∂m 5.4.-
6.4.-yũs
3a3.-er (t<dwō) yez 5.5.-
šu-(um-)me-es
iouincillus
1b2.-iveka, 2b1.-ieuanc junc, jung
juwṇkós iuuencus iuenga oac, óc 2b2.- 3a2.-iung, geong, juggs yuvaká, yuvaśá-
'iuuenca' iouenc/yowynk young
2b3.-iaouank
ōetiu, ōitiu <tūt yuvatva
júwṇtā iuuenta 3a2.-youth junda
<tā <*yuw∂ntwo-
1b2.-iouies
'iuvenibus, yúva(n)- (yū́naḥ),
junъ
iuuenis, militibus'; óa 'iunior'; óam grd. yávīyas-,
juwōn 6.3.-jáunas
iūnīx; iūnior jovie 'iuuenissimus' yáviṣṭa- 5.6.-
<comp.*jowi y(a)van (yūnō) 6.4.-jauns
ē-s
caill 'lūcus' 2b1.-celli holz 'et silua' κλαδοσ klada, koloda,
k∂ldos clādēs
<*kaldī 2b2.-kelli 'nemus' 3a2, a3.-holt 'id' 'rāmus' коло́да,'rāmus'
hafjan
hevan, heben 'leu.'
Moenia-coeptus 'leuāre '
haben 'habēre' καπτω,
2b1.-caeth 'seruus' haban
k∂pjō capiō, captus cacht 'seruus' 3a2.-hebbian, κωπη kapatī 'duo pugnātī' 6.3.-kúopa
2b2.-caid f. caites 'habēre'
hebban, heave 'id', 'ansa'
2b3.-quaez hafts
habban 'habēre'
'captus'
k∂psā
captus, haft, behaftet
k∂ptos cacht 'serua' -hafts
captīuus 3a2.-hæft 'seruus'
casit 'oportet'
careō, castus, b2-castrous 3a3.-hes śsti, śáśati
cess 'hasta'
k∂sējō castrum, 'fundī', 'penniculum in 'scindit' śastrám kosa, коса 'falx'
*<kestā
castigō castruo, bouis cauda' 'culter, ensis'
kastruvuf
595
k∂stos
3a2.-híegan σκευοσ 'appar
caueō (cf. kutiti 'machināri'
k∂wējō 'efficiō' ātus'; σκευαζ
skewō) prekutiti 'ornāre'
3a3.-heyja 'id' ω 'praeparō'
kám (pro dat
κα, κε, κεν kъ(n) 'ad'
ka commodī, imper.,
'forsan' 6.3.--ki (imper.)
affirm.)
kábṇlos caballus kobyla 'equa'
cabō, konь, конь
kabōn cabōnus, capall Caballos <*kabni 6.3.-
caballus kumẽlē 'equa'
huota, Hut
'custodia'; huot,
cais 'amor'; Hut 'petassus'
kadhō cassis ?
miscuis 'odium' 3a2.-hōd 'c., p.'
>hat 'p.'; hædre
'timens'
antkadum
kadō cadō casair sád-
'occidionem'
2b1.-cawdd 'īra'
cadeis
cas <*kadsi- haz, hass 'id' κηδοσ; κεδνοσ ri-śādas- 'de
amnud hatis
kādos caiss 'odium' 'odium' 2b2.- 3a2.-hete 'id' <*keH2dnos forāneo curans'
'inimīcitiae 'odium'
cueth 2b3.-cuez, 3a3.-hatr (Lubotsky) 5.3.-sādra-
causā'
keuz
κεκασµαι
kadros cā(i)d caddos śāś adāna 'excellens'
'excellii'
kaghlā
κα, ας
caulae < 'incipias',
caholae, kahad 2b1.-cae 'saeptum, hag 'urbs'
kaghos cōlum, cōlō, 'capiat' fundus' hac 'saeptum,
-āre; cohum, 3a3.- 2b3.-quae/kae claustrum'
incohō kukēhē(n)s
'occupaverint
'; cehefi

'captus sit'
kaidō caedō khidáti
haihs
cáech 2b1.-coeg 'uacuus' καικιασ 'uentu
kaikos caecus 'monophth. kēkaras 'paetus'
'monophth' 2b2.-cuic 'luscus' s occidentālis'
'
2b1.-coilou
cél (a 'auspic.' 2b2.- hails celъ 'sānus'
kailom caelum 3a3.-heill 'salus'
britonnicō) coel 'harusp.' 'sānus' celjo, celiti 'sānō'
2b3.-chuillioc
καπια σκοροδ
kaipā caepa, cēpa ον in
Cerynēa (Hes.)
káisṛjēs
TOCH A śiśäk,
kaisrom caesariēs kēsara-
В ṣecake ? 'leō'
Cetobricca,
būcētum Kaitobrix 'Setúbal'
heida, Heide
<bū-c-ētum 2b1.-coit, coed haiþi
kaitom 3a2.-hǣþ, heath 5.5.-GIStiyessar ?
(cf. 'silua' 2b2.- 'prātum'
3a3.-heiðr
iuncētum) cuit/coys/cos
2b3.-koat
цегл 'ūnicus'
káiwelos caelebs kévala- 'solus, ūnus' 6.3.-kaivìnti
'exhuaurīre'
κακκαβα, κακ
kákabā cācăbō -aare kúkubha- 'gallus q.'
καβισ
2b1.-cach
caccaim; cacc κακκαω; κακκ
kakkājō cacō, cacca 2b2.-caugh kacken
'cacca'
2b3.-cac'h η 'cacca'
kokotátь
cacillō; cicirrus = gackizōn, gackern κακκαβη/ισ 'p kurkuṭa-, kukkuṭa-
kaklājō
cūcurriō, Messius 3a2.-cocc 'gallus' erdix' ,'gallus' (cf. fr. coq) kokotъ m, kokošъ
f
kákneumi cécht 'potestās, behagen 'decet'; śaknṓti 'potest, 6.3.-kankù, kàkti
597
imperium' hagen 'sementāle' iuuat'; śaktí 'assequor'

<*kankt- / 3a2.-hatch 'alō' 'auxilium' TOK.-A kākmart,
*kenkt- 3a3.-høgr 'decens' 5.3.-sačaiti 'callet' В kamart
5.6.-saxt 'multum'
'dominium'
6.3.-nukašé ti
kakō hager 'tenuis' 5.3.-kasu 'paruus'
'defetiscor'
kaldējō
calliomarcus
'farfara' kaliti 'durēscō
calath, calad
kaldos callus, calleō 2b1.-caled 'dūrus' kíṇa- <*krṇa (incandentis
'dūrus'
caill<kalnāi ferrī)'
'testic.'
1b2.-skalçe-
ta, scalseto 'e κυλιξ; σκαλλι
kalēiks calix, culigna paterā', Schale ον, σκαλισ (Ηε kaláśa-
scalsie 'in σ.)
paterā'
kalgōn
κολυµβοσ 'col
umba';
κολυµβαω kalъ
'nō'' kalaŋka-, kalana-,
columba, 1b2.-kaleruf kalmaṣa- 'macula, 'excrēmentum'
κελ kalína `Viburnum
cālidus, (buf) helm 'macula sordees';
kālis caile 'macula' αινοσ 'āter'; opulus'; kalú-ža
callidus, 'callidos frontālis pecuum' karka- 'albus,
cālīgo (boves) κιλλοσ rociinus' kalú-ga 'palūs'
'asinus' 5.4.-čarma 'rociinus' 6.3.-kalýbas,
κηλισ 'macula' kalývas 'albicollis'
κελιδοω
'mancillō'
kalkis
Kalúvieís, (áti-)kūrva, kurva,
caluus, calua,
kalwos Kalaviis kālvālīkṛta
caluāria
'Calvius' 5.3.-kaurva-
kambos
camm Cambo-dunum σκαµβοσ
2a2.-cam 2b1.-2b2.-cam 'discruris'
2b3.-kamm
cakḗ 'placuit';
kma- 'amor'; 6.3.-kamaros
huora 'meretrix'
Carant-us, hōrs 'lasciuia'
caraim 3a2.-hōre 'id' kāmá yati cru-
kāmi cārus 2b1, b2, b3 caraf <*hōra- 6.4.-kãme^t
carae 'amīcus' 3a3.-hōra-
car 'amīcus' 'adulter' 'amoenus', nicāyya 'esuriō'; kärs
<*hōrōn
'attractīuus' 'expetens'
5.3.-kayā, kāma-
κωµοσ 'multit
hemmen 'obstō' kom 'glomus'
ūdō in festā' 5.4.-kàmel
kamō 3a3.- hemja 6a3.-kamúoti;
'retineō' ; κηµοσ 'cāmus 'exprimere'
kams 'id'
'
καµτω 'flectō'; kupiná 'fascis'
χαµπη 6.3.-kum̃pti
silb 'tribūtum; cf. Cambio- kapan 'uermis'
kampos campus argentum'; dūnum, Cambo-
hamf 'id' hamfs 'flexiō'; καµπη 'flector'; kam̃pas
3a2.-hōf 'id' 'mutilus' 'uermis' kapaṭa- 'acumen'; 'angulus'
cimbe 'convictiō' ritum cāpa- 'arcus'
σκαµβοσ 'flexu 6.4.-kampis 'abies
s' lasiocarpa'
khánati; khā-
'puteus' khá-
kánāmi canālis 'cauitās'
5.3.-kani 'fossum';
xā 'id'
κανδαροσ ανθ
*cando possibile cándati; candráh
kandō candō
in deriuātionibus ραξ 'carbō' 'lūna'
(Hes)
Cassiciate (locus)
Lex Salica:
<*kankstīkā Hengst καγκυλασ κηκ
chengisto
kánkestos 2b1.-caseg 'equus' 'admissārius'
'equus ιδασ Αιολεισ (
2b2.-cassec 'id' 3a2.-hengest 'id' Hes.)
castrātus
2b3.-kezeg (pl.)
sǫkъ 'surculus';
géc/géag 'rāmus' 2b1.-cainc/cangau huohili hōha śankú- ; śākhā
kankus socha 'hamus'
cécht 'arātrum' <*kanku 'aratiuncula'; 'arātrum' 'stīpēs, puntāle'
6.3.-šakà
kanmā cnáim hamma 'poples' κνηµη
599
<*knH2mi- <*konH2meH2 <*knH2meH2

2a3.-cnámh 3a2.-hamm 'id' 'tibia, cubitus'
kanmṇ
canim, cétal, ηικανοσ 'mane
1b2.-kanetu 2b1.-cathl 'cantus' hana
kanō canō, cantus forcital 3a2.-hen 'gallīna' canens
'canitō' 2b3.-kentel 'lectiō' 'gallus'
'disciplīna' (gallus)'
cétad 'sella 2b1.-cant;
rotunda' lloergant
kantos cantus <gall. <kanto-sedo-; 'plēnilunium' κανθοσ <lat. kutъ 'angulus'
cét 'columna' 2b3.-kant
(cf:.cantalon) 'circulus'
capus, capanna, SERB.-
σκεπαρνοσ kopьje 'hasta'
kaplos cappulō, kòpa 'horreum' hā̆bba, happe 'falx'
'ascia' 6.3.-skãplis 'ascia'
concipilō <VEN-I.ILL
huoba, Hufe, κηποσ 'hortus'
ALB: kopshtē
kāpos Hube 4.3.−κα
'hortus'
3a2.-hōba ποσ 'id'
kaprā
caera/caora 3a2.-hæfer
kapros caper, capra caer-iwrch καπροσ 'ursus'
'ouis' 3a3.-hafr
houbit, Haupt
kapúcchala-
caput, cud, cuth, caut 3a2.-hēafod, ΚΡΕΤ: κυφερο
kaput haubiÞ 'caesariēs'; kapāla-
capillus <*kapont- ? hafola 3a3.- ν, κυφην 'craneus'
haufud
καρυον
2b1.-ceri <*carīso-
kareinā carīna
'nucleus fructūs' 'nux', καρυα
'nucis arbos'
harahus 'circulus
lapidum in
karnitu 'erexit,
sepulcrō'
locāuīt'
karkar carcer 3a2.- hearg
2b2.-carn
'sanctuārium'
'sepulcrum'
3a3.-hɔrgr 'id et
agger lapidum'
kárkarjō (h)ruom, Ruhm hrōþeigs καρκαιρω; κηρ carkarti; kīrtí- 6.3.-ap-kerdžiu;

'fāma' 'celeber' υξ 'nuntius' 'fāma'; kārú- kar̃das 'echo'

3a2.-hrōm, hrēð *hrōpjan 'cantor'
3a3.-herma (b?) 'uocō'
'nuntiō' hrōps
'rumor'
karkaṭa- , karka-ḥ;
karkros cancer 3a3.-ræke <>rus? καρκινοσ kaŋkaṭa- =cancer? rakъ <*krakъ
'lorica' <*kaŋkrta-
ukoriti
2b&.-cared `contumeliō';
harawēn; herb
`nequitiae'
'amarus' καρνη, ζηµια ( korъ, '-a'
karnājō carinō caire 'punitiō' 2b2.-caa 'punitiō"
3a2.-hierwan Hes.) 6.3.-kìrinti 'id'
2b3.-carez 'd'
'contemnō' 6.4.-karināt
<*kryā
'deludere'
karōn
huora 'meretrix'
3a2.-hōre 'id' hors <*hōra- 6.4.-kärs
kāros cārus
3a3.-hōra- 'adulter' 'expetens'
<*hōrōn
corrán 'falx' herbist, 'autumn.' καρποσ 'fructu črъpo, čreti 'creō'
carpō, 5.5.-karpina 'arbor
karpō
carpinus
cirrim 'putō' 2b1.-cor 'puncta' 3a2.-hærfest s'; σκορπιοσ q.' '6.3.- kir̃pti 'putō'
corr 'puncta' 'segēs' 'cuspis' 6.4.-šḱērpet 'rādō'
carrac, craice,
karkara-, karkaśa-
creice (craice, 2b1.-carrecc harg 'templum'
kárrēkā 'dūrus'; karaka-
creice); crach 2b2, b3.-carrek 3a2.-hearg 'id'
'grandō'
'raucus'
hart 'dūrus', harto
kaṭu, káṭuka- 'acer';
'multō' καρτεροσ, κρα
hardus krátu- 'uis
kartús 3a2.-heard; hard τεροσ; κρατοσ, 6.3.-kartús 'acer'
'dūrus' spirituālis'
3a3.-harðr;harða καρτοσ 'uis' 5.3.- 5.3.-xratuš 'id'
'id'
2b1.-ceinach haso <*kaswo ξανθοσ ?? 'flāu
kasnos cānus śaśá-
'lepus' 3a2.-hasu us'
kasterlom
kastra castra cathir 'urbs' 1b1.-caer 3a2.-c(h)ester chattra- 'umbella'
601
<lat.
kastrājō
katēsna
catu-rīx śātá yati 'abscidō'
2b1.-cad; cadr hadu, hader śátru- 'inimīcus'
Theuda- κοτοσ ? 'memo
katos cath 'robustus' 3a2.-heaðu- LUW.- kotora, kotera
hatha-s r ira'
2b2.-cas; cadr 'id 3a3.-Hǫðr, 'Mars' kattawatnallis
et pulcher' 'accusātor'
katsājai
1b2.-
caterua, kateramu, 3a2.-heaðor
kotьcь 'cella,
katsājō catēna caterahamo 1b2.-cader 'festa' 'claustrum'
cassis, casa ? `congregami 3a3.-hadda? 'anus' claustrum'
ni'
1b2.-katel hatele 'capra'
NUBIAN kadis, vykot; kotiti
kattā catulus (katles) cadla ? 'tripa' 3a3.-haðna
BERBER kadiska sę 'pariō'
'catulus' 'capella'
kóśa- 'et situlus, 6.3.-káuša-s
caucum;
kaukos uagīna, testiculum, 'icraneus'
cucullus ?
penus, thesaurus' 6.4.-kau^ss 'id'
hohl 'cauus'; kúlyam 'ossis' 6.3.-káulas 'ossis'
cuaille 'pālus' aushl.- ushulōn καυλοσ
kaulis caulis, caulus kuly 'canālis' 6.4.-kaũls 'cal.,
<*kaulīnio- 3a2.-hol(e) 'excauō' 'calamus'
5.5.-kalwis(si)na ? tibia'
'cauus'
hōn, Hohn
κανοσ κακοσ
'uituperium' hauns кунять 'nutō'
kaunós
3a2.-hēan 'humilis' σκληροσ (Hes.
) 6.3.-kàuns 'pudor'
'humilis'
kawdō
TOK. A ko-, В
cuad, i. cogad 5.3.-fra-kušaiti kovǫ, kovati
houwan kau- (inf.
'caedere, hawi 'quatit, interficit' 6.3.-káuju, káuti
kawō cūdō, cōdex 3a2.-hēawan kautsi), fut B
pugnāre' 'fēnum' 5.6.-kuštan 6.4.-nuòkau^t 'q.,
3a3.-hǫggua kowu <*kāw-
(O'Dav. gl.) 'interficere' i.'
'interficiam'
καυαξ (signif. šuka 'psitacus'; cova; kujáti
káwonā
?) kauti 'clamat' 'murmurō'
6.3.-kaũkti
'plangor';
šaükti 'clamō'
hi-c, ce- ekak 'hanc', (ε)κεινοσ sь , sego 'is'
hē, her 'is'; Heute hina 'hunc'. 5.4.- artic.: -s; sa,
ke kā kod eterus; ce- ekík 'hoc'; 6.3.-šì s;šiañ dien
3a2.-hē, he, hie 'is' himma ast 'hic'
(eke ekā dō,sī-c,illī-c; ídí-k 'id' ση/κη−µερον 'id'
ekod)
3a3.-hānn, hōn 'huic'; hita 5.5.-ki 'hic';kinun
tun-c, nun-c; 2b2.-erek 'id' 'hodiē' 6.4.-šù odien
'm;f'' 'nunc' 'nunc'
ecce esmi-k 'huic' <*kyāmerom 'hodiē'
1b2.-çive
hiar, hier;
cis, citer; 'citra' < *kî-
hitu/hita-mum 6.3.-šè,
kei citroo, citraa; uo; çimu, cé, OGH coi koui hēr (ε)κει
'demum' 6.4.-še
citimus s̀imo 'ad
3a2.-hēr
citima, retro'
2b1.-cwyddo, di-
3a2.-hit 'icere'
keidō gwyddo 'cadō,
3a3.-hitta 'id'
accidō'
keimēx
2b1.-(d)argud śete
cūnae, 3a3.-hīð, hīði κειµαι; κοιµαω
keimoi <*are-koito 5.5.-ki-it-ta, ki-it-ta-
cūnābula 'ursārium' 'concubīō'
'somniculum' ri
śyāmá 'color
obscūr'. 6.3.-šemas
keimos cīmex cíarann 'blatta'
5.3.syāmaka 'mons 'caesius'
q.'
hēr 'uetus' háriṇī, hárita 'color
keiros cíar 'spādix' κιρροσ 'fuluus' serъ 'cānus'
3a3.-hārr 'cānus' q.'
kéiwijos
heiwa-
frauja sir 'orbus'
śeva 'cārus'
hīrāt 'dominus' 6.3.-siẽva
keiwis cīuis ceus 5.3.-saē FiO 'orbus
'mātrimonium' hī-rāt 'femina'; seirys
minor'
'nuptiae'; 'uiduus'
geheuer
kaca- 'caesariēs;
kekājō cicātrīx
cicāt.'
603
kekātrīks
scehan 'festīnō';
geschehen accīdō',
do·foscaid, pl. 2b1.-yscogi Hengst κηκιω;
skōhsl
du·foscaiget 'agitāre' 'sementāle' κεκηνασ λαγω skakati, skočiti
kekō 'malus
2b3.-diskogella skihtīg 'timidus'; ουσ 'lepora' 6.3.-šó kti
<to+upo- spiritus'
'id' schicken 'mittō'; (Hes.)
'mouētur, cēdit'
gesciht 'historia';
schiht 'dispositiō'
cicur (-uris, -
kékuros śakura-
um)
Halle
kēlā cella <*kelnā cuile 'cella' śla
3a2.-hall
huljan;
hulundi
cēlō, occulō, helim; cuile 3a1, a2.-helan; 'cauea'; śaraṇá, śárman
'umbrāculum'; kolótь 'instigō'
kēlājō cella, color, kaila 'cellam' 'cella', culīna'; 2b1.-celu hulis Hülse, helm, hullistr καλια 'casa'
clam, cilium cuilche 'tapēte' halla Halle 'cortex'; śla(a) 'cubiculum' 6.3.-kalù, kálti,
hilms
'cassis'
κλαιω ∋ρυµπ
claidim 'fodiō'; 2b1.-claddu 'id' ; holz 'lignum' ;
percellō, ∋; κελεοσ ∋πχ
claideb<cleddyf; cleddyf>gladius halz 'mutilus' halts
keldō procella, α∋; κολαφοσ ∋ kolóda 'tabula'
caill (caille) 2b3.-claza 'id'; 3a2.-holt 'lignum'; 'claudus'
clādēs αλαπα∋ κλαδο
'lūcus' kleze 'ensis' healt 'mutilus'
σ ∋ρµυσ∋
6.5.-czošgac´sie
kelgā celg 'acūmen' 2b1.-celg 'cēlō' <ir. 3a2.-hylc 'curua' 5.4.-kešck 'simulō'
'rēpō'
kéliknom
śárman
kelmos 3a1, a2.-helm
'umbrāculum'
celer, haltan 'teneō' haldan agō, κελλω; κλονοσ
kelō kaláyati 'reor'
celeber<dhli 3a2.-healdan, hold 'pāscō' 'agitātiō'
kélodhros
cail 'tragula',
kēlom 3a3.-hali 'cuspis' κηλον śará-; śalá- 'cuspis' 6.9.-kelian 'tra.'
celtair
helid 'homō';
Held 'hērōs' κελωρ −ωροσ
kelots kālyś ke
3a2.-helith, hæle 'filius'
'id, id'
ante-, ex-,
prae-cellō, - celicnon holm 'insula'; cьlnъ 'cumba'
coll <kolnos κολωνη, κολοφ
kelsō ere; collis, 'cēnāculum' > got. Hügel 'collis' celo 'frons'
culmen,
'dux'
kelikn 3a2.-hyll, hill ων 'cacumen'
6.3.-keliu, ke/lti
columna
kelujō
céle 'comes' <*- κελευθοσ pl kẽlias; ub. keliáuti
kelus 2b1.-cilydd 'id'
yos οι/α 'iter' 6.4.-cel̨š; cel̨uo^t
Κιµµεριοι, ηερ
humil, Himmel 5.5.-kammara-
kémelom himins ι και νεφελη κε
3a2.-heofon 'nebula'
καλυµµενοι
čemerъ
καµ(µ)αροσ
kémeros hemera 'bauhinia' 'delphinium, kamala- 'helleborus'
aconitum' 6.3.-kemerai
'eupatorium'
komár 'culex'
hummen, -ln camara- 'bos
kemjō 6.3.-kìmstu, kìmti
3a2.-hum grunniens'
'rraucescō'
cuma 'cūra' Camulos
kemō καµνω 'fatigor' śamnītē, śámati
cumal 'seruus' 2b1.-caffou 'id'
κεµασ
kemos 3a3.-hind ś́áma-
'ceruulus'
TOK. B kentse
kenēs cinis κονισ 'puluis'
'oxydum'
hāhan, hangēn,
śankate 'cōgitat'
cunctor hengēn 'id' hāhan
kenkai 5.5.-ga-an-ki
<*concitor 3a2.-hōn, 'pendō'
'pendit'
hangian, hang
6.3.-kenkle 'rotula'
3a2.-hōh(-sinu);
kenklom kaŋkāla- 'os, costa' 6.4.-cinksla 'tnd
hēla, heel
rot.'
605
kenkō
5.6.-čang 'ungula,
ail-cheng hāggo Haken kógotь
kenkos pugnus'
'rastrum' 3a2.-haca , hook 6.3.-kénge
5.5.-kaga 'dens'
recens ? vъ-/na-čьną, -čęti
cinim; ciniud,
kenō <*recen(i)en 'incipere'; konъ
cenél 'genus'
ts ?
'initium'
kanthā 'remend
hadara, Hadern
kentom centō κεντρων < lat. uestis' 5.3.-
Hadel 'pannus'
kòtànak 'uestis'
handa; hantag κεντεω 'pungō'
contus, śanti ? 'pax'
2b1.-cethr 'acus' 'acer' 3a3.- handugs ;
percontāri cinteir 'calcar'
kentrom <lat.; b2, b3 <lat. hannarr 'modus, κεντ (minóti-миръ; lat. 6.3.-sīts'pertica'
<gr.; <lat.
quoque 'habilis<acumināt pactus' ρον; κοντοσ pangō)
centrum<gr.
us' 'mālum; pālus'
śápati 'defigit'
5.5.-kappilahh- TOK B.-kapille
kepō
'furō'; 'morbum'
kapilali- 'hostīlis'
cechor 'palūs' >
κοπροσ śákr (śaknáḥ), 6.3.-šikù/kti
keqō cechair 'merda,
'merda' chagaṇa- 'merda' 'cacāre'
lutum'
καρ 'caput'
(Hom.),
καρα, καρηαρ
śírah (śīrsnáh)
καρηνον; κ
cerebrum, 5.3.-sarah-;
2b3.-kern hirni<*ker∂sniyo ρανοσ
ker∂srom cervīx cern 'angulus' srū-, srvā- 'cornū'
'occipitum' m 'craneus'
<*kers-vīk- 5.4.-sar 'tumulus'
κορση 5.5.-karawar
'tempus'
κερασ
'cornū'
kérberos
corbaim Κερβεροσ śárvara- `'uarius' sobolь
'mancillō' 'canis inferum' śárvarī 'animal 6.3.-kìrba 'palūs'
noctis'
2b1.-cordd <dhā
kerdhjos hirti, Hirt haírdeis 6.3.-(s)ker̃džius
'caterua, familia'
kerdhō
κορθυσ čreda 'grex';
herta 'id' śárdha- 'grex'
2b1.-cordd <dhā haírda 'cumulus' črediti 'ordinō'
kerdhos 3a2.-heord, herd 5.3.-sar°đa-
'caterua, familia' 'grex' κορθυνω 6.9.-kērdan
'id' 'indolēs'
'cumulō' 'temp.'
κερδοσ
kerdos cerd 'ars' cerdd 'ars, cantus'
'prouectus'
cracentēs, krśyati ; krśá- krsati,-nouti
3a3.-horr <*hurha 'flaccus' 'tollō' 6.3.-
kerkō gracilis<*k∂r
'flacciditās' karšé ti'sēnēscō'
kwlis 5.3.-k∂r∂sa-
6.4.-nuo-kārst 'id'
kerkos cerc/cearc κερκοσ krakara-, krkaṇa-
črenoví tьcь
2b1.-cern
kernos cern 'angulus' 'mandibula' carvati 'mandō' 'genuīnus d.'
2b3.-kern 6.3.-ceruok(s)lis
'id'
Hornung serën
kernós 'februārius m.' 5.4.-saṙn 6.3.-serstu laiks
3a3.-hjarn 'tempus niuālis'
carrach ? hār; hursti 'cristas' sьrstь 'lāna'
kerom kapucchala- 'c. post'
'grammōsus' 3a2.-hær , hair 6.3.-šerỹ s'iuba'
kersnā
κουρα
corr 2b1.-corr 'tonsūra'
kersō 5.5.-karš-, karšiia-
'atrophiātus' 'atrophiātus' ακερσεκο
µησ 'intonsus'
καρ 'caput' śírah (śīrsnáh)
cervīx (Hom.), 5.3.-sarah-; srū-,
<*kers-vīk-; 2b3.-kern hirni<*ker∂sniyo
kersṛ καρα, καρηαρ srvā- 'cornū'
cerebrum 'occipitum' m 'cerebrum'
<*-srom καρανον; κ 5.4.-sar 'tumulus'
ρανοσ 5.5.-harsar (r/n) h?
607
'craneus' karawar 'cornū'

κορση
'tempus'
κερασ
'cornū'
srъna; koróva
2b1.-carw
(ελαφοσ) κερα( 5.5.-karawar 'bōs'
kerwos ceruus 2b2.-carow hiruz
2b3.-karo F)οσ Hom Γ24 <*krH2w-ṛ 'cornū' 6.3.-sirnas;kárve
'id'
cet 'permissiō'
airchissecht ā-sad- 'assequor'
kesdō cēdō οδοσ 'uia'
'gratia, 5.3.-syazd, sizd
indulgentia'
śsti 'secat,
imperat'; śāstá r-
castus, cáin 'lex, 'castigātor'
kēsmi κεαζω 'scindō'
castigō regulātiō' 5.5.- sāsti 'docet'
5.4.-sastem 'minor'
sast 'minātiō'
2b1.-cennin
cainnenn česnók, чеснок
kesnus 2b2.-kenin
<*kasniinaa 'porrus'
2b3.-kignenn
3a3.- češo, česati 'pectō,
cír<kēsrā κεσκεον <*kés
kesō haddr<*kostos 5.5.-kis(ai)-. 'pectō' abrādō'
'pecten' kesom 'stuppa'
'caesariēs' 6.3.-kasà 'restis'
5.3.-kata 'domus' kotiči 'cauerna,
kētjā heþjo
5.6.-kad 'et id' nīdus'
FAL.-cupa
cubitum; 2b1.-gogof 'specus' huf, Hüfte 'id'; κυβοσ 'taba'
'cubat' SAB.- kubra- 'specus'
keubō cubō -āre; 2b3.-kougoñ 'id' 3a2.-hype 'coxa'; hups 'coxa' κυβ
cumba kakubhá- 'cacumen'
cumbō -ere <upokubā hoop 'anus' ωλον 'cubitus'
'lectica'
schōde 'uagīna' skauda- kuhara 'specus'
κευθω; κευθοσ
cūdō 'pelleus 3a2.-hydan 'cēlō' raip kuhaka 'fallax'
keudhō codal 'pellis' , κευθµων, κευ
cassis' 3a3.-skauð 'Shuhrieme kuhū 'lūna noua'
'uagīna' n, uitta θµοσ 'latebrae' 5.3.-xaōda 'cassis'

calcei' 5.4.-suzanem
'mergō' *-dhs-
hauhs
hoger, Höcker kucáti, kuñcatē kúka 'pugnus';
'altus';
'gibba' Hûgel 'flectitur'; kuca čúčati 'curuor';
cúar 'curuus' hiuhma
keukō 'tumulus', hōh, 'sinus' kúča 'cumulus'
<*kukro- 'cumulus';
hoch 'altus' kuñcikā 'clāuis' 6.3.-kaũkas
hūhjan
3a2.-hēah, hight 5.6.-kōž 'curuus' tumor'
'cumulō'
κυλα τα υποκ
3a2.-hwylca ατω των βλεφα 5.4.-soil 'cauitās'
keulom
'suppurātiō' ρων κοιλωµατ <*keulo-
α (Hes)
hūren <*hūrjan
keusō 5.5.-kussaniya-
3a2.-hyrian, hire
kēwējō cēveō po-kyva-jo 'nutō'
kákhati 'ridet'
khákhatno cachinnnus; kachazzen 'rideō'; chochotati 'ridēre'
s καχαζω 'rideō' 5.3.-xaxank
cachinnō 3a2.-ceahhettan 6.3.-kiknóti 'id'
5.5.-hahhars
chomotъ 'monīle
khamos hāmus χαµοσ 'tortus'
(equī)'
κισσοσ, κισσα khadirá 'acacia
khéderos hedera
ροσ catechu'
sigátь, signútь
3a2.-hīgian, hie
kighrós śīghrá- 'celer' 'saliō' sig 'piscis
'festīnāre'
q., cf. salmō'
κριοσ;
kikēr cicer ΜΑΚ κικε 5.4.-sisern 6.3.-keke
ρροι
kkeumi
hehara, Häher
kikjā 3a2.-higora, κισσα, κιττα kiki-, kikidīví-
higore
kiklēskō
kiklós 3a3.-hēla śiśira- slana 'pruina'
609
<*hiḫhlōn- 5.3.-sar∂ta- 6.3.-šąlù, -lti

'pruina' 3a5.-hal 5.4.-sard 'gelō'; šá ltas'f.',
'solum gel.' šalnà 'pr.'
cicōnia , huon, Huhn
kánja, kanjúk
kíkōnjā PREN.- 'gallus'; Henne hana
'miluus'
cōnea 'gallīna'
2b1.-cig 'carō'
kīkus cích 'tetta' 2b2.-chic κικυσ 'uis'
2b3.-kik
cen (-alpande)
hin 'ueni
kina 'cis-(alpīnus); hina, hin 'procul'
hunc'
sine'
cingō, kinkaũ, -ýti
kingō 1b2.-shihitu κιγκλισ 'crates' kañcaté 'iungit'
cancellus 'equum iungō'
hindana
Cintugnātos hintana, hintar
'retroo',
kintos cétne 'priimus' 'primogenitus' 3a2.-hindan
hindar,
2b1.-kyntaf 'id' 3a3.-handan 'hinc'
hindumists
cippus, śḗp(h)a 'cauda,
kippos σκιπων
scīpiō pēnis'
kirknos
1b2.-
κιρκοσ, κικρο
circus, kurclasiu kŕkā(ṭa-) 'collii
kirkos σ, κιρσοσ, κρι
circum, circā 'circulāriō artus'?
mēnsi' σσοσ
6.3.-kiškà 'poples'
3a5.-hijse, hijs
kiskā kiṣku- 'lacertus' 6.4.-cis-ka 'coxa,
'poplites'
lumbus'
cista,
kistā cess 'contortus' κιστη
cisterna
citer(ius); hitumum,
kíteros
citimus hitamun 'demum'
hietz(t), jetzt
kitōd citō 'nunc' hiu-
tu 'hodie'
kitrōd citrō; citra 3a2.-hider; hither hidrē
céo (cīach) 3a2.-hiew, hue sivъ 'gris'

hiwi śyā-vá- 'obscūrus'
kiwos <*kiwoks 3a3.-hy 'color 6.3.-šý vas
'speciēs' 5.3.-syāva- `'ater'
'nebula' pellis' 'pallidus'
cieō, ciō,
citō, heizan, heissen 'id' κιω, κινεω, κιν cyávatē; cyuti-
haitan
kjējō cunctus<kó 3a2.-hātan 'id' υµαι; σευω 5.3.-š(y)avaite
'nominor'
mkito, 3a3.-heita 'agitō' <*kye-w 5.4.-č̣ u'profectiō'
sollicitus
coll; 2b1.-coll hiltia, hilta 'pugna'
klādis clādēs kladivo 'malleus'
cellach 'bellum" 2b3.-koll 3a2.-hild 'id'
kladjos
klagjō
hlamōn 'strepō'
klāmājō clāmō, āre 3a2.-(h)limmen krándati 'strepit'
'id'
3a2.-laemp(i)-halt
6.3.-klumbas
klambós 'claudus';limp κλαµβοσ
'paralyticus'
'claudic'
kladǫ, klasti
hladan, laden
6.3.-klóju, klóti
'grauō' afhlaþan
'sternō'; ùžklodas
klāmi 3a2.-hladan, load 'ingrauō,
'stragulum'
'id' exaggerō'
6.4.-kla^ju, kla^t
3a3.-hlaða
'id'
2b1-b2.-claf
clam/clamh κλαµαροσ
klamrós 'aeger' 2b3.- klāmati 'languet'
'leprōsus' 'dēbilis'
claff
2b1.-clawr κληροσ 'et
klāros clár
2b3.-kleur portiō'
2b1.-coll
coll<koldos
klaudos claudus 2b2.-collet halts
'perditus'
2b3.-koll
sliozan, slūten,
klawdō claudō κλειω
schlieBen
klawos
611
sluzzil Schlüssel ključь

2b3.-clou κληισ (κληιδο
klāws clāuis cló (cloi) 'clāuus' SchloB 'castellum' 6.3.-kliūvù, kliū́ti
'ferrement' σ)
3a2.-slutil 'serere'
klawstós
caill 'silua' 2b1.-celli 'lūcus' holz 'et lignum' CEC et al..-klanec
kḷdis callis
Caledonia 2b2.-kelli 3a2, a3.-holt 'id' -ln- 'angiportus'
γλεινον
Lehne, Lein-baum klënъ
kleinos MAK.-
3a2.-hlyn 6.3.-klevas
κλινοτροχον
3a2, 3a2.-lid
κλισια, κλισιο 6.3.-pasklieti
kleitis cliath 'et cratis' 'cilium'
ν 'pandō'
3a3.-led, lid 'id'
2b1.-clyd <kḷtó śarád- 'autumnus' 6.3.-šilù, šì lti
kḷējō caleō
'calidus' LID.-Sardis 'annus' 'incalescere';šil̃ tas
2b2.-karitu,
calō, -āre; hlōwan 'rugīre, kólokolъ
karetu, caliācī 'id' καλεω; ηικαν uṣā-kala- 'gallus'
concilium, boāre'; hell 'campāna' 6.3.-
kḷējō carsitu cailech 'gallus' 2b1.-ceiliog οσ; κικλησκω 5.5.-ša-ra-a kal-li-iš-
nomenclātor, 'clārus'; Hall kalbà 'lingua'
`calato' 2b2.-chelioc 'inuocō' ta 'appellāuit'
classis 'echo' 6.4.-kaluot 'garriō'
*kalētōd
cluain<klopni
klepō clepō hlefan hlifan κλεπω
'dolum'
ro·cluinethar
εκλυον
Kluvatiis 'audit' <*kluni- 2b1.-clywaf, pf.
clueō, 'audīuīi'; κλεω śṛṇṓti <*kḷ-neu, pf.
'Clovatius' /*klunu-, cigleu 2b2.- 6.4.-sludinat
kleumi inclitus, , −οµαι, śuśrāva;
1b2.-Kluviier ro·cuala clewaf 2b3.- 'praeconāre'
gloria ep. κλειω karṇa- 'auris'
'Cluvii' kleuout 'audiō'
<*kuklowa 'laudō'
'audīuī'
kleumṇ hliuma 5.3.-sraōman
kléumṇto
hliumunt śrōmata-
m
hlosēn śrṓṣati; śrúṣti-
cluas, clúas 3a2.-hlystan, 'indulgentia' 6.3.-klausýti
kleusō clūst 'audītus'
'auris' <kloustā listen 'au.' 5.3.-sraoša- 'audiō'
3a3.-hlust 'audiitus'

'audītus'
kleustis
kleutis 5.3.-srū̆ti-
hliozan hlauts
kĺũt 'adipiscor'
kleutō 3a2.-hlēotan 'distribūtiō,
kĺũtas 'fātum'
3a3.-hljōta heredentia'
śrōtra- 'auris'
hliodar 'cantus'
kleutrom 5.3.-sraoqra-
3a2.-hlēodhor
'cantiō'
hlūt(t)ar, lauter slezá 'lacrimae'
2b1.-clir 'clārus' 'id' 3a2.- hlūtrs κλυζω; κλυδω <*kel
klewō cluō (arc.)
<*klū-ro-s hlūt(t)or 'clārus ν 'unda' 6.3.-šlú oti
3a3.-hlér ` 'mare' 'uerrere'
klewos clú (clóe, clue) κλε(F)οσ śrávas slovo
klínāmi
2b1.-claear
'abnuens'
slava
klisrós 2b2.-clo(u)r χλιαροσ
6.3.-šlovë
'gentilis' 2b3.-
klouar
culter; 2b1.-hollt 'scisiō'
κλαω; σκαλλ kalā 'pars'; klpate koljo klati
kḷjō calamitās sce(i)llec 'rupēs' 2b2.-felza halts 'claudus'
incolumis 2b3.-faouta ω 'fodiō' 'decet' 6.3.-kalù 'quatiō'
kḷneumi
lahhēn, lachen klegъtati, kliknuti
2b1.-cloch hlahjan
klṇgō clangō clocc 'campāna' 'rideō' κλαζω 6.3.-klagéti
'campāna' 'rideō'
3a3.-hlakka 6.4.-klẽga^t
hlei-duma
clé 'laiuus'; fo- 'laeuus'
clīuus, clīnō, 1b2.-kletram śráyati 'sustinet' slojь 'iacimentum'
cla 'boreae'; 2b1.-cledd (h)linēn 'clīnō' hlaiw
kloiwos acclīnis, 'feretrum, κλινω 'clīnō' 5.3.-srita- 6.3.-šliejù, šliẽ ti
kloín <*kloinos 2b3.-kleiz hlēo 'sepulcrum' 'sepulcrum'
cliēns lecticam' 'sustentus' 6.4.-sleju, slìet
'arduus' ; hlaine
'collium'
6.3.-šlampù, šlapti
klopnis cluain
'madēscō'
613
6.4.-slapẽt 'id'
śrōni-s
klounis clūnis 2v1.-clùn 3a3.-hlaunr κλονισ (div.) 6.3.-shlaunìs
5.3.-sraonish
2b1.-celwrn
calpar<āli καλπη, καλπισ
kḷpros cilornn 'urceus' 'situlus' 2b3.-
<gr. 'urna'
celorn
kḷtos 2b1.-clyd 6.3.-šil̃ tas
hlūt, laut <*klūtós
inclutus, cloth 'gloria, 'intonans' śrutá- 5.3.-
klūtós 2b1.-clod 'laus' κλυτοσ
inclitus fāma' 3a2.-hlūd srūta- 5.4.-lu
'strepitōsus'
kluwējō
calumnia,
κηλεω
calvor, huolen 'fallō' hōlōn,
kḷwijō 'incantō'; κολα
calviō, 3a2.-hōlian afhōlōn
cavillor, ξ 'laudātor'
cuma 'cūra' καµνω, εκαµο śamnītē, śámati,
kmāmi 2b3.-caffou 'id
cumal 'ancilla' ν śamyati 'laborō'
cammarus καµµαροσ 'ca
kṃertos Hummer kamaṭha- 'testūdō'
<gr. mm.'
κµελεθρον
kmárati 'aduncus
'tectus'
kṃros camur est' 5.3.-
καµαρ
kamarā 'cinctus'
α 'boueda'
kṃti και ? 'et'
hundert
2b1.-cant śatám
3a2.-hund-rað hund, pl. sъto
kṃtom centum cét/céad 2b2.-cans ε−κατον
(got. raÞian hunda 5.3.-s∂tem 6.3.-simtas
2b3.-cans
'computō'
honang, Honig κνηκοσ
canach ? 'herba caneco-sedlon kāñ cana- 'aurum,
knakos canicae 'melle' 4.3.-
palūdis' 'aureum solium' ? aureum'
3a2.-hunig, honey κνακοσ
cain 'pulcher'; Cintu-gnatus hintana, hintar kaniṣṭha- na-čьnǫ, -četi
hindumists
kṇjós recens cinim 'scateō' 2b1.-cein 3a2.-hindan καινοσ 'nouus' 'iuuenissimus'; 'incipiō' ;konъ
'postrēmus'
cano/a 'catulus' 'pulcher'; cenau 3a3.-handan 'hinc' kanna 'iuuenis, 'initium'; cędo

<*kenǝu̯ō; cét 'catulus' cynt pulcher' 'puer'; ščenó k

'prīmus' 'prius' 2b2.- 5.4.-skund <*skentā 'catulus'
kyns 'id' 'catulus'
2b3.-quen; kent
'id'
hahsa 3a2.-
kṇksos cesail 'axilla'
hóh 'unguis'
genicke, Genick
3a2.-nook
cnocc/cnoc 2b1.-cnwch 'artus'
knokos 'angulus'
'collis' 2b3.-cnoch
3a6.-hnakki
'collus'
knouks
śaṁsati 'dēcantat'
censamur śamsáyati
alb. thom
'censētor', 'proclamat';
kṇsējō censeō 'dīcō' setъ 'inquit'
censaum śámsa- 'uōtum';
*kēnsmi
'censēre' 5.3.- sah-
'pronuntiāre'
keenzstur,
kṇstṓr censor śaṁstar-
kenzsur
cnú (cnó)
2b1.-cneuen (h)nuz , nuss
knuwā nux <*knus
2b3.-knoen 3a2.-hnutu, nut
(knuwos)
3a2.- gehæp
'adaequātus'; kobь 'fortūna,
kobom cob 'uictoria' Vercobius, etc
heppen 'beātus'; augurium'
happen, happy
kadrú- 'fuluus' kažy, kadit;
kodējō
κεδροσ kadamba- 'nauc. accodis 'camīnus'
'cedrus' cadamba' kadegis 'iuniperus'
ALB.-kem 6.3.-kadagỹs 'id'
2b1.-coilou
celъ 'sānus'
cél (a 'auspic.' 2b2.- hails
koilús 3a3.-heill 'salus' celjo, celiti 'sānō'
britonnicō) coel 'harusp.' 'sānus'
2b3.-chuillioc 6.3.-kails
615
kóilutāts
koimā
2b1.-cu heim 'domus' kaimas 'pagus';
2b2.-cuf 3a2.-hām, home haims κοιµαω 'concu semьja 'familia'
koimos cóim
2b3.-cum 3a3.-heimr 'pagus' bō' 6.4.-sàime
(nominib.) 'mundus' 'familia'
κοινα χορτοσ ( ceno, се́но
koinos 5.4.-khot
Hsq) 6.3.-śiẽnas
cūra, arc.
coirauit ushaista
1b2.- kuratu
koisā PAL. 'obligātoriu
'curato'
coisatens m'
'cūrāuērunt'
heit 'modus' haidus ketu 'clāritās, forma,
koitús 3a2.-hād, haēd, 'modus, intellectus'; ceta,
heed 'id' ars' cetana 'signum'
hahsa, hāhsina kákṣā f., kakṣa-
koksā coxa coss 'pēs, crūs'
'cauitās poplitea' 'latebra, recessus'
2b1.-colwyn
σκυλαξ <∗σκ7 ALB.-këlüsh 6.3.-kãlė, kalė̃
kolignos cuilén 'catulus' 2b2.-coloin
2b3.-kolen − ∋χατυλυσ∋ 'catulus' 'canis femina'
κολλα <kolyā klějь, klejь 'glūs'

koljō 3a5.-helen
'glūs' 6.3.-klejaĩ 'id'
kolmṇ
giolcach 2b1.-calamennou slama
καλαµοσ
kolmos culmus 'phragmitēs 2b2.-cala 'palea' halm kaláma- 6.2.-soloma
'iuncus'
austrālis' 2b3.-colouenn 6.4.-salms
collis <*kḷnis kūṭ a-m <kḷlt
hull 6.3.-kalnas 'mons',
/ *kolnis / coll 'caput, dux' hallus κολωνοσ, κολ 'prominentia,
kolnis 3a2.-hyll, hill kalnelis 'collis';
etiam <*kolnos
3a3.-hvall, hallr
'rupēs' ωνη ' cumulus,
kalvà
kolHwi-? occipitium'
2b1.-celyn 'id' hulis, Hulst, klasъ 'tarātrum',
cuilenn 'ilex uel
kolnom 2b2.-kelin 'id' Hallig 'quercus kaṭambá kólos 'palea,
echium ūlgāre'
2b3.-quelenn 'id' ilex' 3a2.- calamus'
. hole(g)n, holly,
holm-oak
coll, goll 'luscus, κελλασ µονοφ kāṇ á-ḥ 'forātus,
kolnos
caecus' θαλµοσ (Hes.) unioculis'
Hals
kolsos collum coll 'caput' hals πολοσ 'axis'
3a2.-heals
kólumbhos
2b1.-cant/gan (-
cum, contra, mt-) 2b2.- κατα
kom cét- ga- 5.5.-katta <*k°mta
controuersia cans/gans 2b3.-
gant
samāja-ḥ 'et
kómāglom coāgulum
societās'
kómjougos coniux cuing 'iugum' 2b1.-kyn-iwng союз
komjugs
kómmoini commūnis, múínikad commaín:'dōnu CELTIB.-comaiam gimeini, gemein
gamains
s comoinem 'commūni' m obligātum' ? (Cab. Fraguas) 3a2.-gemæne
kommoinit
ts
comono
'comitia' samain, samonios 'nōmen
1b2.-kumne samhain ?? mensis' 'aestiuālis' samana-
komnom
'in com.'; 'comitium uel (cf. gimonios) uel <*sem+no
kumnahkle fīnis aetatis' 'comitiālis'
'in conuentū'
kómnōmṇ
kómopjom
kōmos
kómplēnos complētus comlán, conlán sampūrṇ a
3a3.-skars(a)
τερασ saṃ-skar-; ā-ścarya-
kómsqṛtos 'gigas';
'prodigium' 'singulāris'
skyrse 'spectrum'
kómtḷtis
komtrōd
kómwoirjo
617
m
kómwoisti cubus <wid+tu,
s συνειδησισ совесть
2a3.-cogais
2b1.-digon(i) εγκονεω
'faciō, possum'; 'diligenter
kōnājai cōnor
digon, gogawn agere'; εγκονι
'satis' σ 'ancilla'
κεγκει πεινα
hungar, hunger 6.3.-keñkti
hūhrus (Hes) kāŋkṣati 'poscit'
konkējō 'id" 3a2.- 'noceō'
'famēs' πολυ kákatē 'sitit'
hungor/er 'id' kankà 'damnum'
κογκησ (Hom)
cong(u)ius κογχ(λ)οσ; κογ
konkhā śaŋkhá- 6.4.-sence (z-?)
<graec. χη
3a2.-hān
śāṇ a- 'cōs'
'miliārium'; hone
kōnos κωνοσ 5.3.-saēni- 'cuspis'
'cōs' 3a3.-
5.4.-san 'cōs'
hein 'cōs'
huof, Huf śaphá-
kophos kopyto
3a2.-hōf, hoof 5.3.-safa
kopnos cuan 3a3.-hofn
kóqros
carbat Carpentum,
koróba 'cista'
koreibs corbis 'carpentum, Carbantia
6.3.-kar̃bas
mandibula (sic)' Karbantorigon
carius
κορισ (−ιοσ/ιδ
koris gl.tinea; ко́рь 'aphis'
rum. cariu οσ) 'cimex'
korjom
Tri-, Petru-corii
heri, Heer
2b1.-cordd
cuire 'copiae, 3a2.-here 6.3.-kãrias;
korjos 'tribus', pl. harjis κοιρανοσ 'dux' 5.6.-kāra-
plēbēs' herr; herjann kãras 'bellum'
corddau
(koir)
<*koriowes
horg 'immundus'
korkos corcach kalka- 'merda'
<*kṛkwo-

haran, Harn 6.3.-šá rmas

kormnos
'urīna' 6.4.-sãrms
6.3.-šarmuõ,
RETROM-
kormōn harmo šermuõ
carmún
6.4.-sermulis
5.3.-fšar°ma-
har(a)m, Harm
kormos 'pudor' sramъ 'pudor'
3a2.-hearm, harm
5.6.-šarm 'id'
kornīks cornīx, κορωνη śāri-, sārikā 'auis q.'
čeremucha
κρανοσ, κερασ 6.3.-Kirnis `deus
kornos cornus
οσ cerasōrum';
šermù kšle 'sorbus'
harra 'saccus"
curach 'pellis κωρυκοσ 'corii
kṓrukos corium 2b1.-corwg 3a3.-horr 'uestis
scaphus' saccus'
linea'
soroka
coruus,
korwos crú 3a3.-skryla 'clamō' κοραξ śāri-, sārikā 'auis q.' 6.3.-kriunù
cornīx
'grunniō'
2b1.-coll-en
2b2.-col-widen
kósolos corilus coll hasal
2b3.-limn-collin
'tilia'
kostā costa kôst 'costa' ? kostь 'ossum'
koubos hups 'coxa' κυβοσ
κυπη τρωγλη
(Hes)
3a2.-hyf 'exāmen' kū́pa- 'specus' 6.7.-kep 'uulua'
koupā cūpa κυπελλον, κυπ
3a3.-hūfr 'carīna' 5.5.-huppar ! <*kъpъ
ροσ; κυψελη
'fauum'
Haufen; hof 5.3.-kaofa- 'gibba' kupъ, kuprъ
'atrium' 5.6.-kaufa- 'mons' 'coxis' 6.3.-
koupnā cúan
3a2.-heap; hof kaũpas
ALB.-kjip
'templum' 6.4.-kupenis
619
'floccus niuis'
koutā
cauus, cauea, cúa 'cauus' 2b1.-cyw 'pullus' κοιλοσ <κοFιλ ALB.-thelë
kowos
cauerna cúass 'cauerna' 2b3.-keo 'specus' οσ 'cauus' 'profundus'
κυαρ 'cauitās'; 5.3.-sūra- 'lacūna'
6.4.-šava 'cauitās
kowṛ cauerna κωοσ 'antrum, 5.4.-sor 'ōrificium' in arbore'
carcer' 5.6.-sūrāx 'id'
(h)ruoren, rühren κιρναω, κιρνη
krāmi
'agitō' µι (i schwa śrīṇti; śryati
3a2.-hrōr, rear secundum), κε 'coquit'
'sēmicoctus' ραννυµι
cras śvaḥ
krasi
<*kwrasi 5.3.-sūr∂m 'māne'
sъrъšenь
hurnūz, hornaz
krāsrōn crābrō 2b1.-creyryn 6.3.- šì ršuonas
3a2.-hyrnet(u)
6.4.-sirsis
καρταλ(λ)οσ,
crātis , crātēs
hurd, Hürde κυρτοσ, κυρτι krutítь 'torqueō'
dentatae, ceirtle 'glēba'; haúrds krṇátti 'net'
krātis
crātiō, cert 'parua rēs'
'porticulus'
'forēs' α 'cista'; kaṭa- 'textus' 6.3.-krañtas
3a2.-hurth, hyrd κροτωνη 'arduum litus'
cartilāgo
'gemma'
krtsná-
kratsos crassus črьstvъ 'firmus'
'compleetus'
kṛdḗn
kṛdhōn
hṛdayam, hārdi
5.3.-z∂r∂daēm
2b1.-craidd srьdь, srъdьce,
cor (pl. cride, croidhe, haírto καρδια, κηρ 5.4.-sirt <*kērd-
kṛdi / 'centre' 2b2.- herza
kṛdjom
corda) croí <*kradjo- (hairtins) κραδι (instr. srti-w) сердце <*sьrdьko
cres, creys 3a2.-heorte
<*kord/*kṛd <*kṛdjo- <kerdōn η (Hom.) 5.5.-kir/kardi-/
2b3.-kreiz, kreis 6.3.-širdìs
karta- /ka-ra-az
5.6.-dil
kṛdijai 5.4.-sart-num serdít'cja

5.5.-kartimmiyatt ALB.-zëmëronem
'īra' 'īra'
2b1.-cerddaf 'id' κραδαω; κορ
ceird 'gradus'; Scherz 'burlesca'
go-gerdd δαξ ∋τρεπυδι 6.3.-pakìrsti
kṛdjō cardō fo-cerdaim 3a2.-heorr(a) 'id' kūrdati 'saltat'
'burlesca' 2b3.- τι∋ κραδη 'obdormiscor'
'iaciō' 3a3.-hjarri 'cardō'
credam 'vadō' ∋ρµυσ∋
cris(s) 'capitium' čé res, че́рес,
2b1.-crys, gwregys
2a3.-crios
kṛdsus 2b2.-kreis, grugis че́рез *kertso-
fochrus/as
2b3.-krez, gouriz
'gremium' 'capitium'
crēdō
śrad-daddhāmi
kréddhēmi (perf. cretim
śraddhā 'fidēs'
crēdidī)
2b1.-cruitr
2b2.-
3a2.-hridder,
kreidhrom crībrum criathar croider/krodar
hriddel
2b3.-
croezr/krouer
kreimṇ
(h)rīdōn; scrītan, 6.3.-skriečiù,
cressaim -st-;
2b1.-(ys)gryd, 'id' schreiten 'uadō' skriẽsti 'torqueō'
kreitsō crīsō, -āre crith 'tremor,
2b3.-skrija 'tremō' 3a2.-hrissan; 6.4.-skritulis
febris'
hrīþ 'tempestās' 'rota'
hregil 'uestis' κρεκω; κροκη,
kresátь 'ignem qt.'
krekō
3a2.-hrægl, rail κροξ 'textus';
'id'; hrēol, reel κροκυσ 'ueller 6.3.-krekls
'bobīna' a' 'camisia'
kurjo, kuriti
cremō, carbō korma, kourmi kūḍ ayāti, kuṇḍate
1b2.- herd 'furnus' haúri 'fūmō' 6.3.-
kremājō (!); cremōr, coirm 'ceruisia' 2b1.-cwrwf karam-b(h)á-
krematra 3a2.-herth 'carbō' kuriù, kùrti
cremia 2b2.-coref, coruf 'ceruisia'
'calefaciō'
Cerēs; Cerus κοροσ śārīra 'corpus' korm, корм
manus; cf. coirm, cuirm hirso/i Hirse 'satisfactiō'; 5.4.-serem creō; 'cibus'
krēmi kerri 'Cererī'
procērus; 'ceruisia' 'sorgum' κουροσ 'exolē serim 'nāscor'; ser 6.3.-šeriù, šé rti
crēber<krēd tus'; κελωρ 'fili 'prolēs' 'alō' (cf. esp.
621
hros; creō, us' 5.5.-kar(a)š crear/criar)

crēscō 'grānum'
kremom
3a2.-hramse 'sil. κροµυον 6.3.-kermùse(s)
krémusom crim 'alius' craf 'alius'
a'. 'caepa' 'a.'
1b2.-ingatro, krągъ 'circulus';
hring; Runge
krenkatrum,
krenghos 'pālus' krogъ, krugъ
krikatru
3a2.-hring; hrung
`cinctum' 'rotundus'
2b1.-craith
6.3.-krenkù
krenktis crécht 'uulnus' 'cicātrix' 2b3.-
'coagulor'
creithi 'ulcera'
kŕpatē 'lamentor'; kropotátь
hraban, Rabe
crepō, krpā 'misericordia' 'grunniō'
krépāmi 'coruus'
crepundia 5.6.-särfāk 6.3.-krēpēt
3a2.-hræfn 'id'
'strepitus' 'maculor'
crip, crib rapp 'rapidus'
krepō
'rapidus' 3a3.-hrapa
krókva 'fulcrum,
ragen 'ascendō'
2b1.-crib κροσσαι tegnum'
krēqā crích 3a2.ofer-hrægan
'cacumen' 'lapides mūrī' 6.3.-krãke
'superō'
'baculus'
krēskō
2b1.-pridd
krētā crēta cré 2b2.-pry/prī
2b3.-pri
črъtu, čresti; črъta
corium; herdo 'uellus' ; kṛntati 'scindit', kṛtā
'scisūra 6.3.-
scortum, skrindan 'findor' 'scisūra'
kretō kertù kir̃sti 'tundō'
cortex, 3a2.-herðan 5.5.-kariya- 'tegō';
6.4.-cḕ rtu, cìrst
curtus 'testiculī' kartāi- 'scindere'
'id'
hrukjan
κραυγη
kreugō Gerücht 'rumor' 'canō - krośa -*k- 'uocātiō' 6.3.-kraũkti 'cn. c.'
'clamor'
coruī'
kreuks crux crūach 2b1;-crug 'cippus, (h)rukki `Rücken' 6.3.-kriáuklas

'cacumen' tumulus', 'tergum' 'costa'

2b2,3.-cruc 3a2.-hrycg 'id'; 6.4.-kruknet
'tumulus' rick 'crucitus sedeere'
kryti 'tegō'; krovъ
cráu, cró 2b1.-craw 'id' 3a3.-hreysi, hraun 'tc'
kreumi
'stabulum, casa' 2b2.-crow 'cumulus' 6.3.-kráuti
'cumulō'
crupellarii
крупа́ 'grānum'
'gladiatores'
riob 'leprōsus' ; 6.3.-kraupù-
Mons graupios
ruf 'pustula'; 'rudis' 6.4.-
kreupō 2b1.- crawen
gerob>grob kr̨aũpis 'scabiēs'
<*kreuhanā
3a2.-hrēof 'id.' TOK A kärpi, B
'crusta' 2b3.-
krevenn 'id' kärpiye 'rudis'
rütten, rütteln
3a2.-rudder/le
'cōlu' hrēaðemūs
6.3.-krutǫ, krudeti
kreutō 'strix'; hrēod
(pas.)
'phragmites'
3a3.-hraustr
'subitu'
(h)riuwan κρουω 'quatiō' sъ-krušiti
'affligere'
(aor. 'rumpere'
krēwō bereuen karunā 'piētās'
'lamentor' 3a2.- pas. εκρουσθη 6.3.-krušù, krùšti
hrēowan, reu ν) 'fligō'
3a3.-hrīka, hrikta
'ringor';skrīka κριγη 'rictus'
krigā 2b1.-cre, dychre 'clamō' κριζω skrъgati 'ringor'
3a2.-scrīc (Hes.)
'interfector'
krinu, krojú,
2b1.-gwa-gr
krinō crinō 2b3.-gourner κρινω 'separō' krojítь, krinuti;
'cribrum' krajь 'margō'
623
Crix(s)us
Rispe 'pāniculum;
kripsos crispus 2b1.-crych
fascis'
2b3.-crech
krisnis
kristā
rīsta 'fascis' af-, us- 6.9.-craysi
kristājō crīnis, crista cressaim
3a2.-hrissan ` hrisjan 'calamus'
kritis
kṛjēs
kṛklos
κεραιζω śrṇti 'rumpit,
cariēs, ar-a-chrin
'decadit' , praet. 'ruinō' frangit' aor.
kṛnāmi cariōsus,
κηρ aśarīt 5.3.-
carius do·cer
'lētum' asar∂ta 'intactus'
kṛnos crín 'uiētus' śirṇa-
καρνον, −υξ 'salpi
κραγγων
nx' 2b1.-carn haúrn
congna(e) 'cammarus';
kṛnu cornū 'manubrium' horn RUN.- śṛ́ṅga- <*k̂ṛ-n-go-
<*korngniyo-?
horna κερασ <kerH2-
2b2.-ewin-carn
s
2b3.-karn
krōbhtus crábud creddyf, crefydd shrambhate 'fīdō'
κοραξ kerekoríty;
crociō; corūs, 1b2.-curnāco crāin (crāna)
krokijō 'coruus'; κρωζ karaṭa- 'coruus'
cornīx 'cornicem' 'porcus' krъknoti 'clamō'
ω, κραζω
1a1.-crocina 1b1.-croen 'pellis'
kroknos crocann 'pellis' kruzno 'mastruca'
'mastruca' croinoc 'rubeta'
hrad, hrat 'uelox';
krečiù, kresti; -
redan 'cernō';
ataũ/-ýti;
krotjājō crothaim retten 'liberō'
kretù/éti
3a2.-rather
6.4.krèst
'potius'
5.4.-srun-k` (pl).
krous crūs (crūris) (srvanc̣, sruni-c̣)
<krūsni

krowos
cráu, cró 2b1.-craw 'id' krovъ, кровъ
'stabulum, casa' 2b2.-crow 'tectus'
krъpa 'textūra,
2b1.-crydd
cairem 'sūtor' calceus' 6.3.-
kṛpjos carpisculum 2b2.-chereor κρηπισ
<*karpimon- kùrpė 6.4.-
2b3.-kere, kereour
kur̃pe
k∂rpā 'forma'
(h)reef
πραπισ = θορα 5.3.- k∂r∂fš,
kṛpos corpus crī <k∂rpes 3a2.-hrif
(diaphr.), midriff ξ
k∂hrp∂m 'forma,
corpus'
korósta 'mola'
car(r)ō,
6.3.-karšiù, kar̃šti
carreō scharren 'rādō';
kṛsējō kaṣati 'terit' 'pectinō, cardō'
carduus<car harsch 'raucus'
6.4.-kā̀ ršu,kā̀ rst
ridus
'id'
črьnъ, čerenъ
3a2.-heardra- 'id'
kṛsnos 3a3.-harr krṣṇá- 6.3.-kéršas
'thymallus' 'uirgātu.'; kiršlỹ s
thymallus'
hurren 'festīnō' επικουροσ ?? '
kṛsō currō car 'currus' carros 'currus'
3a2.-horse 'equus' succursor'
kṛstus
currus 2b1.-car
kṛsus carr 3a2.-hors
1a1.-carrus 2b3.-karr
(h)roso,
(h)rosa 5.5.-kursa/i- 'pellis'
κρυοσ 'frigus'; *krъxā, *krъšītī
'gelu, TOK.-A krośśäṃ
krustā crusta κρυσταλλοσ (acc.sg.), B krośće 6.3.-krušà
crusta'
3a2.-hruse 'gelu' 'frigidus' 'grandō'
'solum'
crott, cruit 6.3.-krūtì s 'sinus'
2b1.-crwth 'uiola,
krūtis 'harpa, fidēs, 6.4.-krùts 'id et
gibba'
gibba' collis'
625
2b1.-creu kravíh 'carō crūda' krьvъ

kruwós cruor crú hrō κρεασ 'carō'
2b2.-crow 5.3.-xrū- 6.3.-kraũjas
2b1.-cor-wynt,
curuus; cor 'circulus'; κυρτοσ skarna- 'rotundus';
crwnn 'id' sъ-krъčiti
kṛwos cortīna; cruind κορωνοσ, κορ karū́-kara- 'columna
2b3.-cor-uent 'compendiō'
corōna <gr.? 'rotundus' ωνη uertebrālis'
`turbo' cron 'id'
kselwā silua ξυλον
κσαινω
ksentis sentis 6.3.-shùlas
'pungō'
serawēn, serben
serescunt, ξηροσ, ξερον ' kṣará- 'dēfluus'
kserós 'languere,
serēnus arida terra' kṣārá-;'acer'
marcere',
ξεροσ, ξηροσ '
kserós serēscō serb 'amarus' ksāra- 'acer'
siccus'
besnoten 'pauper'
3a2.-besnyððan kṣṇāuti 'terit'
cír 'pecten' 'furtus' ξεω, ξυω 'abrā kṣṇṓtra- 'cōs' češo, česati 'pectō,
ksnowājō nouacula
<*kēs-rā 3a3.-snøggr dere' 5.3.-hu-xšnuta- abrādō'
breuiter benē acūtum'
tonsurātus
ksnowātlā
kúbāmi
gehiuze 'clamor'
3a2.- hūten, hōt
κυδαζοµαι kutsáyati kuždo, kuditi 'et
kudājō 'clamõ'; hūsc -tiõ;
'conuicior' 5.6.-nikūhīdan destruõ'
schūten, shout
'uōciferārī'
kukuvátь
kukulājō cucūlus κοκκυζω 6.3.-kukúoti
6.4.-kūkuôt
cói (cúach) κοκκυξ (−υγο
kukūlós cucūlus 2b1.-cog kṓka-, kōkilá- kukúša
<koviks σ)
kūlā
cúl <*kūlā 2b1.-cil, ysgil schūl; schūle cf. σκυλον
'latebra' 'latēbra' 'latebra' <*(s)kūlom

3a3.-skjōl 'id' 'corium'

2b1.-cylion
'cūlices, musc.'
kūleks cūlex cuil 2b2.-kelionen
2b3.-kelien-enn
'musca'
2b1.-cil 'dorsum'
kūlos cūlus cúl 'dorsum' 2b2.-chil 'ceruix' kūla- 'extrēmum'
2b3.-kil
cum, comm
Cumba 'uallis'
'recipiens'; coim κυµβη, κυµβο
2b1.-cwm(m) 'id' humpe 'crassa rēs'
kumbhā <*kumbhi-
2b2.-komm 3a2.-hump 'gibba' σ, κυµβιον 'po kumbhás 'olla'
'coxa, media culum'
'potārium'
pars'
kumbō
śūla- 'pālus,
2b1.-cylion
tormentum'
'cūlices, musc.'
2b1.-cylion- śū-ka- 'acus
kúnejos cuneus, culex cuil 'culex' 2b2.-kelionen
en bestiolae'
2b3.-kelien
5.3.-sū-kā- 'acus'
'musca'
5.4.-slak 'pālus'
koptítь 'affūmāre'
cupiō; afhuapjan, καπνοσ 6.3.-kv`pas
1b2.-cubrar accobor
kupjō uapor<kwap afhuapnan 'fūmus'; kupyate 'irascitur' 'halitus'
'bonae' 'desideri.'
ōs 'exstinguō' καπυω 6.4.-kvept
'confum.
5.4.-k'urak<het.?
kurnos κυρνοσ 5.5.-kūrka
5.6.-kurra
hort, Hort 'id' huzd 'locus
kusdhos cf. custōs κυσθοσ 'uulua'
3a2.-hoard 'id' thesaurī'
küssen κυνεω (aor. εκ
kusis 5.5.-kuwass
3a2.-kiss υσσα)
hūt, Haut κυτισ
kūtis cutis 2b1.-cwd 'scrōtum'
3a2.-hýd, hide 'pyxis'; σκυτοσ
627
'corium'
śv-áyati 'turgescit'
inciēns; 3a2.-hūn κυεω, εγκυω, ε
śūnyá- 'uacuus' sujь ìrrītus'
cauus, cauea, 'iuuenis' κυσα
kuwējō śávīra- 'potens' 6.3.-šū́tis
cauerna,cum 3a3.-hūnn 'grauescō'
OSS.-r- 'aceruus'
ulus 'iuuenis, cūbus'
syjyn/sujun
kuwos 2b1.-cyw 'pullus' 3a2.-hyse κυοσ 'foetus' śāva- ; śi-śu-
κυαρη η Αθην
Kauaros,
α (Ηεσ), κυριο 6.3.-šaũ nas,
Cavarillus 2b1.- śávīra-, śū́ra-
kúwṛos córaid 'heroes' σ šaunù s 'habilis,
cawr 'gigas' 5.3.-sūra-
'dominus', ακυ potens';
2b2.-caur 'id'
ροσ 'inualidus'
hvaþō vъ(s)-kysnoti, -
hwaþerian, 'spūma'; kyseti 'acer fiō';
kwatsos caseus kváthati 'coquit'
hwoþerian 'id' hvaþjan kvasъ 'caelia'
'spūmāre'
6.4.-kusat 'feruō'
svetъ 'lux'; svitati
weiss
kweidos śvetá- 'illucescere'
3a2.-white
6.3.-šviẽsti 'lucēre'
canis
(*kwnes gen, cu (nom) 2b1.-ci κυων (κυνοσ) ś(u)vā (śúnah)
kwōn hunds 6.3.-šuõ (šuñs)
cf. uocāre cona (acc. pl.) 2b3.-con/koun κυνεσ 5.3.-spā (sūnō)
<*wokw-)
labium, leffur, Lefze 5.5.-lip(p)-,
l∂bjom
labrum 3a2.-lippa, lepur lil(l)ipa(i)- 'lambō'
l∂kesājō
laciō,
laqueus, 3a2.-læl(a) <lāhil-
l∂kjō
lacesō, 'rāmus, flagellum'
delicia
lacer,
lacerina, λακισ, λακοσ;
l∂kós ALB -lekure, likure lóchma
lacinia , λακιζω
lancinō,
lungūn
l∂nchijóm 5.4.-lanjk` lëgkoje
3a2.-lungen, lights
lapa 'pēdis palma'
KURD lapk 'pēdis
l∂pējō laffe 'palma' lōfa 'palma' 6.3.-lēpa 'id';
palma'
lopeta 'pāla'
1b2.-vapere leac< lecc
l∂pods lapis 2b1.-lech λεπασ
'soliō' <*lepkā
lascīuiō,
lustus λιλαιοµαι;
lārua, lainn 'lascīvus' 3a1, a2.-lust 'id' lástitь 6.3.-
l∂skējō 'desideriu λαστη πορ laṣati
lascīvus; <*las-ni-s 3a3.-lost, lyst lokšnù s'tener'
m' νη (Hes)
Larēs?
luog
'specus'; ληθω
luo 'obliuiscor'; 6.7.-lákati
l∂tējō lateō rātrī <lōtriyā 'nox'
'adaptātiō' λητο, ληιτο 'adaptat'
3a2.-lōmr (Hes.)
'deceptiō'
λαφυρον
lábhate, lámbhate, 6.3.-lobis
'praeda'
labhō rábhate (perf. 'diuitiae'; lobti
αµφιλαφησ ' lalābha) 'dītor'
uoluminōsum'
láige, laigen λαχαινω
laghā llain 'rasorium'
'pīlum' 'fodiō'
ληγω 'cēssō
<sl langa- 'paralyticus' pereslega
slah 'id'; link
laxus, λαγαρ 5.5.-zalug(a)nu- 'defectus in textū'
lāgō lacc 'dēbilis' 2b1.-llac(c) 'id' 'laeuus' 3a2.-
langueō,
slæc, slack 'laxus' οσ 'dēbilis' 'moror' (cum ? 6.4.-leǵēns
λαγωοσ dḷṇghu mixta) 'laxus'
<slHgōusos
levъ
laiwos laeuus λαι(F)οσ 6.3.-išlaivó ti
'deuertī'
lamatir laílōun lajǫ, lajati 'et lātrō'
lāmentum, līid <*lēiyeti
lājō 'maledicendu edliw (*ate-līu̯-) 'uituperāuē 6.3.-lóju, lóti
lātrō 'protestat'
s est' re' 'latrō'
629
lardum<láye λαρινοσ
5.5.-lesi-, lissi-
lajos sdom; 'lardus'
'iecur'
laetus <layesnós
λακτιζω 'pede
lešto, -leteti 'uolō'
lacertus, lecken 'podex' tundō'; ṛkṣalā 'artus
lakertos *lakāre 'flectō' 6.3.-lekiù, lẽkti
lacca, lōcusta 3a3.-leggr 'tibia' λαχµοσ 'calx' crurālis'
'id'
, λαξ
Penne-locōs lā 3a2.-
lakus lacus, lacūna loch (u-) 2b1.-llwch <2a lagu loky
2b3.- lagen 3a3.-logr, lā, læ
laílōun λαληµα
5.5.-lala- 'sermō, lála 'garrulus'
lalājo lallō lallen 'uituperāuē 'blaterātiō,
blaterātiō' 6.3.-laluóti
re' rumusculus'
lalu λαλου 5.5.-lalu
6.3.-lomà
lāmā lāma
6.7.-lam 'cauea'
lmṇtom
randh- 'coquō',
λασανον 6.9.-landan
landhom lann 2b2.-lann randhana-
'recipiens q.' 'pulmentum' (ac.)
'pulmentum'
LUS.-Laebo
lāōs lār (laris) 'laribus', Laho Lahe (dat.)
'larī'
2b1.-llo 'id'
láeg <*lāpego- HELV.-loobe,
lāpos 2b2.-loch, leauh ALB.-lopë 6.4.-luõps 'pecu'
'uitulus' lioba
'id'
5.5.-lap- (lāpzi)
lassar 'flamma'; 3a3.-leiptr 'candeō, caleō'; 6.3.-lope 'lux'
lapsā llachar 'clārus' λαµπω
lasaid 'candet' 'fulmen' lappas '-ndens'; 6.4.-lāpa 'fax'
lappiyas '-or'
laith 'ceruisia' λαταξ −γοσ
Are-late 'Arles'
lathach 'lutum' letto 'lutum' 'gutta' 6.3.-Lãt-upe 'locus
latēks latex <gr. 2b1.-llat 'liquor'
(cf. 2b1 llaid 'id' 3a3.- leþja 'lutum' λαταγεω q.'
2b2.-lad 'liquor'
) 'effundō'
latom laithe<lati- lat[…] Coligny laþigs leto 'aestās'
2a2.-laa (dat. 'uernālis' (potius cum lat.

láo, lou) laetus?)
. lōg, lūach 2b1.-golud
lōn 'id' απολαυω; λεια
'salārium' lour 'regnum' llawer laun lṓtam, lṓtram loviti 'captō'; lovъ
lawō lucrum 3a2.-lean 'id' 'spolium'; ληισ
'satis' (laros) 'multum' 2b2.- 'salārium' 'spolium' 'uenātus'
3a3.-laun 'id' τηρ 'raptor'
folad 'substantia' wuludoc 'dives'
λα(F)οσ 'exerci 5.5.-lahha
lāwós
tus' 'expeditiō'
lawtlom
lētan 6.3.-léidžiu,
lassus lāzan, lassen 'id' ;
'linquō'; ληδειν 5.5.-lā- 'soluō' léidmi, léisti
ledō <*lH1dtos, verletzen 'feriō'
latjan 'langueō' ALB loth 'fatigō' 'linquō'
lētum 3a2.-lætan 'id';late
'detineō' 6.4.-lai^st 'id'
λεχεται κοιµατ
5.5.- la-ga-a-ri ležo, ležati
ligen, liegen αι
leghō lectus legasit 'posuit' ligan 'iacet'; laknu- 6.3.-pa-legỹs
3a2.-licgan (Hes.); λεχοσ, 'deiciō'; lak- 'cadō' 'consolidātiō'
λεκρον 'lectus'
ložesna (pl. t.)
2b1.-lle 'locus'
leghos λεχοσ 'lectus' ‘uulua’
2b2.-le 'id'
<*loghesno-
leghskā
2b3.-leac'h, lec'h λεσχη 'statiō, 6.9.-liscis, liskas
'locus' conciliābulum' 'statiō, castra'
2b1.-llesg
3a3.-loskr
leghskós lesc 'infirmus,
'languidus'
languidus'
lehtar, lehter ',
matrix, placenta'
leghtrom λεκτρον
3a3.-lātr <loghtro
'lectus animalium'
2b1.-llei/llai lъgъkъ
laigiu, lugu līht(i), leicht ελαχυσ, cp. laghú, raghú 'celer'
leghús leuis 2b3.-nahu-lei leihts 6.3.-leñgvas/vùs
'minor' 3a2.-léoht ελασσων 5.3.-ragu-,
'nihilō minus' 6.4.-liegs
2b1.-llaith lecken 'madeō'
legaim 5.4.- lič 'palūs'
légneumi 'madidus' 2b3.- leck 'permeābilis'
'liquescō' <*lēgyā);
leiz 3a2.- leccan 'id'
631
3a3.-leka 'defluō'
lāchi 'id' lēkeis,
legō legō λεγω
3a2.-lǣce 'id' 'ueneficus'
rāj-áni 'ad normam'
legs lex
5.3.-rāz-an
λιψ (λιβοσ) 'Af
leibs libo, āre, ricus'
λειβω 'fundō'
leidō
2b1.-llwy
leiglā ligula liag/liach 2b2.-loe/lo
2b3.-loa
leichen;leih, leich, laikan
ликова́ть<3b
lloi 'uitulī' Leich 'lūdus' (laílaik) rḗjatē
leigō loíg 'uitulus' ελελιζω 'uibrō' 'exsultāre'
2b3.-lu-é 'id' 3a2-lācan laiks 5.4.-ālētan (equum)
'trepudiō' 'trepudium' 6.3.-láigyti 'errō'
leiljom λειριον 5.5.-alil, alel 'flōs' ALB.-lule
leim
leimos līmus
3a2.-lēmo
af-linnan
3a2.-linnan 'cessō' 'cēdō'; bi- λιναµαι τρεπο linati se 'ēvanescō,
leinō
3a3.-lina 'cēdō' linnan µαι (Hes.) abscondor'
'cesō'
2b1.-lliain lein lьnъ, lьnenъ
leinom līnum lín, lion 'rēte' lein λινον
2b2, b3.-lien 3a2, 3a3.-līn 6.3.-lìnas
lipa 6.3.-
leipā 2b1.-llwyf 'ulmus'
liẽpa
laistjan
'inuestigō'
waganleisa 'orbita'
lists
lesa 'ruga'; leisten
'acumen, lecha, lechá,
'praebeō'; list
leisā līra, dēlīrus artif.' 'hortus'
'acum., aetif.';
lais 'sciō'; 6.3.-lýse 'id'
lērran 'id';
laisjan
lernen 'discō'
'doceō',
lubja-leis
'uenenōsus'
ler <*li-ro-
'fluxus, mare';
2b1.-lli, llyr- 'id' lejo lijati, litъ
do-lin 'se līth 'uinum fruct.' leiþu
dy-llyð 'effundō' αλεισον 'doliu 'fundō' 6.3.-
leitos lītus, -oris effundere'' *- 3a2.-līð uinum fr.' 'uinum
2b2.-ly 'id' m' <*leitwom líeju, líeti 'id'
linut 3a3.-līð 'ceruisia' fructuum'
2b3.- lin 'pus' Lietuvà 'Lituania'?
tu(i)le 'fluxus'
<*toliyo
6.3.-nu-slim̃pa
limpfen 'claudus 'dēlapsus'
rámbate, lambate
lembō limbus esse' 6.4.-slīps
lamba- 'clīuus'
3a2.-limp 'id' 'obliquus,
pendens'
αληιοσ
3a2.-lǣð 'fundus' 'pauper'; πολυ леть 'licitus'
unlēds rti 'indulget'; rātí-
lēmi 3a3.-lāð 'id'; lōð
'pauper' ληιοσ 'diues'; 'gratia' et 'grātiōsus' 6.3.-lė̃tas 'segnis'
'genitūra terrae' λατρον 6.4.-lęt̃ s 'uīlis'
'salārium'
λαµοσ/ια lemóti 'saliuō'
2b1.-llef 'uox'
lemsos lemurēs 'gurges'; λαµυ 6.4.-lamāt
2b3.-leñv 'clamor'
ρησ 'auidus' 'uituperō'
Lindomagus
'Limmat' 2b1.- linde 'unda'
lendhā lind (lenda)
llyn 'pōtiō, lacus' 3a3.-lind <air.?
2b3.-lenn 'lacus'
lēnis
lēnis , lassus, ελινυω 'otiōsus lenъ 'piger'
lētum sum' 6.3.-lenas
jálovec, jelenec
lentos ελατη 5.4.-elevin 6.3.-ẽglius <*élus
6.4.-pa-egle
líaig (ego)
λαιλαψ ?
lepō <*lēpagi- lápati lepetátь
'tempestās'
'medicus'
lergg 'planitiēs, 2b1.-llyry
lergos Lurch 'lacertus' ? 5.4.-ošork, lerg
semita' 'uestigium, semita'
633
2b2.-lergh 'id'
2b3.-lerc'h 'id'
1b2.-vesklu,
veskla
'uascula' (v 2b1.-llestr 'uas' lesan, lesen
6.3.-lesù, lèsti
lesō < *l?, cf. lestar <cym.? 2b2.-lester 3a2.-lesan lisan
'rostrō carpere'
vutu 'lavato', 2b3.-lestr 'nauis' ? 3a3.-lesa
vapere
'lapide' )
lassig 'lassus' lasiws TOK B.-leswi
leswos sublestus 6.5.-loš 'malum'
3a2.-lazy >'pīger' 'dēbilis' 'dēbilitās'
lētis
ledar, Leder
2b1.-lledr
letrom lethar 3a2.-leþer, leather
2b3.-lezr
3a3.-leðr
liob, lieb
leubhos loufir 'uel' lubъ
3a2.- lēof
liber FAL.-
loferta róhati 'ascendit'
luss <*lustu 2b1.-les 'id' liudan liudi 'gentes'
léudheros 'liberta', PAEL.-loufir Leute 'gentes' ελευθεροσ 5.4.-eluzanem <*-
'planta' 2b2.-leys 'id' 'crēscō' 6.3.-liut 'homō'
loifirtato dhs- 'prōmō'
'libertātis'
iogan, lügen; liugan;
lъžo, lъgati
leughō leugnen laugnjan
3a2.-ēogan, lie 'recūsō' 6.3.-lūgoti 'rogō'
rócate
leukō TOK А В.- luk-
5.5.-luk(k)-
6.3.-laũkas
2b1.-am-lwg, rocá-, rucá-
leukós 3a3.-log 'flamma' λευκοσ 'albus' 'pallens'
'flamma' 5.3.-raočah- 'clārus'
6.4.-làuks 'id'
lux, cf. Leucetius luča <*-jā 'radius'
cf. lóchetn cf. liuhaþ cf. λευκοσ
leuks lucubrāre, 'Mars' 2b1.-llug, ruc- 'splendōr'
'fulmen' 'lux' 'albus' 6.2.-luč, луч 'id'
lūstrāre lluched
leuksmṇ
loub, Laub;
leups luchtar 'linter' laufs, lauf 6.3.- lubà 'tegnus'
Laube 'porticus";
3a2.-léaf
líe (líacc)
λαασ; λαιγκσ
lēwanks ITAL lavagna 'saxum' > leug lei 'saxum'
'saxum'
'gemma'
ligājō ligō 5.5.-link 'iurō'
6.4.-līkstu, līku,
liceō, liceor, líkítud, līkt; salīkt 'negōt.
likējō licitor, licitud conuenīō';
pollicērī 'licētō'; nuolīkums
'contractus'
pri-lьnoti; pri-
λιποσ 'adeps'; limpati, lipyate lьpljo, pri-lьpeti
bileiban
limpō lippus, lippa bilīban 'maneō' αλειφω 'unguit'; repas,
'maneō' 6.3.-limpu, lipti
'unguō' ripras 'inmunditia'
6.4.-lipu, lipt
'appendeō'
2b1.-llyo (v.n.)
linghō lingō ligim λειχω
2b3.-leat
lenaid, pf. rolil
'sequitur'
as-lenaim līyati, linti 6.3.-laistaũ, -ýti
līnō linō, līmus 2b3.-linom 'litūra' αλινω
'oblinō' 5.5.-halina- 'argilla' 'adhaerō'
lenomnaib
'litūrīs'
len (dial.) 'dēbilis,
linь 'tinca'
*len (lenomnaib tepidus' λινευσ 'piscis
līnós 2b3.-linom 'litūra' līnáh 'adhaesus' 6.3.-li^nis 'id'
'lituuriis') 3a3.-len, linr adhaesīuus'
6.9.-linis 'id'
'tener'
lichъ 'reliquus'
léicim/leigim, līhan, pf. lēh leiƕan, pf. λειπω, λιµπαν riṇákti 6.3.-
linqō linquō, līquī
leicid 3a2.-līon, pf. lāh laiƕ ω 5.4.-lkànem liekmì<*leikmi,
liekù
lippā
Leber 'iecur' riprá- 'sordēs' ли́пкий
liprós λιπαροσ
3a2.-lifer, live r'id' 5.4.-leard 'iecur' TOK A.-lyipär
635
'reliquiae'
λισσοµαι, λιτο 6.3.-lytéti 'tangō'
litājō litō
µαι 'rogō' 6.4.-làitit 'mulceō'
lid, lit 'pars'; ledig
'caelebs'; lidōn toch. AB lit-
liþus
litwos lituus 'putō' 'cadere, accidere'
'membrum'
3a2.- lið(u) 'artus' ???
3a3.-liða 'flectō'
laffan; leffil 'ligula' λαφυσσω 'inge lobъzati 'osculō';
lṃbō lambō
3a2.-lapian 'bibō' rō'; λαπτω lopa 'gulōsus'
lṇcō
lungar 3a2.-
lṇghros ελαφροσ
lungor, lungre
λωβη 'corrupti
lobur 'dēbilis 2b1.-llwfr
ō' (uel. slogw
lōbā lobaim 'pusilan.' 2b3.-
sicul lit. slogà
'putrēscō' loffr 'leprōsus'
?)
lodi
lige<lēghyo
2b1.-lle 'locus'
loghjom 'lectus, lože 'lectus'
2b2.-le 'id'
sepulcrum'
luog;Lage<-ā ALB.-lagje
λοχοσ sǫ-logъ, za-logъ
loghos līga 'situs' 3a2.-lagu, <*lag TOK. A lake, В leke
'insidiae' 'pignus'
law 'lex' 'populātiō'
loigos
λοιγοσ
5.4.-aɫk` 'inops' 6.3.-ligà
'infortūnium';
loigós líach 'miser' ALB;-lig 'malus'; 'morbum'
ολιγοσ lige 'malum' 6.4.-liga 'id'
'paucus'
rḗkṇas- 'possessiō'
Lehen
loiqnom 5.3.-raexna
3a2.-læn, loan
'substantia'
reliquus, 6.3.- lỹkius
loiqós λοιποσ rḗku- 'infecundus'
relicuos 'reliquiae'
loisā līra (nōn leisa 'līra, sulcus' lecha 'cratis''
lyra) 6.3.-laistaũ, -ýti

'lutō adhaerō'
6.9.- layso 'argilla'
līso 'leniter' . lista λιαροσ; λοισθ 6.3.-líesas 'tenuis'
loisós lían 'tener'
3a2.-. læs, less 'paucum' οσ 'reliquus' 6.4.-líess 'di'
lahs lākṣā 'uermeliō' losośь
loksos
3a2.-leax TOK. В laks 'piscis' 6.3.-lašišà, lãšis
λοξοσ 'bliquus'
licinus <* Lexouii, Lixouii
,
loksós lecinos?; llechwedd
λιχριοσ<λεκσρ
līmus 'inclinātiō'
ι−
lahan, 'pūniō'
loktos locht
3a2.- lēan 'id'
2b1.- llan 'ārea,
lant, Land
Land; dat.ith- eclesia' ljádá
londhom 3a2.-land land
laind 'areae' 2b2.-laan 6.9.-lindan 'uallis'
3a3.-lundr
2b3.-lann 'stēpa'
ẹntī, Lende
londhwos lumbus ledvьje
3a2.-lendenu
2b1.-llyngyr
longhros lombrīcus
2b3.-lenker-enn
lorcach, lurcach 5.4.-lorc̣k 'convulsiō
lürzen 'fallōo' λορδοσ 'procli
lordós 'claudus'; lurc 'c. partium in
3a2.-be-lyrtan 'id' nātus'
pēs' posteriōra'
2b1.-llwry, llwrw
lorgā lorg 'trames' 2b2.-lergh, lyrgh 5.4.-olork 'suauis'
2b3.-lerc'h
2b2.-lorch
lorgos lorg 3a3.-lurkr
2b3.-lorc`henn
2b2.-llost, arllost
lostos los(s) 3a3.-lióstr 'harpō'
2b3.-lost
liuþōn
liod , Lied 'cantus' `'canō'
loudis laus
3a2.-lēoþ 'id' awiliuþ 'c.
laudis'
637
liugan -
aida 'nūbō'
urliugi <*uz-liugja
lug(a)e, luige liuga
loughjom 2b1 llw 'bellum'; urlage
'uōtum' <*leughā
'fātu'
'connūbiu
m'
rōcá yati 5.3.-
lūceō
loukējō raočayeiti
(Plautus)
5.5.-lukkizzi
Leucetius,
lóchetn <-nt- Loucetius
Lūcetius lioht, licht 'lux'
loukētjos 'fulmen' > 2b1.-lluched liuhaþ 'lux'
(Mars) 3a2.-lioht, light
brit. 2b2.-lluhet
2b3.-lu'hed-enn
lūcus, arc.
lōh 'saltus, prat.' lōká- 'spatium, 6.3.-laũkas
loukos loucom;
3a2.-lēah 'pratum' mundus, gentes' 'campus'
collūcāre
lauc, loug
2b1.llug; llug у rōká- 5.4.-
loukós 'flamma' 3a2.-
dydd 'dīlūculum' lois, loys 'lux'
līeg 'id'
5.3.-raočama-
3a3.-ljóre < ljós
louksā 5.5.-lutta(i)-,
'ōrificium in tectō'
luttant-
luan; luisne
λυχνοσ rukṣá- 'splendens' luna 6.9.-
louksnā lūna, lūstrāre <*luksnijo- 3a2.-lioxan 'luceō'
'lampas' 5.3.-raoxšna- lauxnos 'stellae'
'flamma'
luhs
louksos lug (loga) ?? λυνξ 5.4.-lusanunk (pl.) lysyj 'caluus'
3a2.-lox
2b1.-lleuen pl. llau
lūs, Laus
lousēn 2b2.-lowen/lūan 6.3.-liule
3a2.-lūs, louse
2b3.-laouen
liederlich
'negligens' afslautjan
loutsā lot(t) <Germ. 3a2.-līedre 'praecipitor lytátь 'uagor'
'miseria' '
3a2.-lodda
ló <*wā, lóë
lowā lava-
<*wiā
5.4.-loganam
lowō luō, lauō 5.5.-lahhu 5.5.-lahhu 'fundō'
'fundō'
lābrum, lóathar 'peluis' lautro 'balneō'
λοετρον, λουτ
lowtrom lātrīna lóthur 'canālis' 2b3.-
<*lowātreinā lothor 'alueus' louazr/laouer ρον
libet (lubet); liuben, lieben λυπτα εταιρα ( lubiti
lubhējō loufir 'uel' liufs lubhyati
prolubium 3a2.- lēofian, love Hes) 6.3.- liaupse 'laus'
2b1.-luird 'horti' lubja-leis
luib/luibh luppi 'uirus'
lubhjā liber (librī) ? 2b2.-lowarth 'uenēnum, 6.3.-luba 'lignum'
lubgort/lugbort 3a2.-lyb
'hortus' uenēnātor'
lomm 'nūdos' λυπη ? lupljú, lupítь
<-smo; 'morbum'; lumpáti 'ruinat' 'glubō'
lubhros liber 2b1.-llwm 'id' lo(u)ft
lommraim λυπεω? ALB;-labe 'cortēx' 6.3.-luõbas;
'glubō' 'patior' lupù, lupti 'glub.'
3a2.-lane? 'semita' ηλθον−λυ−; επ
luid 3 pl. lotar 2b1.-el(h)wyf 'ibō'
ludhóm 3a3.-lon 'uia ηλυσ προση
<*ludontṛ 2b2.-yllyf 'id'
domuum' λυτο; 'aduena'
liohhan 'dūcō';
rujáti 'frangit' 6.3.-láužti, lužti
arlohhan
lūgeō, lucht <*lugtó- Luxtos, Lucterius λυγροσ 'maest 5.3.-uruxti- 'fractiō' 'frangō' (tr. et
lugējō 'abscīsus'
lūgubris 'copia(e)' 2b1.-llwyth 'tribus' us' 5.4.-lucanem <*-gs- intr.) 6.4.-lau^zt,
3a2.-to-lūcan
'soluō' lu^zt 'id'
'deleō'
log 2a3.- 6.3.-lugnas ?
lugjā Lücke
lag 'planta q.'
2b1.-lloer <*lugrā
loc, Locke 'cirrus' λυγιζω ∋υιε∋;
'lūna' (alt.:
lucta, luctor, 3a2.-locen
fo-long- <*lowsrā, lat. λυγοσ ∋ρµυσ rugnás 'fractus,
lugnós luxus; lūnō, 'sarrītus', locc 'id' 6.3.-lùgnas
'supportō' lūridus) ∋; λυγινοσ ∋πλ ruptus'
lūnātus 3a3.-lykna
2b2.-loir 'id' εξ.∋
'genuflector'
2b3.-loer 'id'
lugtos
lukējō
639
2b1.-llosgo
loscaid 'cremat'; 5.4.-luçanem <*luk-
lukskējō 2b2.-losky
losc-<*luk-sk sk 'candō'
2b3.-leski 'candō'
3a2.-alynnan
lon 'ariēs, lun lūnáh 'sectus', lunāti
lūnós 'liberō' FINN
merula?' 'redemptiō' 'secat'
lunnas <*lunos
lūdara 'cūnae'
λυτοσ (u
lūtós solūtus 3a3.-lūðr
longa)
'aquārium'
luwō luw 5.5.-
(lewō)
luō, soluō 3a2.-lēas, release λυω
lā, lai-
3a2.-alynnan, lun
luwō apò absoluō απολυω
alynian 'liberō' 'redemptiō'
mádati, mádate
µαδαω 'fluō, 'gaudeō'; mátsya
madeō; maidim capilla 'piscis'
m∂dējō
mattus 'errumpor' perdō'; µαστο 5.3.-mađaitē; masya
σ 'pectus' 5.4.-maskah
'burrus'
m∂glos
m∂gnán∂
mos
mahnt-, máhi
mikils
mál 'princeps' (- Maglocunus µεγα−σ 5.3.-mazant-, maz-
m∂gnos magnus 3a3.-miok 'magnus'
gl-) 2b1-b3.-mael µεγαλο−ι 5.4.-mec
(-gn-)
5.5.-meki
magis, ALB.-madheshtí '-
m∂gsi
maiestās ās'
do-for-maig αγαµαι, αγαλλ
mahayati
m∂gtājō mactō 'auget'-magar ω; µε
5.4.-mecarem
'augeetur' γαιρω
µαρναµαi mṛṇāti 'clepit';
m∂rnamói marnaid 'tradit'
'pugnō' mṛṇti 'conuincit'
mug (moga) Magu-rix 3a2.-magu 'puer', magus 5.3.-mahava- 6.4.-mač <*maǵš
machos
'seruus' 2b1.-meu-wy fm. mægeÞ, maid 'puer' 'caelebs' 'paruus'

'erem.' 2b2.- 3a3.-mogr 'filius' mawi

mow-es 'serua' 'puella'
2b3.-maouez magaÞs
'mulier' 'uirgō'
ingen maccdacht 2b1.-machteith
magad, Magd
<*magot-aktā 'uirgō'
'puella' 5.4.-makth 'lepus
machotis 'epheba'; ro- 2b2.-mahtheid magaþe
3a2.-mægeþ, maid iuuene'
macdact 'u.' 2b3.-
'puella, serua'
'superadulta' matez 'serua'
mághneu µαχοµαι; µαχ 5.3.-*ha-mazan- >
mi η 'pugna' αµαζων
Arganto-magus
mag, immaig,
maghos 2b1.-Ma-, -fa ? mahī 'terra'
immach 'forās'
2b2. - fa
mac(h)iō mahhōn , machen 5.4.-macanim,
2b1.-maeddu µασσω 'massō, mažo, mazati
<germ. maistrid 'faciō' macnum ?
magō 'āuertō, pugnō' pinsō; µ 'unguō'
'lapidārius, 'butyrum facit' 3a2.-macian, 'compingor,
2b3.-meza 'depsit' αγευσ 'pistor' maslo 'aruīna'
structor' make 'id' coagulor'
mātūrus,
māne, Maatúís
maith; maithid 2b1, 2b3.-mad 5.5.-mai-, miya-
mājō mānes, <*Mātīs 'dī
'ignoscit' 2b2.-mas 'crēscō'
mānus, Mānēs'
Matūta
mākājō
? mén 'bucca'; mago 'stomachus' mošьna
1b1.-megin
makēn ménaigte 'qui 3a2.-maga, maw 6.3.-mãkas/ẽkeris
<*makīnā
inhiant' 'id' 6.4.-maks, macińš
6.4.-màcu,-̀kt
māceria,
mākesjā māceriēs, - 'premō'
erāre 6.7.-mačká m, ati
'i.'
māhen, Mohn µηκων 4.3.−µα
mkōn mahonus makъ
3a2.-māho κων
macer, magar 5.3.-mas- 'longus'
makrós mér ? 'digitus' µακροσ, cp.
maceō, 3a2.-mæger 5.5.-maklanteš
641
maciō 3a3.-magr µασσων

maciēs Μακεδον
εσ 'Macedoniī'
mamma, 2b1, 2b2, 2b3.- mamme, muoma, 5.4.-mam mama
mammā muimme 'nutrix' µαµµα
mamilla mam Muhme 5.6.-mām(ā), māmī 6.3.-mamà, momà
µα; µην 4.3.
mān 5.5.-mahhan 'cum'
−µαν
mānājō mānō móin 'palūs' 2b1.-mawn 'palūs'
Mann 3a2.- manna moži, мѫжь,мужь
mánnusos mánuh, mánusah
man (mans) <mangya
mānis, Maatúís maith <*-ti;
2b1, 2b3.-mad
mānos mānus (arc.); *Mātīs 'dī maithid
2b2.-mas <*-tu?
immānis Mānēs' 'ignoscit'
2b1.-machteith
maqā macc-dacht 2b2.-mah-theid
2b3.-matez
µακροσ
OGHAM.- 2b1.-map/mab
'longus'; 6.4.-mázu
maqos maqvi:(gen.); 2b2.-mab
µακαρ 'possum'
macc 'filius' 2b3.-mab, map
'beātus'
máreskos mariscus 5.5.-marsiqqa
Allo-broges,
margōn margō mruig brogae 2b1- marka
2b3.-bro 'ager'
Aremori-cī marī, Meer morje
mari mare muirn (mora) marei
2b2, 2b3.-mor 3a2.-mere 6.3.-mãres,mãrios
marka,Marcoduru marah, Mähre
m 2b1.-march 3a2.-mearh
markos marc
2b2.-margh/marh (fem. meriha,
2b3.-marc'h miere)
maite, maide
masdos mālus <d<zd 'pālus'; admat 3a1, 3a2.-mast mostъ 'pons'
'lignum'
µηνυω 'prodō'
mātējō na-májatь 'indicō'
µατη 'infract
iō' µαστιξ mańú, mańítь

'flagellum'
'fallō' 6.3.-
4. móju, móti
3.−µανυω 'id' 'signum faciō'
mātreís
muoter <*mātḗr matь, mater-
'mātris' mātir µητηρ mātár-
mātḗr māter máthir, máthair 3a2.-mōdor 6.3.-mote
1b2.-matrer 2b1.-modryb 4.3.-µατηρ 5.4.-mayr
3a3.-móðir 6.4.-mäte
'id'
māterós materiēs materój
2b1.-modreped
(pl.) 2b2.-
mātérterā matertera mātṛkā
modereb 2b3.-
motrep/moereb
matlā mateola 3a2.-mattock<lat. matyá- 'raster'
(α)µαυροσ (s)muryj 'gris obs'
mauros maurus 3a3.-meyrr 'mitis' 'obscūrus, chmúra 'nūbēs
caecus' obs'
οµβροσ; λak. ο ambhas-;ambu
ṃbhros imber
µφα 'odor' 'aqua'
2b1.-mi
me mē(d) mé εµε, µε mā 5.3.-mā
2b2-me
5.1, 5.3, 5.6.-mā ALB.-mos<mē +
mē µη
5.4.-mi kwe?
medeor, meddiss midiur 'iudicō' µηδοµαι masti- 'mensūra'
meditor, 'iūdex' mitan
medai 3ª midithir; pf. 'meditor', µεδο 5.3.-vīmad
modus, 1b2.-mers 'metior'
ro-mídair µαι 'colō' 'medicus'
medicus 'ius'
madgú-
medgós mergus
5.6.-māɣ
médhidjō
ws
mid-
mefaí 'in Medio-lānum mitti mádhya-s
medhjos medius (im)medón<ugn midjis µεσσοσ mežda 'uia'
media' 2b1.-mywn 'in' 3a2.-midd 5.4.-mēj
o
medhu mid (meda) 2b1.-medd, meto 'hydromel' µεθυ mádhu 'mel' medъ 'mel'
643
'hydr.' medb meddw 'hydromel' 5.3.-madu 'mel' 6.3.-medùs, midùs

'intoxicātus' 2b3.-mez, mezo µεθυ
ω 'ebrius fiō'
mess <medtu mast, Mästung
'collectiō 'esca'; mus, mats 'esca'; µεζεα, µεδεα
2b1,2b2..-mes
medjom glandum'; Gemüse 'olus' matjan 'testiculī'; µεσ
(pl.) 2b3.-mez 'id'
maisse <-dtiā 3a2.-mete, meat 'edō' τοσ 'plēnus' !
'pulmentum' 'carō'
ga-mōt
µεδω 'imperō';
2b1.-meddu muoʒ, müssen 'id' 'spatium
médneumi
possideō, possum' 3a2.- must 'debeō' habere, µεδων 'domin
posse' us'
meddiss
5.3.-vīmad
médodiks medicus 'iūdex'
'medicus'
PEL.-.medix
us-mēt
māz 'modus' µηδεα 'cūrae, 5.4.-mit 'mens,
mēdos 'modus
3a3.-māt consilia' intelligentia'
uīuendī'
migrō,
meicō αµειβω 'mūtō'
migrāre
µιστυλλω; µιτ
meizan 'id';meizil ,
2b1.-mail; moel maitan υλοσ 'mutilus,
máel 'caluus, meissel 'scalprum'
meidō 'mutilus, caluus, 'putō' incornis' medь 'cupper' ?
hebēs' 3a2.-mīte 'larua
glaber' (meid) µιδασ 'uermis,
ins.'
larua insectus'
kameit gemeit,
iactans, stolidus
meidos míad 'honor' muoet 'fāma'
3a2.- gemêd
'superbus'
milati 'conuenit';
οµιλοσ 'conue
mela(ka) 'conuentiō'
meilēts mīles ntiō'; οµιλεω samī-ká- ??
'conueniō' 'proelium'
DVENOS mían meinen 'significō' měnjǫ, měniti
meinom mwyn 'dēlectātiō'
meinom 'desiderium' 3a2.-mēnian 'considerō'

mḗthati 'ferit' 6.3.-apmaitinti

gimeit 'demens' *gamaiþs µιτυλοσ 'hebēs
meitō APRUS.- ismaitint 'ferīre'
3a2.-gemād 'id' 'mutilus' ' 'perdere' 6.4.-màitat 'deleō'
mitrá 'ramiicus,
meitrom µιτρη 'cinctus' cont.' 5.3.- mìemuri 'corda'
miqra- 'id'
µειων; αµεινω
minus, nimis minniro; min mins; minti, minṓti mьníjь
menvum 2b1.-minow ν 'melius';
meiwijós <némeisi; 3a2.-min minnistr 'dēcrēscō' 6.3.-máila
`minuere' 'minuō' µινυθω 'dēcr
minuō 3a3.-minnr 'minimus' 5.5.-Luw mauwa 'IV' 'piscellī'
ēscō'
día tomna gloss. minǫ, -ǫti
Moenus 'Main'
Miniō .i. día ti 'ut eat'; 'praetereō'
mejājō meō 2b1.-mynet 'īre';
(Etruriae) Moin; Minius 6.6.-mijam, mijać
diminet?
(Gallaeciae) 6.7.-míjím, míjeti
mejnō
mūnus, mein 'falsus'
1b2.- izmeniti
mūnis, móin, máin 2b1.-mwyn 'ualōr' 3a2.-mān 'id' máyate 5.5.-
mejō muneklu µιµοσ ? 6.3.-mainaũ, -ýti
moenia, 'thesaurus' <*meino- 3a3.-meinn immiya- 'misceō'
'mūnus' 6.4.-miju, mît
immunis 'nocīius'
mejtis
2b1.-min 'labrum'
2b2.-m(e)yn mago 'fauces'
mēknos mén
2b3.-min 2b3.-mīca
'faucīcum'
maladńa
3a3.-mjollnī
meldhjā 2b1.-mellt APR.-mealde 6.4.-milna 't.
'Tonitrii malleus'
mall.'
braviti 'loquitur'
meldōn, melden moljo, moliti
5.4.-maltèm
'indicō' 'precor' ld>l
meldhō µολυ ? 'precor' 5.5.-
3a2.-meld 6.3.-meldžiù/sti
ma-al-ta-i,
'pmlg.tiō' 'id'
ma-al-di 'precātur'
mili-tou 'succus
mil 2b1.-mêl
melit mel (mellis) mel.' 3a2.-mil- miliþ µελι (µελιτοσ) 5.4.-melr
(mela/meala) 2b2-2b3.-mel
dēaw
meljom milium µελινη 6.3.-málna
645
mulceō; -āre;
βλαβη ?? mṛśáti 'tangit,
melkō mulcetra, -
'damnum' palpat' ; marcáyati?
cēdo
2b1.-cymal 6.3.-mélmenys
márman-
'iunctūra' 2b2.- 'carō lumbī'
melmṇ µελοσ 'cantus' 'membrum'
mel (pl. mellow) 6.4.-mélmēni
5.4.-marmin 'carō'
2b3.-mell 'lumb'
1b2.-kumaltu 2b1.-malu ga- 5.5.-malanzi mleti, molótь
melō molō melim molawēn µυλη 'mola'
'commolitō' 2b3.-malaf malwjan 'molunt' 6.3.-malvinti
moltam
melior, 'multam' 6.4.-milns
melos µαλα, µαλλον
multus 1b2.-motar 'complūres'
'multae'
µελεοσ 'miser';
melsō mellaim 'fallō' βλασ−φηµοσ ' 6.4.-mèls-t
blasphēmus'
melwom 3a2, 3a2.-mëlo µαλευρον malvá- 'stultus' ALB.-mjel
µεµφοµαι
bi-
mebul 'accusō'
membhō mampjan
'uerecundia' µεµφωλη
'irrideō'
'culpa'
mitan; mēl
mimāti; māthí; mā mera 'mensūra'
mezzan; Mal 'tempus';
mēmi mētior µητισ, µετρον trā 5.5.- 6.3.-mẽtas 'annus,
'occāsiō' mēls ''8
mehur 'tempus' t.'
gallones'
membrum<
mír <*mē(m)sró mims, µνηιγξ 'pelle'; ms, māmsám męso
mēmsóm msr;
membrāna
'portiō' mimz µηροσ ? 'sūra' 5.4.-mis (msoy) TOK B.-misa (pl.)
mundōn µανθανω mǫdrъ 'doctus'
'intendoo' 'discō' 6.3.-mañdras,
2b1.-mynnu 'uelle' mundrei mēdh 'intellectus'; mandrùs 'alacer,
µαθοσ
go-fin(n) 'rogō' mendian 'gaudeō'; 'propositu 5.3.-mazdā, mazdāh superbus' 6.4.-
mendhai 'disciplīna'
2b2.-mennaf 'id' muntar 'alacer' m' 'id'; mazdāh- muo^stie^s
2b3.-govyn 'rogō' 3a3.- προµηθησ <*mṇdh-tā 'deus q.' 'ēuigilāre'
munda 'prūdens'; ALB.-mund
'intendoo' µουσα 'possum, uincō'
<∗µονθια?
Mandel(holz) (t?)
mamphur, µοθοσ mętǫ, męsti,
'lignum rotārium'
manfur 'tumultus'; mánthati, mathnti motátь 'turbō' (t)
mendhō 3a3.-mǫndull
'manubrium µοθουρα 5.3.-mant- 6.3.-menčiù, męs̃ ti
'manubrium
tornī' 'pugnus rēmī' (t)
molae'
2b1.-mynnan
mannus, µαστοσ 'tetta', ALB.-mes, mezi,
menn, mennán 'capella' mandur ?
mendō mandus
'catulus' 2b2.-min 'haedus'
manzon 'tetta' µανδρα ? mezat 'pullus';
<ILLYR? 'stabulum' 'stabulum' ment, mezej 'sūgō'
2b3.-menn 'cat.'
mennar 'macula' 2b1.-mann 'locus'
mendom mendum
mind 'signum' mann geni 'antojo'
mъnogъ 'multum'
2b1.-mynych 'id' manag; manch manags maghá- 'dōnum'
menghos menicc 'saepe' 6.3.-minià
2b2.-menough 'id' 3a2.-manig, many 'multum' mamhatē 'offert'
'copiae'
µαγγανον
manganum
meng 'acūmen'; 'illusiō, mañjú(lá) 'pulcher'; 6.3.-mánga 'rudis,
mengō <gr; mange 'catapulta'
mengach 'fallāx" uineae'; mangalá 'augurium' ingrātus'
mangō<gr.
µαγγων
muniwa
'phoxinus' mīná- 'piscis' <drav.
menis maena <gr. µαινη menь
3a2.-myne, ?
minnow
menmṇ menm(a)e manman
Minerua, arc. mánas- 'mens,
menos Menerua <*- µενοσ 'animus' sensus' 5.3.-
eswā manah-
mesęcь
2b1-2b2.-mis māno , mānōt menoþs µην (µηνοσ), µ ms, msa- <*mēnsn$ko-
mēnsis mensis mí (mís)
2b3.-miz 3a2.mōna, mōnaþ <*mēnōþ- ηνη 5.4.-amis 6.3.-mė́nuo
<*mēnōt, mė́nesis
Mandel(holz) (t?)
'lignum rotārium' 6.3.-mentė̃,
mentā mentula mántha-
3a3.-mǫndull meñtė, mentùris
'manubrium
647
molae'
5.5.-mekkis
mēl µηκοσ 'longitū
mēqos Mal 'occasiō' 'magnus'; mehur
'tempus' dō'
'tempus'
αµοργω mrṇ̃jata 'uerrunt'
mergae, -
mergā 'uarinō' (folia, 5.4.-meržem
ārum
fructus) 'deturbō'
µερµισ, (σ)µηρ mreža, мерё жа
ινθοσ, βροχοσ 'rēte, funda'
braige, braga
merghā merges 3a3.-merþi, 'nessa' 'funis'; 6.3.-márška? 'rēte'
'conuictus'
µοργοσ, µοροτ 6.4.-marga
τον 'corbis' 'cancellī'
2b1.-merydd bruoh, bruoch
meirc, meirg Bruxelles, βραγοσ 'palūs'
'dēbilitās'; 'palūs' 3a2.-
CAT.-brac 'rubigō'; bol Brussel (Hes); ме́рзкий
mergis merddwfr 'paluus' brōc, brook 'id'
'lutum' mergach 'uter <Bruocsell αµοργοσ, 'repugnans'
2b3.-mergidhām 3a3.-morkna
rugōsus' a αµοργη 'fraces'
'hebescō' 'uiescō'
mergō mergō májjati 6.3.-margóti
µαρπτω, µαρψ
amiricatud
merx; αι 'capiō';
'*immercātō' mrśáti 'tangit;
merkēds mercēs, (Hes.):
, amirikum capit'
mercārī βρασκει
'*immercārī'
ν συνιεναι
mrъknoti
mrecht 'uarius'
2b1.-brith 'id' morgan 'id' 'obscurārī'
<mṛktos maúrgins µαρµαρυσσω
merkō 2b2.-bruit 'id' 3a2.-mergen, smerk 'occāsus'
2a3.-breachtach 'matina' <-ukyō 'micō'
2b3.-briz 'id' morning 6.3.-mérkiu,-ti
'id'
'nictō'
markocić 'irritō'
2b2.-moreth 'cūra'
mérneumi PL.-markotny
2B3.-morc'het 'id'
'ariscus'
µαρµαιρω 'spl
merus (et 3a2.-mare 'herba márevo 'calor
meros brí ? 'tructa' endeō'; µορφ márīci- 'radius'
piscātus) aurea' extrēmum'
η 'forma'

mŕṣyate 'uorat;
marren, merren negligit' mŕṣā 6.3.-mìrstu, àiz-
marzjan
mersō 'impediō' 'irrītē' 5.4.- mìrst 'obliuiscor';
'molestō'
3a2.-mierran 'id' moranam maršù s'immemor'
'obliuiscor'
meirb 'dēbilis' 2b1.-merw maro, marawēr
merwos
2a3.-meirbh 'insipidus' 'blandus'
māsca, Masche 'id' mázgarь 'aranea'
mesgō 3a2.-max, mæscr 6.3.-mezgù,
'nodus' mḕ gsti'nodō'
2b1.-mwyalch
amusla, Amsel,
2b2.-
meslā merula Meise
moelh<meisalkā
3a2.-māse, ōsle
2b3.-moualc'h
TOK A.-mem;
mensiō - méit <*mantī
mestis 2b1.-meint 'id' m∂nt(∂) 'sicut, mesti-h 6.3.-mãstas
n/m- infix. 'magnitūdō'
tam'
mēthí-, mēth
methas mesto 'locus'
mētā mēta 'miliārium' 5.3.-b∂r∂zimita 'alta 6.3.-miẽtas
(*mitostu-); m.' 6.4.-mìets
5.4.-moit`
µετα ALB.-mjet; Metu-
Metapīnum mit(i).'cum'
meti miÞ 'cum' (cf. κατα); barbis 'inter
'inter aquas' 3a2.-mið
Μεταπιοι > s palūdes'
mitan; mēl
to-math- (3ª s. µητισ 'meditā
mezzan; Mal 'tempus'; mātí- 'mensūra'
mētijai mētior do-mathi)) 'occāsiō' mēls men', µετρον ' 5.5.-mehur 'tempus' mě́titь 'intendere'
'minor' 'bossellus' mensūra'
µητισ māti 'mensūra,
2b1.-maut ? SLOV.-mèt
mētis 3a2.-mǣð 'meditāmen' scientia' 5.3.-
<*mōta 'pollex' 'foetus'
ALB.-matë miti-
metō, 2b1.-medel 'mess.' metǫ, mesti 'iaciō'
methel
metō messis, 2b2.-midil 6.3.-metù, mèsti
'messores'
permitiēs 'messor' 2b3.- 'iaciō'
649
midiff 'metō'
2b1.-medr
metrom µετρον mātrā
'habilitās'
Munter 'alacer' mṓdatē 'gaudet'
muad 'mundus,
meudos 3a2.-mood 5.3.-maođanō-
superbus'
'animus' karana-
muhhōn; mocken
meugō muger
3a2.-micher 'fur'
αµυττω; αµυχ 6.3.-mùšti
meukō mucrō muṣṭí 'pugnus'
η 'quatiō'
mūs, muṣká- 'cunnus'
meus / µυσ; µοσχοσ myšьса
musculus; 3a1, 3a2.-mūs 5.4.-mukn; mušk
muskós 'muscus' <5.4. 'brachium'
mūrex 'castoreum'
3a3.-mistr
mēghá- 'nubēs'
'intemp.' 3a5.- οµιχλα, οµιχλ mьga
mighlā 5.3.-maēha 'id'
miggelen 'pulueris η 6.3.-miglà
5.4.-mēg 'nebula'
pluere'
mьčьtъ 'uisiō';
2b1.-mygr 'lucens'
de-meccim mečtat’ 'somniō'
míkāmi micō, dīmicō di-r-mygu micken 'obseruō' 5.6.-miž ‘palpebra'
'negligō'
'negligō' 6.3.-miegóti
'dormiō'
5.5.-mida/midi
miljom minium µιλτοσ
'ruber'
muoz 'conuentus' 5.4.-matčim
mimdō ga-mōtjan,
3a2.-mētan, meet 'appropinquor'
2b1-b2.-cof µιµνησκω, µεµ
mímnāskō cu-man 3a2.-(ge)man (ga)man
(memna)
reminiscor 'memoria' ονα 4.2.-
'memoria' 3a3.-man <*mon-
2b3.-cov/kouñ µιµνασκω
míneumi
mist 'merda' mḗhati
maíhstus, οµειχω, οµιχε mìž-âm, -ati
minghō mingō, meiō 3a2.-mīgan 5.3.-maēzaiti
'merda' ω 6.3.-mẽžù, mišti
3a3.-mīga 5.4.-mizem
mínusi
misdhom mēta / Miete 3a2.- misdō µισθοσ mīḍ há'mercēs', mīžda

meord / mēd <*ōn 5.3.-mīžda

2b1.-maidd,
1b1.-mesga meidd 2b2.-
misgā medg/meadhg µισγω 'misceō' āmíksā 'sērum'
(fr.-mêgue) meith 2b3.-
meid
2b1.-mysgu (vn) µισγω, µειγνυµ mešiti 6.3.-
miskējō misceō mescaim miskan
2b2.-meski ι mieešti
2b1.-blawd 'farīna'
mláith, bláith
mlājō 2b2.-blot 'id' mlā-ti 'dēbilitāt'
'suauis'
2b3.-bleud 'id'
malcad un-tila- µαλακοσ 'moll mlьčati 'conticeō'
mulsch 'mollis'
'dēcadentia'; malsks is, aeger, mūrkhá- 'stultus' 6.3.-mùlki-s
mlākós 3a2.-malsc
blén 'mollia'< 'irratiōnālis ēffeminātus', β 5.4.-meɫk 'mollis' 'obstinātus,
'superbus'
mlaknā ' λαξ 'stultus' stultus'
2b1.-blawd
mláith, bláith 6.3.-mìltai
mlātóm 2b2.-blot
'suauis' 6.4.- mil̃ ti
2b3.-bleud
unmildjai
milti, milde 'id'
'sine µαλθακοσ
mḷdhos 3a2.-mild márdhati 'indulget'
amōre' (f. 'tener, mollis'
'blandus'
pl.)
βλεννοσ
mḷdsnos blandus mṛt-sná- 'līmus'
'stultus'
mṛdú
mollis; meldach 'grātus' 2b1.-blydd mildeis µαλθακοσ; αµ 5.4.-melk *<meldui- mladъ, molodú
mḷdus 3a2.-mild 'id'
mulier <-yes (<*ml-d/ml-dh) (<*ml-d/ml-dh) 'blandus' βλυσ, αµαλοσ 5.5.-malisku, 'iuuenis'
milisku 'dēbilis'
mḷduwijō
mḷgājō prō-mulgāre *to-in-uss-mlig-
2b1.-blin 'lassus'
βλιτον blin 'crêpe'
mlīnós 2b3.-blinion mrityati 'tabeō'
'atriplex' 6.3.-blīnis
'inertes'
maile; mell
mallom, 2b1.-mall βλασ−φηµοσ ' 5.3.-mairya 'fallax' 6.3.-mẽlas
mḷjos malus 'peccātum' -
mallud 'id' 'ruinātus' <-lso blasphēmus' 5.4.-meɫ 'peccātum' 'mendācium'
os/es
651
mlьčati 'tacēre', u-
malcaid mlьknąti 'obticēre'
mḷkāmi
'pūtescit' 6.3.-smùlkti
'macescere'
malína 'bacca'
mála- 'sordēs'
mālōn , Mal mēljan 6.3.-melas,
mḷnejós mulleus µελασ 'āter' maliná- 'āter,
'macula' 'scribere' mélynas
immundus'
'caeruleus'
mlōdhrós βλωθροσ
mell 'mons'
µολειν (βλωσ 6.5;-izmòlīti
mlōskō mullach
'cacumen' κω) 'eō' 'pāreō'
µελλω 'tardus
prōmellere;
sum'
mḷsos remelīgō; mall
remulcum µολισ ?
'paene'
mḷwā malua µαλαχη mūrva- 'cannabis'
maniyahha
mṇdōmi mandō
'administrō'
parimamandhi,
µενω, µιµνω, µ ámaman 'uacillō'
maneō, aimne 'patientia' εµενηκα; µονι 5.3.-framan
mṇējō anmynedd 'id'
mantō <anmenyā µοσ 'permanen 'perseuerō'
s' 5.5.-mimmai
'denegō'
ēmineō,
2b1.-
immineō,
monid,mynydd 3a2.-møna menahhanda
promineō,
mṇijai 2b2.-meneth 'id' 'emineō'; mønir zmena+hant
mons,
2b3.-menez 'tumulus' 'contra'
minor,
'mons'
mināx
firmonēn ga-munan
2b3.-guo-monim µαινοαµαι
mṇjō meminī do-moiniur 'temnere' 3a2.- 'meminisse mányatē mьnjo
'pollicēri' 'amens sum'
mon, man 'cogitō' '
manc (-g-) Mangel 6.3.-meñkas
mṇkos mancus mank 'parum'
'dēfectus'; 'exilis''
mangōn 'dēsum' 5.5.-maninkuwanteš TOK. A, B.-mänk

'breues' 'egeō'
mṇkstrom maistre mengen 'misceō' mìnkau 'fingō'
mṇsjai
µαιοµαι
'intendō'
6.9.-mēntimai
mṇtijai mentior
'mentīmur'
ga-minþi
mens toimtiu cōgitātiō';
mṇtis 3a2.-mind matíh 6.3.-mintis
(mentis) 'cōgitātiō' ana-minds
'suspectus'
µασαοµαι <m
méadal
H2tyā- math- 'agitō, fricō,
mṇtō mandō 'intestīna' mindil 'oreae'
µαθυιαι γναθ deleō, urō'
<*mṇth-lā
οι (Hes)
mant 2b1.-mant munþs
mṇtom mentum 5.5.-meni 'uultus'
'gingīua'<2b1? 'mandibula' 'bucca'
gi-munt. matá- 'cōgitātiō'
mṇtos commentus dermat 'obliuiō' ga-munds αυτο−µατοσ 6.3.-miñtas
'reminiscentia' 5.3.-mato
µατει πατει (Η
mnu, mjatь
mṇtrājō
men 'farīna, -mantalon 'semita' εσ.); µνιο carmamnās
puluis' 2b1.-mathru ν, µνοοσ 'fullones' 6.3.-mìnti;
'musgu' mìniava
manim, 2b1.-manal µαρη ?, ευµαρ
muntar, muintir munt
manins 'modius' manwus ? ησ ? ALB.- 5.5.-maniyahha-
mṇus manus <*manuterā 3a2, 3a3.-mund
1b2.-manuve <manatlo 2b3.- 'praestō' marr <*marn? 'mandō'
'familia' <*mṇt-
(l.) malazn 'id' 'capiō'
µανοσ; β
mank 'parum'
mīn<*mēni αναυσοσ ?
2b1.-di-fanw; di- 5.4.-manr (-nu)
mṇwos 'suāuis' 'monotropus'
fenwi 'diiminuō' 'paruu.'
menb 'paruus' µονοσ ?
<nw 'solus' 5.5.-minu- 'solus'
mō
med <medā mūta, Maut met µηδεα
modos modus addh <*mddhē
'libra'; 'id'>lat. 'pondus'; 'consilia'
653
dorumadir 3a2.-mōt 'id' mōta 'certō'

'fuerat 'tribūtum' 5.4.-mit 'cōgitātiō'
emensus';
airmed
'mensūra'
māg 'familiāris' 6.3.-megmi, megti
mēgs περιηµεκτεω 'r
moghjos a2 3a3.-mag 'libenter habeō'
'gener' eluctāns sum'
'gener' 6.4.-mẽgt 'faveō'
do·formaig magan, mugan magan µηχοσ µηχανη maghah 'potentia'
moguti 'posse'
'auget'; (mag 'possum') (mag 'machina' 5.4-marthank
po-mogati 'iuuāre'
moghō mochtae, 3a2.mæg 'possum' ) TOK A.- 'auxilium,
6.3.-mãgulas
mochtide 'possum'; -meaht mahts mokats remedium' 5.6.-
'innumerus'
'potens' 'potentia' 'potentia' 'potens' magus 'magus'
maht, macht
moghtis mahts moštь, močь
3a2.-meaht, might
moghtrom
mēha- 5.4.-
moighos 3a2.-mehs TOK. В miśo
mēz
2b1.-mwyn; mirъ ? 'pax'
móith, móeth; mul 'modestus'; máyas- <*moiro-
mīn 'suauis, di-ful 'audax' 'oblectamentum' milъ
moilos mītis plaanus' mwydo 'mitigō' miyḗdha- -sdh-
'misericordia'
mē(i)th 2b2.-muin, moin 'oblatiō'
6.3.-míelas ; at-
'madidus, uber' 2b3.-moan 5.3.-myazda- 'obl.'
míetet 'mitigō'
'gracilis'
6.4.-mīlš 'amor'
moinijai
moinis
moenia, 3a2.-(ge-)mære
tuidmen 'fixus'
mūniō, arch. 'limes, mirъ ? 'pax'
<*todīminat; minṓti 'aptat,
moinja moeniō, territorium' <*moiro-
mé(i)de 'ceruix' fundat, struit'
mūrus, a. 3a3.-landamæri 6.4.-mìet 'mūniō
<*meidyo
moiros 'id'
missi-; missi месть 'ulciscātiō'
moitājō mūtō in-maidjan
'altrinsecus' <*meit-ti
3a2.-māɵum 6.4.-mie^ti,
'dōnum' mie^tus 'mūtātiō'
SDPIC.-
meitims;
meitimúm 3a2.-māðum maiþms
moitmos 'monumentu 'thesaurus, <*moitmos
m dōnum, gemma' 'dōnum'
grātificātiōni
s'
mithuna 'par'
5.3.-miɵwa, месть 'ulciscātiō'
moitwos mūtuus
miđwana, -ara 'id' <*meit-ti
móin, máin mwyn<*meino- mein 'falsus' 6.3.-maĩnas
mojnos mūnus -eris
'thesaurus' 'pretium, ualor' 3a2.-mān 'id' 6.4.-mains
moksi mox mo, mos-
6.3.-
mell, mullach lýgmala''berma'
βλωσκω
molā 'tumulus'; Malea Insula 6.4.-mala
'pāreō'
mala 'palpebra' 6.5;-izmòlīti
'pāreō'
βλωθροσ
'excelsus'; βλ mūrdhan 'caput'
molda
moldhā 3a5.-meldke αστοσ 5.3.- ka-m∂r∂δa-
<muldikō 'propāgō'; TokA malto
µελαθρον 'prīmum'
'tectus'
moldhos
molīna, 3a2.-mylen, mill
moleinā 2b3.-meil <*melyā µυλη, µυλοσ 6.9.-malunis
molīnus <lat.
mōlestos
bligim<mligim milchu, Milch
mršṭ i, mrjati, mlizu
molgējō mulgeō mlicht, blicht 2b1.-blith 3a2.-meolcian, miluks 'lac' αµελγω
mrjáti 'purgat' 6.3.-mélzu
'lac' milk
mōlēs, muoan, mûhen
af-mauiþs µωλοσ máj-u, -atь
mōlis mōlior, muodi, müde
'fessus' 'molimentum' 'fatigō'
molestus 'fessus'
655
3a2.-mēðe 'id' µωλεω 'liti 6.3.-pri-si-muoleti

gō' µολισ 'defetiscor'
(cf. µογισ) 'uix'
molos
µελπω, µολπη
2b1.-mawl, moli
molpā molad 'canō,
2b3.-meuli
cantus'
molokó 'lac'
molokita 'palūs'
milgen 'pecudibus milhma µελκιον κρηνη
molqos 6.3.-mal̃ kas
frūmen macerō' 'nubēs' (Ηεσ.) 'sorptiō' 6.4.-
màlks 'pōtiō'
mundus? (cf. mandag 'alacer, mandagù-
mondō maṇḍati, maṇḍayati
mūdnós) gaudens' 'urbānus, bellus'
mondós
manen, mahnen māná yati 'honorat';
monējō moneō 3a2.-manōn, mánati 'monet'; 6.3.-iš-manýti
manian mnāyá tē 'monētur'
3a3.-makki 'ubi
2b1.-mwng crīnes crescunt'
mongos mong 'crīnes'
2b3.-pl. mogou 3a4.-manke
'crīnis'
2b1.-mwnwgl
muinél 'collus' 2b2.-meneth maṇí- 'et gemma'
monīli monīle monisto
<moniklo 2b3.- <*monHi-
monid/menez
formnae 2b1.-mwn 'collus, mányā
µοννιακησ
monos monīle <upermonyo monīle' ; gor- mana 'crīnis' 5.3.-manaorī
'monīle'
'umerus' fynydd 'scāla' <*moneutro-
montis
2b2.-2b3.-mar
morā mora maraim 'maneō'
'uacillātiō'
mor-(r)īgain
(Nacht)mahr
morā 'lamia, regīna mora 'uenefica'
3a2-(night)mare
terrōris'

3a2.-mirki, mierce
morgatь 'nictō'
morcos 3a3-myrkr, αµοργβοσ
myrkvan 6.3.-mìrgu, -éti 'id'
murten 'marceō'; αµερδω
smerzan 'doleō' 'clepō'; βαρδην márdati, -áyati 'terō' TOK. A, B.-märtk-
mordējō mordeō
3a2-smart ; σµερδν 5.4.-mart 'pugna' 'rādō''
'pungens' οσ 'horrendus'
2b1.-morwyn, µειραξ
márya- 'iuuenis, 6.3.-merga, martì
marītus; merch 2b2.- marzus 'iuuenis, puer';
morignā muirén puer' 5.6.- 'puella' 6.4.-
uirgō?? moroin 2b3.- 'nuptiae' βριτοµαρτισ mērak 'id' mę̄̀rga
moren 'diana'
2b1.-morddwyd
2b2.-morboit
morjods muriot µηροσ ?
'femur' 2b3.-
morzat/-rzed
µορµοροσ
'metus';
mórmoros formidō
µορµων
'stix'
mōrum mūr-,
morom 2b1.-merwydden µορον 5.4.-mor(eni), mori 6.3.-mõras <lat.?
vocal.? mōrbere,<lat?
µοροσ 'fātum,
morъ 'pestis'
moros infortūnium, mā̆ra- 'mors'
6.3.-mãras 'id'
mors'
iantumarus māri ιοµωροσ
mōros már, mór 2b1.-mawr 3a2.-mære mers 'celeber
2b2.-2b3.-meur 3a3.-mærr propter arcum'
mōrós mōrus µωροσ mūrá-
µαιοµαι ∋ιντεν moštrjo, motriti
mout, Mut δ∋ ?? χφ: ∗<µ 'spectāre'; sъmejo,
mōs (mōris); 'animus' Γσψοµαι ?, µη -meti 'audeō' 6.3.-
mōs moths 'īra'
mōrōsus 3a2.-mōd 'animus' νισ ∋ρα∋; µω mataũ, matýti
3a3.- mōðr 'īra' ται ζητει (Ησθ. 'uideō' 6.4.-matu,
) mast 'sentiō'
657
mozgъ 'cerēbrum';
mastíṣka; majján,
mar(a)g, mar(a)k, moždanъ
majj, majjas
mosgom Mark 'medullae'
'medullae' 'medullae'
3a2.-mearg 'id'
5.3.-mazga- 6.3.-smãgenes,
'cerēbrum'
moukos
5.4.-mōr 'palūs,
µυρω, µυροµαι immunditia' mur, muráva
múr 'lutum';
'fluō'; <*muri-? mrur 'caespēs' 6.3.-
mouros muria ? mún 'ūrīna'
µυριον ? <*murur máuras 'lutus'
<*mouno-
'10.000' 'sedimentum'; - 6.4.-maũrs 'caes.'
moyn 'immersus'
mos, Moos; Moor 5.4.-mamur
mousos mъchъ <*musos
'et palūs' <*memus-ro-
mūtō /
muttō, -ōnis, 6.3.-muténti
moutos moth
mutūnium; 'coīre'
mūtūniatus
1b2.- mīvati ká ma- 6.3.-máuju, máuti
hemds-mauen αµευσσοµαι 's
mowējō moueō comohota mūta-'amōre mōtus' 'addūcō (anum in
'manica camisiae' uperō'??;
'commota' 5.3.-ava-mivāmahi digitum'
bragen 'cerebrum'
2b1.- br(e)ithel βρεγµα, βρεχµ 5.3.-m∂r∂zu-
mreghmós 3a2.-broegen,
signif.? οσ 'uertebra ceruicālis'
brain 'id'
µειροµαι
'partem
ro-smerta
mṛējō mereō accipiō', ειµαρ
'praeparans'
ται <σεσµ−; µο
ιρα 'parca'
breuis; murg, murgi βραχυσ; βρα
TOK B.-märkwace
mṛghús braccium 3a2.-myrge, merry χιων 'sūra'
<gr. 'beātus' >braccium
εµαρτεν 'mort marati, márate, mьrǫ, mrěti
mṛijai morior
uus est' mriyáte 5.3.- 6.3.-mìrštu, mir̃ti

miryeite 5.4.- 6.4.-mir̃stu, mir̃t

meranim 5.5.-
me-ir-ta 'mortuus
est'
µειραξ márya- 'iuuenis,
mṛjos marītus 'iuuenis, puer' puer' 5.6.-
mērak 'id'
mor(a)ha, Möhre βρακανα (Hes. morkóvь, morkva
mṛkā
3a2.-more, moru ) <ger.?
mercasius 'palūs'
brén <*mrākno-
bracem 'genus morokvá 'palūs'
'putridus'
mṛkējō marceō farris' 2b1.-braen 6.3.-mirkt-ti
mraich, braich
'putr.' 2b3.- 'imbūtus sum'
'malta'
breyn/brein
marcáyati 'ruinat'
morgen 'dēbilis'
marká- 'mors'
murcus, 3a2.-mearg µιµαρκυσ 'bot 6.3.-pa-smer̃kti
mṛkos mǝrǝxš 'ruina'
murcidus 'botulus' ulus sanguinis' 'ruinō'
5.4.-morč̣ <-rky
3a3.-morr ` 'bot.'
'tener'
mṛktos
mṛmeikā formīca µυρµηξ vamrī-
marmara- 'rumor'
murmurōn, *mrъmrati
murmurō; muirn 'rumor, murmura- 'ignis
mṛmrājō murmeln, murren µορµυρω 6.3.-murméti,
murmur strepitus' crepitans'
3a2.-murc(n)ian marméti
5.4.-mrmram
µαραινω
'ruinō';
mur(u)wi 'mürbe
µαρασµοσ mrṇāti, mrṇati
mortārium, meirb 'mortuus' 'blandus'
2b1.-merw 'ruina'; 'furtat' 5;5.- -moromradi
mṛtājō morētum, meirle 'furtum' 3a2.-mearo 'id'
'dēbilis'; brad 'id' µαρµαροσ ' marriattari 'rōdere'
morbus mrath 'traditiō' 3a3.-merja
marmor' 'disoluitur'
'quatiō'
µαρν
αµαι 'pugnō'
mṛtāsjom
mṛtis mors mṛtiḥ sъ-mrъtь
659
(mortis) 6.3.-mirtìs
mṛtá- 'mortuus,
mord 'nex' mors'; mártah
maurþr µορτοσ (Hesic
3a2.-morð, 'homō' 5.3.- mrьtvъ
'nex' hyus) 'homō'
mṛtos mortuus morðor <*-tro- m∂r∂ta-; maša-, 6.3.-mirtóji dienà
<*mṛ-tro- βροτοσ
'nex' 3a3.- mar∂ta- 'h.' 'diēs mortuōrum'
m (Hom.)
morð 'id' 5.4.-mard 'homō'
5.6.-martiya 'homō'
mortuus 2b1.-marw
mrьtvъ <*mṛwos
mṛwos <*mṛwos + marb 2b2.-marow
*mṛtos 2b3.-maro, marf + *mṛtos
muzzan 'purgō'; µυδαω 'madeō'
smuz, Schmutz mudirá- 'nubēs' myjo, myti 'lauō'
muad 'mundus, µυζω
mundus < 'immunditia' mṓdatē ` 'gaudet' 6.3.-máudyti
mūdlom superbus'; 'sūgō''
mūdnós 3a2.-smotten, 5.5.-mutai 'purgō' 'aliquem balneō'
mún 'urīna' µυδαλ
smoteren (lutō uel urīnā) 6.7.-mýdlo
'mancillō' εοσ 'umidus'
mūdnós
mustus,
mossach 1b1.-mws 'id' ND.-mussig µυσοσ <ds musljákъ
mudstos mustum
'immundus' 2b3.-mous 'id' 'immundus' 'macula' 'impudīcus'
<umidus
muckazzen;
mugijō mugiō µυζω 'mussitō' múñjati, mṓjati
mucken 'susurrō'
mucheln, mücheln smyčoi se 'rēpō'
αποµυσσω; µυ munákti, muñcáti,
ēmungō, 2b1.-mign 'moho odēre' mūka- mukljiv 'ūdus'
κτηρ mucáti 'liberat'
munkō mūcus, 'palūs' mocht 'mollis' 3a2.-meek mōdei 6.3.-munkù
5.3.-framuxti
mūcor, mūgil <*mūkino; 'blandus' mugen 'placiditās' 'nasus'; µυξοσ 'abstērgeō'; mukls,
'mūgil' 'liberō'
'nebulor' -ains 'palūdōsus'
mūs 3a2.- mū́s-, mūṣá-, mū́ṣa-
mūs mūs (mūris) µυσ myšь
mūs, mouse 5.4.-mukn
mucha, mъšica
muskā musca µυια <*musyā 5.4.-mun
6.3.-musẽ
3a3.-musk 'mūcor, muzga 'palūs';
muskos muscus parua pluuia, mozgъ'tempus
puluis' ūdus'

chrēo-mōsido αµυνω ! mósati, musnāti

músnāmi (Lex Salica) 'abdūcō'; 'clepō' 5.5.-
'cadaueris raptus' µοναµενοσ munnai-
modder 'lutum'
mū́tra- 'urīna'
mothar 3a2.-mother
5.3.-mūθra
mūtrom 'dūmētum, 'faeces'; mud;
'immundit.' 5.4.-
palūs' smod
mtàr 'obscūrus'
'immunditia'
muttijō
mutilōn
'murmurō'
muttis muttiō 3a2.-muteren,
mutter 'id'
3a3.-muðla 'id'
ṇ in- e(n)- i(n)- a(n)- un- un- α(ν)−
νωτοσ, νωτον
n∂tis natis, natēs nōtan 'puppis'
'tergum'
genende 'nauus';
ana-
Ferdinand
nantis néit 'pugna' nanþjan
3a2.-nēþan
'audeō'
'audeō'
nāsā nosъ
nāris, nāsis, nasa
nāsis 5.3.-nar∂ha 6.3.-nósis
nāsus 3a2.-nosu, nose
5.6.-nāham 6.4.-nãss <*nāsis
2b1.-neidr
nathir natara, Natter nadrs, g.pl.
natrīks natrix 2b2.-nader
(nathrach) 3a2.-nǣddre nadrē
2b3.-natrolion/aer
nāvig-āre, - nāvāja-
nawāgós ναυηγοσ
ium 5.3.-navāza-
náuh (ac. nāvam)
nāws nāuis nau, nó (noe) nausum 3a3.-nōr ναυσ 5.4.-naw
5.6.-nāv
abudhná-
ṇbhudhnó αβυσσοσ <∗Γβ
m
'infundātus'
ηυδηϕο− 5.4.-andund-k'
661
3a3.-ökkvinn αδην 'glandul

ṇcḗn inguen
'tumor' a'
inde- 'per'
ande 'per-' (int.)
LUS.-inde (intens.) ενθα 'ibī,
ṇdha 2b1.-an(ne)- und 'tenus' ádhi 'super, ad' ALB.-në, ndë 'in'
'et' 'ind-reth ibīdem'
'dispositiō'
'cōgitātiō'
inferus;
untar, untan undar <
infimus, αθεριζω
ṇdherós 3a2.-under *ṇter adhara-
infernus, 'contemnō'
3a3.-und 'sub' (cf. énteri)
infrā
ṇdhētós
ṇdhi ande- 'magis' adhi 'super'
ṇdwojos
2b1.-ni
nē nē, ne ní 2b2.-ny na
2b3.-ne
nem (es-), nábhas- 'nebula'
nebula, neamh; nél ?, ac. νεφοσ (νεφουσ 5.3.-nabah- 'caelum' nebo, -ese
nebul 'nebula'
nebhis nimbus pl. níulu 2b1.-nef 'caelum' ) νε 5.5.-nepiiš 'caelum' 'caelum'
3a2.-nifol 'id'
Neptūnus? <*nebhlo-? φελη (nebisas) 6.3.-debesis
'nūbēs' 5.6.-nem 'ūdor'
nebhlā
nenaid, neantóg nazza, nezzila αδικη <∗Γδ−ικ 6.6.-nać
nedis 2b3.-linad
<*ni-nati-? 3a2.-netele, nettle  6.3.-nõterė, notrė̃
nessimas 2b1.-nesaf
nessam náhus 'congener'
nedjos nectō 1b1.-nesimei 2b2.-nessa
'proximus' naddhás 'connexus'
'proxime' 2b3.-nesa
nascim <ndsk-;
arnenas 2b1.-nes, nessaf náhyati; náhus
nesten; nezzi,,
nessimas 'nectam'; 'id' 2b2.-nes 'uīcīnus, congener'
nōdus, nōdō, Netz 'id'; nestilōn
nedō 1b1.-nesimei naidm 'nexus'; 'propior' nati 'rēte' naddhás 'connexus'
nassa 'lemniscātus'
'proxime' nessa, nessam 2b3.-nes, nessaf 5.3.-naska- 'collectiō
3a2.-net 'id'
'propior, 'id'; nasca 'aptō' textuum'
proximus'
nedsā
nedskō nectō (ad nascim ` 2b3.-naska náhyati
plectō) <nedhsk
ness <neg^hs-; ákṣu- 'stipēs' vъ-nьzo -znotь;
neghō
'uulnus' <*nghsu-? nožь 'culter'
1a2.- nioro, Niere
neghrōn νεφροσ
nefrōnēs 3a3.-nyra
5.3.-naē-čiš 'et ni 'neque' ni-
nei nī, arc. nei nei 'nōn' 3a3.-nī 'nōn' nei 'nōn'
nullus' kъto 'nullus'
noegeum nihhus 'monstrum
neicō nigim 'lauō' νιζω nḗnēkti, nēnējmi
<*noigʷi̯o aquaticum'
ga-naitjan níndati 6.3.-níedeti
neizzen ονειδιζω;
naiteins 5.3.-naēd- (nāismī) 'contemnō'
neidō 'tormentō'
'sacrilegiu ονειδοσ 'o 5.4.-anicanem 6.4.-nĩst 'id';
3a2.-nætan 'id' ffensiō'
m' 'maledicō' naîdus 'odium'
cruth-necht 2b1.-nithio;
λικµαω; νικα, 6.3.-niekó-ti
neikō 'rūber frūmen' gwenith 2b3.-
λικµα 6.4.-niekat
(cf. 2b1, b3) niza; gwiniz
níth <nītu- Neid 'inuidia' neiþ
neitom 2b1.-nwyd 'passiō'
'pugna' 3a2.-nīð 'inuidia'
níva <*nēiwā
'depressiō'
3a2.-neowol, nēol, *naiw 6.3.-néivoti
neiwós 'prōnus' (cf. lat. νειοσ 'uallis'
'ἐνεῖχεν' 'tormentō'
procul)
6.4.-niẽvât
'humiliō'
nékāmi
nekopīnós necopīnus εξαπινησ внеза́пно
nex, 2b1.-
naś(y)ati 'perditur' ;
nequālia, angheu/angau νεκυσ
éc (éca) <*ṇkus nas- 'infortūnium'
neks necō, noceō, 2b2.-ankow 'cadauer';
2a3.-éag 5.3.-nasyeiti
perniciēs, 2b3.-ankou νεκ−ταρ 'ēuanescit'
noxa <*ṇkewes
nemhton namas 'honōrātiō'
némētom nemed nemida
2b1.-nant 'id' 5.3.-nemata 'gigās'
663
niman νεµω; νοµιζω

3a1, 3a2.-niman 6.3.-nãmas
'emō'
nem, neim 'id'; nehmen (a1) 'considerō'; νο 'domus'
nemō nummus ? <*n+em?
cf. 6.4..- µοσ 'lex', νοµι
'dōnum' 3a3.-nēma 'id' 6.4.-nams 'id';
<*n+em? nuõma 'grauāmen'
n̨emt/jemt µοσ 'legālis'
nemhton námas 'inclinātiō,
nemed 'santuarium'; 3a2.-nimidas reuerentia'; námati
nemos nemus νεµοσ
'sanctuārium' nanto 'ualle' `sacra silvārum' 'inclinātur'
2b1.-nant 'id' 5.3.-námaiti 'id'
2b1, 2b2, 2b3.- νεµεσισ ALB.-name
nemots náma (námat) nãma 'raptiō' 5.3.-nemanh 'scelus'
nam 'damnum' 'ulciscātio 'maledictiō'
2b1.-nai
nefo, nevo 3a2.- νεποδεσ (Hom
nepēts nepōs niae (niath) 2b2.-noi nápāt- 6.3.-nepotis
nefa ) 'suboles'
2b3.-ni pl. nied
Neptacus
2b1.-nith νεποδεσ (Hom
neptis neptis necht nit naptī
2b2.-noit ) 'suboles'
2b3.-nith/niz
2b1.-na(c)
neqe neque, nec nih naca ALB.-nuk 'nōn'
2b2-b3.-na(g)
(ni)
nec na(kaś/cid)cit
neqid hvashun
quidquam 5.5.-ULkuisk/kuidki
'nemō'
neqis
neqom
nepon (nepi) не́кий
neqos nech (neich)
2b1.-neb 6.3.- nekur̃s
nerum
'uirum, proc.' Esu-nertus ; ανηρ 'homō' nár(a)- (n) 'homō' nravъ 'mōs'
neriōsus, ner 'ursus'; so- sūná ra- 'iuuenis' 6.3.-nóras
neros 1b2.-nerf ner; hy-nerth Nerthus ανθροποσ
Nerō nirt 'sānus, fors' 5.3.-nar(a) 'uoluntās'; noréti
'proceres, 'fortis' <∗ανδροκωοσ
princ'; 5.4.-air (arn) 'uelle'
nertrak 'a nordrōni, nördlich náraka- 'infera, нора́ 'cauitās' ;
(ε)νερτεροσ, νε
nérteros sinistrā' 3a2.-norðerra hadēs' TOK B.-
1b2.-nertru '+sep.' ιροσ 'inferus' ñor 'sub' въньрѫ, вънрѣти

'sinistrō' 'παρεισδύεσθαι'
6.3.-neriù, nérti
'cadō'
Nerto-briga
nertos nert 'uis' 2b1-2b2.-nerth nṛtú- 'heros' 6.9.-nertien 'īra'
2b3.-nerz
5.5.-nahsaras
nesros nár
'reverens'
āne, an, ohne
ṇeu inu ανευ
3a2.-āno
ну́жа, нужда
niutan
'attingō'; 'necesittās'
Nōdonti, Nōdenti nuzzen, nützen 'd' 6.3.-naudà
Nuado (Nuadat) nuta
neudō 'piscātōrī' 3a2.-nyttian 'prouectus' ,
'piscātor' 'piscātor' ;
2b1.-Nudd 'id' 'fruor' naudoti 'ūtor'
un-nuts
'inutilitās' 6.4.-nàu^da
'pecunia'
6.3.-niáukti
nuscitiōsus, 'nebulārī'
neukos
luscīnus 6.4.-apnaukties
'id'
Neuiodunum
náva- novъ, но́вый
nae, noe, nue, 2b1.-newydd niuwi <*-yo- niujis <*-
new(ij)os nouus νεοσ 5.3.-nava- 6.3.-naũja-s
nuie 2b2.-nowyth 3a2.-nīewe <*-yo- yo-
5.5.-nēwas 6.9.-nauns
2b3.-nouuid
niuwōn, niwōn 5.5.-newahhum
newājō nouō ana-niujan
3a2.-niwian 'nouāuī'
devetь (nt a XC)
2b1.-2b2.-naw 3a2.-nigun <ww náva
newṇ nouem nói niun εννε(F)α 6.3.-devynì
2b3.-nao 3a3.-niio 5.4.-inn
6.4.-devińi
néwṇos
nóid 'nōtum νευω <∗νευσω; ponúryj (*neu-ro-
nuō, nutō, návatē, nāuti
newō facit'; ate-no 2b1.-adnau νευσταζω; νε ) 'inclinātus' 6.3.-
nūmen 'reuertitur'; nudáti
'fidō'; aithne υµα niùrkyti 'dēprimō'
665
'depositum'
newotāts nouitās νεοτησ
TOK B.-aknātsa
ṇgnōtós ignōtus ajnāta-
'amens'
arneut-sa,
inneut-sa ni, nitarām
nidar
'exspectō' νειοσ, νεατοσ,
nī 3a2.-nithar 5.3.-nī, nit∂nam nizъ
<nēsedō;
3a3.-nidhr νειατοσ 'uallis'
arneigdet 5.4.-ni
'rogant'
2a0.-netta,
niott(a) 2a1.-né, νικη <*niHHe
náyati, netum
nía, niath /oth, H2 'uictoria';
nijóm 5.3.-nayeiti
niad/od, niath νικαω, νικεω 5.5.-nāi/neya
<*neits/*nijots 'uincō'
'hērōs'
niktis
an 'despondeō' ntha- 'protector,
nínāmi 3a2, 3a3.-ann 'id', ονινηµι 'iuuō' protectiō'; nthate
praet. 3a2.-ūðe 'rogat'
nicь, ниц
3a2.-nihol (cf. lat. nīcā́ ́ 'retrō'
nīqos ničati 'pronum
procul) nyañc- 'subtō'
esse'
2b1.-nyth
net nest 3a2.- nīḍ á- 'residentia'
nisdos nīdus 2b2.-neid/neith
2a3.-nead nest 5.4.-nist
2b3.-neiz
niteō
níab 'uis uitālis'
<*nitós; nīla 'āter caeruleus';
<neibhos ?;
nitor -ris; 3a2.-nīð, nīth nayana, netra
noíb 'sanctus'; 2b1.-nwyd 'passiō' neiÞ
nitējō renīdeō 'disputātiō' 'oculus'
níam<neimā <neito 'invidia'
<*nei- 3a3.-nīð 'irrīsus' 5.6.-naiba 'pulcher,
'splendor,
id(h)os (af. bonus'
pulchritudō'
āridus ardeō)
nteros
nitjos Nitio-broges 3a2.-niððas niþjis nítya-

'homines' 'familiāris'
3a3.-niðr 'fam.'
ṇjousjom
ṇjoustos
2b1.-
anghen/angen αναγκη
ṇkējō écen 'necessitās' 5.5.-hienkan 'mors'
2b2-3.-anken 'necessitās'
'angō'
ro-icc 'attingit';
sub. -íss ποδηνεκησ
<*īnkse/o- ; pf. ginah, genug ganah, 'talāris'; aśnṓti, náśati, pf.
2b1.-di-anc 'satis'; nah ? 'prop' ganaúhan διηνεκησ 6.3.-pranókti
·ánaic do- āná mśa, ānśa
'effugiō' 3a2.-geneah 'satis' 'sufficit' ; 'continuus'; 'praetereō'
ṇkneumi icc 'uenit' rank, cyfranc ; nāh, nēah, nigh ? ganōhs δουρηνεκησ <*h2eh2no(n)ke 6.4.-nãku, nãki,
pr. du-uicc <*kom-ro-anko- 'id' (ge)nægan? 'satis' ; 'amplore 5.3.-ašnaoiti nãkt, praet. nãca
<*onkist con- 'id' 'appropinquō' nēhv ? hastae' 5.4.-hasanem, praet. 'ueniō'
icc 'inuenit' 3a3.-(g)nōgr 'id' 'prope' κεντρηνεκησ ' hasi
con-icc- 'potest' cuspide actus'
comracc 'contiō'
αµβροτοσ, αµβ
ṇmrótijos immortālis a-mṛ́ta-
ροσιοσ
nanto 'uallis' námati 'inclinātur',
TOK A, B.-näm-
nṃtos 2b1.-nant 'uallis' natá- 'plicātum'
'plicō'
2b2.-nans 'id' 5.3.-nǝmaiti 'id'
ro-icc 'attingit';
sub. -íss
nanciō; Selva-nectes
<*īnkse/o- ; pf. - náśati, nákṣati
nanciscor, 'Proprietārīi' ganah,
ánaic do- 'assequitur' , aor.
na(n)ctus 2b1.-di-anc ginah, genug 'id' ganaúhan
icc 'uenit' naṭ; 5.3.-- 6.3.-nóksta, nókia,
nṇkskai sum; 'effugiō' 3a2.-geneah 'id' 'sufficit'
pr. du-uicc nasaiti nokti 'mātūrō'
nancītor rank, cyfranc 3a3.-(g)nōgr 'id' ganōhs
<*onkist con- 5.5.-ni-ik-zi (nikzi)
'nactus erit' <*kom-ro-anko- 'satis'
icc 'inuenit' 'erigitur'
(LXIIT) 'id'
con-icc- 'potest'
comracc 'contiō'
nocējō
nócodos nūdus nocht 2b1.noid/noeth nackt 3a2- naqaÞs γυµνοσ <Hes nagná-
667
2b2.-noyth nacod, naked lυµνοσ <νυµνο mana-

2b3.-noaz 3a3.-nökkviðr, σ (*o > u 5.5.-neku-manza
nakuþer propter
Cowgill's
legem)
nōdos nōdus naidm 'nexus' náti 'rēte'
5.6.-naiba 'pulcher,
noibhos noib
bonus'
nōinos nullus 3a1, 3a2.-nēn
noceō, nex, 2b1.-angeu 'id' νεκυσ, νεκρον naśyati, naśati 'id';
nokējō nequālia, éc 'mors' 2b2.-ancow 'id' 'cadauer'; νεκα nasu 'cadauer'
perniciēs 2b3.-negein 'necō' σ 5.3.-nasyeiti 'pereō'
nom num no- (part uacua) 5.5.-na 'tunc'
nom nē
imę
2b1.-anu pl enuein nmā
ainm n- namo, Name ονοµα; −ονυµ <*ṇmṇ/*ṇmen
nōmṇ nōmen 2b2.-hanow namo 5.4.-anun
<*ṇmṇ / *ṇmen 3a2.-nama, name οσ 6.9.-emnes,
2b3.-hano 5.5.-laman-
emmens
namnjan
namnan, nennen ονοµαινω <∗Η
nōmnājō nominō <*nomnjo/
3a2.-nefna 3νΗ3µΓϕ
e
2b1.-naws 5.5.-lammar
nós <*nomso-? nuoma 'usufrucus,
nomṛ numerus 'gnōtis'? 2b3.- 'mensura quaedam
'consuetūdō' beneficium'
neuz ? 'id' temporis'
νυξ (νυκτοσ) ( nákti-s
2b1.-henoeth naht, nacht
in-nocht 'hac *o > u propter 5.5.-nekuz noštь, ночь
noqtis nox (noctis) 2b2.-nos 3a2.-naht, night nahts
nocte' Cowgill's 'nocturnus', 6.3.-naktìs
2b3.-noz 3a3.-natt, nott
legem) nekuzzi 'uesperascit'
ganisan νευµαι
gi-nesan, genesen 'reuertor'
'saluus
'sānō'; nerren, násatē 'conciliātur'
fierī'
nähren 'alō, cūrō' TOK -A naṣu-
nosējō nasjan νοστοσ Nsatyau
3a2.- nerian 'amīcus'
'saluō' 'reuersiō' 'Iuuātōres'
'ptegō' genesan
ga-nists νασοσ
'superuīuō';
'sānātiō' > νεωσ
'templum'; Νε
στωρ ασ
µενοσ 'secūrus'
nauþs
<*nouti-
'necessitās' nožda 'necessitās'
2b1.-newyn nōt, Not
; naus navь 'cadauer'
nōunā núne, naunae 2b2.-nown 3a2.-nēad, nīed,
'cadauer', <*nōwis
2b3.-naoun need
nawis 6.3.-nõvyti 'mactō'
<*nowis
'mortuus'
ṇprobhwo
s
ṇqijētós inquiētus 5.3.-a-šāta- 'tristis'
unser
ṇserós noster 2b3.-hon unsar
3a2.-our
ásyati 'iacit'
ṇsis ensis
astram 'missīle'
ṇsloimis
ηµεισ, ηµεασ
asmān
uns <*uṇswe uns 4.2.−αµ
ṇsme 5.3.ahma
3a2.-us <*uṇswe µε 4.3.- 5.5.-anzāš
αµε
ṇswodhros
nunc
<numke; nu (nū?); nú, nū́, nūná m;
3a1.-a2, a3.-nū nyne; nъ 'sed'
num,; naúh nūtana
nū 3a1.-nūn; noch νυ, νυν 6.3.-nù, nūnaĩ
etiamnum,; 'adhuc' 5.3.-nū(m), nūram
'adhuc' 6.4.-nu
nū-per; nu- *nu-kwe 5.5.-kinun
diūs
σηµερον<*kyā
numki nunc 5.5.-kinun
meron
ainb (ainfed); unwizzi <*-di̯o- unwits; Hom.
avidyá
ṇwidis noídiu 'ignorantia' unwiti νηισ <*newid
5.5.-awiti 'leō'
<*newidwōs 3a2.-unwita <*-di̯o- s;
669
'infans' 'ignorantia' Αιδησ 'Ha

dēs'
ob- (cf. epi), bi 'ad,
abhi 'ad'
obhi ob portum circum' obь, оbъ 'circum'
5.4.-abiy
(XIIT) (cf. ambhí)
óbrusjā obrussa <gr. οβρυζα huprushi 'turārium'
2b1.-euod áhi-s 'serpens'
οφισ 'serpens' 6.3.-angìs
ochis anguis esc-ung 'anguila' 'uormes' 2b3.- 5.3.-azish
rogedou 'orgiis' εχισ 'uipera' 5.4.-auz
6.6.-waz
atochta
οδυσσασθαι 'f 5.5.-hatugatar
odáugjai 'malum'
urere' 'terror'
(Crim)
odor,
οζω<οδιω; οδµ
odefaciō, 3a3.-os<ōdso 6.3.-úodžiu, úosti
odējō η, οσµη 'odor'; ALB.-amë 'odor'
ol(e)faciō, 'odor' 6.4.-uožu, uost
oleō ευοδησ
etar 'margīō,
uallum' ostrimon 'stabulum, odrъ 'lectus'
odhrom
3a2.-supti- claustrum' odrina 'stabulum'
'uallum'
3a2.-atol 'dīrus' 5.4.-ateam <*H3d
odjō (ōda) ōdi, odium οδυσ− <οδυδ−
3a3.-atall 'id' -hatuka 'dīrus'
ōdjom
odós
oghlējō 3a2.-eglian, ail οχλεω
oghlos
ogmos ογµοσ ájma-ḥ 'meātus'
edro, jadro 'sinus;
indra- 'robustus': uēlum, nāuis';
Indra 'deus pluuiae';
οιδαω, οιδεω; jadъ 'virus'
indu ? 'gutta'
oidējō eiz 'tumor' οιδοσ; οιδιπου 5.4.- <oidos, jedro
σ 'tumidipedis' aitnum<oidnumi; 'celer, robustus';
aitumn 'tumor'; ait jadro 'nucleus,
'maxilla' testic.' 6.8. jàditi
'uexāre' 6.3.-
aindinti 'excitō'
οιχοµοι; ιχνοσ 5.5.-egdu, igdu-
oighai 6.3.-eigà 'cursus'
'uestigium' 'crus' <*eigh-
oimos οιµοσ ḗma 6.3.- eismė̃
einac
óinoikos ūnicus 3a2.-ānga ainaha inokъ
3a3.-einga
2b1-2b2.-un
oinos ūnus, oinos óin, oen ains οινοσ, οινη ēnam 'eum' inъ 'ūnus, alius'
2b3.-unan
cf.
ūniuersus,
одновременный
arc.
oinowṛstós 6.9.-ainawārst
oinuors(ei)
(BACC) 'semel, pariter
cum'
3a2, a3.-ār <*airō 5.5.-hissa- 'tēmō oje
oisjā οιηιον, οιαξ
propter FIN airō currūs' 6.3.-íelekstis, íena
oisos οιοσ 'talis' esa-h 'iste'
eid, Eid οιοµαι 'credō'
2b1.-'periuria' 5.5.-hai 'confidō,
oitos oeth 3a2.-að, āþ aiþs αινηµι, αινεω
anutonou/anudon credō'
3a3.-eiðr 'uoueō'
eta 'uarius, rūber,
ivo- 2b1-ywen īiwa, īwe, Eibe; īgo iva
uulpēs' 5.4.-
oiwos ūua iva-, éo 2b2.-hivin 3a2.-īw; īh, ēoh οιη, οη, οα 6.3.-ieva
aigi<óiwiyā 'uīnum'
2b3.-ivin 3a3.-yr 6.4.-iẽva
5.5.-e(y)a(n)- ?
aha
'sensus,
intell.';
ahta 'attentiō'; οκνοσ
ahjan
achten 'considerō' 'dubium';
okējō 'arbitror';
3a2.-eaht οκνεω
ahma
'existimātiō' 'dubitō'
'spiritus';
ahaks
'columba'
2b1.-ocet/aged
ókētā occa egida
2b3.-oged
671
2b1.-wyth aht, acht aṣṭ, aṣṭu

osmь
oktōu octō ocht 2b2.-eath 3a2.eahta, eight ahtau οκτω 5.3.-ašta
2b3.-eiz 3a3.-ātta 5.4.-ut`, uth 6.3.-aštuoni
oktowos octāuus ογδοοσ
я́стреб, iastrebъ;
suff. lat. columba,
ōkúpteros accipiter ωκυπετησ āc̨upátvan-
palumbēs, gr.
ελαφοσ
ōcior
'uelocior';
accipiter, 2b1.-dioc 'piger'
āś ú-
ōkús acipedius, 2b2.-dioc 'piger' ωκυσ
5.3.-āsu-
aquila 2b3.-'diek' lentus'
<H3ku-H2wi-
lā;
aljan ?
adoleō, alad ? 'uariātus'
'auidus'
olējō adolescō, > 2a2.- 3a3.-ala 'ardēre' alātam 'carbō'
(cf. alacer
altāre aladh 'tructa'
?)
ολλυµι <*ολνυ
1b2.-ondu, µι, ολεκω 'dele
5.5.-hullai 'pugnō',
olējō aboleō holtu ō'; ουλοσ hallanniya 'deleō'
'prosternito' <*H3elH1u
'fūnestus'
ολογινον οζωδ
εσ (Ηεσ) κα 5.5.-alkista(n)-
olgjā loza 'pampinus'
ταλογον µυρτο 'rāmus'
ν
ōlim
лони́ 'annō
praeteritō' (arc.)
2b1.-
oljoi oljāi al(l) 'id' pl. alle alls 'omnis'
olja
uile (h)oll<*(s)olno- 5.4.-olj
3a2.-eal(l) 'id' <*ol-no-
2b2, 2b3.-holl
elmboum , Ulme
olmos ulmus lem Limo-, Lemo- ílim < germ.
3a2.-elm
áratni-ḥ lanita <*olnita

uile (uilen), (dat. 2b1.-elin 'ulna' elina 3a2.- ωλενη, ωλην ( 5.3.-ar∂θna, 'maxilla'
ōlnā ulna pl. uilneib) 2b2.-elin <*olēnā eln(boga) <*olenā aleina ωλενοσ) frārāθni- 5.4.-uln lakъtъ, lókotь
<*olēn- 2b3.-ilin <*olēno- 3a3.-alen <ōlnā 5.5.- 6.3.-alkúne,
haliya 'arcus' úolektis
ólteros
óltṃos
uls; ultrō,
oll 'amplus'
ultra; últiumam all 'omnis'
ind-oll 'ultra' alls 'omnis' par-āri 'tertiō
ulterius; 'ultimam' 3a2.-eall 'omnis' lani 'annō/aestate
oltrōd old- 'quam' ala-mans praeteritō annō' (cf.
ultimus, olle; 1b2.-ulo, ulu 3a3.-al-foðr praeteritīs'
oll-athair 'germanī' olitana, olitinata)
ollī; ollīc, 'illō, illuc' 'Wodan'
'Dagdae'
ōlim
3a3.-ulka 'ronna, rjīṣ á-́ h 'lubricus, 6.3.-álksna
olwā ulua, alga
situs' adhaesīuus'̣ <*olgsnā ? 'lāma'
ámah 'uiolentus'
emis (emsig) οµνυµι; ανια ' ámīti 'confirmat'
omos 'strēnuus' tormentum' āmáyati 'nocet'
3a3.-ama 'pestis' <αµιFα ? 5.3.-ama- 'potentia'
amáyanā 'damnum'
om 'crūdus'; 2b1.-of 'id'; efydd 3a3.-āma āmá- 'crūdus'
ōmós ωµοσ 'crūdus'
um(a)e 'rudus' 'aes' 'erysipelas' 5.4.-hum 'crud(ēlis)'
ámsah
5.4.-us, ows
omsos (h)umerus 1b2.-onse ams ωµοσ
5.5.-anassa 'dorsum'
?
onbhlos umbilicus Umbrī ? imlecan naba, nabalo οµφαλοσ nābhih 6.4.-naba
ονυξ (ονυχοσ)
inga, ingen 2b1.-eguin/ewin nagal, Nagel nakhah, nakhám
(*o > u propter noguti
onchis unguis <*ṇghwīnā 2b2.-euuin 3a2.-nægl, nail <*naghukám?
Cowgill's 6.3.-nâgas
2a3.-ionga 2b3.-iuin 3a3l.-nagl 5.5.-sanku(wa)i-
legem)
2b1.-ymenyn
imb (imbe) ancho 'butyrī ājyam 'grassa 6.9.-anctan, ancte
oncṇ unguen 1b2.-umen 2b2.-amen-en
'berri unguen' unguen' sacrificiī' 'butyrum'
2b3.-aman(n)
oncō unguō 1b2.-umtu anakti
673
'unguito' 5.4.- aucanem

áŋgāras
у́голь 6.3.-
oncōl 5.4.-acul
anglìs
5.6.-angišt
ond, onn
ondos ádri-
(uinde)
anamou, anaf 'id' 5.3.-nad∂ntō
on 'uerecundia'; ονοµαι, ονοσσ
onējō 2b3.-anaff 'uituperāns'
anim 'mendum' ασθαι
'mendum' 5.5.-hanna- 'iudicō'
5.4.-anurj
ónerjos οναρ, ονειροσ ALB.-a^derre
<*H3nōrio-
onghlos ungula nagal, Nagel ánghrih
andar anya-; ántara- 6.3.-añt(a)ras
onjos 3a2.-other anthar 5.3.-anya-, ainya- 6.5.-wutory
3a3.-annarr 5.6.-aniya- 6.7.-úterý
ong 'uf'' ennach jaču, jačati
onkājō uncō, -āre 2b1.-och 'gemitus' Unke 'rāna' ογκαοµαι
'coru.' 'suspirō'
onkos
ανια ánah
onos onus (oneris) 'tormentum' 5.5.-an(n)iya-
4.2.−ονια ?? 'efficiō'
ander- SORB.-wutory
ónteros anþar ántara-,
3a2.-ōþer 6.3.- añtaras
aften aftaro,
οπισσω, οπισω
ópitjos 3a2.-æftan, after aftuma, 5.5.-appizzi(ya)-
3a3-aptan aftumists 'postea'
praedotiont -
ufteis za-(j)apъ
t<p- (Festos)
'optātī';
'praeoptant'; 'suppositus';
opjō 1b2.-upetu
opīnor, ne-vъz-apьnъ
òptātō',
optiō, optō;
opeter `lēctī' 'necopīnus'
necopīnus
opulentus οµπνη ápnas
opnā <*opunentus 'alimentum'; 5.3.-afnahvant
? αφενοσ?? 'diues' 5.5.-

happinatt
'opulentus'
wituhopfo,
6.4.-puppukis
ópopā upupa Wiedeh. εποψ
6.6.-hupek
3a2.-widohoppa
upsannam
'operandam';
opus, operō,
upsatuh sent
ops, somme ? apas
'factī sunt'; uoben 'exerceō';
omnis<*op- Opulentus; οµπνη 5.3.-āpas
opos upsed 'fēcit', 3a2.-efnan 'faciō';
nis; domme 'pauper' 'alimentum' 5.5.-happar
upsens 3a3.-efna 'faciō'
officium<*op <dus-op-smyo-); 'transactiō'
'fēcērunt';
ídhēkyom
2b2.-osatu
'facitō'
opos esti
ops
οπωπα, οψοµα
oqō īksate 'aspicit' 6.6.-obaczyć
ι
οσσε (du.)
ωπ
α (ac. Sing.) áksi (aksnáh), áksī;
ánīkam, prátīkam
ενωπ
'uultus' oko (ocese), ochi
oqos oculus enech 'uultus' 2b3.-enep 'id' η, προσωπον 'u 5.3.-aši (du.) 6.3.-akì
ultus' 5.4.-akn (akan), pl.
ač̣-k`
4.4.−οκταλ
λοσ
οροσ, ορFοσ,
Hom. āre, ārāt 'procul'
ōrā ōra; ārea? ουροσ (asp. 5.5-arha 'terminus'; 6.3.-óras 'aer'; iš
explicanda arahziya/zena(nt) óro 'extra'
*ser 'foraneus'
commixtā)
urust 5.5.-ariya-
ōrājō ōrō
'ōrāuerit' 'orāculum
675
consultārī'
ερφυτνον δισκ
1b2.-urfeta
orbhis orbis, orbita οσ , απο Λυδω 5.5.-harp 'permūtō' tok A, B yerpe
'orbita'
ν (Hsq).
arbja;
orpe, orb(b)e, Orbius,
arbi, erbi, Erbe RUN-
orbhjom orbae; com- orbaniacus 2b1.-
3a2.-ierfe 'id' arƀija
arbus 'hereditās' Urb-gen/urien
'exsequiae'
arbja
<*orbhjo-
com-arpe/arbae Orbogenos arbha 'paulus'
Arbeit 'labōr' 'hērēditās';
orbhos orbus 'hērēs' ; erbaid 2b1.- Urbagen, ορφανοσ 5.4.-orb (orboy) rabъ 'seruus'
3a3.-arfi, arfa arbeiþs
'committit' Urbgen, Urien 5.5.-harp 'permūtō'
<*orbho-
itis 'labōr'
2b1.-2b2.-ord
ordhos ord 5.4.-urn <*ōrdhṃ
2b3.-horz
5.4.-
orcaid >oirggid orge 'occide'
harkanem 'tundō,
'necat'; orcun Orgetorīx; TOK A.-arkämn-,
frangō'
orgājō <*orgenā; orn 2b1.-orn 'nex B erkau
5.5.-hark(iya)
'nex'; orgiat 2b3.-treorgam 'necropolis'
'pereō', caus.
'caesar' 'forō'
harkanu, harnink
5.3.-∂r∂zi 'oua,
uirgge, uirge 6.3.-aržù s
ορχισ scrotum'
orghis 'testiculus' 'lascīuus', er̃žilas
'testiculus' 5.4.-orji-k 'oua'
(*orghiā) 'mas'
5.5.-arki-
5.4.-ol-ormim
arms 'misereor'
ormos
3a2.-earm 'miser' 5.5.-arma(n),
irma(n) 'morbum'
ās(í)yam (āsnáh)
ōs (ōris),
āsáh 'buccālis' 6.3.-ústa(s) 'bucca
ōs cōram,
anhō 'buccālis' flūminis'
aurīga, ōreae
5.5.-ais
osbhos odb 2b1.-oddf οσφυσ

ast 5.4.-ost
osdos asts οζοσ
3a2.-ōst 5.5.-hasduēr
asans
ēorna ? ar(e)m, Ernte 'segēs, jesenь, ósenь
οπωρα <*op- 5.4.-ashun
osēn anōna <*esornyā 3a2.-asna aestās'; 'autumnus'
'hordeum' 'salārius'; earn asneis óh∂rā; Ωριων 5.5.-zena, zenant ?
6.9.-assanis
'operārius'
asc οξυη 'hasta';
oskos 5.4.-hac'i ALB.-ah
3a2.-æsc οξυνη 'fagus'
huinnius 2b1-2b2.-onn-en 6.3.-úosis
ósonos ornus
2a3.-fuinnseog 2b3.-ounn-en 6.4.-uo^sis
ásthi (asthnáh)
asna, easna, 2b1.-assen 'id'
5.3.-ast-
os (ossis), esna <*astonyo- 2b2.-asow; esel
ostis οστεον 5.4.-oskr<*osthwer
ossum, ossua 'costa'; asil 'id' 2b3.-ezel
? 5.5.-
'membrum' 'id'
hastāi-
ósthah 'labrum' usta 'bucca'
ōstjom ōstium
5.3.-aost(r)a 'labra' ustina 'labium'
ουδασ (ουδεοσ 5.4.-getin
oudṇ
) 5.5.-utne, udne
6.3.-áušti
uafer?, oman 'frigor' `frigēscō'
úar; ócht 'frigor'
ougros au[c]tumnus oer (<oum∂n) 5.3.- (*augsketi?);
(<ougtu-)
? aota; aodar 'frigor' 6.4.-aũksts
'frigidus'
ουσ 5.3.-uši 'duae aures'
ausō uxo (ušese)
ousis auris au, ó (aue) Su-ausia ουατοσ 5.4.-unkn
(ausins) 6.3.-ausìs
(Hom.) <*usonkom
2b1.-wy<ówiyom 5.3.-ap-āvaya-?
og (pl.ugai) ei
ṓw(ij)om ōuum 2b2.-uy/oy ωον 'castrātus' ajьce
2a3.-ubh (uibhe) 3a3.-egg
2b3.-ui pl. Uiou 5.4.-ju <*(y)ōyo-
owājō ouō, -āre ευαζω
ouwi, ou 3a2.- aweþi ávi-, avika-, avik ovinu 'aries'
1b1.-uuef, 2b1.- ewig
owis ouis oi ēowu, ēowe, ewe; 'grex'; οια 5.5.-hawi- LYC.- ovьca 'capra'
oui 2b2.-euhic 'cerua'
ēowestre 'id' awistr xawã 6.3.-avis
677
'ouīle'
p∂grós pignus -oris pajrá- 'solidus'
ren(a)id 'uendit'; περαω, πιπρασ
pār, parō 5.3.-pairyante
rann<p∂rsnā 2b1.-rhan 'pars' κω, περνηµι
(āre), parsest 'par 'aequāntur'; pāra 6.3.-perkù, pirkti
p∂rnāmi 'pars'; ern(a)id 2b2.-ran 'uendō';
comparō est' 'culpa' 'emō'
'concedit'; ni rir 2b3.-rannou πορνη 'meretr 5.5..- parš- 'diuīdō'
(āre)
'non uendidit' ix'
pat[ít?] fuodar, Fuder πιτνω, πεταννυ 5.3.-paθana
pateō,
`patet', 2a4.-aitheamh 2b1.-etem, edau 'onus' 3a2.-fæðm, faÞa µι; πετασοσ, ; 'amplus' 5.5.- 6.3.-petỹs
p∂tējō pandō,
patensíns 'fūnis' 'id' fathom 'fūnis'; 'uallum' πατανη 'patera pattar, dat. paddani 'umerus'
patera
`panderent' fōðor 'onus' ' 'tabula (?)'
pater, dat. fater
5.1, 53.-pitár-
p∂tēr pater paterei athir Ateronius 3a2.-fæder fadar πατηρ
5.4.-hair, hayr
1b2.-iupater 3a3.-faðir
p∂ter patera παταρα (Lyc.) 5.5.-GIpattar
p∂tjai patior
aithre
p∂trjā patria πατρη, πατρα
'paternitās'
patrius,
patruus; fetiro, fatirro, πατριοσ, πατρ pitṛvya
p∂trjos aithre
proprius<pr fatureo, Vetter υιοσ 5.3.-. tūirya-
opatrius
pítṛvya-
fetiro, fatirro, πατρωσ <*pǝtr
5.3.-tūirya
p∂trujós patruus fatureo, Vetter ōus; πατρυιοσ 5.4.-yauray
3a2.-fædera 'uitricus' 'uitricus'
paueō, pjáuju, pjáuti
urfūrian
pauiō, putō, 'secō'; pjúklas
p∂wējō 'concundō' παιω ?
depuuere, 'secūr.'
3a2.-āfyran 'id'
pudet 6.4.-pĺaũt 'metō'
5.3.-pāqra-vant-
pādhlom pābulum
'protector'
fah, Fach
pagos pagus 'dominium'
3a2.-fæc
'interuallum'
pags
LUS.-trebopala
'protector pagī'
pālājō palatium pālayati
(Cabeço das
fraguas)
pleva
pálejā palea palāvah
6.3.-pelai
πελιτνοσ
pálowos parusa
'liuidus'
palpo(r),
fuolen, fehlen
palpājō palpitō, παλλω 'agitō'
3a2.-fælan, feel
palpebrae
bubulja ` 'gutta'
6.3.-bamba
3a3.-fimbul-,
pámponos βεµβιξ 'turbō' bimba-ḥ 'puer' 'umbilicus'
'pipula metallī'
pampaũ, pam̃pti
'tumescō'
pandus,
pandos 3a3.-fattr<fanta
pandō -ā
panknos
pānus,
počiti se 'inflāri'
pankō pānīcum,
pogvica `globulus'
pantex
πηνοσ, πηνε
an-art ? 'pannus fano, Fahne
pannos pannus fana 'textus' πηνιζο
līnī' 3a2.-fana
µαι 'texō'
vīvalter, *pepelūšьkā,
pāpeljos pāpiliō -ōnis (Fei)falter *popelūšьkā
3a2.-fīfoldara
6.3.-papelučkà
buoben 'tetae' pippala 'ficus'
papula, 6.3.-papas
paplā 3a2.-pappe, pap pipluh 'macula
papilla 'papilla'
'id' corporis'
pareikā Parcae a(i)rech 5.3.-pairikā
679
(=ueneficae) 5.6.-parīk
πεπαρειν
πεπαρευ
pārējō pāreō
σιµον σαφεσ (
Hes.)
airc 'angustia';
parkō parcō
aircur 'pressiō'
sperk, sperch,
1b2.-parfam,
2b2.-frau<spr Sperling
parsā parra parfa sparwa ψαρ 'sturnus' скворе́ц <spar- ?
2b3.-frao 3a3-spearwa,
`parram'
sparrow
pasknis
pascō, 2b1.-pawr<pāro fuotar,Futter;fuot 4.3.−πανια; πα 5.4.-hauran<pā-tro pasǫ, pasti 'pāscō'
ain-chess 'pānis 'grex'
pābulum 'pābulum'; pori en 3a2.- τεοµαι 'edō et (<pāskō) TOK.-A
pāskō corbis'; fōdjan 5.5.-pahs- 'protegō'
<pādhlom,
ás(a)id 'crēscit'
2b3.-peuriff fōðor; fēdan bibō'; απαστο LUV pa´d-du
pās-, B pāsk-
pānis 'pascō' 3a3.- fōðr; føða, σ 'sine cibō' 'protegō'
*peH2
πηοσ,
pāricida <
pāsós 4.3.
pāso-kaida
−παοσ
fest
pastya 'residentia'
pastos 3a2.- fæst
5.4.-hast 'fixus'
3a3.-fastr
pastva <*two-
pāstus pastus 'grex' pastvina
'pastus'
paucus, fao, fō;
pau paul(l)us, 3a2.-fēa, few fawai παυροσ
paruus 3a3.-fār
paukos
folo, fulī(n), 5.4.-ul 'capra'
fula, ALB.-pelë, pēlë
paulos paulus Füllen 3a2.-fola πωλοσ 'pullus' <pōulos; am-ul
'pullus' <pōlā 'equa'
'id' <pulyo- 'sterilis'
aasaí úr .i. tiene ur (Botorrita A 10) fiur, Feuer, funko, fōn *puōn πυρ (πυροσ) 5.4.-hur (hroy); hn- 6.7.-pyr(i) 'fauilla'
pāwṛ
purasiaí 'in O'Clery Glossar. 2b1.-ur-ael Funke 'scintella' (funins) (u longa) oc̣ 'furnus' (*pūn-) TOK.-A por, В

ārā igniāriā' Hapax; Abrám 'asbestīnum' 3a2.-fýr, fire 5.5.-pahhuwar, dt. puwā̆r, pwār
1b2.-pir, ac. de úr na Caldae <air.? 3a3.-furr, fyrr pahhu(e)ni
purome
pedjós peius 3a2.-bad 5.6.-bad
pedlom πεδιλον patalla 'soccus'
peda padá 'locus,
ed 'spatium'; πεδον 'solum';
(Festus) perum 3a3.-toft uestigium, passus' 6.3.-pédà 'passus';
pedom
'uestigium'; 'solum'
ined<*enipedo-
'pauimentum' δαπεδον 'paui 5.4.-het 'uestigium' pãdas 'solea'
'locus' m.'
oppidum 5.5.-peda- 'locus'
pach(a) 'axilla,
ucht <*pogtus
pákṣa 'umerus, āla'; ing.'
pegtos pectus (ochta) dat. pl.
pákṣas 'latus' 6.3.-paksis
ochtaib
'angulus domii'
feizzit, fett
6.4.- pìsa, pīse
peidō (part.p.) πιδαξ (fons) pétva 'ueruex'
'arbustētum'
3a2.- fæted, fat
feihhan
'maleficentia';
fēhida, Fehde píśuna- 'maleficus';
peigō piget, piger 'inimicit.' piśācá-
3a2.-fācen 'falsiō'; 'daemonium'
fah, foe 'inimicus'
3a3.-feikn 'ruīna'
peikā pīca peico 'pīcum' speh(t), Specht pika
pimçáti 'ornat', pisu 'scrībō'
pinkte 'pingit', pьstrъ 'uarius'
feeh filufaihs ποικιλοσ
peikō pingō péçah 'form, col.' 6.3.-paĩsinti
3a2.-fáh 'uarius' 'uarius' 'uarius'
5.3.-paēsō 'idem' 'fuligine
5.6.-ni-pith 'scrībō' mancillāre'
peikos
peiks pix vī(g), vīhe ? 'palūs' πιττα, πισσα pьkьlъ, pьcьlъ
fimmelen,fimmere
n 3a2.-fimble,
peimis éim
fumble 'palpō'
3a3.-fimr; orð-
681
fimi 'uerbōrum
eloquentia'
pītudāru 'arbos
pītuīta, pīnus íth 'sebum'; iath
peitus πιτυσ 'pīnus' quaed' ALB.
<peitsnos 'pratum'
oishe<pitsyā 'id'
paene, pēne;
paenitet; pīyati 'insultat';
pēnūria; πηµα 'damnu pīyu, pīyaru
patior (a fiēn 'ōdisse';fiant, faian 'insultans'; pāpa
m'; πηροσ 'cae
pējō partic. Feind 'inimīcus' 'puniō'; 'malum'; pāman
fion 'ōdī' fijan 'ōdī' cus'; 4.3.−παρ 'aegrotās pellis'
p∂tos); οσ 'caecus' 5.3.-pāman 'id'
paeminōsus, 5.4.-hivand 'aeger'
pēminōsus
6.3.-púošiu
ga-fahrian
fahs 'caesariēs' pakṣ-man- 'cesariēs' (*pōkēi̯ō), púošti
'praeparō'; πεκω 'pectō';
pekō áil? 'amoenus' 3a2.-fair 'idoneus' 5.3.-pašna- 'cilium' 'ornō'
3a3.-fær 'agnus'
fagrs ποκοσ 'uellus' 5.4.-asr 'uellus' pešù, pèšti
'idoneus'
'dispectō'
pektēn
πεκτω; κτεισ (
1b2.- 3a1, a2.-fehtan
κτενοσ) 5.6.-pašm
pektō pectō, pecten petenata 'id', 3a2.-
'pecten' 'lāna'
'pectinatam' feohtan 'plectō'
<*pkten-
faihu 4.8.-po-ku-te-
1b2.-pequo
peku pecu, pecus fihu 'patrimoni ro (c. gonu, páśu, páśus 6.3.-pekus (k!)
'pecua'
um' doru lat. genu)
πελασ 'prope',
ad·ella 'uisitat; falzan 'collocō';
pellō; ōpiliō; 1b2.-arpeltu πελαζω, πιλνα
peldō adall 'uisitātiō'; el(h)wyf 'eam' Filz polosá 'area'
appellō -āre 'appellito' µαι
do·aidlea 'uenit' 3a2.-felt 'textus'
'appropinquō'
olca 'terra
felga 't. ueru.' ungifolgan
pelkō ueruactī' >f.
3a2.-fealg, fallow 'inflexus'
ouche, e.huelga
pellis, palea, fel, Fell þrūts-fill πελ(λ)ασ, πελµ
pelnis paṭa(la), pélьka pelena 'tapete'
palear palla 3a2.-fell, film 'lepra' α 'solea'
'textus'
fāli, feil 'ad πωλειν plenъ, polōn
pelō uēnum' 3a3.- 'uendere'; πολ 'praeda'
falr 'id' <pēlyo η 'uēnum' 6.3.-pelnas 'salār.'
phálakam 'tabula et pol 'solum', pole
West-falen, Ost-
ALB.-shpall fructus' 'ager', polъ
pelom palam falen, Feld 'ager'
'aperiō' 5.4.- hоɫ (hоɫоу) <*polos 'patens,
3a3.-fjol 'tabula'
'ager' cauus'
GALL.-Palas de
pelsā all felis, Fels πελλα pāsī <pelṣiH2
Rei
πολυσ, fem. πο purú- <*pḷH1u-,
pelu plures (h)il 'multī' filu 3a3.-fjǫl- filu λλη <*polH1ui fem. pūrvī-
a *<pḷH1u-iH2
pelupoikos filu-faihs cf. ποικιλοσ puru-pēś a-
πελλα 'situlus
pālavi 'asser'; pālikā
lactis';
pēlwis peluis 'olla' pārī 'situlus popelъ 'cinis'
πηληξ 'cassis';
lactis',
πελλικη
puluis παλη 'pollen'
pelwos (ueris); puls ulvos 'puluis' (uerbum palāvah 'uersae rēs'
(ltis); pollen singulāre)
pāmá n- 'eruptiō
paeminōsus, cutanea quaedam'
pēmṇ πηµα
pēminōsus 5.3.-pāman-
'scabiēs'
pendō
cf. pendō, spinnan pьno, peti 'tendō'
3a1.-3a2.-spinnan πενοµαι 'labor
penō pendeō; <*spenwon 5.4.-hanum 'texō' 6.3.-pinù, pìnti
'neō' ō'
sponte om 'plectō'
6.3.-paniabùde
enach; en 'aqua' anom 'palūdem' fenna, fennī ;
'amanita
en-glas 2b1.-en-wyn fūhti, feucht 'ūdus' ILLYR.-
penom fani paŋka- muscaria'
'aquōsum lacte'; 'lactōsum 3a2.- fenn; fūht Pannonia.
6.4.-pane
éicne 'salmō' butyrum' 'id'
'fertilisans'
683
6.3.- penù, penéti

penus,
penos fenea 'puls' 'alō'; pẽnas
penātēs
'aliment.'
pañcāś át
penqadkṃ
ta
quinquāgintā coíco πεντηκοντα 5.4.-yisun<
*hingisun
pañca-daśat
penqdekṃ quindecim finfzehan fimftaíhun πεντε(και)δεκα
5.4.-hnge-tasán
pimpetos 'quintus'
pempe-doula fimf
pomperias pañca 5.3.- petь
penqe quinque cóic 2b1.-pymp/pump 3a2.-fīf fimf πεντε
'quincuriae' pañca 6.3.-penki
2b2.-ppymp 3a3.-fimm
2b3.-pemp
fūst
2b1.-bys 'digitus'
3a3.-fyst; il-
penqstis bissi ega 'stīria' 2b2.-bis, bes pestь
kuistir 'digitī
2b3.-bis, bizou
pedis'
fimfto, finfto pakthá- petъ
penqtos quintus *pontos 3a2.-fifto fimfta- πεµπτοσ
5.3.-puxđa- (cf. 4º) 6.3.-peñktas
3a3.-fim(m)ti
pāṁsú 'puluis,
arēna' 5.3.-
pēnsús песо́к, 'arēna'
pąsnu- 'arēna'
5.5.-passila- 'glarea'
pentō
2b1.-pobi
popīna
peqō coquō 2b2.-pobaz πεσσω pácāmi
'coquīna'
2b3.-pobet 'coctus'
paktí- 5.4.-hac̣ реštь 6.9.-
peqtis coctiō πεψισ
'pānis' <*poqti- pectis
πεπτρια '*coctr
peqtṓr coctor paktár-
īx'
peqtós coctus 2b1.- poeth πεπτοσ paktá-
per(i), per, fir-, ver- pári pre 'ante'
per(ti)
per<per/peri ir-, er- eri-; 2b1,2,3.-er- fair περι, περ
pert<perti 3a2.-fyr- 5.3.-pairi 5.4.-pairy 6.3.-per
perijō experior, a(i)re 'custodia' areānī fār, Gefahr fairina πειρα, πειραω 5.4.-p'jor
perītus, 'exploratōres' 'periculum'; 'culpa' 'experimentum'

comperiō, firina 'infractiō'
perīculum
5.4.-amparist
perístāno
m
iress, am-ires(s) 'irreligiosō' 5.6.-
parast 'sacerdōs'
perknā earc, orc 'salmō' forhana 'tructa' περκη (<ρκν)
Parjánya
Hercynia silva; 3a2.-firgen
faírguni 'Tempestās'; parvata Perunъ 'Tonitrus'
pérkūnjom Ερκυνιοσ, 'cacumen
'mons' 'id' 5.5.- 6.3..-perkiūnas 'id'
Querquernī siluestre'
peruna 'rupēs'
perṃos
περαιοσ paramá-ḥ 'ultimus,
'ulterior' optimus'
perṃós
fern 'longinquus, περαιοσ paramá-ḥ 'ultimus,
procul' (adi, adu) 'ulterior' optimus'
param 'et postea,
perom perom 'sine'
tamen, tantum'
parṇá- перо́
TOK B paruwa
peróm 5.3.-parǝna- 6.3.-spar̃nas 'āla'
'plūmae'
5.5.-partawar 'āla' 6.4.-spā̀ rns'id'
περαν 'ultra'; parā 'procul'
peros perum 'sine' ire<peryo 'ultra' πραττω 5.5.-parā 'ultra,
'faciō' foras'
perperām, περπεροσ 'imp
pérperṇks parañc поперё к
perperus ertinens'
perunъ 'fulmen'
Hercynia silva; forha 'picea'
perqos quercus parkatii 'ficus sacra' 6.3.-perkúnas
Querquernī 3a2.-furh, fir
'tonitrus'
prṣṇi- 'talus'
perna<sn; fersana, Ferse fairsna 5.3.-pāšna- 'id'
persā πτερνη
pernīs 3a2.-fersna 'talus' 5.5.-paršina
'lumbus'
persnā
685
pŕṣat, prṣatá- 'gutta' рrachъ 'puluis';

prṣant-, pŕṣatī
3a3.-fors, foss
persō 'uarius' 5.3.- prъstь 'spūma'
'cataracta'
paršuya 'aquae q.' 6.3.-pur̃sla(s) 'id';
5.5.-papparš- pur̃kšti 'sternuō'
πτορθοσ 'prop
pertā pertica 5.4.-ort 'uinea' 6.7.- príska
agō'
1b1, b2.-pert
perti pered
'per'
ónn-urid àb vert περυσι par-út
péruti
anno priore' 3a3.-fjorð 4.3.−περυτι 5.4.-heru
bzdetь; perdetь
περδω 6.3-bezdù,
firt, furt<perd párdatē<pérdeti
pedō, pōdex, ferzan<per βδεω <βzδεο; bezdéti; bìzdas
pesdō 2b1.-rech<p∂rdkā 3a2.-feortan
pēdis d βδυλλω; βδελυ 5.3.-р∂r∂δaiti `podex' ; pérdžu,
3a3.-freta
ροσ 'terribilis' pérst
6.4.-pirdu, pirst
pesnis pēnis<pesnis faselt, visel πεοσ; ποσθη pásah pìsti 'copulāre'
eithre <*pet(e)r- patará-, patáru-
πτερον, πτερυγ
peterós accipiter yo- 'cauda'; fed(e)rah , fedara- 'uolans' ; páttra-
e(i)tte 'plūma' ξ 5.4.- tìr
petilus; fr. πεταλοσ
pétḷos 5.5.-pittalwa(nt)
petit 'patens'
πτερον, πιπτω,
2b1.-edn, eterin
én <*pet(s)no-, πετοµαι, fut. pátami 'cadō' FUT.
'id' 2b2.-
petō petō ethait <*petontī- fedara πετε(σ)οµαι patiṣyáti 6.3.-pētit 'auet'
(h)ethen 2b3.-
'auis' πετοµαι 5.5.-piddai-
etn-coihaam
'uolō'
2b1.-edn, eterin πτερον, πιπτω,
ette<petyā, én pátami 'cadō'
petsnā penna, petō 2b2.-(h)ethen fedara πετοµαι, 6.3.-pētit 'auet'
(auis) 5.5.-pittar (pittanas)
2b3.-etn-coihaam πετοµαι 'uolō'
2b1.-edn, eterin πετεηνοσ
petsnós én 2b2.-(h)ethen <*petesānós, π
2b3.-etn-coihaam ετεινοσ

<*petesnós
νηπιοσ, νηπυτι 5.5.-kappuwai пыта́ть 'quaerō,
peumi putō οσ ? TOK А putk cōnor'
'ingnōrans' 'arbitror' 6.4.-plaût 'signif.'?
pūrus, putus,
fowen 'cernō' punāti, pávate
nepus
pewō úr 'uiridis' 2b1.-ir <*fawjan = ai. πτυον, πτεον ? 'pūrgō'; pavítra
<*nepūt-s;
paváyati 'cribrum'
purgō
pijo, piti 6.3.-
2b1.-yfed (v.n.) paĩkas 'stultus';
pibō bibō ibim 2b2.-eve πινω pibati pìktas 'malus',
2b3.-eva pikùlas 'diab.'
6.4.-pikuls 'diab.'
pigējō
pikrós bitter baitrs πικροσ
pilos
pilus, filz 'feltrum' πιλοσ plъstь
pīla<pilsā 3a2.-felt 'id' 'penniculus' 'penniculum'
pīmós opīmus πιµελη 'adeps'
pingō
witufina, vine
pinjos πιναξ 'tabella' pínāka pьnь, пень 'stirps'
'aceruum lignī'
pixati 'calce iciō'
pisenica
pinsō pinsō, pīlum πτισσω pináSTi 'frūmentum'
6 3.-paisyti
'trītūrat
píperi piper πεπερι pippalī
pipiō, pīpō, pipatio πιποσ, πιπποσ
píppakā 'auis
pipjājō pīpilō, 'clamor piepen 'auicellus'; πιπ( 6.3.-pypti 'siffilō'
quaedam'
pīpulum plorantis' π)ιζω
πιπτω, πετοµαι
2b1.-edn, eterin
gefaʒ 'casus' 'uolō',
piptō petō én (auis) 2b2.-(h)ethen pátami 'cadō'
3a2.-gefētan 'casī' ποταοµαι
2b3.-etn-coihaam
'uolitō';πτερον
687
'āla'
fisc, fisch 3a2.- piskárь, писка́рь
piskis piscis íasc > iasc fisks
fisc, fish 'gobiō'
2b1-b2.-yd 'id' pitus pišta
pitús hith (grānum)
2b3.-(e)ys 'id' 5.3.-pituš 6.3.-piẽtūs
īriu (īrenn) πιων, πιειρα (γ
piwōn 'Ιουερνισ (Ptol.) pvan-, f. pvarī
'terra' η)
labraid 2b1.-llafar 'sermō',
'loquitur'; rel. llafaru 3a2.-flappen, flap
plabrājai
labrathar; 2b2.-lauar, lauaraf 'quatiō, garriō'
amlabar 'mutus' 2b3.-lavar 'id'
plākējō
πλαξ
placeō,
'superficiēs'; π
placidus,
plācō ā;
vlage, flach; fluoh λακουσ
6.3.-plãkanas
lecc 'discus 2b1.-llech 3a2.-floh; flōk- 'placenta';
plākos plancus? 6.4.-plùoku, plakt
saxeus' 2b3.-lec'h 'id' fōted -g- πελαγοσ −γ
placenta 'pauiculor'
3a3.-flā 'mare';
<πλακουσ;
plaga -g- πλαγοσ −γ−
'latus'
plākos
πλανοσ 'errāb polonýna 'altipl.'
undus' 6.3.-plónas
plānos plānus Medio-lānum 3a3.-flana 'errō'
πλανα 'tenuis'
ω 'errō' 6.4.-plãns
Flur 'uestibulum'
plārom lár 2b1.-llawr
3a2.-floor
plātom
pṛthúh; prathimán
Fladen; vluoder πλατυσ πλατ <*pletH2mon-
Litano-briga plešte 'umerus'
lethan; leth ? 'piscis plānus' ανοσ; ωµοπλα 'planitūdō' 5.3.-
plātús planta 2b1.-llydan 6.3.-plónas
'latus, dimidium' 3a2.-flounder, τη; πλαταµων
2b2.-2b3.-ledan p∂r∂qu 'tenuis'
flōr; flat 'rēs plāna'
5.5.-palhi-
plautos plautus; 1b2.-pre- πλαισιον 'recta 6.3.-plaũksta
plaudō plotatu ndulus' 'palma'

'prosternitō'
πλαδαω 6.3.-pelde^t 'nō'
fledirōn, flattern
pḷdājō 'madeō'; pledina^t 'ālās
'uolitō'
πλαδοσ 'uuor' plaudō'
plēdhwis plēbs, plēbēs πληθυσ
3a4.-folde-kniv prasna ''plexus'
2b1.-elinn/ellyn
plékāmi plicō altain 'rasōrium' 'nouacula falthan πλεκω 5.3.∂r∂zato frašn∂m
2b3.-altin 'ferula'
retractilis' 'aureā armatūrā'
flahta pleto, plesti;
flehtan
plektō plectō 'fascis
3a2.-fleohtan plotъ 'uallum'
capillōrum'
plēmṇ plēmināre πληµα
lán; lín 2b1.-llawn pūrná-s, prāṇ a- plъnъ
plēnus; 1b2.-plener fol, foll, voll
plēnós 'numerus, pars'; 2b2.-luen, leun, fulls 5.3.-frāna- 'implētiō' 6.3.-pìlnas
polleō ? 'plēnīs' 3a2.-full
u(i)le 'omnes' len 2b3.-leun 5.4.-li (liog) 6.4.-pilns
plētis com-plētiō prātí-
5.5.-paltana
pletjā leithe 'umerus' ωµο−πλατη plešte 'umerus'
'umerus'
plētós (com)plētus 5.4.-li (liog) ALB.-plot
flauts ?
im-lúadi fliozan 'fluō'
'gloriōsus' 6.3.-plū́dau, plū́sti
pleudō 'exagitat'; for- 3a2.-flēotan,
flautjan 6.4.-plau^st
lúadi 'uersat' fliotan
'superbiō'
πλευµων, πνευ kloman 'dexter
plušta <ploutyā
pleumōn pulmō µων (cont. pulmō' (k...m
6.3.-plaũčiai
πνεω) <p...m)
fo·luathar πλε(F)ω plávate 'nātat'; plovǫ, pluti 'natō' ;
KONBOUTO/CO flouwen, flewen 'nauigō'
'uolat'; loan, lón pravate 'saltat';
MPLUTUM 'louō'; floum plovъ 'nāuis'
'adeps'; lúd πλυτοσ plutá 'obrūtus'; pluti
pluit, pluor, 2b1.-llyw 'colluuiēs' flōdus 6.3.-pláuju,
plewō 'impetus'; ess- 'dominus' 2b2.- 'diuēs'; πλυνω 'alūiēs'
perplouēre 3a2.-.flōwan 'fluxus' plóviau, pláuti
com-lu- 'lauō' πλυσισ 5.3.-usfravānte
loe 'id' 'obruō' 3a3.- 'lauō' TOK A, B.-
'proficiscī'; 'lauātiō'; 'ascendunt'
2b3.-levier 'id' flōa 'id' plu- 'uolāre'
lúath 'citō'; πλωτοσ 'nauig 5.4.-luanam 'lauō'
689
lúam 'dominus' ābilis'

πλιχασ 'inguen
plighā sliss 'latus' plēhatē 'mouētur'
'
παλαµη pāníh
lám 'manus' 2b1.-llaw <*plāmā folma
pḷmā palma 4.3.- 5.3.-p∂r∂nā
<*plāmā 2b2.-lof/lef, luef 3a2.-folm
παλαµα 5.5.-palhi- 'amplus'
ad·ella 'uisitat'; πιλναµαι (i
do·aidlea schwa sec.) 'et
pḷnāmaí appellō, -āre el(h)wyf 'eam'
<do+ad 'uenit, se incitāre';
accēdit, tangit' πελασ 'prope'
pṛṇti. pṛṇṓti
lín(a)im,
füllen 5.4.-lnum; heɫum 6.3.-pilù, pìlti
pḷnāmi pleō comalnur, fullnan πιµπληµι 'pleō'
3a3.-fill 'effundō' 'fundō'
comallaim
<*pelnumi
fluohhon
'maledicō'; πλησσω, πλαζ
faiflōkum
plṇgō plangō vlackern 'uolitō' ω, πληγνυ 6.3.-plakù
'tutudēre'
3a3.-flōcan µι
'id';flaw
6.3.-pluskos
vlūs, Vlies 'lānūgō' 'lānūgō' 6.4.-
plousmā plūma
3a2.-flēos, fleece pluskas 'et
pannus'
6.3.-plaũtas 'fustis
3a3.-fleyðr examinis'
ploutos pluteus
'fastigium' 6.4.-plāuts 'uallus
muri'
plówijā
lū(a)ë 'pēs'; luí 2b1.-llyw 'id et -
plówijom <-jā 'gubernum, ātor' 2b2.-loe 'id 3a3.-fley πλοιον
cauda' et -ātor'
TOK B.-
plowós plavá- plov
plewe
palleō, falo 'pallidus' palitáh (fem. plavu 'albus'
pḷowós liath <*pleito- 2b1.-llwyd πελιοσ, πολιοσ
pallidus, 3a2.-fealo, falu 'id' páliknī) 6.3.-palvas
pallor, pullus 5.4.-alikh 'cānae'

5.6.-pīr
Letauia pṛthivī 'terra'
3a2.-fold ?
pḷtáwijā Letha 2b1.-Litau, Llydau Πλαταια
'stābulum' 5.3.-p∂r∂dhwī
'Brittania'
Litano-briga πλατανοσ
lethan, leathan Fladen 'planitiēs
pḷtnos 2b1.-llydan 'arbōr
'amplus' et placenta'
2b2.-2b3.-ledan platanacea'
palla,
pḷtom paṭa- 'uestis' palto
pallium
lōt, Lot
plúwaidho
lúaide 'perpendiculum'
m
3a2.-lēad
παλκοσ πηλοσ
fel(a)wa, Felber (Hes) 6.3.-pélke
pḷwods palūs -ūdis palvalá-
'salix' παλασσω 6.4.-pel̃ ce, plācis `
'rigō'
pantex,
pṇdēks 5.5.-panduha
pantica
fnehan 'respirō',
fnāsteōn
ànhelare'
pneusō πνεω
3a2.-fneosan
'strn.'; 3a3.-
fnysa 'resufflō'
prupukid èx
antepacto?' faahan, fangen,
pangō, pāx,
1b2.-pasa áge 'membrum, Fach 3a2.-fæc
pāgina, pālus 2b1.-aelod πηγνυµι; πασσ 6.8.-pãz 'iunctūra,
pṇgō 'causā'; columna'; áil 'interuall' fāhan pajráh 'corpulentus'
<ksl;
pacri- 'grātus'
'membrum'
3a3.-fægiligr αλοσ 'clāuus' uallum'
prōpāgō
`propitius, 'grātus';
plācātus'
pat[ít?]
πιτνω, πιτνηµι
'patet',
pṇtō pandō; pateō (i schwa
patensíns
'panderent' secundum), πε
691
ταννυµι
podjom podium u(i)de 'iter' ποδιον
5.1, 5.3.-pad
fuoz
1b2.- peri, πωσ, πουσ (πο 5.4.-otk 'pēdes'
pods pēs (pedis) ís<*pēd-su 'sub' 2b1.-is 'inferior' 3a2.-fōt fōtus 6.1.-podъ 'sub'
persi 'pede' δοσ) 5.5.-pata;pedan
3a3.-fōtr
'locus'
poimēks
pāti 'protegit'; go-pā
fōtar 'canna',
πωυ <poH -iu- 'pāstor'; pāyu, pāla
Futter (uestis) 2
'custōs' ; nŕ-pī-ti-
3a2.-fōðor, fōdor , ποιµην
pōimōn fōdr 'capsa' 'tresuir' ,nrpa 'rex';
'uagīna' 'grex'; ποιµη pātra 'recipiens'
3a3.-fōðr ν 'pāstor' 5.3.-pāiti 'id'; rāna-
'uestīmentum'
pā 'protectiō crūris'
pojējō pāyá yati pojǫ, pojiti
6.3.-pilìs
polis πολισ pūh (puráh), pūram
'oppidum'
polkā
fuolan, fühlen palъcъ; palam
'sentiō' 3a2.-
polnēks polleō, pollēx 5.6.- pālidan 'sāgiō''quaerō'; bez-
fælan, fēl 'id'
3a3.-felma 'palpō' palъij 'sine digitīs'
fallan, fallen 5.4.-pùl <*phōlo- 6.3.-púolu, pùlti
polnō
3a2.-fallan 'ruina' 6.4.-pùolu, pult
polpos pulpitum parpa 'domus'
puls (ltis); littiu (litten) πολτοσ 'puls';
2b1.-lith spelta, Spelt pálala- 'farīna
poltos puluis cf.; <*pḷtnó
'pulmentum' 3a2.-spelta πολφοσ 'pulm. quaedam'
polba 'ador'
pulmentum 'pulmentum' q.'
pondos
1b2.-puni,
pōnom án 'pōculum' pānam
poni 'lac'
pāthas 'locus'
áit(t) (<pōthni-) 3a, a2.-findan 'id' . finÞan
pontis pons ποντοσ, πατασ panthā-s 'uia' pǫtь 'iter' *pontis
'locus' 3a3.-finna 'id' 'inueniō'
5.4.-hwn 'portus'
poqós coquus αρτο−κοποσ

'pistor'
porā
πειρω, πεπαρµ píparti 'dūcit'
ferien, fahren 'iter
farjan 'iter ενοσ 5.3.- -pārayeité 'id' na-perjo 'perforō';
porējō portō faciō'
3a2.-fara
faciō' 'perforō'; πορο 5.4.-hord pero 'plūma'
σ 'uadum' 'ambulātum'
prase (-ete·dim -
porcus, 1b2.-porca, farah; Ferkel nt) 6.3.-
porkos porcīnus, purca orc; Innsi-ork Orcades 'porculus' par̃šas; paršienà
porculus `porcās'; 3a2.-fearh 'porcīnus';
paršẽ lis'porculus'
farn 'filix' parṇá- pero
pornós 3a2.-fearn, fern
5.3.-par∂na- 6.3.-spar̂nas 'āla'
'id'
πορτισ, πορτα pºrthukah
porsis farro (m) verse (f)
ξ 5.4.-orth
pārya- 'fīnis, finālis'
5.4.-ar 'ad'; araj
porsōd porrō ar <*pari 'ante' πορρω
'initium';arajin
'prīmus'
portājō
1b1.-púst,
post paśc(t) poz-dъ 'tarde'
pos(ti) post, postea 4.7.−ποσ
1b2.-post, 5.4.-∂st 'ad' 6.3.-pas
pus
pósteri
pastorьkъ
'adfiliātus'
pósteros posterus
6.3.-pãstaras
6.4.-pastars
póstṃos
postrōd
potējō
poti ποτι paiti 5.6.-patiy
693
potijai
brūÞfaÞs
potior, 'procus' patih gospodь 'dominus'
potis possum; fad 'crassus' hundafaÞs ποσισ 5.3.-paitis 6.3.-patis (dial.)
hospēs (-fadis) 5.5.-pat 'quoque' 6.4.-pats 'ipse'
'centuriō'
ποσισ; αµπωτ
6.8..-pi^t
pōtis pōtiō ισ 'recessus pītí-
6.9..-poūt 'bibere'
maris'
pōtlom pōculum ól ? inf. 'bibere' ποτηριον
potnjā ποτνια patnī patni
οινοποτηρ
pōtṓr pōtor ptar-, pātá r-
'uīnī p.'
fochen 'flō' 6.4.-pauga 'caput,
pougā pūga 3a3.-fjūk 'niuea πυγη puluīnu';pũga
tem.' 'rafaga'
6.7.-pouhy
poughos óg, nomen óge
'simplex'
pungō, fiuhta,Fichte πυξ
ochtach<puktāk
pougnos pugnus, 'picea' 3a2.- 'pugnō'; πευκη 6.3.-pušì s 'pīnus'
ā 'picea, pīlum'
pugīl, pugnō fiuhtia<fiuhtjōn 'picea'
6.3.-puns
APR.-pounian
pounā úan 'spūma' 'protuberant.
'pūga'
arborea'
potka<*pъtьka
πυννοσ<τσν puppuṭa- 'infectiō
poutos prae-pūtium uth ? 'uter' 6.3.-pučiù, pũsti
'cūlus' buccālis'
'tumescō'
fowen, voewen
powējō paváyati
'cernō'
παυσ, παισ <π
póweros puer
αωιδσ
powros
3a1, 3a2.-fora faúra purā 'antea'
pṛa παρα
'antea' 'antea' 2b1.-para 'antea'

prae,
praeter;
prehendō<pr preiuatud`pr
ae-; īvātō, reō'
air<p∂ri pri<prei 'ad, ante'
prior<*priyó 1b2.-pre
Are-morica, Are- pare 'ibi' '6.3.-priẽ<prei
s-; 'prāe'; pre- 'oriens'; fri-sahts
brigium, abrit. 3a1, a2.-furi <p∂ri 'exemplum 5.4.-erēc' (eriçu) 'ante'
prāi prīmus<pris pa rem<pris∂mi πριν < ∗πρισ
<*preiskw-u 6.4.-prìe(k)ša
mos 'priusquam'; Are-clūtā <p∂ri 'ante' >vor, before , imagō'
'ante' ar 'ueterior, flāmen' 'anterior'
(Herentas); pretra
<*pari 'ante' (*preitiā)
prīdem, 'prīores';
prīscus; preve
prīstinus, 'singulāriter'
prīuus
práighesto
práiloghos
práinōmṇ
práiteri
prandium
frum fromm
<*prām- πραµοσ
prāmos 'probus' fruma 6.3.-pìrmas
edi̯om <*προµοσ ?
3a2.-forma
<*pṝm-
páporotь<poporty
ratis parna 'folium, o 'filix'; pero
farn, Farnkraut plūma' 5.3.- 'plūma' 6.3.-
pratis raith 2b3.-radenn
3a2.-fearn, fern pepártis, spar̂nas
(coll.) par∂na 'id'
'āla' 6.4.-
paparde
frō 'dominus', f. prъvъ; pravъ
prāuus,
frouwa<prōwōn πρανησ pū́rva-<p∂r∂wos; 'rectus' 6.3.-
prōnus; frauja
prāwos 3a2.-frēa, f. frūa; 'prōnus'; πρωρ pravanā 'prōpensus' primas<*pér∂mos
prōra<prōwr 'dominus'
forwost/est α<prōwryā 5.3.-paurva- 'prior' TOK B.-
yā
'prīmus' pärweṣṣe
preistos
πιµπρηµι, πρεθ parāi- 'exhalō, prejet, pretь 'sūdō'
prējō
ω 'incendō' flabellō' para 'uapor'
695
prositi
pṛccháti
precō, poscō, 6.3.-prašaũ, -ýti;
prāt 'processus'
prekō procus, frāgēn fraihnan pir̃šti 'manum
5.4.-harcanem
precēs pet.' 6.5.-
5.4.-harsn 'pacta'
pròsiti 'idem'
prex, precor,
fraíhnan
preks poscō, fragen 'inquīrō' prashnah 'quaestiō'
'inquīrō'
procus
premō
πρεπω 'conspic 5.4.-erewim 'pareō',
prepō richt 'forma' 2b1.-rith furben 'purgō'
uus sum' eres (-ps-) 'faciēs'
pru, pratь, peretь
premō, ALB.-pres pŕt-, pṛtanā 'pugna'
pressii, ; perǫ, pьrati
'putō', aor.
prēlum TOK B.- 5.3.-p∂r∂t-, p∂šanā 'quatiō, lauō';
preva; me prêt
presō
<*preslom prām 'id' 5.4.-
'mē piget'; pьrjǫ, pьreti
'retineō' hari 'quatī'
(cf. τρεµω et pritem 'contendere'
τρεω) 'affligor' (harkanem ?)
6.3.-periù, per̃ti 'q,
l'
pretjom
prantù, pràsti
fraÞjan,
'suēscō'; prõtas
fruot 'intelligens' frōÞ 'intell.'
pretō ráthaigid 'intellectiō'
3a2.-frōd 'id' fraÞi
6.4.-prùotu, prast
'intellectus'
'intell.'
préwijos
Frosch 'rāana' ; frā
'alacer' prýgnutь, prýgatь
3a2.-frogga 'id' právatē 'saltat';
prewō 'saltō'; prytь
<prugskō; frō, plava- 'rāna'
froh 3a3.- 'rapidus gradus'
frauki
pragъ 'limen'
pṛgā pergula 6.3.-pérgas 'canna
piscaatoris'
pariō, verse, Färse πορειν

prthukah 'uitulus; za-prъtъkъ 'ouum
reperiō, pars, 1b2.- 'uitulus' 'praebeō'
2b1.-erthyl pulmentum cum sine cortice'
pṛijō imperō Propartie 3a2.-ferarr, πορισ, π
'abortus' risso' 6.3.-periù,peréti
Parca<párik `Propertiī' farrow, heahfore, ορταξ, πορτισ 5.4.-ort 'uitulus' 'alō'
a heifer 'uitulus'
frijōn
frī 'liber'; friunt, prejo 'faueō';
'amō'; prīnāti 'gaudet';
Freund 'amīcus';
riar *prīyarā frijonds πραυσ<πραιυσ prīyate 'amat'; prijatelь 'amīcus'
prijós rhydd 'līber' 3a2.-frēo, fri;
'delicia' 'amīcus'; 'blandus' priyá-s 'cārus' 6.3.prieks
frīond, friend
freis acc. 5.3.-frya- 'gaudium'
3a3.-frijāls 'līber'
frijana
prījós
5.4.-erēc' (eriçu)
prīskos priscus <*preiskw-u
'ueterior, flāmen'
prīmus
prīsmos <prismos rem 'ante'
(Herentas)
3a2.-'admissārius' prītá-
prītós
frīd/fríðhengest 5.3.-frita, frīna, friθa
rica> fr. raie furuh, Furche
porca, 1b2.- párśāna- 'sinus, 6.3.-pra-par̃šas
pṛk 2b1.-rhych 3a2.-furh
porculētum porculeta pracipitium' 'sepulcrum'
2b3.-rec 3a3.-for 'cannāle'
pulcher?<pe 2b1.-erch περκνοσ
pṛknos 2a3.-earc 'ruber' pºrshnis 'salpicātus'
rkros 'salpicātus' melana (H)
1b2-
pe(r)sklu pṛcch
pṛkskā forsca
`supplicātiō 5.4.-harc̣
ne'
poscō,
pestlúm, 2b1.-archaf prccháti
precor, forscōn 'inuestigō'
pṛkskō peeslúm arco 2b2.-arghaf 6.3.-prašaũ, -ýti
procus, prex, 3a2.-frignan 5.3.-pºrºsaiti
`templum' 2b3.-archas 'petiit'
postulō
firni <perniyo- faírneis purāṇ á- 'anterior' 6.3.- pérnai 'annō
pṛnos perendiē ? 'uetus, doctus' 'antiquus' 5.6.- paranam praeteritō'
3a2.-fyrn, firn <*perno-; 'anterius' 6.4.- pērns 'annī
697
'uet.' 3a3.-forn af fairnin praeteritī'

<*pṛnó-; fyrnd jera
'aetās' 'praeteritī
annnī'
προ, πρωπερυ
prō, prronus, 1b1, 1b2.- 2b1.-ry- fir-, ver-; für, for fra-, fair-; σι 'duos ante prá, pra-; prapra pro 'per'
prō(d) ro-
prōdest pro-, pru- 2b3.-ro-, ru-, ra- <pṛ faur <pṛ annos'; προπρ 5.3.-frā, fra- 6.3.-para, pro 'id'
ο 'prō et 'prō'
próbhoud robud 2b1.- rhybudd prabodha probudítь
hos 'admonitiō' 'cautiō' 'conscientia' 'expergefaciō'
probhwājō
fromm <*mo-
'pius' 3a2.-fram pravъ, пра́вый
probhwos probus prabhu´- 'potens'
'strēnuus' 3a3.- <*prōwos
framr 'id'
продавец
prod∂tṓr proditor προδοτησ 'uenditor' 6.3.-
pardavėjas 'id'
prṓddōmi
prōi fruo, früh πρωι prātar
freidi <*fra-iþi-ja- Προιτοσ 'nōm
proitis préti-
'apostata' en hominis'
5.4.-p'esay fem
prokós procus
harsn
reciprocus,
2b1.- (y)rhawg 'ad
procerēs (<>
longum futūrum' προκα
prokos pauperēs), prokъ 'reliquus'
2b3.-araok 'protinus'
arc. gpl.
'prīdem'
procum
1b2.- fram 'ultra'
promos fram 'ultra' προµοσ pro-stъ 'simplex'
promom 3a2.-from 'ab'
proqēd
propē, 2b1.-rhag 'ante' prāk (rar. pranc-)
proqos prokъ 'relictus'
propinquus 2b3.-rak- 'ante' 'antea, olim'
pṛos arsaid, arsid Frist 'terminus' παροσ puráḥ; puraḥ-
`vetus' 3a2-first 'primus' 'pridem'; sthita- 'praestans';

πρεσβυσ/γυσ 'purō-gavá- 'dux'
'uetus' 5.3.-parō
subsidium,
prósēdjom prasāda 'grātĭa'
praesidium
próstōrnos prastīrna prostorno
2b1.-rhos
prastha-s
prostos ross 'parāmus' 2b3.-
'altiplanitiēs'
collis
prataram 'futuure'
pruter pan
próteros προτεροσ 5.3.-fratara
'prius quam'
'anterior'
προσ (Ηοµ. πρ
prati; pratya protivъ
proti pretium οτι); προσθεν 'compensātus' 6.4.-pret
'ante'
pūrtí-, pūrtá-
rath <*prōtóm rhad 'grātia, fauor' πρωτοσ
prōtós portiō 'grātificātiō,
(cf.pṛtis) 'id' 2b3.Rat-louuen 'uāticinātum'
praemium'
prruriō, ALB: Prush
prousijō plṓṣati 'cremat'
prūna<sn 'prūna'
πρεπω 'conspic 5.4.-erewim 'pareō',
pṛptus richt 'forma' 2b1.-rith
uus sum' eres (-ps-) 'faciēs'
περκοσ 'falcō';
erc 'et salmō',
forhana 'tructa' περκνοσ
procus 'piscis bōs'; orc
pṛqos 3a3.-fjorsungr 'nigellus'; pṛśni-
q.' <*porkos 'et
'trachinus dracō' περκαζει 'āter
ōuum'
fit'
ειωρου/ειωραι πορειν
2b1.-rhan 'praebeō'
pṛsnā rann 2b2.-ran πεπρωτ pūrtám 'praemium'
2b3.-rannou αι 'vaticinātum
'partimonia' est'
porrus,
pṛsom πρασον
porrum
pṛstis postis First 'crista' παστασ, παρα pṛ-ṣṭhá-m prъstъ 'digitus'
699
3a2.-fyrst, fierst στασ 'postis' 'summum' 5.3.- 6.3.-pir̃štas 'id'

'id' par-šti 'tergum'
pars (partis), πεπρωται 'vati pūrtám 'praemium'
pṛtis
portiō cinātum est' 5.5.-parta-/-i
Augusto-ritum
furt
2b1.-rhyd farjan 'iter
pṛtus portus fahren 'iter faciō' πειροο, ποροσ píparti
2b2.-rid faciō'
3a3.-fjorðr
2b3.-rit
friosan, frost
pruīna < frius 'gelu,
prunsō 3a2.-frēosan; frost pruṣv 'pruīna'
*prusuīnā frigus'
3a3.-friōsa, frør
pryskatь
prúsneumi Pruso, Prusonius 3a3.-frȳsa, frustan pruṣṇóti 6.3.- praũsti
'uultum lauāre'
prusw pruīna pruṣv
5.4.-tèli 'ulmus'
pteljā tilia πτελεα 'ulmus'
<gr.
fūl, faul 'pūtridus';
othar 'morbum';
vut 'cunnus' pū́yati 6.3.-puvù, púti
othrach
pūs (pūris), 3a2.-fūl 'id' fuls πυοσ (εοσ) 5.3.-puyeiti 6.4.-pũt
pujō 'cumulus
pūteō 3a3.-fauskr 'pūtridus' 'sanies' 5.4.-hu 'sanguis 'pūtescere', caus
merdae'; othar-
'lignum pūtrid.' suppurātus' pũdet
lige 'sepulcrum'
fuð 'cunnus'
pūjós
puch 'plumāmen';
fuhs 'uulpēs' faúhō pušistyj 'densus'
pukos púccha-
3a2.-fox 'uulpēs' 6.3.-paustìs
'capillum animāle'
ulcha, ul-fota;
pula, pulaka
Ulaid
pulgā πυλιγγεσ 'hirsutiō'; pulastí
'usterienses'<ulu
'simplex pilātus'
tī
3a, a2.-fūl >faul
PASHTO.-pūl
pūlós 'id' 3a3.-full fūls 'puter' 6.3.-pūliai 'pūs'
'turbor oculōrum'
'id'
pungō, πυγµη 'pugnus'

fiuhta,
pugnus, ochtach ; πυξ
pungō 3a2.-fiuhtia 6.3.-pušì s
pugilis, <puktākā 'picea'
<fiuhtjōn 'pugnō'; περιπε
pugnō υκεσ
6.3.-pupela
'papula' 6.4.-
pūpos pūpus
pups 'pectus
feminīnus'
3a2.-fyrs, furze pyro 'spelta'
(σ)πυροσ
pūrós 'Agropyron 6.3.-pūrai 'frumen
'frūmen'
repens' hiemāle'
pūbēs, pumān (ac.
publicus; pumāṃsam, gen.
οπυιω <opusy
pusbhis impūbēs, puṃṣáḥ) 'homō'
ō 'nūbō'
impūbis, 5.5.-hapusa- 'cuspis,
impūber pēnis'
napyštiti se
púṣ́yati, puṣṇti,
3a3.-føysa 'inflārī'
pusjō pustula φυσαω 'inflō' pṓṣati 'alō'
*fausian 'inflō' 6.3.-pūslẽ 'bulla'
púṣpa- 'flos' 6.4.-pùslis 'id'
floh<*plouk ψυλλα <*blusy plúši- blъcha
puslēks pūlēx <*sl
3a2.-fleah, flea ā 5.4.-lu, low <*pluso- 6.3, 6.4.-blusā
pustlā
pūtējō
othar 'morbum';
othrach
pūterós puter, pūteō 'cumulus
merdae'; othar-
lige 'sepulcrum'
putus,
pъta 'auis'
putillus, puclo
putrá 'filius' 6.3.-putýtis
putlom pus(s)us, PEL.-puclois
5.3, 5.4.-puqra 'id' 'auicella' 6.4.-
pusillus>pull 'puerīs'
us putns 'id'
pūtós putus pūtá-
701
νηπιοσ?
puwējō putō 5.5.-kappuwai
'ingnōrans'
pūs (pūris);
puwos πυον pūya-
puter
q∂ddrom
πασσω 'sternō' 6.3.-kutinétis
cāith 'acus,
hotzen ; 'ēplumor'; kuntù,
q∂tjō quatiō furfur'
<kwōti
3a2.-hūdenian πιτυρον 'furfur atkutàu, kùsti
' 'quiescō'
catúh
q∂trus quater
5.3.-čaθruš
q∂trusnos
q∂twṛádk
ṃta
quadrāgintā cethorcho τετρωκοντα
q∂twṛádk
ṃtṃos
q∂twṛatnjo
m
q∂twṛdek quattuordeci
viorzëhan fidwōrtaí h
ṃ m
un
q∂twṛdjów
ijom
petuar[ios] τετταρεσ, τεσσ
'quartus' 2b1.- αρεσ, Hom catvrah četyre 6.3.-
vier
q∂twṛes quattuor cethir pedwar 2b2.- fidwōr πισυρεσ (i 5.3.-čaθwārō keturì 6.4.-
3a2.-fēower
peswar 2b3.- schwa 5.4.-čork` četr
peuar secundum)
q∂twṛkṃté
mtṃos
q∂twṛkṃto
s
q∂twṛpods quadrupēs τετραπουσ ćátuspad-
q∂twṛtos quartus τετταρτοσ
qād

kolь, kolikъ
πηλικοσ 'quam 'quantum'
qālis quālis
magnus' 6.3.-kõl(ei) 'qua
tenus'
5.4.-kàn(i)
quam , 1b2.-panta
qām 'quantum, et sicut
quantus 'quanta'
comp. quam'
2b1.-pob
qāqos cach 2b2.-pup kakъ
2b3.-pep
quālum,
qasjos košь, košé lь
quallus
qwṇtos
qdnos
qe que -ch (noch, sech) τε ca
(h)wezzen, wetzen gahvatjan
'id'; 'exacuō' cṓdati, cōdá yati ??
qedos triquetrus
3a2.-hwettan, wet hvōtjan 'impellit'
(id) 'minor'
kūtiṣ 'animus,
desiderium' kavíṣ
κυδοσ 'gloria'; 'clārus, sapiens' (d);
qedos κυδροσ, κυδ śudra- 'IV plebs' чу́до 'mirāculum'
νοσ 'gloriātus' 5.3.-Sudroi
'Aracosiānī'
(=gloriātī?)
ad·cí <*kwiset pissiumi 'uideō' cítti 'intellectus' čьstь, čestь
'uidet'; ciall 2b1.-pwyll 'id' (cḗtati, cíkētati)
qeisō 'honor'; čьtǫ, čisti
'intellectus, 2b3.-poell 5.3.-čisti- 'id'
sensus' <*kweislā 'id' <*kweit ` 'computō, legō'
qeistis cítti- 'intellectus' čьstь 'honor'
cira- 'longus,
(h)wīla 'tempus' hveila pokojь 'quiēs'
qejēskō quiēscō cían ? 'diū' procul' 5.4.-
3a2.-hīl, while 'hora' 6.1.-pociti 'maneō'
han-gč̣ im<*sṃ-q
703
5.6.-šiyātish
'confort'
ποιεω 'faciō'
cinṓti, cáyati
ποεµα činъ 'ordō';
káya- 'corpus"
'compositiō' činiti 'ordinō,
qejō 5.3.-čayeiti, činvaiti
−ποιοσ 'legō cern.'; kaēš dispōnō'' kojú,
'factor' 'stru.' kojíty 'machinor'
(φονοσ ποιειν)
qejtis
κυκλοσ
3a2.-hweohl, καλαθοσ cakrá-m koleco, kolo (nōn
qeklom wheel 'corbis' 5.3.-caxra- red.)
3a3.-hjól κλωθω 5.5.-kaluti 'circulus' 6.3.-kãklas
'fīlō'
kśate, caṣṭe<kwe-
τεκµαρ 'indiciu
qekō kwk-ti pokožo 'monstrō'
m'
caḱsu 'oculus'
τηλε, 4.2.−πη
qeli 2b1-2b2-2b3.-pell
λυι
do·foichell πελω, πελοµαι
colō, 'transit, uenit' 'moueor' cárati 'circulat' 6.8.-člen
qelō 3a3.-hvel
inquilīnus <*to+upo+kweln περιτελλοµεν kars- 'arō' <*kwel-s 6.9.-kelan
ā- ων
kúla-m 'familia' čelovekъ 'homō'
qelos cland 'puerī' τελοσ
krṣṭí- 'gentes' čeljadь 'domesticī'
(h)welben, wölben κολποσ 'sinus';
hvilftrjōm
qelpō 3a2.-heofon- αιθεροσ κολπο
'sepulcrum'
hwealf σ
cmati, camati
ετεµεν ηµελγεν 5.4.-kìm-k` 'faux,
qemō 3a3.-hvōma
(Ηεσ) guttur' 5.6.-
čam 'cibus'
qentos 3a2.-hūsl hunsl 5.3.-sp∂nta- (cp. svetъ
'sacramentum' 'hostia, span-yah, sp∂ništa-) 6.3.-šveñ tas

uictima'
5.5.-kunna 'rectus,
dexter'
hwerfan, werben; καρποσ
repēns ? (cf. 2b1.-parr wirvil, Wirbel hvaírban 'pugnāta'; κυρ
qerpō carr 'uenābulum'
uerpō) 'uenābulum' 2a2.-hweorfan 'spatiāri' βισ 'columna
3a3.-hverfa cum tabellīs'
queror,
questus;
3a2.-hwōsan 'id' śvásiti 'spirat' 6.3.-švir̃ kšti
qésai tranquillus
3a3.-hvæsa 'spirō' śūt-kārá- 'siffilātiō' 'siffilāre'
<*trāntikwes
lós ?
častь, часть
cuit <*kwesdis, 2b1, b2.-peth
qestis 6.3.-kedeti
cuid 2b3.-pez
'explōdō'
qidpe
5.3.-šāiti-š, šiyāti-š
qijētis quiēs 'gaudium'
5.4.-han-gist
5.3.-šyāta-, šāta- TOK B.-В śāte
qijētós quiētus
'gaudens' 'diuēs'
cin (cinad)
τινυµαι, Hom
qínumoi <*kwinuts
'culpa' τεινυται
τηρεω 'obseruō
'; τετιηµαι cikḗti, cinōti
cin (cinad) 'animaduertō',
'afflictor'; čajǫ, čajati
qíqeimi <*kwinuts
'culpa' τιµη 'honos'; cyati 'cūrō' 'exspectō'
ατιζω 'neglig cāra- 'explorātor'
ō'
cid
qis qid quis, quid cid τισ čьto
5.5.-kwis
kim cid 'aliquid'
qisqis quisquis,
5.4.-in-č
qidqid quidquid
5.5.-kuis (as) kuis
705
1b2.-panu-
kad когда́ (г<?)
qṃdō quandō pei
'quandōque' 5.3.-kadā 6.3.-kadà, kad
πασχω <∗πΓδη
céss(a)id;<*kwṇ 6.3.-kenčiù, kę̃sti;
σκ; πενθοσ, π
qṇtjō t-tā- cēssad pakantà 'patientia'
'patientia' αθοσ ∋πατιεντι 6.4.-cìešu cì est
α, δολορ∋
ubī < cubei,
arc. cubi, kuha
qodhei cube; unde, puf ποθι, κοθι 5.2.-kú kude
alicubi, 5.5.-kuwabi
necubi
qoi quō 1b2.-pu-e /-o co quō modō 1b2.-cw, cwd ΚΡΕΤ.−οπυι kū 'ubī' 6.3.-ku 'ubī'
apa-citih
ποινα απ cena 'pretium'
'represaliae' 5.3.-
qoin οτισισ 6.3.-kaina
kaēna; citha
'represaliae' 'pretium'
'expiatiō'
caenum,
cūnīre
obscēnus, in- 3a2.-whin
6.4.-svīni^t
qoinom , con- 'genista' 3a3.-
'inquinārī'
quināre, hvein 'agrpstis'
ancunulenta
e
qoitrós,
koitrós
qolkā culcita kūrcá-ḥ
qolus colus πολοσ 'axis'
pún
cum, quom, wann ko-gda
qom 1b2.- cuin 1b2.-pan(n) hvan 5.3.-k∂m 'quō modō'
quandō 3a2;-when 6.9.-kan
pon(n)e,
unde, arc.
qomde
cunde
Wannebobbell 6.3.-šveñ drai
qondhros combrētum cuinneog
3a3.-huonn 'planta q.'
qori cūr, quor. hwār 'ubī' <ēr 'id' hvar 'ubī' kár-hi 'quandō ' 6.3.-kur̃ 'ubī'
quir-quir 3a2.-hwær 'ubī' 5.4.-ur 'ubī'

'ubicumque'
2b1.-pair
qorjom coire 3a3.-huerr carú-s, cara ча́ра, ча́рка
2b2-2b3.-per
2b1.-pwy
qos qā(i)
qod
quī, quis cia 'quis' 2b2.-pyw hvas τισ
2b3.-piou
2b1.-pas, peswch
qostā casachtach 2b2.-pāz 3a2.-hwósta
2b3.-pas
káti
ποσ(σ)οσ <τψο
qot(j)os quot 2b1.-pet 5.3.-čaiti
σ 5.5.-kuwatta
ut, utī, utei,
puz
us-piam, - katham
qota 1b2.-puz-e
quam, uti- 5.5.-kuwat
<*ts
nam, -que
ποσε (cf.
qote hvaþ πεσοσ, πεσηµα
*<pet)
uter, utra, -
qóteros 3a2.hwæþer ƕaþar ποτεροσ katará, katama
um
qotrēd 3a2.-whither hvadre
qotrōd hvaþro
2b1.-prydydd τερασ 'indiciu karōmi
creth<kwertis 6.3.-kuriu, kurti
'poëta' peri saṃkṛt 'semel'
petiro-pert 'poëtica'; m'; πελωρ<κF 'faciō, struō,
qṛeumi 'faciō, causō'
'quater' cuirim? 'pōnō'
pryd 'forma, ερωρ 'ingens' 5.3.-k∂r∂naoiti incendō'; keriu,
cruth 'forma' 'facit' kereti 'incantō'
tempus'
2b1.-prynu (v.n.)
2b2.-prenne, πριαµαι, επρια krīnāmi
qrínāmi crenim
perna 2b3.- µην 'ēmī' krayáh 'acquistātiō'
prena
prid <-to 'pretium, ukrijenъ (-no
qrītóm críth 'emptiō' krītá-
oppignerātiō' subst. -to)
qṛmis cruim 2b1.-pryf krmih 6.3.-kirmis
707
5.6.-kirm
chvórost
crann <*-snā 2b1-2b2.-pren 3a2.-hyrst
qṛsnos πρινοσ 'robur' <chvorstъ 'rāmus'
'arbos' 2b3.-prenn 'arbusculae'
6.3.-kirmis
2b1.-pryd 'fr.,
petiropert cruth 'forma, temp.' 2b2.-
qṛtus sa-kºrt 'semel'
'quater' modus' prit 'tempus'
2b3.-pred
rábhate; rábhas-
r∂bhjō rabiō, -ere recht 'fūria' 3a2.-rabbian
'uiolentia'
r∂djom
regan, regen 'pluit'
3&2.-regen; rain rõkia, rõkti
rign ALB.-rrjeth 'scatō,
r∂gājō rigō 'id' 3a3.-raki `leuiter pluerei';
'pluuia' fluō'
'humiditās' roke 'leuis pluuia'
rikr 'humidus'
rapas- 'mutilitās'
refsen 'castigō' raphitá-
recht <*reptu- ερεπτοµαι; αρε 6.3.- ap-ré́pti
r∂pjō rapiō, -ere 3a2.-repsan, 'uulnerrātus'
'īra'
respan 'id' πυια 'Harpia' 5.5.-arpuwai-
6.4.-rẽples 'forfex'
'infaustus esse'
r∂tis
rādō, rōdō, (Hes)
radula, rāzi 'subtiilis' αρπην καρχαρ
2b1.-rhathu; rádati
rādō rastrum, ratze, Ratte 'mūs' οδοντα
rhathell 'radula' 5.5.-ardala- 'secūris'
rallum, 3a2.-rætt 'mūs' 'radens
rāmentum secūris'
ruoba, Rüpe<ōbyō
rāpum, ραποσ, ραφαν 6.3.-ropiena
rāpom 3a3.-rōfa 'cauda
rāpīna οσ 'rāpīna'
equī'
∂rté 'exclusīuē' rědъkъ 'rārō';
ερηµοσ
rārós rārus árma, armaká- oriti 'separō'
'desertus'
ruinae' 6.3.-ardaũ, -ýti 'id'
rastós

ALB.- arɛ́nts
raudus, aruzzi, Erz
raudos 'chalybs, 5.6.-rōi 'cuprum' ruda, руда
rōdus 3a2-arut
adamans'
rohon 'rūgīre'; rykajo, rykati
raucus (cf. rūh? 3a2.- 'rugire'
raukos rūkṣ á- `?
rūnā) ryn <*rūhjan 6.3.-rūkti ` 'rūdō'
'rūdō' 6.4.-rucu, rùkt 'id'
rām, rōm 'fuligō'
rāmá- 'āter'; rāmī
rāwos rāuus 3a2.-rōmig
'nox'
'fūlīginōsus'
rastǫ; rodъ
'partus, gens';
5.4.-ordi 'filius'
roditi, raždati
5.5.-ḫardu-
ALB.-rit 'parere', ranъ
'prognātus'
ṛdhjō arbor, arbos TOK.-orto
KURD-ārzang 'color 'mane' (orqros)
'supra'
obsc. intemperiē BUL.-ražda se 'sol
arb.' oritur'
6.3.-rasma
'productiō'
várdhati 'crescit' rastǫ, rastú
arduus; ar- Arduenna ορθοσ 'erectus'
ard 'altus, ALB.-rit ūrdhvá-s *wrHdh- <*ordh-tō 'crescō'
ṛdhwos et nōn *ur- 2b1.-hardd 3a3.- ǫrðugr *Hwrdh-
magnus' 'crescō' wo- 5.3.-ǝrǝdva- TOK A orto
rārum 'pulcher' 4.3.-βορθοσ 'altus' 'sursum'
rebaigim 'lūdō';
rebhā reb, rebrad reben 'mouērī' 5.6.-raftan 'īre'
'lūdus'
rebhājō
hirn-ireba
'craneus'; rippa ερεφω, ερεπτω;
rebhō 'costa'; οροφοσ rebro 'costa'
3a2.-ribb 'costa' 'tectus'
3a3.-rif
rippa 'costa';
riobhar rhefr 'rectum'
rebhrus 3a2.-ribb 'costa' rebro 'costa'
'cribrum' 2b3.-reor
3a3.-rif
709
dorch 'obscūrus' ερεβοσ 'inferu rájas- TOK B.-erkeṃt

recos 3a3.-røkkr riqis
<*do-regyo- m' 5.4.-erek 'niger'
re (resuō,
5.5.-arha (kisai-
rēd/re reiciō,
'destruō')
respiciō)
regeinā regīna rígain <*rēgnī 2b1.-rhiain 'uirgō' rjñī
regjos
regnom regnum rén 'spatium'
recchen, recken uf-rakjan ṛjyati 'firmus est'
regō regō reraig regu 'tendō' 'extendere' 'in altum ορεγω 5.5.-harg(a)nāu
3a2.-reccan 'id' extendere' 'palma'
ριγοδουνον, rāj- (nom. sg. rṭ),
reiks < celt.
regs rex rí (ríg) rigomagus, caturix
rí rjan-
2b1.-rhi
2b1.-
cymreith/rhaith
regtós rectus recht 'lex' raihts
2b3.-reiz 'ordō,
disp.'
parauerēdus 'eq
add.' rēda 'currus' rītan 6.3.-riedė́ ti
rédid, ríadid;
reidhō 2b1.-rhwyddhau 3a2.-rídan 'uoluō'; raidīt
ríad 'equitāiōt'
'festīnō'; gorwydd 3a3.-rídha 'instigō'
'equus'
bereit 'aptus' 6.3.-raidù- 'aptus':
2b1.-rhwydd ga-raidjan
réid <*reidhi- 3a2.-rēde, ready 6.4.-raids
<*reidhi- 'facilis' 'adaptāre'; ραδιοσ, ρειδων TOK A.-ritk- 'gignō'
reidhos 'facilis, plānus, 3a3.-greiđr 'promptus, aptus';
2b3.-rouez 'thin- *ga-raiþ-s ? ΝΟΝ B ritk 'sānō'
suauis' 'aptus'; reiđi riedît 'concinnāre,
sown' 'aptus'
adminiculum adaptāre'
ad-riug, con-
2b1.-modrwy
riug; fo-riug
corrigia < 'anus'; rhwym ricken ; ric
reigō 'sistō'; ārach,
gal. 'uinc.' 'ligatūra'
cuimrech
2b3.-rum 'id'
'uinculum'
réo <*riwo- 3a2.-rāw, ræw, 6.3.-rievà 'rupēs';
reimā rīma
'linea' row 'linea' raĩve 'linea'

6.4.-riewa
rím 'numerus' rīm <*rīmom
rēimṇ 2b1.-rhif <*rīmā
<*rīmā 3a2.-rīm
1b2.-re-per rḥ, rāyá ḥ; rayí-;
rēis rēs, reus 'pro rē', dat. 2b1.-rei ? regnum rēvá nt'diuēs'
abl. ri 5.3-raya i.s.raēvant
2b1.-reatir rīde 'amnis' reka <*roikā; roi
reiwos rīuus riathor 'torrens' ráya-s 'flūmen'
'torrentum' 3a2.-rīð 'torrens' 'exāmen'
ráïd, rá-, imb·rá- rüejen <*rō
rējō 6.3.-iriù, ìrti
<*rō- 3a2.-rōwan <*rō-
likṣ <*lakṣ 'id' 6.3.-érke 'ricinus'
rekā ricinus 5.4.-o(r)jil ` 6.4.- ẽrce
'pediculus' 'mōrōsus'
rokъ
rahnjan
'opportunitās'
'calculō'
reko, rešti 'dicō'
rékneumi rechnen 'id' ga-rēhsns, racayati 'praeparat'
raknoti, račiti
ragin
'consilium' 'uelle' rečь
'accūsātiō'
6.3.-remiù, rem̃ti
ηρεµα
fo-rim- dēpōnō ramf, Rand rámatē 'quiescit, 'fulciō'; ràmas
rimis 'tranquillē',
remō rinde ? 'limēs, contentiō' oblectātur'; ratá- 'quiēs'
'quiēs' comp.
'recipiens' 3a2.-rand 'scūtum' 'libīdō'; ráti- 'quiēs' 6.4.-rāms
ηρεµεστεροσ 'pudīcus'
reor, ratiō; 2b1.-rhaid
rīm 'numerus'; rathjō αρρετη
(prō)portiō: 'necessit.' rāmen 'cōnor' ratu- 'ueredictum';
rēmoi do-rīmu 'calculus' 'habilitās', αρει
portiō =prō 2b2.-reys, res 3a2.-rōmon 'id' aram, álam 'satis'
'numerō' (< lat.?) ων' potior'
ratiō; rītus 2b3.-red (<lat.?)
rét (réto) > rud rátna 'et gemma,
rentus
'rēs' thesaurus, dōnum'
rebo, reba, repa 6.3.-replióti
rēpō rēpō
'vinea' 6.4.-rāpt
resgō restis rusch(e) 'iuncus' rájju- 'corda' rozga ` 'rāmus'
711
3a2.-resc(e), 6.3.-rezgù, rèksti

risc(e), rysc(e) 'id' rekstis 'corbis'
6.4.-režǵēt
resgtis
rēmus, rēmō,
rāme ; imram ruodar
rēsmos tri/septe- ερετµοσ 6.3.-irklas <*tlo-
'iter' 3a3.-róa
resmom
rēti rēte 6.3.-rė̃tis
2b1.-tyred (*to-
rethim; rath rete) 'ueni!'; guo- rado, rato
rota, birota, rátha 'currus'
retō 'rota'; do·airret redaf 'succurrō' 'rapidus' 3a2.- ritù, rìsti 'rotō'
rotundus 5.3.-raθa 'id'
'superat' 2b3.-redont ræd 'id'
'currunt'
retrōd
rubus,
rupfen
reubō rūbidus, robb? animal? raupjan
3a2.-rīepan, rip
rubēta
Ande-roudos
2b1.-rhudd rъdъ
reudhos rūfus, ruber ruad 3a3.-rauth-r rauds rohita
2b2.-rud/ruth 6.3.-raũdas
2b3.-ruz
6.8.-ruditi
riozan 'flēre'
reudō rūdō ρυζω ? rudáti, róditi 'flēt' 'dēplorō' 6.3.-
3a2.-rēotan
ráudmi 'id'
2b1.rhuddion rōzzen 'dēcadō'
rudis, rūdus,
reudos rúad 'ruina' 'residuum, 3a2.-rotian, rot Rudrá- 'Apollō'
rullus
furfur' 'id'
roum, Rahm
5.3.-rao(g)na-
'crēma'
reughmṇ 'burrum'
3a2.-rēam
5.6.-rō(g)an 'id'
3a3.-rjūmi
it-ruchen.rēocan;
rouhhan, rauchen rygajo se
ερευγοµαι, ερυ 5.4.-orcam
reugō ērūgō, ructō 'id' 6.3.-
γγανω 5.6.-ā-rōg
3a2.-rocettan; rjáugmi,raugiù
rēocan 'fūmō'
rienen 'lamentor'
rūmor,
2b1.-rhin 3a2.-rūn 'id'; rēon rūna ωρυοµαι 'mur ru-ti, ruváti, rovo, ruti
reumi rauus, rauis, rún 'secrētum'
'secrētum' 'lamentus' 'secrētum' murō' ravati 'murmurat' 'murmurō'
rauiō, raucus
3a3.-rymja rūmor
rūmen,
rūma,-mis, 2b1.-rhumen rōmantha-
reusmṇ
rūmāre, 'pantica' 'rūminātiō'
rūmināre
reusmnājō
rūm ravьnъ <orvьnъ
ré <*rewi- rûm, Raum
'spatium' 'plānum';
rew rūs /*rew-yā ró e, rói 'spatium'
rūms rovesnyk
'planitiēs' 3a2,a3.-rūm 'id'
'amplus' 'coaetāneus'
réwesnā
ré 'lūna'; reo
ravi 'sōl'
rewis dorcha 'obscūra
5.4.-arew 'id'
nox'
rón 'crīnis'; riomo, Riemen
rúaimneach 2b1.-rhawn 'crīnis' 'cinctus'
rṓman-, lṓman
rewmṇ <*roumniā-k- 2b2.-ruen 'crīnis' 3a2.-rug 'drappus'
'capillum'
'capillum 2b3.-reun 'crīnis' 3a3.- rogg(r)
longum' 'caesariēs'
(ē/dī/ob- riurjan rávate, rudhí, ryjo, ryti 'fodiō';
3a2.-rūwi 'asp. ορουω 'erump
)ruō, -rutus; 'uiescō'; rāviṣ am, rṓruvat rъvǫ, рвать
rewō rūtrum;
rúam 'rūtrum'; pelle'
riurs ō; ερυσιχθων 'frangō' 'abrumpō'
rúamar 'effossiō' 3a3.-ryja 'ouēs 'terram
rutellum; 'peremptōr 5.5.-ar(u)wai 6.3.-ráuju, ráuti
tondeō' fodiens'
rutābulum ius' 'prosternō' 'abscindō, runcō'
roe, rói 2a2.-
roen> raon
rewos rūs
*rovesno-,
*rovesyâ?
rágha 'uiolentia' ; jërzat' 'inquiētus
ar(a)g 'piger,
ορχεοµαι ṛghāyá ti'conciet' esse'
ṛghējō molestus'
'trepudiō' 5.5.-arga-tiya 6.3.-aržù s
3a2.-earg 'id'
'adsultō' 'lascīūs'
713
2b1.-dir-rwyn, cyf- reichen 'extendō'

ringid ; riag ráiž-aus, -ytis
rigjō rwynein 3a2.-ræc(e)an,
'tormentum' 'oblongor'
'tormentum' reach
ṛnóti
ṛijai orior ορνυµι 5.4.-y-arnem
5.5.-arta 'stat'
2b1.-rhwygo
rikjō rixa ? rīhe 'linea' ερεικω 'rumpō' likhāmi 'scabō'
2b3.-roegaff
rennen 'id' rinnan 4.2.−ορινω
rínāmi irrītō, prorītō rían 'mare' Rēnos 'Rhēnus' riṇti, ríṇvati vyrinǫti
3a2,.rinnan, run 'currere' 'irritō'
5.4.-argelum
trííb- rigil, riegel raka 'sepulcrum'
arceō, arca, αρκεω 'impediō' (cf.
ṛkējō arakavúm 'repagulum' 6.3.- rakìnti
arcānus 'defendō' censeō-consulō)
àedificare' 3a2.-rail 'claudō'
5.5.- har(k)- 'teneō'
rigil, riegel
5.4.-argel
ṛkēslom 'repagulum' 6.3.- rãktas 'clāuis'
'impedimentum'
3a2.-rail
ṛklā arcula 5.4.-arkl
rnóti
5.4.-ari ''sta' 5.5.-
ṛneumi orior ορνυµι, ορινω
arnu-, arai-; arta
'stat'; arriya 'suscitō'
ṛnutis
robhos
rōdhí 5.6.-rādiy radi
reden; rātan
no-ráidiu, no- rōdjan; rādhnṓti, rdhyati
2b1.-adrawd; 'consl.'
rōdhjō rádim; imm- garēdan 'efficit, concinnat' raditi, 'curor'
amraud 'mens' 3a2.-rædan
rādim 'meditor' 'curor' 5.3.-rāđaiti 'parat'
'legere' 3a3.-røđa
ruozit 'suscitat'
rōdō (wr-), 2b1.-rhathu, vardva- 'mitis'
rōdō 3a2.-wrōtan vredъ 'uulnus'
rostrum rhathell 'līma' avradanta 'mitigātis'
'fodiō'
3a2.-rōt 'cōmis'
radъ 'libens'
rōdos 3a3.-rö́
task'animor' 6.3.-rõds 'id'
roinos róen 'iter, callis, 2b3.-run 'collis' rein, Rain
continuī montes' 3a3.-rein 'limes'

απ−/εξ/κατ−/µε rása-ḥ 'succus'
rosa
ros τ− εραω ( 5.5.-arsiya- 'fluō'
6.3.-rasa
<∗ρσ) '-fluō' ALB.-resh 'ninguit'
rōstrom
2b1.-rhod ráthas 'currus'
rotā rota roth rad 6.3.-rãtas
2b3.-ros 5.3.-raqō
arati 'seruus';
ṛots ara, ac. araid
sarāthi? 'auriga'
Rost 6.4.-ru^sa
roudhstos loṣṭa-
3a2.-rost, rust <*rūdhsā
roudos rōz róda- 6.3.-raudà
2b1.-rhin
rounā rún 'secrētum' rūna 3a2.-rūn rūna
'secrētum'
6.3.-rupis 'rūpēs',
rūpes -is 3a3.-rufinn
raupaĩ 'uariola,
<*rūpi-; 'saetōsus,
roupis *rōpa- 'ōrificium' morbillum'
rupex -icis dispectinātus';
6.5.- rȕpa
<*rupik- rauf 'ōrificium'
'ōrificium'
routos 3a2.-rēada, read 5.4.-rōt
6.3.-rowa
ruowa, Ruhe
rowā ερωη 'stagnus'
3a2.-rōw 'quiēs'
6.4.-rāwa 'id'
αρα, αρειη
īrṣ y 'malitia'
3a2.-eorsian 'imprecātiō, TOK A rse, B rser
ṛsjā 5.4.-her 5.5.-
'malēuolus sum' maledictiō, 'odium'
contumelia' arsaniya 'inuideō'
eirgg, eirg 'i'; ALB.-
3a2.-eart ṛccháti 5.5.-
ardhur
ṛskai do·rega /·terga <*H1eH1ore 'es' ερχοµαι ār-, arhi 'perueniō';
<*H1orgh-
'ueniet' 3a3.-aru (3ª pl.) āri 'peruenit'
un- 'ueni'
ṛtís
ṛksa-s
Deae Artioni
ṛtkos ursus art αρκτοσ 5.3.-ar∂sō
2b1.-arth
5.4.-arj
715
5.5.-hartagga
ruber,
rudru, ridru
rudhrós rūfus, rōbus rúad rauths ερυθροσ rudhirá-ḫ
6.3.-raũdas
(dial.)
rudlós
inrauhtjan ερυγµηλοσ
rugijō rugiō rucht 'rugītus' 3a2.-rēoc 'saeuus' rъžetъ 'hinnīre'
'irāscor' 'rugiens'
*rukka > it.
rocko, Rock 'id'
ruktus rucht rhuch(en) rocca
3a2.-rock 'id'
'castula'
bi-raubōn
roubōn 'clepō'
rumpō; 'clepō';
3a2.-rēofan lumpáti, caus. rupá 'cūra'
rumpō rūpēs (6.3.- raupjan
'scindere'; rubbish rōpayati 6.3.-rūpeti 'curō'
rupis); rūpex 'decerpere,
3a3.-rjūfa, riūfa
capere'
ορυσσω 'fodiō'
runcō, runcō, 2b1.-rhwgn rūh ? 'raucus' luñcati; 6.3.-raukiù, raũkti
runkō rucht 'porcus' ορυχ
runcina, rūga 'frictiō, scaptiō' 3a2.-rūh 'id' rūkṣ á- ? 'raucus' 'rūgō'
η/γη, ορυγµα;
rupús rūpex 6.3.-rupùs 'solox'
gi-rūspit gl. zu
inhorruit (aper),
räus/rūs/
ruspājai rūspor, -ārī
riuspern/-ln,
räuspern 'in collō
rādere'
rwtós rutus; rūta rutáh 'fractus' zarýt, rýla
s(w)ei sei ει
s(w)eike
s∂kesnā sacēna scian 'culter' 2b1.-ysgïen 3a2.-segisna
s∂ksom saxum sahs 'culter' socha 'culter?'
saf, sapf, Saft 5.3.-višāpa
sipus 'sciens' saer/saor
s∂pijō sapiō 2b1.-saer <*s∂pró 'succus'; 'venenōsus'
(*sēpwos), 'artifex'
3a2.-sæp 'succus' 5.4.-ham 'succus'
sāgiō; sāga saigim, saigid 2b1.-haeddu suohhen, suchen 5.5.- šak(k)-, šek(k)-
sāgijō sōkjan
?, signum sarugud <sakro- 'assequor' 3a2.-sæcan, seek 'sciō, periō'; sagai-

<*seHgnom sag 'offensiō' sayrhaed, sarhad 3a3.-søkja ? 'ōmen'

(Lubotsky) 'off.'
sagom
saepēs,
αιµασια, αιµο
saipis saeptum,
saepe, saepiō σ (−πµ−)
sḗtu- 'nexus' setь 'rēte'
seito/a Saite 'id'
5.3.-haētu- 'diga' 6.3.-saĩtas, siẽtas
saitā saeta 3a2.-sāda 'corda'
5.5.-ishiyani 'uinculum'
3a3.-seiðr 'id'
'capillum' 6.4.-saĩte 'monīle'
Deae Setloceniae
saitlom saeculum 2a2.-gar-séle 2b1.-hoedledd
2b3.-hoazl/hoal
saiwos
sehr 'multum' αινοσ 'dīrus'
sáeth 'aegrotās,
saeuus, sehren 'uulnerō' αιανησ 6.4.-sievs, sīvs
sājō afflictiō' hoed 'damnum' sair 'dolor' 5.5.-sawar 'īra'
saeuiō 3a2.-sār 'luguber' 'acer'
sáethar 'labor'
'dolorōsus' <∗σαιF−ανησ
sákrodhok
jom
sákrodhot
s
sacer, sakoro
5.5.-šaklai 'ritus,
sakros sacerdōs, 'sacra'
mōs, lex'
sagmen sacrasias
2b1.-halen 2b2.-
salann solь
sal sal 1b2.-salu haloin 2b3.- salt αλσ (αλοσ) 5.4.-al, altkh
<*saleino- 6.4.-sāls
holenn
αλυκοσ
saill <*saldi
salzan 'salsus' sladъkъ 'dulcis'
saldō saldō 'salsā carō, 2b1.-hallt 'salsus'
3a2.-seal-/sieltan <*salu- (cf. 6.3.-saldùs 'id'
sebum'
bsl.)
sal(a)ha,
salēiks salix sail (sailech) 2b1.-helyg-en
3a2.-sealh
saleiwā salīua sal, sa(i)le 2b1.-halog 'id' salo 'turbidus'; sal sāra-, sāla- 'gris' slavo-očije 'oculus
717
'immunditia'; 2b3.-haloc, 'id' (salwes) 'im.tia' caeruleus'

salach 3a2.-salu solovój 'isabel.
'immundus' 'turbidus' color'
salom salum sal, sá(i)le 'mare' Salla>ang. Hail 3a2.- seolo 'mare' 6.9.-salus 'amnis'
salach; sal 2b2.-halou, 5.5.-salpa 'merda соловой 'spadix
salús salo
'immunditia' stercora canis' equus'
semfti, sanft
sám 'quiēs'; ηµεροσ, αµερο sāman- 'sōlācium,
'suāuis'
sām∂n sáim
<*samtiyo- σ (Pind.) conciliātiō'; santva-
'tranquillus' 'mansuētus' 'id et mītis'
3a2.-soft(e)'id'
ψαµµοσ,
sam(b)t, sant αµαθοσ;
babhasti 'conterit';
samdhos sabulum 3a2.-sand ψοµοσ, ψεφ
bhasma 'cinis'
3a3.-sandr αλοσ 'fūmus';
ψαω 'terō'
sāmis
samā 'annus',
ηµερα ? 'diēs'
sumar, Sommer tempus, diēs
sam, samrad < 2b1-2b2.-haf NON cf. arm.
samos 3a2.-sumor, 5.3.-ham
*samo-roto 2b3.-hañv awr <*awur
summer 5.4.-am 'annus';
<*H1eH2mōr
amarn <*smH2erm
aor. αµεναι
gasōþjan; (Hom), ασαι; a-si-n-vá-, ásinvan
satis, satius; sуtъ (y!!)
sat 'id' *sōþ(s), dat 'insatiābilis'
satiō -āre, sáith <*sāti-) Hes αεται 6.3.-sótinti;
1b2.-sanes ? 3a2.-gesēdan; sad sōþa 5.4.-at-ok 'plēnus,
sánāmi satietās,
abl. 'sānīs'
'satiās'; sáithech
'id' 3a3.- 'satiās' ; <*saj-; αδην adultus'; hač,
sótis 'satiās'; sōtù s
satiās, satur; 'satiātus' 'satis'; αδροσ 'satiātus' 6.4.-
saðr saþs hačoy, yag 'satiātus'
sānus ? 4.3.−αδαν sãts <*sātis
'satiātus' <*sadi̯o-/sawo-
'satis'
ανυµι, ανυω, α sanoti 'uincit' ;
2b1.-cynyddu
con-suí νυτω; εναριζ ásanam 'uīcī';
sáneumi 'capere,
'expugnat'
expugnāre' ω 'interficiō'; sanema 'uincāmus'
εντεα 'arma' 5.5.-sanh 'quaerō'
sanciō, 3a2.-saht 'pax' 5.5.-šaklai- 'ritus,
sankijō
sanctus 3a3.-saett mōs, lex'

'concilium'
5.3.-vī-šāpa
sapa; sap-
2b1.-syb-wydd saf, Saft 'uenenōsō succō'
sapos pīnus,
'sāpīnus' 3a2.-sæp, sap 5.4.-ham <*pm
sāpīnus
'succus, sapor'
sasyá-m 'et fructus,
sasiam 'asia' αια ? 'terra'
sēmen, grānum'
sasjom 2b1.-haidd 'id' ειοεισ ? 5.3.-hahya-
2b3.-heiz 'id' 'herbans' 'frūmentārius'
*sōþ(s), dat
sātis satis, satius sáith 6.3.-sótis
sōþa
syrъ, syrój
3a1.-sūr, sauer
Συρακουσαι, Σ TOK.В sūrma 'caseus, acerbus,
sauros 3a2.-sūr, sour
3a3.-sūrr υρακω 'morbus oculāris' hūmidus'
6.3.-sū́ras 'salātus'
2b1.-haul súvar, sū́rya- slьnъce
súil<sūli ? <*seH2wōl 2b2.- <*suH2liyo-
swel(jos) sōl <*sH2wōl 3a3.-sōl sauil ηελιοσ, ηλιοσ <*sH2ulniko-
'oculus' heul, houl
5.3.-hvar (hw∂ng) 6.3, 6.4.-sáule
2b3.-heol
se se si-k εσFε se
-so;
ip-se; sa-psa; so-sin; so-sio sa/sah,sā;e-sa;a-sau
se/sos impu<imb+su 3a2.-se, she sa, sō; sī
sā/sī tod
sum, sam, exo 'hic' 2b3.-ho-n 'noster'; ο, η ; ου[ιοσ] 5.3.-ha/hō,hā;
(*sōns); 3a3.-sā 'illa'
sōs, sās ho-z 'vester' aeSa,hāu
sí 'illa'
sēd, soluō,
sveni(je) 'extrā'
sēd sedūcō; 5.4.-k'eç 'absolūtus'
<pron. *swe
sedulus
sēdājō sēdō sāten 'placō'
sedējō
sedējō circumsedeō, εφεδρα <*epi+ prě-sěda
imm·said sez
ambhí obsideō sed- 'obsidium' 'insidiae';
ελλα καθεδρα
sedlā sella sedlon sezzal, Sessel sitls 5.4.-etɫ sedló
Hes.
sedm∂n
sedos sēdēs síd 'pax' 2b1.-sawdd εδοσ sádas 5.3.-
719
<*sedeH1? 'subsideor' hadiš- 'palatium'

segēts
2b1.-haeddel
seghdhlā εχετλη 'buris'
2b3.-haezl, hael
Segomāros, εχω 'habeō',
sáhate 'dominat'
Segodūnum, sigi, sigu 'uictoria'; εχυροσ, οχυρ
sáhas- 'potestās,
Segobriga sigirōn 'uincō'; sigis οσ; εξ−οχοσ
seghō seuērus uictoria'
2b1.-hy 'fortis', 3a2.-sige, sigor 'uictoria' 'excellens';
sahurah 'potens'
haeddel 'εχετλη' 'uictoria' ισχω 'retineō', 5.3.-sahaz=sahas-
2b3.-haezl,healf εχετλη
seghos
sájati 'pendō',
suanem<sogno- annectō
2b1.-hoenyn Schnürsenkel segnoti 'capere'
ségneumi 1a1.-sagum 'retinacula', sén 5.6.-frāhajam
'pedica' 'laqueus' 6.3.-sègti 'id'
<segno- 'pedica'
ipf.1ªs.
segnom
TOK.-A śäktālyi B
segeticion 'prolis'
segō seges, Seia śaktālye '-tālis' -
2b1.-heu, hau
*yo?
seigel 'tignum'
seikā sīca sīčь 'talea'
3a2.-sāgol 'uirga'
sīhan, seihen
ικµασ 'humidit sḗcatē, siñcáti sьčǫ, sьcati
seikō siccō, siccus Sequana 'cōlō'; seich
ās' 5.3.-haēk-, hinčaiti 'mingō'
'mictiō'
VEN.-Silis,
seilō Silarus; silid 3a2.-sioloÞ 'mare' 6.3.-séile 'salīua'
HISP.-Sil
3a2.-sīma 'laq, ιµασ 'cinctus'; sīmá n(ta), sīmā
seimā sim 'catēna' fun.' 3a2.- ιµασσω 'margō' 5.5.-
sīmi 'funis' 'flagellō' ishai 'ligō'
3a1, 3a2.-seim
2b1.-hufen 'crēma αιµα −ατοσ
seimṇ 'mucilagum,
*soimeno- 'sanguis'
melle'
sīn 'catēna, senawa, Sehne 5.3.-hinu- 6.3.-síena 'margō,
seinus
monīl' 'funis' 'uinculum' mūrus'
3a2.-sinu 'id' 6.4.-pasainis

'monīl.'
*sēÞl
2b1.-hidl, pro-seati
sithlad/síolthug 'cribrum' >
sējdhlom 'cribrum' 2b3.- 3a3.-sāld 'id' 6.3.-síetas
hadh karel.
sizl, sil 'id' 'cribrum'
siekla
*sēÞl
2b1.-hidl,
sithlad/síolthug 'cribrum' > pro-seati
sējō simila 'cribrum' 2b3.- 3a3.-sāld 'id' ηθω, ηθεω
hadh karel. 6.3.-sijóju, -ti
sizl, sil 'id'
siekla
sega 'secō';
2b2.- 2b1.-hesg(en)
secō, secūris, segisna, Sense seko 6.3.-i-sēkti
prusekatu tescaid<to-eks- 'carex'
saxum, 'falx' ; Segel 'inhumō', išsēkti
sékāmi 'prōsecātō' ; sk; seche, seiche 2b2.-heschen
sacēna, 'uēlum' 'scalpō'; sekyra
aseçeta 'nōn 'pellis' 'canna, arundō'
signum 3a2.-secg 'ensis', 'secūris'
secta' 2b3-hesk <sek-skā
sail 'id'
ηκα,
'silenter'; ακεω
sēknis sēgnis ν 'silens'; ηττω
ν, ηκιστα 'min
us, minimē'
2b1.-chwech, chwe
ṣáṭ
seks / 2b2.-whegh, whe sechs šestь, шесть
sweks
sex sé saíhs εξ 5.3.-xšvaš
2b3.- 3a2.-siex, six 6.3.-šešì
5.4.-vech
c`houec`h<swex
sekstos sextus sessed 2b1.-chweched; sehsto, sehto saíhsta εκτοσ ṣaṣṭhá-, 6.3.- šẽštas
sekūris secūris sekyra
2b1.-in helcha
'uenāndō'
selg/sealg 2b2.-helhwur
selgō sṛjáti'soluit'
'uenor' 'uenaator'
2b3.-em-olc`h
'uenor'
seljos
selah 'phoca' ALB.-helq, helḱ, heq
selkō sulcō, sulcus ελκω 'sulcō' TOK B.-sälk
3a2.-sulh 'sulcus' 5.4.-heɫg 'tardus'
721
3a2.-seolh 'ph.'
saljan
selb 'propriētās' 'sacrificō' ελειν sъlati 'mittere'
consulere, Luguselua sellen 'uendō'
selō
consilium ??
to-selb
2b1.-helw 'id' 3a2.-sellan
sala ελωριον 'pr
'conseruō' 'fideicomis aeda' sъlъ 'oblātiō'
sus'
selo <sedlo-?
sаl 'domus, saliþwōs 'pagus, ager'
selom solum, solea
domicilium' 'hospitia' 6.3.-salà 'insula';
sоlа 'ager'
2b1.-hil
sēlom síl 'sēmen' 6.3.-pasėlỹs 'satiō'
'progeniēs'
selb
Lugu-selua
selwā 2a3.-sealbh,
helw
seilbh
sēmi- sēmi- sāmi- ηµι−
do·es-sim
semjō sentīna 6.3.-sémti
'effundō'
simul, arc. simble(s),
semli 1b2.-sumel amal 'sicut' simlē
semol simblum 'semper'
seme 6.3.-
sēmṇ sēmen sāmo <*sēmōn
semenys
εισ, µια<∗σµια
, εν; ουδ−αµοσ samá- 'omnis,
semper, 'nullus'; ecquis ', sakŕt
2b1.-hanter
simītu, sin-teins 'semel' ; sámiti;
'dimidium' sin-hīun 'coiux' αµοθεν 6.3.-sẽnas
semel, emith 'tanquam, 'quotidiē'; sahásra 'mille'
semos
singulī quasi' < *semiti
hefyd 'quoque' 3a2.-sinhīwan 'id';
sums 'alicunde'; ατε 5.3.-hama- 'omnis'; TOK A.-säṃ
2b2.-hanner 'id' some 'nōnnullus' ροσ, ετεροσ 'quīdam'
<sṃgnoi, 'quīdam' ha-krt̃ ; hazaŋra
2b3.-hanter 'id' 'alter'
simplēx 5.4.-amēn(ain)
Myc. 'omnis'
e-me
siggwan οµφη 'uox ,
singan, singen
2b1.-de(h)ongl 'canō'; augurium'; samghai (PRAKR)
senchō sing (to) 3a2.-singan
'explicō' sangws πανοµφαιοσ 'n 'dīcō, afferō'
3a3.-syngua
'cantus, ōmen iouis'
musica'
sineigs,
senognātus sana- 5.3.-
sinista 6.3.-sẽnas
senēks senex sen 2b1.-2b2.-2b3.- ενοσ, δι−ενοσ hana- 5.4.-
'senissimus 6.4.-sens
hen hin
'
sinkan, sinken,
seicht 'ūdus' 5.4.-ankanim 'cadō,
senqō sigqan εαφθε 'cecidit'
3a2.-sincan dēminuō'
3a3.- søkkva
ainamma
sinþa
sét 'uia' 2b1.-hynt 3a2.-sīth 'iter,
sentos 'semel' TOK A.-sont
<*sentus 2b3.-hent 'uia' uices'
sandjan
'mittō'
saparyati
sepēlijō sepeliō
'uenerātur'
sépeltrom
επω
(aor. −σπον) sápati 'colit' ;
sepeliō, 'parō'; saparyáti 'venerātur'
sepō
sepultum οπλον?? 5.3.-haf- (sustineō)
'arma'; 5.4.-ep'em 'coquō'
εψω 'coquō'
2b1.-saith sibun sedmъ<*sept∂mto
saptá 5.3.-
septṃ septem secht n- 2b2.-seyth 3a2.-seofon sibun επτα s 6.3.-
hapta
2b3.-seiz 3a3.-siau septiñtas.
saptamá,saptáthaḥ
5.3.-haptaqa
séptṃos septimus sechtm-ad sextametos 3a2.-seofoða εβδοµοσ
5.4.-haftum
5.5.-šipta.
sechur,
sechithir; rosc sehan, sehen 'id' sácate; síṣakti
saihvan
seqai sequor 'oculus' 3a2.-seon, see 'id' εποµαι 'comitō' 5.5.- 6.3.-sekù, sèkti
'uidēre'
<proskwom; 3a3.-sja 'id' sakui 'oculus'
écosc 'faciēs'
723
<*in-kom-s
sāká m, sácā, sáci
sech 'praeter, secen<*sekeną,
seqi secus 'iuxta'
trans' sec<*seki 'praeter'
5.3.-hačā, 'ab'
scél 'narrātiō'
Ate-spatus
cosc 'correctiō'
2b1.-chwethl, sagen
inquam, aithesc
seqō hepp 'inquit' 3a2.-secgan εννεπε 'dīc' 6.3.-sakti, sakýti
inquit 'responsum'
2b3.-que-hezl 3a3.-seg(g)ja
in-cho-sig 'quid
cosb 'pūnitiō'
significat'
5.5.-weriya-
serō, seriēs, 3a3.-sörwi sarwa
serō aserum sreth<srtā 'linea' ειρω, ορµοσ 'appellāre';
sors 'monīle' 'arma'
hurt 'maledīcō'
serom serum sará- 'fluidus'
sēros sērus sír 'longus' 2b1.-2b2.-2b3.-hir
ερπετον
sérpenos serpens sarpá ALB.-gjarpën
<'reptīle'
serpō serpō ερπω sárpati
sasti
sesmi 5.3.-hah
5.5.-ses-
2b1.-hesg
seisc 'iuncus'
sesqos 2b2.-heschen 3a3.-sef
sescenn 'palūs'
'canna'
εταιροσ 'sodāli посети́ть 'uisō'
satelles
setis sétig 'uxor' s'; Hom. strī ? 'uxor' 6.3.-svẽtis
etrusc.?
ετησ 'id' 'hospēs'!
seiÞus
sīd Seit 'post'
sḗtjosi sētius <seH1-i-tu
3a2.-sīth,
'tardē'
2b1.-sugno (v.n.)
seugō sūgō súgim 3a2.-súcan
2b3.-sunaff/suna
siodan, sieden sauþs hāvayan 'coquunt' šučú, šutí tь 'nugō'
seutō 3a2.-séoðan, 'animal 5.5.-suttati 6.3.-siaučiù/̃sti
seethe hostiāle' 'tumescō' ? 'uentilō'
sewājō
virsūmen; säumen εαω 'sinīō,
'perdere' permittīō'
sewe
séwijos
suváti, sauti, savati
2b1.-huan
sewō soïd 'uoluit' 'id' 5.3.-hav- 'id'
<*sowonā ? 'sōl'
5.5.-šū̯āi- 'incitō'
3a2.-sālnes
silējō sileō ana-silan
'silēnti.'
syáti, sinti, sinōti
6.3.-siẽti
síneumi 5.3.-hā(y)- 6.4.-sìet
5.5.-išiia-, išāi
sániyān 'ūtilius'
cf. ? nertru
cf; αριστοσ /ερ 5.3.-cf; vairyastāra
sinísteros sinister 'sinistrō
οσ 'laeuus', váriyān
<uirīliōre'
'potius'
εαω < σεFαω. áva-syati 'consistit'
ησ avasna-
sinō, pōnō, 6.3.-ãtsainus
sinō
situs υχοσ 'terminus' suváti 'negligens'
'tranquillus' 5.3.-hāra- 'id'
(cf. µειλιχοσ) 5.5.-zeya 'coquō'
sīdati, sátsi,
εζοµαι, ιζω; cau.sādáyati
1b2.-sersitu
sizzu; caus. οδειν <*sodejō 5.3.-
'sedetō',
sa(i)did, fut. sezzen, setzen sitan 'uendere'; hiδaiti , nišaŋhasti, seždo, sedeti
sīdō < si- zeref
sisdō seiss (*sed-s-ti); 2b1.-sedddu <*sodejō <*sitjan; ιδρυω (i ni-šāδayeiti 6.3.-*sédmi,
sdō, sedeō `sedens',
suidigur 'locō' 3a2.-sittiu, sit caus. satjan schwa 5.4.-nstim sedžiu
andersesust
3a3.-sit secundum) <*nisdyō?; hecanim
ìntersiderit'
'statuō' <*-ds- 5.5.-
sisd- 'quiescō'
οσφραινω; οσφ TOK.-A krām, В
sísghrāmi jíghrāti, ghrāti
ρησισ 'odor' kor 'nasus'
síslāwos
sisō serō, sēuī 1b2.- síl 'sēmen' 2b1.-sil, hil 'prolēs' sā(j)en, sāwen saian praet. sasyá-m 'sēmen'; seti
725
satiō, sēmen semenies saithe 'exāmen' haidd heiz 'barley' 3a2.-sāwan saiso; syaka 'missīle' 6.3.-séju, séti
haid 'examen' 3a3.-súrr, saurr manaseþs
5.5.-sai- 'disparō';
'sēmen' 'humānitās'
sehur 'urīna'
sesc 'siccus,
2b1.-hysb f. hesb siñcáti 'fundō'
sisqos cf. siccus ster.' 2a3.-
2b3.-hesp, hesk 5.3.-hisku 'siccus'
seasg
sith- aeq. sīto 'laxē' 3a2.-
sītús
sithithir 'longus' sīd 'amplus'
syū́man- 'uinculum';
Saum υµην 'neruus'; sūtra- 'fīlum,
sjewm∂n seam υµνοσ aphorismus'
3a3.-saumr 'cantus' 5.5.-sum(m)anza(n)
'corda'
šiti, шить
syūtáh 'sūtus'
siula <*sewlo- 6.3.-siuti; südžem,
sjewō suō, sūbula siujan sīvyati 'suit'
'sūbula' siū́las, .siúola-
5.5.-suwēl 'fīlum'
'fīlum'
silo, сило́ 'cuspis'
6.3.-siū́las, siúola-
sjūdhlā sūbula siula sūtram 'fīlum' ; 'fīlum'; saiklis
'fibula'
6.7.-sidlo
3a2.-sēod <*siutós
zashít, shila
sjūtós sūtus < *sjūtós syūtáh
6.4.-sũts <*sjūtos
'crumēna'
skabhjēs
scamnum, skabhnāti,
skabhnom
scabellum skambháh 'fulcrum'
schepfen, σκεπαρνοσ
schaffen; skaft skaban 'scalprum';
scabō, skoblь 'runcina''
'schaft' 3a2.- 'tondēre'; κοποσ 5.4.-kāfaδ, kāvaδ
skabhō scabiēs, 6.4.-skabrs
scafan, scaban; gaskapjan 'incussiō'; 'scabit' (skap)
scaber 'scaber'
scieppan 'cr.'; 'creāre' σκαπτροµ 'lan
gesceap, shape cea'

'forma'
skaiwós scaeuus ciotach chwith 'sinistera' σκαιοσ
scalpō,
skalpō σκαλοψ kḷptáh 6.3.-sklempiù
sculpō
σκανδαλον
2b1.-cy-chwynnaf
skandō scandō scendim 'saliō' 'pedica, skándati 'saliō'
'initiō'
offensiō'
skandslā
3a,a2.-skaft σκαπτον, σκηπ
scāpus, kopьje 'hasta'
skāpos 'hasta' τρον
scōpa, scōpiō 6.4.-šḱ èps'id'
3a3.-skapt 'id' 'sceptrum'
skatējō
Schad(e) 'alosa
scatán, scadán 2b1.-ysgadan (Ηεσ). εσκατα
skatō scatō, scateō pseuroharengus' 6.3.-skastu, skasti
'harengus' 'harengus' µιζεν
3a2.- sceadd 'id'
skodъ 'paruus';
σκεδαννυµι, σ
scindula, 3a2.-scateren, κιδνηµι (i skhadatē 'scindit' ščé dryj 'profūsus'
skedō 6.3.-skedervà
scandula scatter, shatter schwa 5.4.-šert 'frag. lignī'
secundum) 'fragmentum';
kedeti 'explōdō'
3a2.-sceacan,
khajati 'remouet'
skegō shake 'agitō'
khája- 'turba'
3a3.-skaka 'id'
heit 'modus';
heitar 'clārum' ketu 'clāritās'; ceta,
caesius; 6.3.-skaidrus,
(caelum) haidus cetana 'signum';
caelum<kaid skaistas 'clārus'
skejō 3a2.-hād, haēd 'modus, citra 'conspicuus';
lom, 6.4.-skaidrs
3a3.-heidr 'honos'; ars' 5.3.-čiqra-
kaitslom? 'clārus'
heid(r) 'clārum 'conspicuus'
(caelum)
scén 'terror' 2b1.-ysgogi
skekō scuchim 'moueō' 2b3.- gi-scehan 'accidō'
'proficiscor' diskogella 'turbō'
culpa ? scal 'debeō' ; skal (praet- 6.3.-skeliù, -éti
skelō
<*klpā Schuld <*skulþi praes) 'dēbeō, culpābilis
727
'dēbitum' esse'; skìlti

3a2.-sceal, 'dēbitor fierī';
gescola, shall kaltas 'dēbitor',
3a3.-skal kaltẽ̃ , skolà
'dēbitus'
6.9.-skellants '-
tor', skallinsnan
scelah <*-lha- σκολιοσ
'tortus' 'tortus,
chalam 'fraus'
skelos scelus 3a2.-sceolh 'id' improbus'
5.4.-sel 'tortus'
3a3.-skjalgr σκαληνοσ
<*skelkó- 'id' 'claudus'
hemidi, Hemd
camisia 2b1.-hefys <gmc? 'camisia' skaman ?
skemō caimmse <lat. śāmulyà- 'camisia'
<gall. 2b2.-hevis gmc? 3a2.-homa 'pudet'
'tegumn'
ščerbá 'morsum;
scarph, scharf fisūra'
cer(b)aim 'putō' 'raucus' 6.3.-skirbti 'acer
skerbhō scrobis
cerb 'acerbus' '3a2.-sceorpan fiō'
'rādō' 6.4.-skrabt
'excauō'
TOK.-B chrnátti, chardayati
mūscerda, scharn; hart, Harz kärtk- 'spuō'; kardama skaredъ
sūscerda, 'mastiche' 'cacō'; A σκωρ (σκατοσ) 'lutum, situs' 'repugnans'
skerdā sceirdim 'spuō'
ouicerda, 3a2.-scearn; hart kärtkāl, B ; σκωρια 5.3.-sairya 6.3.-šarwai
bocerda 3a3.-skarn kärkkālle 5.5.-šakkar (šaknaš) 6.4.-sãrni
'palūs' 5.6.-sargōn, sargīn
oskórd 'ligō'
scerdid scurz, kurz 'breuis' σκορ(ο)δον
skerdō ALB.-hurdhe,'alium' 6.3.-sker̃sti
'abscabit' 3a2.-scort , short 'alium'
'mactāre'
carneis
carō, corium, scar(a)im
'partis' 2b1.-ysgar sceran, Scheren kórka 'crusta'
cortex, 'separō'
skerjō kersnu 'cēna' 'separō'; gwa-sgar 3a2;-scieran κειρω 6.3.-skiriù, skìrti
scortum, scu(i)rim
1b2.-karu 'dispergō' 3a3.-skera 6.4.-šḱ ir̃t
cēna 'disiungō'
'portiō';
śesna
`cēnam'
σκαιρω, σκιρτ
scerōn 'gaudēre',
αω (i schwa
scher(e)n 'festīnō' skorъ 'citō'
secundum);
skerō schrecken 'terreō' kiráti 'iacit' 6.3.-skerỹs,
3a2.-secge-scēre σκαρισ
'uermis skerẽlis 'locusta'
'cicada locusta'
saltans'
scioban, schieben skubo, skubati
3a2.-scēofan af-skiuban 'euellō'
skeubhō
'abmoueō' 'repudiō' 6.3.-skùbti
3a3.-skopa 'currō' 'festīnō'
sciozan, schiessen; cṓdati, cōdá yati is-kydati
skaut κυδιασ 'termēs
skeudō schutten, schûtzen 'impellit' 6.3.-skudrùs,
'proiectus' dentis' (Hes.)
'protegō' 5.4.-čust 'promptus' skaudrùs 'celer'
scū, scuwo
'umbra'
skugina, Scheune skauti, skunāti,
σκυνια 'cilium' 6.4.-skumstu
'mapalium' skuggwa skunōti
skeumō
scūm 'spūma'; 'speculum' σκυλοσ 'pelli 4.3.-çiu<skewos
'obscurāri, tristis
s' fierī'
schummer 'occas' 'tectus'
3a2.-sciō 'nubēs';
scuwa 'umbra'
scūr 'tectus' 6.3.-skūra
skūra, sciura 'corium' kẽvalas
skeuros obscūrus cúarán 'calceus' 'mapal.' scuoh skōhs 'pelle ouī' 6.4.-
'calceus' 3a2.- čà ula, skura
skōr 'calceus' 'cortex'
σκυτοσ; κυτοσ
hūt<hūdi Haut εγκυτι, εγκυτ kútatь 'operīre'
2b1.-kwd
hodo, Hode
cutis, 'scrōtum'; eskit, ισ 'usque ad sъkotati 'sōlor'
'testic.' hutte skunāti, skunṓti,
skeutō cunnus<kutn esgit,esgid pelle'
'mapal.' 3a2.- 'tegit, operit' <kunt
os <pedskūt 'calceus' κυσσαροσ<
hodma 6.3.-kutỹs 'bursa';
2b2.-eskit, esgis κυτFαροσ
'obscūritās' kiáutas 'cortex'
'ānus'; κυσθοσ
729
hausjan
'audīre'
hören 'id' <*H2kH2o ακουω (-s-)
'audiō' kaví- , vātēs, doctus'
scouwōn, schauen wsj-
5.3.-čvīšī
'spectō'; shön hāwian κοεω 'percipiō
caueō (cf. kutef 'prouideor'; čudo 'mirabilia'
skewō
k∂wēyō) `'cautens'
'pulcher' 3a2.- 'spectō'; ' κυδοσ śkōh 'numen' 6.3.-kavēt 'dubitō'
hīeran, hear; show us-skaws 'gloria' 5.4.-c̣uc̣anem
'monstrō'; scīenc 'sensātus'; θυοσκοοσ 'monstrō'
'pulcher' skauns 'spectator'
'perspicuus
'
skidjō
σχιζω; σωκεω
chyáti 'diuīdō'
skijō ? 'possum'
5.5.-sākk
2b1.-chwydu
scīzan, scheißen
'vomitō' 2b2.-
skindō scindō scéith 'uomitus' 3a2.-scītan, shit 'i.' σχιζω chinatti 'glūbō'
hweza 2b3.-
3a3.-skíta 'cacō'
c`houeda
scina <*skinōn cěvjë, cěvka
skīwṛ κιων 'columna' 5.4.-siwn 'columna'
3a2.-scinu 6.3.-saiva 'šaivà'
skḷiqā siliqua skolьka 'ostrea'
skalja
2b1.-hollt 'scisiō' 3a2.-scielian
silex<*skilek scoiltim 'scindō'; 'tilia';
skḷjō 2b2.-felza 3a3.-skilja; skil σκαλλω 'fodiō' iskalla(i)- 'scindō'
s ; culter sce(i)llec 'rupēs' skildus
2b3.-faouta 'diferentia'
'titulus'
σκελοσ 'crus'
schilhen 'strabus σκωληξ klъka 'poples'
coluber
esse' 3a2.- 'uermis' 6.3.-kulkšì s,
skḷneumi <kélodhros;
calx
scielfan, shelve κυλινδω 'rot kulkšnì s 'coxa';
'abruptus esse' ō' κωλον kulnìs 'calx'
'membrum'
hinkan 'claudicō'; khañjati 'claudicat'
σκαζω 'claudic
skṇgjō skank, Schenkel sákthi- 'sura'
ō'
'sura'; schenken 5.3.-haxti-) 'sura'
'dō'!
gnída
2b1.-nedd
sknidā lens ? sned 3a2.-hnitu κονιδεσ 6.3.-glìnda
2b3.-nezenn
<*gnìnda?
scīth 'fessus'; scadōn, schaden skaþjan,
ασκηθησ 'inco 5.4.-xatàrem
skodhos escid 2b1.-esgud 'agilis' 'id' skōþ
lumis' 'deleoo'
'infatigābilis' 3a2.-skaðian 'id' 'damnō'
scīt, Scheit
skoidos 3a2.-scīd σχινδαλµοσ
<*-d?
scern
'diuertimentum'
skoirsās scurra
3a3.-skjarr
'timidus'
scīt, Scheit
scūtum 2b1.-ysgwyd 'lignum'
skoitom scíath <*skeito- štitъ
<*skoito- 2b3.-skoed 3a2.-scīd
'id'
ALB.-hē, σκια; σκοιοσ chāy-
сень
3a3.-skī hie, (h)ona 'umbrōsus'; 5.3.-asaya- 'nullam
skojā 6.3.-sejs, seja
'simulātiō' TOK B.- σκηνη σκανα umbram iaciens'
<*keyā
skiyo 'tentorium' 5.6.sāya
σκαλµοσ
scalm 'nauis' 6.3.-kélmas
'scalmus'
skolmā 3a3.-skǫlm 'truncus'
ΤΗΡΑΚ.−σκα
'cuspis, siliqua' SORB.-čoɫm
λµη 'ensis'
3a1, 3a2.-scāla kolъ <*kolos
ALB.-hele σκωλοσ
skōlos 'lanx'; skola kal 'particula' 'pālus'
'ueru' 'pālus'
'diuisiō' 6.3.-kuõlas 'id'
scelifa 'tegumen
membranōsum' 6.3.-kálpa 'tignum
skolpos 3a2.-scielfe, shelf σκολοψ 'pālus' currūs niuālis';
3a3.-skjǫlf kìlpa 'stapia'
'scamnum'
skortom
731
skostrom chattra 'umbella'

2b1.-(cy-)ysgaud
σκοτοσ 'obscu
skotos scáth 2b2.-scod/skēz skadus chattra 'umbella'
ritās'
2b3.-skeud
skūr, Schauer skūra
severъ
'frigus' windis
skouros caurus, cōrus 5.4.-c̣urt 'frigus' 6.3.-šidure,
3a2.-scūr, scéor 'turbulenti
'id' a' šiaurỹ s
2b1.-cwthr 'anus;
hose κυστισ koṣṭha- 'abdomen,
skousā custōs ? rectum'
3a2.-hosa 'uagīna' 'uensica, follis' recipiens'
<*kuzdhro-
γραφω 'scabō'
krabelen, kerban
σκαριφ žrebъ 'mīca'
'scabō'
skreibhō scrībō αοµαι 6.4.-grīpsta
3a2.-ceorfan,
carve 'id.' αγριφε, αγρειφ 'scobis'
να 'raster'
dis-
schrīssen, -reißen
skreidō scrissid 'putat' skreitan
3a2.-hrītan, write
'discindō'
skrobhis
scrūpus, -
eus, 3a3.-skroflig ? črepъ <skrep
skroupos
scrūpulus - 'raucus, iniquus' 6.6.-skorupa
um
scrōtum, scrōtan 'scindō' and-
κρουτειται 'de 6.9.-scrundos
skroutos scrūtillus, 2b1.-ysgrud 3a3.-hrjōða hruskan
plet' (Hes.) 'ferfex'
scrūtor 'populor, depleō' 'scrutor'
skubtis cf. cubitus ND.-schuft (bouis) śupti-, 5.3.-supti- ALB.-sup
σκυταλ−
skutājō scutillus ? scothaid hudele 'pannus' 6.3.-skutù, skusti
'canna'
2b1.-eskit 'calceus'
σκυτοσ 'pelle,
skūtos 2b2.-eskit, esgis
corium'
'id' <*pedskūto-
labō -āre; er(sch)laffen slēpan, λοβοσ; λεβηρι slаbъ 'dēbilis'
slabai
labor ī/is; 3a2.-lappo saizlēp σ 'uagina, 6.3.-slobstù, slõbti
labium; 'harapus' 'dormiō' bulla' 'langescō'

labrum; 6.4.-slābêt
limbus
λαγωοσ, λαγω
slah
slagós
laxus lacc (express.
2b1.-llacc < Angl. 3a2.-slæc, slack σ 'lepus' ślakṣná 'tener,
6.4.-leǵēns
<*(s)lH2gso- gg) (=cum laxīs suāuis, blandus'
3a3.-slakr
auribus)
slach(d)aim; slahan; sṛká- 'hasta, sagitta'
slahan, schlagen
slakō slacc; slacaire slauhts 5.3.-harǝčaya-
3a2.-slahan, slay
'offensor' 'trucidātiō' 'ēmittō'
2b1.-(ys)lath latta
slatā slat
2b3.-laz 3a2.-laeththa
2b1.-llym ?
sleibō
'acūtus' slīfan ολιβροσ
2b3.- 3a2.-slīpan, slip 'lūbricus'
lemm?'filo'<bsm
lumbrīcus < sležý/-edítь
slōet, slaod slīten
sleidhō *londhr-īko- ολισθανω srédhati 'errat' 'sequor'
'uiscositās' 3a2.-slīdan
? 6.3.-slýdau, slýsti
sligim, fo-sligim slīhhan,
slizь 'lūtum'
'linō', adslig schleichen
slaíhts slízkij lūbricus
'allicit' 'sigilōsē uadō'
sleigō 'glaber, λιγδοσ 'cōs'
sliachtad schleicht 'leuis' slьzъkъ 'εiς
leuis'
'planifactiō' 3a2.-sliht, slight
slige 'pecten' 'id' oλισθον',
2b1.-llyfn
līma, līmō; cf. λειοσ
sleimā slemun 'suāuis' 2b3.-gurlimun slīmen 'limāre'
cf. lēuis 'suāuis'
'delinitī'
sleimājō
slimák ; sliny
slīm, Schleim 'muccus' 6.3.-
sleimāks λειµαξ
'pituita' sliẽkas; sliẽnas
'salīua'
sleimos liimus 3a3.-slím
sleiwos liiuor lí 'colos' Liuo, Līuius Schlehe 'prūnus' λωτοσ 'lōtus' nīlá <*līló- ? sliva 'prūnum'
733
2b1.-lliw 3a2.-slāh, sloe 'id' <(s)loiHtós 5.5.-sulai-, suliya-

2b2.-liu cf. πλωτοσ 'plumbum'
2b3.-liou <*plouHtó-
slējús lēuis λειοσ
sliiofan; Schlucht
sleubō lūbricus sliupan
3a2.-sluupan
slucim, sloigim; 2b1.-llyncu
llewa 'pulmenta' schlūchen, λυγξ (λυγγοσ); lkas
-lungu, 3ª
sleugō *lugamā schlucken λυγµοσ; λυζω; 6.3.-pa-laũkis
loingid 'est, 2b3.-lonka; 3a3.-slūka λυγδην 'pantica uitulī'
bibit, consumit' roluncas 'ēdit'
sliucht
3a2.- slicc<slikja-
sligōn ligō, -ōnis 'uestigium,
'malleus'
sectiō, proles'
1b1.-satru
vъ-slepljǫ
saliō, saltō, saltraid 'conculcāt.' αλλοµαι; αλµ
sḷijai 6.3.-ãtsala 'palūs';
salebra, salax 'conculcat' 1b3.-sautrein α; αλσισ
'conc.' sal̃ pas 'meandrus'
sloidhos
sloiwom
sluag 'copiae' Catu-slugi
slougos teg-lach 2b1.llu, telu sluga 'seruus'
'familia' 2b2.-luu, teilu
lurco(r), slurken. slurc
slṛgjō λαρυγξ 'fauces'
lurcō, -ōnis 'fauces'
sṃ
samonios ? αλοχοσ sám- 'cum' so-sedъ 'uicīnus'
'nōmen mensis' 'coniux' 5.3, 5.4-ham 'cum' 6.3.-sam-, sa 'cum'
µα; µην 4.3. sma
smā nam < mān ?
−µαν 5.5.-ma- 'sed'
māla; small 'p.'
malus<'paru mallom/ud smals
smalos míl 2b1, b2, b3.-mil 3a2.-smæl, small µηλον 'ouis' 5.4.-mal malъ 'paruus'
us' 'malus' 'paruus'
3a5.-maal 'uitulus'
smach 'gustu., 6.3.-mégti
smegō odor' 'uolupe';
3a2.-smakin smaguriaúti 'pic.'
'sapiō'
aiza-smiþa σµινυη
smid, Schmied 5.5.-summittant- 6.3.-smailùs
smeidhō
3a2.-smið
'aeris 'ligō'; σµιλη 'ascia' 'cuspis'
faber'' 'culter'
sahásra-m
smeighsli mille χιλιοι
5.3.-hazaŋra-
smāhi 'paruus'
σµικροσ, µικρ
smeikā mīca 3a2.-smēalīc
'minūtus' οσ 'paruus'
smeirai
smeirātlo
m
smeiros
5.3.-hamista
mittō;
'subditus'
smeitō cosmittere
paitimiθnāiti
(Fest.)
'ualedicit'
mīror;
smejo, smijati se
mīrus; míad 'gloria' 3a2.-smile smáyatē, -ati
smejō µειδιαω 6.3.-smeju, smiêt;
cōmis, moídit 'gloriātur' 3a3.-mila smēra- 'subridens'
n. smaĩda, smaidît
cosmis
śmaśru- 'barba'
māla, 3a2.-máer 5.4.-mauruk 'id' 6.3.-smakrà
smekslā smech/sm(e)ig
maxilla 'labrum' 5.5.-zama(n)kur 6.4.-smakrs
'barba'
smēle, Schmiele 6.3.-smìlga
smelgā 'aira caespitōsa' 6.8.-smlza 'aira
3a3.smele, smile caespitōsa'
smāl, smōl, prysmalýty
3a2.-smo(u)lder
smelō smūal 'cinis; 6.3.-smil̃ kti
smel(l) 'odor'
ignis' 'fūmāre'
µερµαιρω 'cūr smarati
mornēn 'curō'
mertaid 'instruit' Ro-smerta ō'; 'reminiscitur'
memoria, 3a2.-mimorian, maúrnan 6.3.-meréti 'cūrat'
smemorjā airm(m)ert 2b1.-armerth µεριµνα 'cūra 5.3.-maraiti
memor ge-mimor, 'curō' 6.5.-máriti 'cūrat'
'prohibitiō' 'praeparātiō' ' 'commentat'
murnan 'id'
µαρτ 5.4.-mormork 'cūra'
735
υρ 'testis' ?
µοιρα 'parca'
σµην
macula 5.4.-mic
smīzan, bi-smeitan 'unguere';
smḗneumi 'immunditia' smědъ 'fuscus',
<sm∂-tlā schmeißen 'id' 'linō' σµηµα 'ungue <*smidyo
ntum'
smerdā
smerdétь 'foeteō'
σµορδωνεσ 6.3.-smirdéti 'id'
smerdō merda
'foetentes' 6.4.-smir^de^t
'id'
marúška; maráju,
µορυχοσ 'obsc
smeros murayl 'obscūrus' -tь 'calumniō'
ūrus'
6.3.-moraĩ 'mucor'
Smerius, smero 'ol.' smaírþr µυροσ 'oleum'
Smertulus smirwen 'oleum'; σµυ 6.3.-smarsas
smerwā medullae ? smir (smera)
2b1.-mêr schmieren 'unguō' smarna ρισ 'oleum'
2b3.-mél<moelle 3a2.-smeoru 'id' 'stercus' 'unguentum'
2b2.-mwg 'ignis'
σµυχοµαι 6.3.-smáugti
smeughō múch 'fūmus' 2b2.-mok 3a2.-sméocan 5.4.-mux 'fūmus'
'suffocō' 'suffocō'
2b3.-moug, mog
tamen 6.3.-miẽles
macula meil, Mal µιαινω 'mancil
smitlā 'fermentum'
3a2.-māl lō'
<sm∂tlā 6.4.-mìeles 'id'
2b1.-hafal
οµαλοσ
sṃlis similis samail 2b2.-haval
2b3.-hañval 'aequus' ; αµα
sṃloghós
αλοχοσ
sulogъ <sǫ-logъ
'coniux'
emith 'tanquam, 2b1.-hefyd sámiti 'conuentiō,
sṃoitis simītu
quasi' < *semiti 'quoque' congressus'
sṃóp∂tōr 3a3.- sam-feðra οµοπατωρ 5.3.-hamapitar
smoughos
smoughos
gamaudjan µυθοσ мы́слить

smuainim;
'memorō' 'uerbum'; 6.3.-maudžiù ,
smudhnō smuained: 5.6.-mōуе 'querella'
ufarmaudei µυθεοµαι 'loqu maudžiaũ, maũsti
'cōgitātiō'
'obliuiō' or' 'affligor'
mъknuti sja
'transīre' 6.6.-
smiegen, mug(a)
5.4.-mxim; mxem
smúghneu schmiegen 'nītor' 'angiportus'
mi µυχοσ 'penus' 'immergō'; mux
3a2.- smūgan rēpō 6.7.-smeknouti
'tinctūra',
3a3.-smjūga 'dēdūcō'
6.3.-(s)munkù,
(s)mùkti 'ēuadere'
snahhan
6.3.-snake †
sn∂ghjō snaighim 3a2.-snake
'serpens' 'cochlea'
snatta, Schnatta
2b1.-naddu;
snad-; snass 'uulnus, incisiō'
snadhō nedim 'ascia'
'amputātiō' 3a3.-naddr
2b3.-ezeff , eze 'id'
'cuspis'
1b2.-snata snáid; 2b1.-nawf snāmi 'balneor'
snāmi nō νεω, νηχω
'umecta' snām 'nātātiō' 2b3.-neuñvi (v.n.) 5.5.-sanh 'lauō'
snechte; snigid snēo snegъ
sneighs nix, ninguit 2b1.-nyf snaiws νιφα
'ninguit' 3a2.-snāw, snow 6.3.-sniẽgas
sneiþan
snīdan, schneiden snit 'truncus,
sneitō snéid 'curtus' 'putō,
3a2.-snīðan 'id' rāmus'
metō'
sneitos
snī- sníid
'torquet, 2b1.- najan, nāen, nítь 'fīlum'
cruciat'; sním nyddu,nodwydd nāwen 'suō' ; νεω 'neō' snyati 'inuolutat, 6.3.-nýtis 'rēs
snēmi neō <*-mo- 'nēre, 2b2.-nethe; notuid snuor, Schnur nēþla 'acus' νηµα uestit'; snāva textrinae'
torquēre, 'id' 2b3.- 'funis' 'fīlum' 'nexus, neruus' 6.4.-snāju, snāt;
tormentum'; nezaff; nadoez 'id' 3a2.-snood 'uitta' nīts 'rēs textrinae'
snáthad 'acus'
737
snáthe 'fīlum'
sním <*-mo-
snēmṇ nēmen 'nēre, torquēre, νηµα
tormentum'
narwa Narbe
ναρναξ κιβωτο nerët(o) 'piscis q.'
'cicatrix' ; snuor
snōrjō σ (Hes) 6.3.-nyrù, nìrti;
snerō 'catella' 3a2.- nṛ́tyati 'trepudiat'
'corbis' > λαρναξ neriù, nérti
naru, narrow
'cista' 'infibrō'
'strictus'
snáth(e) 'fīlum'; 2b1.-ysnoden
6.4.-snāte
snētjā snithe, sníthe 'uitta' 2b2.-snod 3a2.-snood 'uitta'
'stragulum'
<*-tyos 'textus' 'id' <3a2
νυµφη, νυµφιο
sneubhō nūbō σ 'pacta, snubiti 'copulō'
procus'
2b1.-nudd
nūbēs, νυθον σκοτειν
sneudhs <*snoudho- 5.3.-snaoða
obnūbilāre
'nebula' ον (Hes.)
sniwan,
sniumi 'rapidus' sniumjan snovo, snujo
3a2.-snēome 'id' 'festīnoo' snvan- 'ordior'
sneurom neruus νευρον, νευρα
3a3.-snūa /era 3a2.- 5.3.-snāvar° 6.3.-snaujis
'ligō' snēome 'laque.'
'id'
sanutar 'abiectē';
sanutara-, sanutya
sain 'uariē'; o-han, a-han 'ab, suntar, sondern 'inconspicuus'
sundrō ατερ ∋αβιεχτ∋ svene 'praeter,
sṇi sine, sē, sēd sanas(<sanista) separātim' 2a2.- 3a2.-sundor
'proprius' (<σΓτερ) 5.3.-hanar∂ 'abiectē' sine'
'secrētus' hanys 'swcrētē' 3a3.-sundr
5.5.-sanna 'cēlō',
sanezzi 'dulcis'
sníncheti ninguit snigid 'pluit'
snoghā
5.5.-instanza(n)-
sṇstus sensus
'anima'
sṇtējō sentiō, sin, -nnes ''sensus' seštь 'intelligens'
sensus, <*sent-no-; 6.3.-sintéti 'cōgitē'

sententia sinnan 'meditor'
sṇterí
snura
snuṣā
snusós norus, nora 3a2.-snoru νυοσ snuxa
5.4.-nu (nuoy)
3a3.-snor
sezzen, setzen οδειν, οδαν sādáyati (ā Brugm.) saditi <*sōdej- (ō
sodējō suidigud 'sessiō' satjan
3a3.-setia 'uendere' 5.3.-ni-šāđayeiti propter Winter)
6.3.-súodžiai
2b1.-huddygl
sōdjā súide 3a2-3a3.-sót 6.4.-suõdrẽji
2b3.-huzel
6.7.-sáze <*sōdi̯o-
suiden, for-ud
2b1.-sedd
sodjom solium 'scamnum' (upo-
gor-sedd 'thronus'
pro)
ā-sad-, ut-sad-
sodóm cēdō <ke-sdō οδοσ 'uia' 5.3.- pazdayeiti choditi 'īre'
'deturbat'
sognos
2b1-2b3-hud 3a2.-siden 'magus' setь 'rēte'
soitos οιµη 'cantus' sḗtu- 'uinculum'
2b2.-hus, hudol 3a3.-seið sitьce 'funis'
slán 'sānus' ιλασκοµοι 'fau
(tamen cum hitt. eō'
sālig , selig 'id'
salli <so/elH2i sēls ιλαροσ 'alace 5.4.-alač'em <slH2-
sōlājai sōlor 3a2.-sæl 'beātus'
'magnus' 'bonus' r' sk-y 'quaerō'
3a3.-sæll 'id'
comparātur' - cf. ιλεοσ<sísl
solwos) āwos 'fauens'
selah 'phoca'
ολκοσ; ελκω 's
solkos sulcus, sulcō 3a2.-sulh 5.4.-heg 'piger'
ulcō'
3a2.-seolh 'ph.'
ελποσ, ελαιον,
salba <*solpā salbon TOK A sälyp B
solpos στεαρ, ολπη sarpíh 'butyrum'
3a2.-sēalf <*solpā 'ungere' salype
(Hes)
saluus, salavs sárva-, sarvtat(i) TOK A salu
solwos ολοσ, ουλοσ
saluus, arc. 'saluus', 5.3.-haurva, 'complētus', В
739
sollus, sullus haurvatat 5.4.- solme 'complētē'

salūbris, 'omnes' olj, orj LUV.-
sollers, 1b2.- salhitti- 'augmen'
sollemnis saluvom,
salvom,
sal(u)uom
'id'
sarvtat(i)
solwotāts ολοτησ
5.3.-haurvatāt-
samjan
3a3.-semja *samayáti 'aequat,
somējō 'conformār
'concordāre' conformat'
e'
sāman-, sāmaná-
amit, samit
suide *som-de samaÞ 'commūnis' samъ 'ipse, solus,
somós 'cunctus' οµοσ
'hīc' 'cunctus' 5.3.-hāma- 'idem, ūnus'
3a2.-same, seem
ipse'
sandjan; 5.3.-hant-
2b1.-hynt
sinþs 'assequor'
sét 'uia'; sétig 2b2.-eunhinsic senten, senden 6.3.-siunčiù, siũsti
sontējō 'occasiō'
'uxor' 'iustus' 3a2.-send 5.4.-°ntànam 6.4.-sùtu, sùtît
sandjan
2b3.-hent 'uia' 'uadō'
'mittō'
sand, Sünde satyá- 'uērum'
sunjis,
'culpa' 3a2.- 5.3.-haiya- 'id
sontis sons, insons sunjeins ετεοσ
sōð,sooth,sin 5.6.-hašiya- 'id'
'uērum'
3a3.-sannr, sannr 5.5.-asanza- 'uērum'
socius, 3a2.-secg sákhā, sakhi
soqjos
pedisequus 3a3.-seggr 'amīcus'
Sarmus 'flūmen' sísarti, sárati ` 'fluō'
sirid 'errat, 6.3.-apsirti
sorā serum 2b1.-herw ορµη 'pulsus' sará- 'fluidus'
sagit' 'circumeō'
<*seruo- 'error' 5.5.-sesar 'colō'
*serbjo, *sьrbati
sur(p)feln, ροφεω, ρυφεω 5.4.-arbi 'potāuī',
sorbhējō sorbeō srub 'faucīcum' 6.3.- srebiù, srẽbti
schlürfen 'uorō' praes. arb-enam
6.4.-strebju, strèbt
3a3.-sarf 'rutilus sorobalina 'ribes'
sorbhos sorbus sra- 'nucleus
rutilus (ichth)' soróga 'rutilus'
arboris' 6.3.-serbeñtas 'id'

6.4.-sa^rts 'rubidiī
uultus'
sorwā
ορυα 5.5.-sarhuwant-
'intestīnum' 'intestīna, foetus'
savyá- 5.3.-
soujós 1b1.-aswy šujь
haoya-
sokъ <swokwo-
οποσ
soukos sūcus 2b3.-sun<soukno- TOK B.-sekwe 'pūs' 6.3.-sakai, svekas
<*swokwós
<*swokwos 'resīna'
sówijā
sachilli ψακασ 'g.
spakos 6.3.-spakas
'saudaria' pluuiae'
σπαω 'dūcō';
σπασµοσ
spanan
séim <*spéimi- 'gestus' ;
spáneumi 3a2.-spanan
'exilis, macer' σπαδιο = σταδι
3a3.-späd, 'tenuis'
ον σπινοσ
'tenuis'
sparus,
sparum, sper; Speer 'hasta' podъpьro, preti
FR. ardoise (cf. σπαρυσ 'piscis
sparos paries 3a2.-spere 'id' 'fulcitō'
lat. paries) quidam'
<'baculum 3a3;-spjor 'id' upór 'sublica'
cellae
1b2.- 2b2.-frau 'coruus' sparo, Sperling ψαρ; σπαρασι
sparwos parra sparwa
parfa(m) 'id' 2b3.-frao 'id' 3a2.-spearwa ον (Hes)
spiz, Spieß;
speihha; spiil,
cuspis<curis σπιλοσ, σπιλα
Speil spina 'dorsum'
speikā pids?
3a2.-spitu; spēca, σ 'macula, 6.4.-spina 'hasta'
spīca, spīna scopulum'
spāca, spire
3a3.-spita
speiksnā
speimis seim 3a3.-spiki 'parra' σπινοσ
spekjēs
741
speciō, 1b2.-speture (s)páśyati

spehōn, spähen;
speciēs, 'spectōrī', σκεπτοµαι, σκ 5.3.-spasyeiti
spekjō spaahi 'formidus'
specus, speturie οπειν 5.4.-spasem
3a3.-spā 'uaticin.'
auspex 'spectōriae' 'exspectō'
σπλην<γχ 'inte
plīhā slezena
spelghā lien selg 2b3.-felc'h stīna'
5.4.-pàicaɫn 6.3.-bluznìs
σπλαγχνα
2b1.-fflochen
3a2.-spelc, spilc
spelgis 'assula' 5.4.-pèlk
3a3.-spjalkir
<*splokitnā
spel 'narrātiō';
gotspellōn
6.3.-pelt
'euangelizāre'; spill απειλη 5.4.-ara-spel
spelō appellō -āre 'uituperāre' pal'as
Beispiel 'fābula' 'minātiō' 'adagium, fābula'
(pl.) 'uituperium'
3a2.-spell 'id',
gospel<gōdspell
phálakam 'tabula,
spilda titulus'
speltā 'tabula πελτη 'scūtum' 5.5.-LUW palahsa
scribendī' 'scūtum' 5.6.-
ispar,sipar 'titulus'
spejo, speti `bene
4.2.−σπαδιον = ēueniō'; speсhъ
spatium; spōwan sphyate 'auget';
2b1.-ffysgyaw spēdiza σταδιον; σπιδ 'studium', spešiti
spēs, 'proliferāre' sphāta 'magnus'
'festīnō' 'postea'; νοσ `festīnō';
spēmi prosperus; 3a2.-spuon sphira 'crassus'
2b2.-fesky 'id' spāto 'extensus'; sporъ 'abundans'
spissus<spid 'adipiscor'; spōd, 5.5.- išpāi 'copiosē
spidsk 'tarde' σπιθαµη
to spēd 'celeritas' cumedit' 6.4.-spẽt
'palmus' 'patrimonium';
spēks 'uis'
spanvarc stána 'pectus fem.'
sine 'tetta' στηνιον στηθ
spēnos 'porcellus' 5.4.-stin 'id' 6.3.-spenỹs
(bó trí phne) οσ (Ηεσ.)
3a3.-speni 'tetta' 5.6.- pistān 'id'
speqos
sperdhō
spurt 'id' spaúrds σπυρθιζω spárdhatē, predajo 'uibō,
3a2.-spyrd 'id'; 'uia 'saliō' spūrdhá ti salō'
sprint cursoria' 5.3.-sp∂r∂d- 6.3.-sprindỹs

'interuallum'
'auiditās'
5.4.-sprdem 'ēuadō'
5.5.-ispart(iya) 'id'
springan 'saliō' sprháyati 'inuidet'
прягу́, прячь
sperghō 3a2.-springan 'id' σπερχοµαι 5.3.- ā-sp∂r∂zatā
3a3.-srpinga 'id' 'abscondō'
'commōtus est'
σπειρω; σπερµ 5.4.-sp`ṙem;
sperjō sprāt 'dispersiō' α, σποροσ pàratem 'et
'sēmen' remoueō'
spes spēs spexъ 'studium'
σπευδο
spioz, Spieß ALB.-. punë ? 6.3.-spáusti
'festīnō';
speudō 'hasta' 3a3.- <pudnā 'labos' 'premō'; spaudà
föysa 'agō' σπουδη '- 'pressiō'
5.4.-phoit 'anxietās'
nātiō'
fincho, Fink
σπιζα; σπιζω
spingjā 3a2.-finch
'pipiō'
3a3.-pink
ṣṭhīvati pljujo, pljьvati
3a1, a2.-spīwan πτυω, πτυαλων
spjewō spuō speiwan 5a3.-spāma 'salīua' 6.3.-spiáuju,
3a3.-spyja <πιυ 5.4.-t`kànem spiáuti
2b1.-fionou
spionia
spjonos sion (dig. Purp.) 'rosārum' 2b2.-
(pergula?)
foeonnenn 'lig.'
6.4.-splaũts
spjwtos spūtus styūtáh
'tussītus'
sliss/slios flins, 'silēx' 6.3.-plītes 'micae';
spleidō 'latus, 3a2.-split, flint plivina 'liber,
fragmentum' 'id'; splinter cortex'
sliasa(i)t 'tībia' πλισσοµαi
spleighō lingid ?, praet. 'crūra separō, pléhate 'ambulat'
leblang 'saliō' decorē eō'
splighstós sliasa(i)t 'tībia' 2b1.-ystlys πλισσοµαi plēhatē 'mouētur'
743
sliss/slios 'crūra separō,

'latus' decorē eō'
less <pl∂ndtu sphuliŋga 'scintilla' 6.3.-spléndžiu
spḷndējō splendeō 'lux'; lainnech - flinkern, flunkern σπληδοσ 'cinis' 5.4.- p'ail (p'ailic̣) 6.4-spul̃ guot
iāko 'fulgurans' 'fulgor' 'fulgurō'
σφαλασσειν τε
allaw 'rādō'
µνειν (Ηεσ.); ψ (s)phaṭati; sphuṭa- ras-platiti; polъ
spolium; <altāmu spaltan, spalten
spḷtājō alta(i)n 'culter' αλισ 'patens'; paṭú 'latus, media pars'
spelta <gmc 2b3.-altin, aotenn 3a2.-spilð 'ruīna'
'forfex' σφαλλ 'acūtus' 6.3.-spãlis 'līma'
'ferula, culter'
ω 'obruō'
σφενδονη 6.3.- spístu, spísti
Spat 'convulsiō, 'funda'; 'illuminō'
spṇdō spandate 'quatit'
tumor' σφοδροσ 6.4.-spuožs
'vehemens' 'clārus'
pena
feim, Feim
spoimā spūma phéna- 6.3.-spáine 'lineae
3a2.-faam, foam
spumōs. maris'
visen, visten
spīrō, 2b1.-ffun <spoinā piskati 'siffilāre'
spoisājō 'siffilāre' (uentus); picchōrā 'tibia'
spīrāculum 'respirātiō' 6.3.-pysketi 'pēdō'
fispern, fispeln
spoisnā
σπολια, σπολα
spoljom spolium sphaṭati 'scindit' spãliai
σ
σπενδω, σπονδ 5.5.-šipand
spondējō spondeō
η 'sacrificāre'
spondhā
Spaten 3a2.-
5.4.-pùnd
spōn, spada σφην 'cuneae';
spōnos sponda sonn 'stīpēs' ffonn 'uirga' 'recipiens'
3a3.-spánn σπαθη <*phondho-
'ligniculum'
sponstós
σπειρα 'spīra';
sporta <etr.< 5.4.-pàrem, pàrim 6.3.-spartas
sportā
gr.? σπαρτοσ 'amplector' 'fimbria'
'spartus'

spoudā
spṛāmi
3a3.-sprikja σφριγαω 'flore
spreigō
'extendō' ō'
6.4.-sprûsts
2b1.-ffrwst sprautō
spreudō <*sprustós <dt
'festīnātiō' 'citō'
'impulsus' ?
6.3.-spriaũnas
2b1.-ffreuo 'scatō'; spriu, Spreu 'sublīmis'
sprewō
ffraw 'uiuidus' 'foenum' 6.4.-sprautie^s
'ēmergō'
2b1.-eira/eiry perga 'pollēn
σπειρω 'serō'
'nix'; ffraeth sphū́rjati, flōris' 6.3.-sprãga,
sprehhan 'loquor' σφαραγεω 'dis
(*spregh-to-) sphūrjá yati -éti 'explōdō'
spṛgō spargō arg 'gutta' 3a2.-sprecan, plōdō';
'celer' 'explōdō' 6.4.-spragt 'id.';
speak 'id' σπαργαω
2b2.-irch/er 'id' parjánya- 'nimbus' spir̃g(t)s 'ērectus,
2b3.-erc'h 'id' 'plēnus sum' sānus'
2b1.-ffêr 3a2.-spurnan, (α)σπαιρω
seir (di pherid) sphurāmi 'calcō'
spṛnō spernō 'tibiculum' 2b2.- spurn 'palpitō' spiriù, spìrti
'talus' 5.5.-isparnu-
fer 'crus' 'contemnere' σφυροσ 'talus'
2b1.-ffêr (α)σπαιρω
seir (di pherid)
spṛos 'tibiculum' 2b2.- 'palpitō' sphurāmi 'calcō'
'talus'
fer 'crus' σφυροσ 'talus'
hwal,Waller,Welle
r 3a2.-
sqalos squalus APR.-kalis
hwæl, whale
3a3.-hvalr
sqeros 3a3.-skars τερασ ā-ścarya- 'mīrus'
2b1.-ysbyddad(en)
scé (pl. sciad) 2b2.-
sqijā 6.3.-skùju
'spīnus' spethes'bacca'
2b3.-speza
2b1.-stret gl.'latex' stredan, streden, ροθοσ 'aestūs
sredhō fretus? srithit <*sṛt-ṇtī
> streyth 'flūmen' strudeln maritimī'
sremsō fimbria sramsate strásno
745
srenkō srennim ρεγκω

srávati; srava-
stroum 'fluxus' 'fluxus' struja 'fluxus';
sruaimm 2b3.-strum 'copia ρεω; ροοσ, ρευ
srewō 3a2.-strēam 5.3.-raonam ostrovъ'insula'
'flūmen' (lactis)' µα
3a3.-straumr 'flūminum' 6.3.-sraviù, sravéti
5.5.-arsarsur(a) 'fx'
2b1.-ffrwd
srewtis sruth (srotha) 2b2.-frot
2b3.-froud
srīgējō
srīgos frīgus ριγοσ
sarriō,
sṛijō srṇ 'falx, pālus'
sarculum
ερκοσ 'uallum'
sṛkijō
sarciō sarsite ορ 5.5.-šar-nin-k-
sarcina `'sarcītē' κοσ 'suppleō, resarciō'
'sacrāmentum'
srodhos
2b1.-ffroen
sṛkvan-, srákva
sroknā srón 'nasus' 'narīna' 2b3.-
'angulus oris'
froan
srowmos
sṛpā
sarpiō, sarf, mhd. sarph αρπη 'falx'; serpъ 'falx'
sṛpijō
sarpmentum 'acūtus' αρπαζω 'rapiō' 6.3.-sirpis 'id'
serevkid
5.3.-haraiti
'auspiciō, οραω; ηρωσ chranjo/niti ?
'custodit'
sṛwājō seruō iussu' 'herō"; ηρα pasušhaurvō
'conseruō'
1b2.-seritu 'iunō' 6.3.-sérg-mi -g-
'c.gregisr'
'seruatō'
ηρωσ 5.3.-pasuš-haurvō
2b1.-herw 'canis gregis'
'hērō"; ηρα
sṛwos serruus <*serwom Lyd sareta *serṇto
'grassātiō' 'iunō'; ουροσ? 'protector'; serli
*wer? *ser(w)? 'auctoritās'; saroka

'protectiō'
stat
st∂tis statiō statíf staþs στασισ sthíti-
3a2.-stede
2b1.-ystawd
1b2.-statita 'fascis' stado, Gestade 'id' 6.3.-statùs
st∂tus status staþa 'ripa'
'statūta' 2b3.-steut <stātā' 3a2.-stath 'id' 'erectus'
'id'
stādhlom
stagnom
2b1.-ystaen, taen
'aspersiō'
σταζω
2b2.-stean
stagō stagnum stán 'dēfluō'; σταγω
2b3.-stean <lat.?;
staer <stagrā ν 'gutta'
'flūmen'
stahel, Stahl 'id'
staknom stagnum
3a2.-steel 'chalybs'
stolъ 'thronus;
stuol 'sella'
2b1.-cystal ìtem' stōls sella -> mensa'
stālos 3a2.-stōl 'sella'
<*kom-sta-lo- 'thronus" 6.3.-pastõlai
3a3.-stóll
'repositorium'
1b2.-stahmei stōma, dat.
stamík 'sublica'
'statiōni'; sessam `<*si- stōmin στηµων sthman- 'positiō,
stāmṇ stāmen 6.3.-stomuõ, -eñs
stahmito stā-mu- 'stāre' 'fundament 'trāma' uis' 'stātūra'
`statūtum'; um, rēs'
stānējō
δυστηνοσ
'miser'
destina; sthnam stanъ
stānom 4.
destinō 5.3.-stāna 6.3.-stónas
3.−δυστανοσ
'id'
stōri 'celeber'
starъ 'uetus'
3a2.-stōr 'potens'
stārós sthirá- 'firmus' 6.3.-stóras
3a3.-stōrr
'magnus' 'densus, crassus'
747
6.3.-stãklės
2b1.-cystadl stadal, Stadel
'textrīna'
stātlom obstāculum 'aequiualens'; 'pitheūs'
6.4.-staklis
distadl 'inualidus' 3a2.-staþol
'pināculum'
staurējō
stür(e), Steuer
stavarī̃-s, stavãri-
instaurō, 'gubernāculum' σταυροσ
stauros 'nōdus' 6.4.-
restaurō 3a2.-stēor, stēr 'id' 'pālus, crux'
stũrs <*stūros
3a3.-staurr 'pālus'
sthāvará- , sthávira-
'amplus, compactus,
firmus' ; sthūrá-,
stūr <*stūros
staurós sthūlá- 'crassus'
'crassus, firmus'
5.3.-stūra 'latus,
fortis' 5.4.-stvar
'crassus'
stūan 'obstō' stōjan staviti 'locō'
stāwō 3a2.- stōwian, <*stōwjan 6.3.-stóviu, -ė́ti
stow 'retineō' 'dispōnō': 'stō'
2b1.- taith 'iter' ; stignǫ 'ueniō';
mor-dwy stīgan, steigen 'id' steigan stьgna 'uia'
στειχω; σ
steighō tīagu; techt 'iire' 'naulum' 3a2.-stīgan 'ascendō'; stighnōti 'ascendit' 6.4.-staĩgât
2b3.-tiz 3a3.-stīga staiga 'uia' τ(ο)ιχοσ 'linea'
'uadere'; steĩgtis
'festīnaatiō' 'festīnō'
stipēs, 1b2.-
stibhi- 'fasciculum' 6.3.- stimpù stìpti
stipulor steplatu, stiif, steif 'erectus'
steipēts στειβω 'calcō' 5.4.-stipem 'coagulor'
stīpō; stiplato 3a2.-stiif, stiff 'id'
'comprimō' 6.4.-stipt 'erigor'
obstīpus 'stipulātō'
stīua, tīvrá- 'acer'
steiwā stimulus, 5.3.-staēra-
stilus 'cacumen'
sténa 'mūrus'
stein 'lapis'; stier στεαρ (στεατο styyatē
stains 6.3.-stìngti;
stejō stīria, stīlla 'rigidus' σ) 'adeps'; 5.3.-stā(y)-
'lapis' styrstù, stỹrti
3a2.-stān 'id' στιλη 'gutta' 'cumulus' 'rigeō oculīs'

stejsjā
2b3.-staot σταλασσω;
stallen 'mingō"
stelghō `mictioo' <*stalto- σταλα
3a2.-stale 'id'
? γµα 'gutta'
stolidus,
stellen; Stelle; sthála-m, sthal
stultus,
Stall 'tumulus'
stolō; locus, στελλω; στηλ
stelō 3a2.-stellan; steall 5.4.-stelcanem
arc. stlocos;
'stābulum' η 'columna'
īlicō <*en- 'efficiō'' stelunk
3a3.-stallr 'āra' 'rāmus, truncus'
stlokōd;
stelōn stolō 3a2.-stela 5.4.-steln
2b1.-syllu (v.n.)
sellaim 'aspiciō';
'id' 2b2.-sylly στιλπνοσ 'reni
stelpō sell 'oculus, 6.3.-stil̃ bti
'id' 2b3.- dens'
aspectus, iris'
sellout 'id'
stembhō
stammeln stamms
6.3.-stumiù, -mti
stemō 'balbutiō' 'balbus'
6.4.-stuomitie^s
3a2.-stammer iko.
στερφνιον σκλ
sterbhnjo ηρον (Hes.), σ
m
srebann 'pellis'
τερφοσ, στρεφο
σ 'corium'
sterben; strif, stref στερφνιον σκλ
2b1.-serfyll 'rigidus, firmus'; ηρον stérbnutь ;
sterbhō ussarb 'mors'
'cadūcus' streben 'intendō' (Hes.); στεριφ ustrabiti 'recreāre'
3a2.-starve (fame) οσ 'id'
strego, strešti
2b1.--serch 'id'
stergō serc 'amor' στεργω 'seruō'; stražь,
<sterkā ?
stórož 'uigil'
2b1.-trwnc troeth Dreck 'merda' (g) 6.3.-trašà ;
stercus; τρυξ 'fraces
sterkos 'id' 3a2.-ðreax 'caries' teršiù, ter̃šti
-rg- troia uīnī'
2b3.-troaz 'urīna' 3a3.-Þrekkr 'mancillāre'
sterkos
749
Dirona, Sirona inst. pl. stŕbhiḥ;

2b1.-seren tāraḥ, tarā
sterlā stella ser stern αστηρ
2b2.-steren 5.4.-ast, (aste)
2b3.-steren 5.5.-hasterz(a)
2b1.-sarn
sternom stirna 'frons' στερνον 5.5.-starna
'stratum'
cf.
consternō, starr, störrisch
sternós
āa. stornēn 'contumax'; sturni στερεοσ
'rigeō' ?, 'stupor' 3a2.- 'solidus'
sued. sturna stierne 'serius'
'detinēre'
serb <*sterwā 2b1.-herw stilan (r/l στερεω, στερισ
sterō 3a1, 3a2.-stelan
'spolium' 'illegālitās' cf. hehlen) κω
stero 'ariēs'
στειρα, στεριφ star- (vaccae) BULG.-sterica
stérolis sterilis sterke 'uitulus' stairō
οσ 5.4.-sterj, sterd 'Gelte'.
3a2.-stierc 'uit.'
Sirona sterno 2b1.- inst. pl. stŕbhiḥ;
αστηρ, τειρεα,
steros stēlla ser 2b1.-seren steorra staírnō tāraḥ, tarā
2b2, 2b3.-sterenn 2b2.-steorra τερεων 5.4.-ast, (aste)
stir̃pti 'orior,
stērps stirps serrach 'pullus' sterban ? 'morior'
crēscō'
stertō
sterz 'cauda' <-do
2b1.-serth
3a3.-stirðr
'erectus, τορδυλον 'flor
stertos 'erectus'; storð
obscēnus'; tarddu umbillicus'
'culmus';stertr
'exeō'
'caud'
stechen, stochern' tъštati se
túagaim 'asciā
'pungō'; Stock
quatiō' stúag 2b3.-stuc'h tujáti, tuñjáti, 'σπεuδειν';
steugō 'stirps'; stucki,
'ascia'; stúaic 'cuspis' <*stoukkā tunákti 'quatit'
Stück 6.3.-stùngis 'hebes
'cacumen'
'fragmentum' culter'
stáuti, stávate 'id'
στευται
steumi 5.3.-staoiti 'laudō'
'promittit'
5.4.-t'ovem 'incantō'
5.5.-isduwa
'publicor'
τυπτω 'quatiō';
stupeō, 6.4.-stupe, stups
2b1.-ystum 'curua, στυθελοσ pra-stumpáti,
stuprum stobarōn 'fragmentum
steupō forma' 'maiestuōsus' tṓpati, tupáti,
stupendus; 'obstupēre' ligneum' (cf.
2b3.-stumm 'id' στυφλο túmpati, tumpáti
titubāre ? Stumpf)
σ 'raucus'
studen , stützen 6.4.-stute, stuta
steutō
3a3.-styðja 'uirga'
tējatē 'acūtus est'.
īnstīgō, sticken, stechen; tējá yati(c.) tḗjas-
6.3.-stingù, stìgti
stinguō (ad stih, Stachel 'id' στιζω 'pungō', 'candor'; tigmá-
1b2.-anstintu tiug- <*tigu-) stiks 'maneō'
stigājō unguō), 3a2;-stician; stice στιγµα 'acer'
'distinguito' 'ultimus' 'puncta' 6.4.-stigt
īnstinguō, 3a2.-stikill 'punctiō' 5.3.-taēža- 'acūtus';
'immergō'
distinguō, 'puncta' tigra- 'puncta'
5.5.-tekan 'ligō'
stīf, steif
'erectus' 5.4.-stuar <*stiw-ar 6.3.-stiprùs
stiprós
3a2.-stīf 'solidus, ingens' 'robustus'
'id'
stlāmṇ
steljo stьlati
taṭa- 'ripa'
lātus, latus 'extendō'; stelja
5.4.-lain <stlāto-in;
(er), later, 'tectus' 6.3.-
leth ? 'latus, ara-stal <*stḷno
stlātos lāmina; tìltas 'pons'
dimidium' 'tectus' ;
stlāta/stlatta 6.4.-slāju, slāt
5.5.-istalk(iya)
Latium? 'cumulō'; tilts
'pauiō'
'pons'
līs (lītis) ; liuss 'repulsiō'; αλειτησ
leid, Leid 'damnu.'
stlītibus ni er-lissaigther 'scelestus'; αλι
stlītis 3a2.-lāð, loath
iudicāndīs `nunquam ταινω
'odiu'
(st?) fastiditur' 'delinquō'
stlokos
stṃnos
tamun; 2b1.-cysefin stam, Stamm σταµνοσ TOK.-A ṣtām, В
samaigim 'locus' <*kentu-stamīno 3a2.-stem 'trulla' stām 'arbor'
751
'prīmus'
stṇtējō stunden 'protēlō' 5.5.-istantai-
stabhnti,
stabhnṓti,
στεφω stambhatē
stam, Stamm 'pergulō'; 'sustineō';
'stirps' stebelь 'propāgō'
αστεµφησ ' stambhanam
sab; semmor 3a2.-stefn, stemm stafs 6.3.- stem̃bras 'id'
stobhos tenax'; 'pedica'
'trifolium' 'tempus' ; staff 'littera' 6.4.-stuobrs
3a3.-stefna σταφυλη 'ūua'; 5.3.-st∂mbana
σταφυλε 'conductus'
'quodam tempus' 'sustentus'
'plumbāta' 5.5.-istap(p) 'claudō'
5.6.-sitabr, istabr
'robustus'
stanga; stengil, ostežь 'toga';
Stengel 'culmus'; στοχοσ
stungen 'pungō' usstagg 'propositus'; σ 5.5.-istagga(i) stegátь
stoghos
3a2.-staeg 'prome!' ταχυσ 'arista'; 'arcus' 'appropinquor'
'transenna'; στονυξ 'cuspis' 6.3.-sténgiu
stingan 'pungō' 'molior'
2b1.-mordwy στ(ο)ιχοσ 'line ALB.-shtek, shteg-u stьga
stoighos steiga, Steig staiga
'nauigātiō in mare' a' 'meātus' 6.4.-stiga
stoipējō
Stolpe; stelpen stolb; stlъpъ
stlembus
'sistere 'columna, turris'
stolbos 'lentus,
sanguinem' 6.3.-stul̃ pas 'id'
grauōsus'
3a2.-stulpe 6.4.-stùlps
stolkeren
6.3.-stel̃ gti 'oculōs
tolg; ta(i)lc 'stolzieren' 3a2.-
stolgos figere'; stalgùs
'robustus' stalk 'propāgō';
'obstĭnātus'
stealc 'erectus'
istomid stāmú- ? 'tonans'
'trifocalium' 2b1.- στοµα; στοµα 5.3.-staman- 'fauces'
stōmṇ
safn 'bucca' χοσ 5.5.-istaman(a)
2b2.-stefenic 'pal' 'auris'
2b3.-staffn/staoñ
and-
cf. staúrran
sterren, starren στηριζω стара́ться
storējō consternō, 'animō
'rigescō, rigeō' 'sustineō' 'annītor'
aaa. stornēn demissō
esse'
stoudjom
στυπη, στυππη
stūpa, 'cannabis', stū́-p-a-, stupá-
stoupā
stuppa <gr.? στυφω 'caesariēs'
'densificō'
strāmṇ strāmen στρωµα
trét (tréoit) στρατοσ
strātos tratъ
'greges' 4.2.−στροτοσ
prostërt, -a
srath 'platea, stṛtá- 'prostr.' 6.3.-stìrta
strātós strātus στρωτοσ
ripa' 5.3.-starǝta- 'praesēpe' 6.4.-
stirta <strtā
strife, Streife
streibā sríab
3a2.-stripe
τριζω, τετριγα
streidō strideō
(g)
stringō стригу́, стричь
strik; strīhhan
(ensem),
'uirgāre' striks ξεστριξ 'seciēs 'scindō'; stregъ
streigō striga,
3a2.-strica; 'stria' laterātus'
stria<gyā, 'koura' 6.9.-
strīcan
strigilis strigli 'ustilagō'
streigs strīx; striga στρι(γ)ξ 'strīx' стриж
Strang; streng
sreng ; srengim
strangulō 'robustus' στραγγαλη; σ
'dūcō'; srincne 6.4.-stringt 'aridus
strengō <gr. 3a2.-strang; string τραγγοσ 'strict
'cordō fierī'
στραγγαλευω 'funis'; strain us'
umbilicālis'
'tendō'
strengom
753
starr 'rigidus starátьsja 'molior'

2b1.-trin and-
(oculu)'
strēnwos strēnuus 'mōlimentum, staúrran στρηνοσ 'uis' strьmo 'firmus,
3a2.-starian
proelium' 'langueō'
'aspicere' arduus'
3a2.Þræft 'līs'-
strepō strepō, stertō
3a3.-Þrefa 'id'
6.3.-stru(m)ps
streubhō
strūbēn 'horrescō' στρυφνοσ 'rāsus'
struppe 'truncus' 'amarus' 6.4.-strupulis
'necius, truncus'
strūz, Strauß
'resistentia,
2b1.-trythu pugna'
trot > troid
streudō 'turgescō' 3a2.-strūt 'tur.,
'pugna'
trythyll 'lascīuus' pug.'
3a3.-strutte
'intendō'
1b2.-strus̀la,
struō, strūxī, struc̨la, 2b3.- strouis
straujan ostruiti ? 'deleō'
strewō strūctum; struhc̨la 'stravi'; mod.
3a2.-strew CROAT.-strovaliti
struēs, struīx `*struem, streuein 'sternere'
struiculam'
6.3.-stringù,
strigō, 3a3.-strika
strigājō strìgti
obstrigillō 'detineō'
6.6.-zastr/ustr-zac
strigjā
stringō stringō stric, Strick 'funis'
2b1.-(ys)trew πταιρω, πταρν 5.4.-prngam,
stṛneumi sternuō sreod
2b3.-streuyaff υµαι p`rnč̣ em
sternō, 2b1.-sarn 'strāta'
sernim; srath
strāuī, ystrad 'uallis στορνυµι, στρ
stṛnō 'strues'; cossair straujan stṛṇti, stṛṇṓti
strātus, 2b3.-strad ωννυµι
'lectus'
strāmen 'fundum'
2b1.-sarn 'et στερνον strana 'latus,
stṛnos stirna, Stirn 'frons' stīrná-s
pauim.' 'pectus' locus'

trъstь 'conductus'
Strauß 'rāmus'
θρυον 'iuncus' 6.3.-trùšiai 'id'
strudsmā strūma 3a2.-ðrotu/e,
<*trusom 6.3.-trums
throat
'tumor'
2b1.-strutiu строй 'patruus'
strutjos sruith 'lār'
'antiquam' 6.3.-strūjus 'senex'
1b2.-strus̀la,
struc̨la,
struēs, strō, Stroh 'palea'
struwis struhc̨la
struīx 3a2.-strēaw, 'id'
'*struem,
struiculam'
studējō
stupējō
сто́пка 'clāūs
3a1, 3a2.-stubbe TOK.-A ṣtop, ṣtow ligneus'
stupos στυποσ 'pālus'
'truncus' 'pālus' 6.3.-stùbura- 'col.
uertebrālis'
преступление
stupróm stuprum
'scelus, facinus'
sъdravъ 'sānus'
su-, so- ;so- Su-gambri υγιησ <sugwiy su-
sū scél(a)e Su-carus 3a3.-sūsvort ēs 'benē su-bhága- 'beātus' 6.3.-sūdrus
'euangelium' 'āterrimus' vivens' 5.3.-hu- 'animōsus'
6.7.-zboží 'beātus'
sudhjom zythum<gr. ζυθοσ 5.5.-sessar
υει 'pluit'; sunóti 'premit
sauia
sujō
<*souia
sou 'sauia' υετοσ TOK prēlō' 5.5.- 6.3.-sulà 'savia';
-swase, swese heu- 'pluuia'
socc sáil 'porcus 2b1.-hwch sugge 3a2.- sūkará- 'porcus'
sūkós sucula
maris' 2b3.-hoch sugu, suga 5.6.-xūk
υλη
sol, suhlen 'id' bi-sauljan sūra- 'ebrians pōtiō.'
suljā 'lūtum'; υ 6.3.-sulà 'sauia'
3a2.-sylian 'id.' 'maculō' 5.3.-hurā 'caseus q.'
λιζω 'purgō'
súnoros so- 2b1.-hy-nerth sūná ra-
755
nirt<*sunerto-
suth 'foetus, sunu, sohn
hog-en 'puella' synъ
sūnús fructus, prōlēs, 3a2.-sunu, son sunus υιυσ, υιοσ sūnúh
<*sukā 6.3.-sūnùs
nāscentia' 3a3.-sunr, sonr
sup
sūf;sūfan, saufen
sъs-o -ati, Iter.
'id' supōn
supā sū́pa- sysati 'sorbeō'
3a2.-sūpan 'id' 'suffocō'
3a3.-sūpa 'bibō' <*sup-s-.
3a2.-geswōpe svepiti se àgitāri';
sipō, dissipō,
'sordēs' sъpo, suti; sypati
supājō obsipō, svapū́ 'scopae'
3a3.-sōfl 'scopae'; àgitō', rasypati;
insipere
svāf 'pilum' sunoti èffundere'
sūkaráh
sūs sūs 2b1.-hwch sū, swīn υσ (υοσ) svinija
5.3.-hū-
susājō sūsōn, sausen sysati
αυοσ; αυω
sōr; sōrēn 'siccō' gmc. <*ausyō; śúṣka;śúṣyati 'siccat' suxъ <*H2sousós;
sūdus
susdos 3a2.-sēar, sōr; <*H2sousó αυχµοσ (cf. ai. 5.3.-haos sušiti 'siccō'
<*susdos
sere s sū́kṣma- 'exarescere' 6.3.-saũsas
'tenuis')
suwids suí 2b1-syw suvid-
swādējō
3a2.-swēte
swādús suāuis sadb Suadu-genus ηδυσ 'dulcis' svādú- swōti
3a3.-soetr
svai, suae 'sī'
swāi 1b2.-sve, sue CELTIB.-sua swaswe
'sī'
swēdhskō
suēscō<swēd εθοσ; εθνοσ
hskō, sodālis, situ, Sitte 'populus'
swēdhus sidus svadhā
arc. suodales 3a2.-sidu ειωθα < σεσF
pl. ωθα
sīdus swīdan 'ardeō' 6.3.-svidḗti
sweidō 5.3.-xʷaēna-
(sīderis); 3a2.-svitol 'clārus' 'splendeō'; svidùs
consīderō, 'splendeō, flagrō' 'splendens'

dēsīderō 6.4.-svst
'illūcescō'
sweidos
sweglōn; swegala
sweighlājō sībilō, sīffilō swiglōn
'tibia'
swīhhōn 'errō,
toch. A wāweku; В svigát' 'errō'
sweigō fallō'
waike 'mendacium' 6.3.-svaĩgti 'id'
3a2.-swīcian 'id'
2b1.-chwythu
sétim, séidim kṣvēḍ ati, kṣvēdati
(v.n.) 2b2.-
sweisdō 'flō' 2a3.- hvinan; whistle (ks expresīuum) zvizdati, svistati
whythe
séididh 'susurrat'
2b3.-c`houeza
1b1.-chweg swehhan ben, mal
'amoenu' suecke/ia
swekō chwaeth 'gustus' 'odores';
1b2.-whek 'id' 3a2.-sweccan
1b3.-c'houek; 'id' swæcc 'fragrantia'
swekos
2b1.-chwegrwn swehur śváśurah 5.3.-
swekros socer εκυροσ 6.3.-shẽshuras
2b2.-hwigeren swāgur 'cognātus' xvasurō
swigar- śvaśrū́s 5.4.-
swekrús socrus 2b1.-chwegr swaihro εκυρα
3a2.-sweger skesur
swelā 3a2.-swol 'calor' ελη, ειλη ALB.-diell 'sōl' 6.3.-svìlis 'febris'
3a2.-swillan, swill
swelājō 5.3.-xar- 'uorō'
'uorō'
sëleh 'phoca
seilchide σελαχοσ
uitulīna' ALB.-šligɛ
swelāks 'cochlea'; 'chondrichthys
3a2.-seolh, seal 'coluber'
selige 'testūdō' '
'id'
3a3.-svilar svatъ, svojak
sweljos αελιοι
'leuires' 6.3.-sváinis 'leuir'
schwelen, swelzan swiltan ειλη 'lux, 6.3.-svilù, svìlti
svárati ; svargá-
swelō 'ūrō et tormentō' 'morior'; calos'; σελασ 6.4.-svelme
'caelum'
3a2.-swelan swultawair 'splendor' 'uapor, ardor'
757
Þja
'moritūrus'
σελισ
3a2.-swelli, mhd.
'scamnum 6.3.-súolas `
swelle 'id'
swelom remigiī'; 'scamnum'; sìle
3a2.-selma,
sealma 'tabula' ευσσελµοσ (H 'potārium'
om.)
swebal
swelplos sulpur swibls
3a2.-swefl
to-senn-
svambù-?
'persequor'; 3a1, a2.-swimman swumsl
swemōr 'pondus non
tofunn 'nō'; sund 'fretum' 'lacus'
sustinens'
'persecūtiō'
senim, senn, 3a2.-swinsian svánati; svanah
sephainn 'sonāre hanes 'historia' 'sonāre instr.'; 'sonus' 5.3.- 6.4.-sanēt, senēt
swénāmi sonō, sonus
instrumentum'; (<rumor?) swinn 'musica'; xanat̃ -čaxra- 'fremitāre'
sanas 'susurrō' swan 'cygnus' drensātiō'
a-sennad swintan, ανθραξ 'carbō'
'denique, schwinden ; ανθρυσ uvedati 'marceō',
swendhō vandhya 'sterilis'
postremō' 'ēuanescō' κον вя́нуть
<*dhno? 3a2.-swindan 'anthriscus'
sъpati, Iter.
svápiti, svápate;
sōpiō, antswebben,
2b1,b2,b3.-hun; svapna; svapnya sypati, usъnoti;
insomnis; entsweben υπνοσ; αυπν
swepō súan 2b1.-anhunedd 5.3.-x'ap-; x'afna
somnus, 3a2.-swefian οσ sъnъ;sъnije
'insomnia' 5.4.-k'un (k'noy)
somnium 3a3.-sofa 6.3.-sãpnas
5.5.-suppariya
6.4.-sapnis
5.5.-suppariya
swepṛ sopor υπαρ
'somniō'
af-, bi- svrabъ 'prurītus'
chwerfu 'turbitō'; suuerban 'extergō'
swerbhō swairban 5.5.-war(a)p 'lauō' 3a4.-svar̃pst
chwyrn 'celeriter' 3a2.-swerban 'id'
'extergō' 'tarātrum'
sorga 'cūra' saúrgan; ALB.-dergjem sūrkṣ ati 5.5.- sraga 'aegrotās'
swerghō serg 'agrotās'
3a2.-sorg 'id' saúrga 'id' '-otō' TOK A istarningai ? 6.3.-sir̃gti

särk, B sark 'morbum' 'aegrotō'

'morbum'
susurrō,
swarm 'examen' svirati 'siffilō'
swerō (ab)surdus, 2b1.-chwyrnu υραξ 'mus' svárati `
3a2.-swearm 'id' 6.3.-surmà 'tibia'
sorēx
svãri; schwer swērs
svarús 'grauis';
swērús sērius 'grauis' 'uenerandu 5.5.-suwaru- 'grauis'
sverti 'pensō'
3a2.-swaer 'id' s'
swerwos
2b1.-chwaer
εορ θυγατερ α svásar- sestra
swesōr soror siur 2b2.-huir/hoer, swistar
hor 2b3.-c'hoar νεψιοσ (Hes.) 5.4.-khoyr 6.3.-seser-
svasrīya-
sestrinъ 'sorōrius'
swesreinos sōbrīnus 5.4.-k'eri
6.3.- seserė́nas
'auunculus'
schwein 'id' swein svinъ, свин
swīnós suīnus
3a2.-swine 'id' 'porcus' 6.4.-sivens
swoidājō sūdō 3a2.-sweat svēdah
fol. i. bond, pl.
swólejā solea υλια (Hes.)
solaig, soilgib
swamp 'spongea';
Sumpf 'palūs'
σοµφοσ
swombhós 3a2.-swamm
'porōsus'
'fungus'; swamp
'pal.'
swonos sonus son swan 'cygnus' svaná-
swōpijō
3a2.-geswōpe
swoplom 'uersūra' svapū́
3a3.-sōfl
swopnjājō
swopnjom
3a2.-swefn (voc e)
swopnos somnus suan 2b1.-b2.-b3.-hun υπνοσ svápna-s
3a3.-svefn
sworā sūra, surus, swir 'sublica' ερµα 'sublica' sváru- 'surus'
759
surculus 3a2.- swier/ior

'id'; swīera/ora
'collus'
sordeō,
sordēs, swarz, schzarz 'id' swarts
swordis sorb 'macula' ?
sordid., 3a2.-sweart 'id' 'āter'
suāsum
susol <*sus- ?
sworēx sworēx υραξ 'mus'
6.4.-susuris 'sorēx'
sworos
sweran 'doleō';
2b1.-chwerw 'id'
swert 'ensis'
swṛneumi serb 'amārus' 2b2.-wherow 'id' 5.3.- x ̌ara- 'uulnus' chvóryj 'aeger'
3a2.-sweord,
2b3.-c`houero 'id'
sword 'id'
swrswrājō
Þahan
1b2.-tasetur
tachtaid? 2b1.-tagu 'id' dagēn 'taceō';
t∂kējō taceō 'tacitī'; taçez
'suffocat' 2b3.-taga 'id' 3a2.-thagōn þahains
'tacitus'
silentium'
tādējō
tadait επιτηδησ
'censeat' 'decens'
tādhēskō
douwen, tauen
2b1.-tawdd, toddi 'regelō' τηκω 'fundō,
tābēs, 'liquēfactiō' 3a2.-ðawian, thaw regelō' 5.4.-tànam tajo, tajetъ 'fundō,
tādhis tám 'mors'
tābum, tābeō 2b3.- teuzi 'regelō, .Tamēssā 'imbuō' regelō'
fundō' >Thames 4.3.−τακω
3a3.-þīða 'regelō'
ταττω, aor TOK A tāś śi (pl.), B 6.3.-patogus
tagjō taxō -āre
εταξα tāś 'praetor' 'comfortabilis'
2b1.-toes theismo, deismo
taismos tóis-renn/táis σταισ 'farragō'
2b3.-toaz 3a2.-thoésma 'lev'
SAMN.- stāyat 'clam'; stāyu,
тать 'fur'; taj
tai?osktod τηυσιοσ tāyu, stena 'fur'
tājō táid<*tātis 'fur' 'clam'
(tayosktod) 'irrītus' 5.5.- tajezzi, tajazzi
'clepito' 'clepit' tajo, tajiti 'cēlō'
tatь 'fur'
SAMN.- stāyat 'clam'; stāyu, тать 'fur'; taj

tai?osktod τηυσιοσ tāyu, stena 'fur' 'clam'
tājots táid<*tātis 'fur'
(tayosktod) 'frugi, irritus' 5.5.- tajezzi, tajazzi tajo, tajiti 'cēlō'
'clepito' 'clepit' tatь 'fur'
ταλισ
6.3.-a(t)tólas
'uirgō'; τηλισ;
tálejā talea, tālla 'termēs'
τηλεθαω talõkas 'adultus'
'germinō'
toli, tolь toliko
τηλικοσ 'tam 'tam'
tālis tālis
uetus' 6.3.-. tõlei
'eātenus'
e-tanto τηµοσ 'ibi, там, dial. та́мка,
tam,
'tanta', thuo, duo 'ibi' þē 'ita tunc' тамока́, та́мотка
tām tamquam, 5.3.- t∂m 'tunc'
1b2.-e-tantu 3a2.-thō 'ibi' factum' 4.3.−ταµ
tandem 6.3.-nuo tām
'tanta' οσ 'id' 'inde'
tarr 'uenter',
2b1.-tor(r), torrog ταρσοσ 'palma
tarsós torrach
2b3.-tar/tor pedis'
'pregnans'
tárudos tardus τερυ tarunah' iuuenis'
2b1.-tad 3a3.-þjazi τεττα, τατα; τυ táta, tetъka
tātā tata tatá- `
2b2.-tat 'gigans' τθοσ 'paulus' 6.3.-tẽtis, tete
Taruos
tarb 2b1.-tarw
tauros taurus taurom ταυροσ turъ
2a3.-tarbh 2b2.-tarow
2b3.-taro, tarv
tausnim tūsnīm 'silenter'
túṣyati 'gaudet'
inna tuai 2b1.-taw 'tacē'
3a3.-thyster tūsnīm 'silenter'
tausos 'silentia' 2b3.-tao tuší tь 'exstinguō'
'silentiōsus' 5.5.-dušk-, duškīa-
2a2.-tó 'silentium'
'gaudeō'
761
tuhus(s)iya
'meditor'
e-tanto
'tanta' 1b2.- τηοσ < τεωσ e-tvant
twṇtos tantus
e-tantu (Hom.), ταοσ 5.3.-aē-tavant
'tanta'
teglā
hleiþra- stožá r'pālum'
stehho, stach 5.4.-tàkn 'pālum';
stakeins 6.3.-stãgaras
tegnom tignum 'pālum' tàkalal 'capitello,
'insertiō 'hasta' 6.4.-
3a2.-staca architrave'
tentae' stēga,stēgs
2b1-2b2- to
tegō tegō, toga ·tuigiur dah 'tectum' στεγω, τεγω sthagati 6.3.-stíegiu stíegti
'tectus'
Tegerno-mali
τεγοσ; στεγοσ
tech 2b1.-tig, ty 'id' dah 'tectum' stogъ 'horreum'
'tectum,
tegos (tige<tégesa) 2b2.-ti 'id' 3a2.-þæc 6.3.-stógas
domus,
'domus' 2b3.-bou-tig 3a3.-þak <*togom 'tectum'
capsula'
'bouīle'
tegtom tectum στεκτοσ
2b2.-tew dicchi, dicki, Dick
tegús tiug
2b3.-teo 3a2.þicce, thick
tóib/taobh
teibhjā tībia 2b1.-2b2.-2b3.-tu 6.3.-stáibis
'latus'
thegan, degen 'id'
3a2.-thegan, τεκνον, τεκοσ (
teknom tákman- 'prolēs'
thane 'puer, τεκουσ)
seruus, hērōs'
techtaim 2b1.-teg 'pulcher'; dicken 'rogō'
'habeō'; étig annheg 'foedus' 3a2.-thiggian tenkù, tèkti
tekō
'foedus'; toich 2b3.-tizaff 'implorō' 3a2.- 'sufficiō'
'naturāle' 'accipiō'; tigga 'mendicō'
tekslā
teksnā
texō, testa, dehsala 'secūris', τικτω<∗τιτκω 5.2.-táksati, tāsti
tesati; тку, ткать
teksō subtīlis, tál 'secūris' tāht, Docht 'generō'; <*tétkti 'fabricat';
subtēmen 'mycha' τεκτων<∗τ 5.3.-tashat 'texō'
ετκων 5.4.-tekhem 'texō' 6.3.-tasýti 'secat';

'lignārius'; 5.5.-takk(e)s takišī̃ s 'rēte'
τεχνη <-ksnā 'componō'
'ars'
tekstā testa 5.3.-tāšta-, tašta-
tekstlom tēla 5.4.-t'el 'fīlum'
Þius<tokw
tákti 'festīnātur';
techid 'fugit' (pf. Vo-tepo-rix ós 'seruus'
diu, diuwa 'seruus, taktá, táku, takvá
táich); ateog 2b1.-go-dep (cf. takvá):
serua'; Dirne 'pernix'; tekъ 'cursus'
tekwō 'rogō (recurrō)'; 'recursus' f. Þiwi;col.
3a2.-ðēowu, 5.3.-tačaiti 'currit' 6.3.-tekù, -éti
intech n. ìter' 2b3.-tec'het Þēwisa;
ðēowe(n) 5.5.-watku? 'saliō'
(*enitekwom, 'fugere' widuwairn
5.6.-tāxtan 'currere'
a 'orbus'
τελαµων
tailm (telma) 2b1.-telm 'laqueus'
telmṓn <*telH2mon-
'funda, laqueus' 2b3.-talm 'funda'
'lorum'
tlъpa, tolpá
telpō ·tella, ·talla talpa, talpā 'sedēs' 'multitūdō' 6.3.-
telpù, til̃ pti
6.4.- telpu, tìlpt
tellus, tala- 'superficiēs'
tьlo <*telo-
meditullium talam <*tel- dil, dilo, Diele 'id' τηλια 'tabula', talima- 'pauiment.';
2b1, b2, b3.-tal 'solum' 6.3.-
telsus <*-tolHujo- mon- (talman)
'frons'
3a2.-ðille 'tabula' cf. ταλαοσ 'tol tīrthá- 'uadum'
?; tabula 'solum' 3a3.-þil(i) 'id' erans' tlu 'palatum' pãtalas 'lectus';
<taldhlā? 5.4.- tàl 'regiō' tìltas 'pons'
stampfon 'calcō' στεµβω
tembhō contemnō
3a2.-stamp 'id' 'conculcō'
demar,
temesras tenebrae tamisrā 6.4.-timsa, tumsa
Dämmerung
temlom templum τεµενοσ
demar, tamas-; tamasrāh, tьma
tenebrae, temel; teim, Dämmerung tamisrā
temos 2b3.-teffal Τεµµικεσ 6.3.-tamsa
temere temen 'obscūrus' 3a2.-thimm 5.3.-t∂mah- 6.4.-tim(s)a,
3a3.-taam 5.6.- tār <tam-sra- tumsa
763
tēmulentus, tamiti
tēmos tam 'animō linquī'
abstēmius 'tormentāre'
topъ 'crassus'
tempus,
temptō, 5.4.- tàmb 'sella tepstí 'densē
temperāre, 3a3.-þambr ταπησ, δαπισ equī' vestīr.'
tempos 6.3.- tem̃pti
antemnā, `'crassus' 'tapēte" <iran. 5.6.-tāb-ađ 'torqueō,
templum, neō' 'tendō'; tìmpa
contemplārī 'tendō -n'
tamprùs 'elasticus'
tan (tain) ταινια (dim
tenā taeinia <gr. 6.4.- tina 'nessa'
'tempus' <* ταινα)
tandatē
3a2.-ðindan 'dēfetiscitur'
tendō tendō
'turgescō, irascor' 5.6.-tanīđan 'neō,
torqueō'
rastęgǫ, rastęšti
tēmō, -ōnis 5.3.-qang- 'arcuō, 'distrahō', tegostь

tenghō dīhsala 'tēmō' 'grauis'; teža
<tenghsm- curuō'
'litigium'
6.3.-tingùs 'piger'
tinguō<gō
tengō (ctam. thunkōn τεγγω
unguō)
tenus;
nū́tanāḥ, -tnāḥ 6.3.-dabartìnis
teni protinus,
'praesens' 'praesens'
diūtinus
1b2.-en-
6.3.-tìnstu, tìnti
tentu den(n)en, dehnen uf-þanjan tanṓti
τεινω; τανυται 'tumescō'
tenjō tendō, ìntenditō', 3a2.-ðenian, <*- 5.3.-pairi-tanava
(med.) 6.4.-tinu, ti^t
ustentu ðennan toneyo/e 'teneam'
'plectō'
òstenditō'
tinne, tinge
tenjom tempus -oris
3a2.-þɵun-wang
con-tēci ding, dingen gaþaih, pt. tañc- tanákti t'aknuty
tenkō teithi 'quālitātes'
'condensat'; 'congregārī'. gediegen> 'condensat' 'prodesse'
técht 'densus' 3a2.-ðing, thing gedeihen 6.8.-tek

3a3.-Þing 'causa, 'prosperō' 'prosperitās'
iudicium, rēs' Þeihs
(*ténkos),
pl. Þeihsa
'tempus'
tenos tenus, -oris, τενοσ tánas- 6.3.-tãnas 'tumor'
tōlēs<tonslēs
tamsayati 'agitat,
, tōnsillae;
obtendit'; vítasti- 6.3.-tesiù, tẽsti
tensō prōtēlum, dinsan 'tendō' atÞinsan 'di'
'id' 'oblongō'
prōtēlāre;
5.3.-vitasti-'tensiō'
tēnsa
2b1.-tant (pl. teneto, tonoto
tentrom tét/tead tántra-, tántu-s
tannau) 6.3.-tiñklas 'rete'
tefúrúm
té (n.p téit)
'sacrificium' 3a2- ðefian tápati
'calidus';
tepējō tepeō 1b2.- tefra 'resiffilāre' 5.3.-tapaiti teplъ 'calidus'
tess<tepstu
`carnes 3a3.-teva 'id' 5.5.-tepsu 'siccus'
'calor'
cremandas'
Teno- 2b1.-tãn
ten, tene, teine,
tepnos 2b2.-tān 2b3.- 5.3.-tafnu-, tafnah-
tine 'ignis'
tan(et-)
intech 'uia'
teqom tekъ 'cursus'
<*enitekʷom
toruus<*torg
tercō ταρβοσ 'metus' tarjayati trebog 'alarma'
wós
2b1.-
tarater/taradr
téredhrom terebra tarathar τερετρον
2b2.-tardar
2b3.-tarazr/tarar
τρωγω ∋υορ∋
1b2.-
dork 'carīna' τρωγλ 5.4.-tùrc (t`rcoy)
tergō, mantrahklu, Þaí rko
tergō 3a2.-ðurruc η ∋ριφιχιυµ∋ 'māla, maxilla' ;
mantēlum mandraclo 'ōrificium'
`cumba' τρωξ ∋υερ aracem 'pāstus'
`mantēle'
µισ∋ τραγο
765
σ ∋αρισ∋
tergslom
tuirenn drescan, dreschen 5.5.-tattarai-;
terjō terō þriskan τειρω tiru
'triticum' 'id' tariya ''defetiscor'
teremnattens
τερµα; tárman 'puncta
(p3p) dremil
druimm uerus'
termen, 1b2.- 2b2.-drum ? 'repagulum' τερµων ∋
termēn (drommo) sutárman 'benē
terminus termnome Dorsum 3a3.-Þromr λιµσ∋ τρηµα trāduc'
<drum? 5.5.-
(lc) 'angulus' ∋ριφιχιυµ∋ tarma 'cun.,acus'
VEN.-termo
tárati, tiráti, tārá yati
intrāre, τερθρον
tū́rvati
extrābunt, 'extrēmum'
terō 'praedominat'
trāmes τρανησ 5.5.-tarra- 'possum';
(meō) 'penetrans' tarhui 'fortis'
þaú rban
(þarf
<*torp-) tṛ́pyati, trpṇóti,
durfan (darf)
'egēre'; tṛmpáti, tarpati
'egēre'; darba 6.3.-tarpstù, tar̃pti
Þrafstjan 'satiātur', cau.
terpō 'necessitās' τερπω 'crēscō'; tērpinat
'sōlor' tarpáyati
3a2.- ðearf 'id' 'ēmendāre'
Þaú rban
3a3.-Þurft 'id' 5.3.-qrafδa 'id'
'egeō';
Þarbs
'necessitās'
þaú rfts
durft 'id?' τερπσισ 'explēt tṛptí-, tṛ́pt
terptis <*tṛptí
3a3.-þurft 'id?' iō' 'satisfactiō'
'necessitās'
terúm
tersā terra tir 'territorium'
<*terso-
torreō, terra,
dorrēn, derren, 5.4.- tàṙamim,
tersai tostus<torsit tart 'sitis' gaþairsan τερσοµαι
dörren 'torreō' tàršamim 'uiescō'
os
tarrach 6.3.-trisù
tersējō terreō ðræs 'fimbria' τρεω trásati 'trepeō'
'tremendus' 6.4.-trisêt
tersós
τερην, τεραµω
tener, SAB. 3a3.-Þyrma táruṇa-
terc 'rārus, ν; τερυ ασθενε 6.3.- tar̃nas
térunos termēs, terenum 'pulchrum' Þarihs 5.2.-tauruna-
paucus' σ λεπτον 'seruus'
tardus 'molle' <*Þormaz 'iuuenis'
(Hes.)
τεκτων<∗τετκ tákṣaṇ-
tetkōn
ων 5.3.-tašan-
zitze, tutta
tettā tetta 5.5.-tita
'tetta'
τετραζω; τ
turtur;
ετραων 'urogal tittirá-, tittirí-, tetrevi 'fasiānus'
tetrinniō, -
téturos tethra 'coruus' lus'; tittíri- 'perdix' 6.3.- tẽtervinas 'id'
īre, tetrissitō,
τετριξ 'auis 5.4.-tatrak 'auis q.' 6.4.-teteris 'a.q.'
-āre `
quaedam'
tokám 'subolēs';
teukmṇ diehter 'nepōs' tókman 'progeniēs'
5.6.-taumā 'genus'
τυκοσ
2b1.-twll istъknoti
'malleus,
toll, toll 'cauitās' `forāmen' èffodere'
teukō scalprum'
<tukslo- 2b3.-toull 3a2.-tukstet
'ōrificium' τυκανη
'uentilātiō' 'forem battere'
dofta, ducht 'sēdēs
remigiī; diob,
Þiubjō εντυπασ 6.3.-tūpiù, tũpti
teupō Dieb 'fur'
'clam' 'crēbriter' 6.4.- tupt
3a2.-doft;thiof.
thief
teurō
obtūro, 3a3.-þori σωροσ 'cumul
retūrō 'multitūdō, massa' us'
Þūsundi
thūschunde 'M' tysešta 'M'
teusmṇ túaimm 2b1.-tom 'collis' <*tūskṃtī TOK-tumane/tmām
3a2.-thousand 6.3.-túkstantis 'M'
'M'
dost 'stercus' tucch(y)á- 'uānus'
tъštь> tóšcij
teusqa tesqua <'ēuacuātiō' 5.3.-taošayeiti
3a2-ðost 'id' 'ēuacuat' 'uacuus'
teutā touto; tuath Teutomatus, 3a2.-þēod Þiuda 6.4.-tautà
767
touticum totatigenus
'publicum' 2b1-2b3.-tud
1b2.-tota 2b2.-tus
'urbs'
cumtūth
gethau 'disciplina,
'protectiō' *kom- 2b1.-tuð 'operiō' ÞiuÞ
obseruantia'
ud-tówitus tut 'ueneficus' 'bonum'; (Ηεσ) τυσσει ?
tewai tueor a2.-geðīede
tūas-cert, 2b3.-tuec<*tuðoc ÞiuÞjan 'benēdicit'
'fauens'
tūa(i)th 'puluinī tegumen' 'benedicō'
3a3.-Þyðr 'id'
'septentriōnālis'
*toueō=farci
ō σωµα 'corpus'; tavás-, tavīti 'uiget'
tōmentum; σωζω 'liberō' 5.3.-tavah- tyju, tyti
tewos
tōtus σαοσ 'saluus'; 5.4.-tunuvant- 'pinguescō'
<*tówetos=c Tιτυοσ 'potens'
ompact.
tibhjā tibia taoib
timējō timeō δειµα
6.3.-tilvìkas,
titilvìkas, 'auis
ṭiṭṭibha 'Parra
titijō τιτ(τ)υβιζω qd.' 6.4.-tītet
jacana'
'canō'; titilbis,
titilbīte 'a.q.'
tol <*tolā ταλασσαι, τλ
2b1.-tlawd dolēn, dulten,
tollō, -ere; 'uoluntās', ηναι
'pauper' 2b3.- dulden 'patior'; þulan 5.4.-tòɫum 'sinō, telenok 'uitulus'
tlāmi tulī, tetulī; tlāith' dēbilis'
talm 'funda' 'patior'; τληµω
Geduld 'patientia' 'resistō' permittō' 6.3.-iz-tilt
tulam 'feram' <*-tjos; tailm ν 'patiens';
cf.τελαµων 3a2.-ðolian 'id'
'funda' ταλασ 'miser'
τλη−ναι
tlātjos tláith 'tener' tlawd 'pauper'
'resistō'
tьlejo, -leti
tu(i)lid, con- 'decadō'; toliti
tḷijō tu(i)li 'dormit'; 'placō'.
cotlud 'somnus' 6.3.-tyléti, tìlti
'taceō'; tylùs '-itus'
τελλω 'et
dolēn, dulten, finiō'; TOK A B.-täl,
tulayati; tul 'lībra'
tlenaid <*tḷnāti dulden 'patior'; þulan ταλαντον
tḷnō tollō 5.4.-tòɫum 'sinō, praet. A cacäl, В
'ēripit'; Geduld 'patientia' 'resistō' 'lībra'
3a2.-ðolian 'id' ανατολη permittō' cāla.
'oriens'
atluchur 'gratias
agō' tlъkъ, tolkъ
tloqai loquor
dotluchur; 'explicātiō'
'rogō'
tьnu 'quatiō'
tmāmi aestumō τεµνω 6.3.-tinù, tìnti
'dīluō'
tǫpъ 'obtūsus,
3a3.-þǫmb
5.4.- tàmb 'pantica; crassus' 6.3.-
tṃpus 'pantica, neruus
sella' tamprùs ; tìmpa
arcūs'
'fūnis'
tṇējō teneō tnúth 'inuidia' 3a2.-ðunian τεινω tanōti 'extendit'
TOCH.-A tegostь 'pondus'
3a3.-þungr
tṇghus tänk-, В tank- 5.4.-tànjr (tànju) 6.4.-tànjr
'grauis'
'obstō' (tànju)
tekan
<*dedg-
tacken τεταγων
<*tedg-
tṇgō tangō, tactus
3a2.-þaccian
<*tetH2g- θιγγανω ? (i tāják 'subitō' TOK B.-ceś <*tēke
'plaudō' schwa
(cf. lat.
3a3.-takam secundum)
bibit ai.
pibati)
dīhte, dicht takrá-m 'butyrum' tǫča 'pluuia'
tṇkros técht 'densus' 'densus' 5.6.-talxīna 'lacte 6.3.-tánkus
3a3.-þēttr 'id' amarum' 'crēber'
2b1.-teithi 3a3.-théttr
tṇktos téchte 'correctus' 6.3.-tánkus
'quālitāt.' 'proxim.'
tṇtos tentus τατοσ tatá
769
2b1.-tenau τανυσ 'tenuis'

tan(a)e dunni
tṇus tenuis 2b2.-tanow ταναοσ tanú-s
<*tanawio- 3a2.-thynne
2b3.-tanao, tano 'longus'
tugae 'tegmen';
togā toga tuige 'strāmen' to 'tectus'
<-yā
toi tó τοι
tōkslos tál dehsala <*tekslā tesla <*tekslā
5.6.- taxš 'arcus,
toksos taxus τοξον 'arcus'
sagitta'
deo 'id' þius TOK В cake 6.4.-teksnis
tokwós takvá- 'rapidus'
3a2.-ðēo(w) 'id' 'seruus' 'flūmen' 'seruus'
3s2.-þyle 'ōrātor'
3a3.-þulr 'doctus'
tolājō 5.5.-talliya-
þula 'uersus';
þulja 'murmurō'
tolkъ 'mortārium';
2b1.-talch 'fragm.' tlъkǫ, tlěšti,
tolkos 2b2.-talch
'furfures' толо́чь 'quatiō'
6.3.-tìlkti
'mansues esse'
dann, denn τω (abl.
tum, tunc, ALB.-ta-ní; 'nunc'
tom
topper
3a2.-þanne, Hom.); το−νυν 5.3.-tǝm
6.3.-tuõ 'protinus'
þænne, þonne 'nunc'
tom-ke
στενω, στεναζ
tonō, stöhnen 'grunniō' stánati, stanáyati stenati 'grunniō'
tónāmi
tonitrus 3a2.-stenan 'id' ω, στεναχω 'fremit 6.3.-stenù, stániti
'gemō'
teinnid, tennaid;
tondējō tondeō 2b1.-tam 'morsus' stunz τενδω
tonn, tond 'pelle
den(n)en, dehnen uf-þanjan
tonējō 3a2.-ðenian, <*- tānáyati
ðennan toneyo/e
tongējō tongeō, tanginúd denchen, denken Þagkjan, ALB: tange
tongitiō 'sententia' 3a2.-ðyncan, Þāhta 'resentment' :

think 'meditor'; TOCH. A tunk-, В
3a3.-Þekkja Þekkr
tankw
'intellegō' 'grātus';
*Þagks
'grātias'
tonslis
tonstṓr
tóntenos tintinnāre tątьnъ
donar
tanā, stanayitnú-
tontrom tonitrus Tanaros 3a2.-þunor,
5.6.- tundar
thunder
topnos ten 'ignis' 2b1-b2-b3.-tan 5.3.-fafnah 'calos'
doch 'oppidō' þau(h)
cf. correlat. тоже (-же <*gwe,
toqe 3a2.-though 'quam, uel, 5.5.-takku 'si'
'quoque' *ghwe, *ge-ye ?)
'tamen' potius'
torcós
correlat. dar 3a2.-
tori þar 'ibī' tar-hi 'tunc'
cur<*kwor þær, there
tórkmṇto
m
τοροσ
torm<rsm∂n Taranis torotóritь 'garriō'
'penetrans' tārá- 'penetrans'
torós 'strepit.' 2b1,b2,b3.-taran 6.3.-tariù,tar̃ti
τετορησω 5.5.-tar- 'dīcō'
torann 'tonitrus' 'id' 'dīcō'
'clamem'
torpējō
torqueō, ατρακτοσ tarkú- 'fūsus'
drehen; drāhsil
tormentum, trochal 2b1.-torri 'rumpō' 'fūsus' tarkáyati 'cōgitat'
torqējō 'lignārius' trakъ 'cinctus'
tormina, 'catapulta' 2b3.-terryff 'id' ατρεκησ 5.5.-tarku(wai)
3a2.-Þræstan
nastorquium 'directus' 'trepudiō'
torqis torquēs mun-torc mwn-dorch
torsējō torreō dōrren, derren gaþairsan tarṣáyati
torsmṇ
το(σ)σοι <
tot(j)os tiot
*totyoi
771
3a2.-ðæder,
totrēd ul-trō hidre tátrā 'ibī'
thither 'huc''
totrōd ÞaÞrō
TOGITACC
τυχη 'fortūna'
2b1.-tynghet 'fort.'
toughā tocad 'fortūna' τυγχανω
2b3.-toñket
'fātum' 'infligō'
2b1.-tin dioh
touknā tón 'podex'
2b2.-tyn 3a2.-théoh, thigh
trabhis
vertragus 'pernix
trahō, traha,
canis' 2b1.- drigil 'seruus'
trāgum, trág 'litus'; traig
trai 'recessus'; 3a2.-ðrāg þragjan
traghō trāgula, 'pēs' trág-
troed 'pēs' 'tempus'; ðrǣgan 'currō'
trāma 'recēdō'
2b2.-truit/trys 'id'; thrall 'id'
<traghsmā
2b3.-troad
traghsmā
tar<teres (tairse tirah 'procul'
2b1.-traws
traans<trānti 2b2.-traf, 'trans eam, durh 3a2.-durh
trāntis 2b2.-tres, trus Þaí rh 5.3.-tar∂, tarō
s trahaf tairsiu 'trans <t(e)rkwe
2b3.-treuz 'latere'
eōs'
trííbúm LUS.-trebopala
τεραµνον, θερ
trabs, trabēs, 'domum' triub, treb 2b1.-tref 'protector pagī' þaúrp tremъ 'turris'
trebhō
taberna tremnu 'residentia' 2b3.-treb (Cabeço das 'ager' απνη 'aedificiu
m' 6.3. trobà 'domus'
`tabernācul.' fraguas)
ðrece, ðroht 'uis,
trén comp. trógatь 'tangō'
impetus'
tregsnos tressa tress 2b1.-tren 6.3.-treksne
3a3.-þrekr
'pugna' 'impetus'
'audacia'
drīsti, ðrīste 'id'
treistis tristis
3a2.-ðrīste 'audax'
trejes trija 2b1-2b2-2b3.-tri, drei 3a2.- þreis, ac. trije
trísores
trēs trí, f. téoir τρεισ tráyas, f. tisráḥ
f. tair, teir þrīe, three Þrins 6.3.-trys
3a2.-thrimman Þramstei tremčú, tremtity
tremō tremō 'curam habēre' 'locusta' τρεµω 6.3.-trìmti
3a6.-dram <*trems- 'expellō'
'strepitus' 6.4.-tremt 'id'

trēicim 'linquō'
truncus, trincos 'gladiator dringan, dringen trutýtъ 'quatiō'
dūthracht?
truncō; q.' 2b1.- 'id' 3a2.- þreihan 6.3.-treñkti
trenkō 'desiderō' qraxtanam (part.)
drungus trengi 'letum, ðringan 'premere' 'quatiō'
drong
<gall. fīnis' 3a3.-þryngja 6.4.-trìecu/ekt 'id'
'multitūdō'
draben,
trapen τρεπω
tṛprá-, tṛpála-
3a2.- 'uertō'; τροπεω trepetъ
trepidus, 'uehemens';
trepō ðrafian 'calcō'! 6.3.-- trepseti
trepit, turpis trápatē 'repudiātur'
'trottō' αταρποσ, ατρ 'calcō'
5.5.-teripp 'arō'
3a3.-trav αποσ 'uia'
'pressa nix'
tresō
-driozan,
verdriessen usþriutan
trotaid 'ligat' 2b1.-cythruð truždo, truditi
treudō trūdō, trūdis 'molestō' 'molestus
<*truzd- d + d 'tormentāre' 'tormentō'
3a2.-(ā-)ðrēotan esse'
'fatigō'
τρυχω 'terō'
treughos tróg, truag 2b1, b3.-tru τρυχο
σ 'pannus'
2b1.-trychu drauche 'pedica' 6.3.-trúkstu, -au, -
treukō <*truksō; trwch 3a2.-ðrūh ti 6.4.-trũkstu
'abscissus' ''aquārium 'rumpō'
tríj∂tos
trïath (trethan) Τριτον 'filius
'mare' <*tri̯aton- posīdōnis'
triplós triplus τριπλοσ
trípḷtis
trilis 'crīnis, 3a2.-threefold <*- τριπλασιοσ 'tri
spīra' tó plus'
trĩs ter, terr fo-thrī driror τρισ tríḥ
θριναξ
trisnôs trīnī Þrennr 'triplex'
'tridens'
testis, - 1b2.-trstus; triss > tress tri-ṣṭhá- 'ter
tristis
iculum, trístaamentu 'tertius'; condicionātum'
773
testimonium d tre(i)sse
; 'triduum'
testamentum
tritjos tertius 2b1.-trydydd thridja tṛtīya-s
6.3.-trìntas; trìntis
trītós trītus tréith 'deebilis'
'frictiō' 6.4.-trĩts
tṛmēts termes τερµα, τορµοσ 5.5.-tarma
2b1.-cynrhonyn
tarmes, 2b2, b3.-
tṛmos termes - contronen τερµηδων
itis 2b3.-toroc
<*tōrāko
dorn trъnъ;
tṛnā Þaú rnus τερναξ trṇa-m 'herba'
3a2.-Þorn strъnь 'calamus'
2b1-2b2-2b3.-tro τροχοσ 'cursus trãg 'passus,
troghos trog 'puerī'
'coagulum' ' posteritās'
trogjā
στεργανοσ κοπ
drec, Dreck ρων
trogos troia trogaid ? 'ebrius' 'merda' (Hes.) τρυξ
3a2.-ðreax 'cariēs' 'fermentum
uīnī'
ατραποσ, αταρ
Nd.-drumpel,
tropos ποσ 'trottoir' tropá
dorpel 'limen'
(α copul.)
τρυχω 'terō';
tróg, truag 2b1, 2b3.-tru
troughi στρευγεσθα
'miser' 'miser'
ι 'carreō'
trowā
τρυω ∋τερ∋; τ
2b1.-taraw
drawen, drohen ρυµα ∋ριφιχι
<*toraw 'quatiō' 6.3.- truniù, -ė́ti
trowō 'id' 3a2.-ðrēan υµ∋; τιτρωσκω
2b3.- toreusit 'putrefīō,'
'minor' ∋υυλνερ∋; τρ
'attrīuit' <*torōw-
ωµα ∋υυλνυσ∋;
τορευω ∋αβσ
χινδ∋
u-trъpeti
tṛpējō torpeō 6.2.-toropétь
'urgeō'
6.3.-tir̃pti 'rigeō'
tṛrpis
drozd
tṛsdos turdus 3a3.-throstr
6.3.-strazdas
tṛsējō þaú rsjan tṛ́ṣyati
þaú rstei
durst, Durst
tṛstis tart 'sitiens'
3a2- þurst
(fem.)
tṛstos
durri 3a2.-
tṛsus torrus tur þaú rsus ταρροσ 'tabēs' tṛṣú trezvъ 'sōbrius'
þyrre,
trwsg(l) 'raucus' trovǫ, truti 'uorō'
2b3.-trousk 6.3.-trunéti
trudskā trosc <*trŭds-ko ðrūstfell þrūts-fill τρυω 'terō'
'pellicula 'marceō,
dermatitis' corrumpor'
drōz, Verdruß trudno 'difficile' ;
'molestia'
trudsmós tromm 'grauis' 2b1- trwm 'id' trudъ
3a2.-ðrēat
'minātiō' 'mōlimentum'
trux, trú (troch)
truks truculentus, 'capite
trucidō anquīsītus'
tū tū tú thu σε tvā
dūmo, Daumen 6.3.-tuméti
2b1.-tom 'id'
tumeō, 'id' 3a2.- τυµβοσ 'tumul 'pinguescō'
tumējō tomm 'tumulus' twf 'uis'
tumulus thumb 'pollex' us' tùm(s)tas
tyfu 'crēscō'
3a3.-Þumi 'aceruus'
tumlós
tumala-, tumula- 6.3..-tùm(s)tas
túmolos tumultus
TOK A tmāṃ, B 'cumulus, turma'
775
t(u)mane '10.000'
tundō, cystudd 'dolor'
stōzan, stoßen
tundō studeō, do-tuit 'cadit' 2v3.-arstud stautan tudáti
3a2.-stōtan
tussis 'cuspis'
turgējō
turgeō <* turá- 'fors, potens' tvarogъ `lac
tūrós τυροσ
turigos? 5.3.-tūiri- 'caseus q.' coagulatum'
turris τυρσισ, τυρση
tursis tiurrí turm < qq. medit. ILL;-boudorgis LYD-Tursa /Turra
(mediter.) νοσ
túsyate
tusjai
5.5.-dus-sk-
6.3.-tvinaũ, tvìnti
'tumere aqua'
tusnā tonn tünne
6.4.-tvans, tvana
'uapor'
tustijō
tustis
tvac(as-) 'pellis'
twakos σακοσ 5.5.- tuekkas
'corpus, ipse'
σασσω, σαττω
tvanakti 'contrahō'
'onerō' 6.3.-tvankù-
dwingan, zwingen (cf. fr. contraignant)
<tw∂nkyō 'calens, premens',
twenkō 3a2.-ðwinglian 5.3.-θwazjaiti
συχνοσ <ksn tvẽnkti 'turgēre
3a3.-Þvinga, -aða <*tuanzǵhati<ghsk
'creber'; aqua'
'obligātur'
σωκεω ?
Turno-magus, tvoriti 'creō, faciō'
Turnācum '-altus' σειρα 'corda'; tvaróg 'caseus'
twerō
2b3.-torn-aod σειρην 'sirēna' 6.3.-tveriù, tvérti
'falaria' 6.4.-turu, turẽt
tveṣá- ; tvēṣ ati
'excitātur'
twoisós σειω 'tremō'
5.3-upāqwayeiti
'timet'
twṛbhōn turba, turbō, 2b1.-twrf 'id' 3a3.-þorp 5.5.- συρβη, τυρβη
-āre, turbō, - 'multitūdō tarup(p)- 'turba'

inis hominum' 'congregō'
tváṣṭtar 'creātor'
5.3.-qb∂r∂sa,
torc 'aper' (gen. 2b1.-twrch 'aper' σαρξ 'carō' θβ∂r∂sō 'porcellus';
twṛkos tuirc, acc. pl. 2b2.-torch 'id' 4.2, 4.3.-
turcu) 2b3.-tourc'h 'id' συρξ 'id' θβ∂r∂saiti 'scindit,
format'; qbōr∂star
'creātor'
turm 'uertigō',
Sturm 'tempestās'
twṛmā turma
3a2.-ðrymm
'turma'; storm 'id'
trua, trulla, dweran 'celeriter
twṛtos truella, gyrō'; stören οτρυνω twar- 'festīnō'
amptruō, `turbare'
ūeō, ūdus,
3a2.-wake 'sillatiō' ukṣáti 'ūmectat'
uchējō umeō fúal 'urīna' υγροσ 'uuor'
3a3.-vokr 'uuor' 5.3.-uxšyeiti 'id'
<ughsmēyō
údcris
uterus; ingewā(n)t, -ende, οδεροσ γαστηρ udáram 6.3.-védaras
úderos
uenter ? Eingeweide (Hes) 5.3.-udara- 6.4.-ve^ders
ūter, iuter, Euter
ουθαρ (ουθατο ūdhar, ūdhas vȉme <ūdhmen
3a2.-ūder, ieder
ūdhṛ ūber σ) <∗Η1ου(Η)δ (ūdhnas) 6.3.-ūdruó-ju, -ti
3a3..-ju(g)r
η[ <*H1uHdhṛ 'grauida esse'
<*eud-
ūdhros
ūdhús
ευθυσ, ιθυσ huda(ak)
'rectus' 'celer(iter)'
2b1.-ych 'bos'
oss 'ceruus' 2b2.-ohan (pl) ohso 'bos' aúhsus , ukṣ 5.3.-
uksōn
2a3.-2a4.-os 'bos' 2b3.- 3a2.-oxa auhsa uxšan-
ouhen, oc'hen
uksōr
777
ilach 'clamoor'; υλαω, υλακτε 6.3.-ul(ūl)óti

ululājō ululō, ulucus úlūka 'bufō'
2a2.-ulach 'id' ω 'latrō' 'salutō'
6.3.-ùnkna
unksrā umbra
úkanas 'turbidus'
übel huwappas,
upelos fel ubils
3a2.-yfel huwap(p) 'uexō'
2b1.-gorau
úperesū υπερευ
'optimus'
2b1-gor; guell 'id'
for-; ferr obar, ubiri upári
2b2.-gor; guel 'id'
uperi s-uper 1b2.-super <*uper- lo / 3a2.-ofer ufar υπερ 5.5.-(sarā) upzi 'sōl
2b3.-guor; gwell
uper-so 'potius' 3a3.-yfir oritur'
'id'
supruis óchtar <ouptro 2b1.-uthr iup 'ad
úperos s-uperus
'superīs' ós, uas<oupsu 'excellens' supera'
sup uuf
2b1-2b2.-gwo-
upo s-ub 1b2.-sub-, fo- 3a2.-ufe uf υπο 5.1, 5.3.-upa
2b3.-gou
su-, 3a3.-of
2b1.-gobr
'salārium' 2b2.- upakriyā
upóqrijom
gober 'id' 'beneficium'
2b3.-bopr 'id'
upósēdjom subsidium fothae > fáth
dago-uassus
upóstāno upasthānam
foss 'seruus' 2b1-2b3.-gwas vysokъ 'altus'
m 'seruitūdō'
2b2.-guas
Uxe(l)lodunum
2b1.-uchel
úpselos uasal 2b2.-huhel υψηλοσ
2b3.-uc´hel, huel
2b1.-uch, wwch
susque, 2b2.-ugh υψι υ
upsi ós, uas vysokъ 'altus'
sustineō ψηλοσ
2b3.-uc´h
uqnós
urú-
urús ευρυσ
5.5.-ura- 'magnus'
ustós
uta CELTIB.-uta 'et' ? uta 'secus, an'
υβρισ 'ira'
<ud-
gw∂ru; υστριξ
ud, ut 'sursum';
aus 'extrō';auBen, 'aper'; υξηροσ
uss-, oss- ut 'extrō'; uttara 'altius'; vъz- (vъs-) 'ad-'
uti, ud ūsque uz ; υτυχα; υστερ
(ud/upo?) ūtana uttama 'altissimus' 6.3, 6.4.-uz 'ad'
3a2.-ut, or-, ur- οσ 5.3.-us, uz<uds
'posterus'; υστ
ατοσ
'postumus'
coin (canes) ottar, Otter υδροσ, υδρα udrah vydra
w∂drā lutra
fodorne (pl.) 3a2.-otor 'serpens aquae' 5.3.-udrō 6.3.-údra
2b1.-guoin,
gwaun 'uallis,
fán 'cauitās' pratum'
w∂gājai uagor, uagus
<wāgnā /-nos 2b2.-goen, goon,
'palūs'
2b3.-geun, 'palūs'
urbs (arc.
warpa dai-
w∂rbhis urps); urbem
'circumscrībō'
condere
wetti; wetten wadi;
uas (uadis, 3a2.-wedd; wadjabōkō 6.3.-uadúoti
wadhis
pl. uadium) weddian 'uxorem s 'littera 'uadem dat'
uehere' fignorālis'
watan
wadhō uādō, uadum βαω
3a2.-waden
wadhom
αγνυµι 'rumpō' 6.3.- vóžiu, vóžti
wageinā uagīna ; ιωγη 5.5.-wak- 'mordeō' 'operiō';
'parauentus' 6.4.-vāžu, vāst
vagnu- 'tonus',
ηχοσ, ηχω
wāghijō uāgiō, uāgor vagvanú 'strepitus' 6.3.-vógrauti
'strepitus'
vagvaná- 'strepens'
779
wai uae fáe 2b1.-gwae wē a2.-wā a3.-wei wai οα, βαι 5.5.-uwai- 'afflictiō' 6.3.-vaĩ
vyati/eèxtenuātu
6.3.-vójes
wīl r', abhi-vāta- àeger'
wailos gwael 'miser' 3a3.-vīl 'necess' 'damnans'
'necessitās' (vāta- `siccus'), 6.4.-vajš 'dēbilis'
vāyá-'lassus'
wailós fáel, faol 5.4.-gayl, kayl
wakkā uacca vaś, vāś itā
walkan 'pultāre'
válgati 'saltat,
walgos ualgus 3a2.-wealcan
torquētur'
'uoluō'
2b1.-gwawl
uallus, fál <*wōl-;
walnom 2b3.-goalenn
uallum felmae 'saepes'
'uirga'
6.3.-velys 'mortuī';
3a2.-wael 'in αλιβαντεσ νεκ 5.5.-LUW u(wa)lant
walóm TOK A-wäl
proeliō mortuī' ροι (Hes) 'mortuus'
'morior'
wapējō vapor vāpayati 'exhalō'
wuoffen, wüeffen wōpjan vъpiti 'uocō';
waplājō vapulō 3a2.-wēpan 'fleō' 'clamō, απυω, ηπυω 5.3.-ufyeimi 'inuocō' wablju, wabiti
3a3.-øpa uocō' 'uocō'
OGH.brana TOK. wraun'a vorna 'coruus'
warnā
'coruus' 'coruus' 6.3-varna
uārus,
uāricus,
wāros uāra,
`(prae)-
uāricō
2b2.-
vacetum,
uasetom
uastus, fās; fāsach wuosti 'desertus' 5.5.-wastai- ?
wāstos 'vitiātum',
uānus 'desertus' 3a2.-wōsti 'id' 'labēs', peccātum
uas 'vitium';
antervakaze,
anderuacose

'intermissiō'
wuot 'amentia';
wütten;
ouateis 3a2.-wōÞ 'cantus'; wōds
wātis uātes fáith
gwawd 'carmen' wēdan 'baccanāre' 'possessus'
3a3.-Oðinn; ōðr
'poësia'
uatāx,
wado`sūra,
uatius,
suffrago', Wade
watjos uārus,
3a3.-voðvi
uascus<uats
'musculatūra'
kos
-ue, ceu, neu, 5.1, 5.3.- vā 5.1.-
we nēue, seu, no 'aut' 2b3.-nou 'aut' (F)ε, Η 'an' eva 'modō', evam
siue 'ita'
ubhnti, umbháti,
weban unábdhi; ūrna-
3a2.-wefan, vābhis 'aranea'
webhō υφαινω 5.3.-ubdaēna
webbian
3a3.-vefa, vefja 'textus' 5.5.-
hūbiki 'uēlum'
5.6.-bāfad 'texit'
fedan 'iunctūra'
2b1.-gwedd wetan
wédhneum fedil 'iugum' εθµοι δεσµοι π vi-vadhá- 'clitella';
'iugum'; arwest a3.-ydd ? 'habēna' gawidan
i coibdelach λοκαµοι vadhra- 'coriī uitta'
'fidees, uitta' < *udhetā
'congenr.'
fedim (uxorem),
praet. do·coid/ váhate<vádhate
2b1.-ar-weddu, cy- widem(e), Wittum
do·dechud / εδνον 'dos'; vadhūh 'norus' 6.3.-vedú 'ux.
wedhō weddu; dy-veddio 3a2.-we(o)t(u)ma,
·tuidched <*
'nūbō' wituma 'dos' εεδνοω 'nūbō' 5.3.-vādayeiti dūcō'; veno 'dos'
to·(dē)·kom·wōd 5.5.-uwate/pehute
h-
fodb 'spolium,
εθρισ, τοµιασ, vadhá- 'letālis' TOK A wac, B
wedhṛ exuuiae'
<wodhwos κριοσ (Hesq.) 5.3.-vadar- weta 'pugna'
781
wetar, wetter
vedrъ, vedro
wedhrom 3a2.-wedar
3a3.-veđr 'bonum tempus'
εθει φθερει (He
vadhati 'contundō';
fāisc- 'premō'; s.);
vadhá- 'letālis'
fodb 'spolium, 2b1.-gwascu 'id' ωθεω 6.3.- vedegà 'ascia'
wedhskō 5.3.-vādāya-
exuuiae' 2b3.gwaska 'id' 'quatiō'; 6.4.-vedga 'ascia'
'retirō'; vada-
<wodhwos ενοσισ 'cuneus'
'tremitus'
wedmṇ
αυε 'uocāuit'; vada 'calumnia',
vádati 'loquitur'
ad·fét, in·fét, vadati
αυδη 'uox'; vandate 'laudat'
wedō 'calumniāre'
ind·fét αυδαω; α(F)ει 5.5.-watarmahh-
6.3.-vadinù,
δω 'canō' 'mandō'
vadinti 'uocō'
viú,
TOK A wkäm· (pl.
amvían(n)ud
weghjā uia weg wigs wäknant), B yakne
1b2.-vea, via
(abl.) < *w'äkne
uehō, uectus, 2b1.-gweith 'uices'
wagon 'moueō' ga-wigan váhati vezu
weghō uēlox 2b2.-gweth οχοσ 'currus'
3a2.-wagian 'id' 'cieō' 5.3.-vazaiti 6.3.-vezù
<ueghsloks 2b3.-gwez
gewihte 'pondus'
weghtis uectis 3a2.-wiht 'lanx,
pondus'
weghtlom uehiculum vahítra-
volhar <*vazdhar
weghtṓr uector
5.3.-vaxtar-
wakan
wegō uegeō vajati
'crēscō'
2b1.-gwe 'rēte'
uēlum<uegsl
wegō figim 'texō' 2b2.-guiat 'uela'
om
2b3.-guea
wīsan 'euitō';
weidhō dīuidō 1b2.-vetu weiso,Weise vidhyati
'orbus'
ειδοσ
2b1.-gwydd 'praes'
fíad 'honor', adv. 'appārentia'; vidъ 'uisiō'
weidos 2b3.-a goez vḗdas 'scientia'
'coram'
'apertē' ιδεα < *widesa 6.3.-véidas 'faciēs'
?
vьsь (i nouāta)
viś 5.3.-
weiks 6.3.-viẽšpati
vīs-
'dominus'
1b2.-eveietu
wīhi 'id'; vinákti, vivékti,
'electum' weihs
wéiktomā uictima Weihnachten vevekti 'separō'
<*ek- 'sanctus'
3a2.-wīh- 5.3.-ava-vaēk- 'id'
ueigētum?
ND.-wīm(e) ειµαδεσ ? (Ηεσ
weimṇ uīmen fiam 'catēna' vḗman-
'cintra' .)
ziweibian
'dispergō';wīb
'mulier' 6.3.-atvipti
2b1.- 3a2.-wæfan vepate 'tremit'; 'pendere
weipō gwisgi<uipskīmo? 'uestiō'; wifel, biwaibjan vipātha 'columna' (fragmenta)'
'agitātus' wifer 'columna'; 5.3.-vip- 'iaciō' 6.4.-viepe
wīf 'mulier' 'copertūra'
3a3.-vīfa 'tegō';
vīf 'mulier'
2b1.-gwyr 'tortus'
weiros fiar 'hamātus' 3a2.-wír
2b3.-gwar, goar
vayas- 'uitālitās,
ισ (pl. ινεσ
uiú?, iuuentūs' ; vḗti
<*wīsnes) 'et vojь 'milēs';
uīs, uīres; amvían(n)ud 'persequitur'
weis musculus' ιφι vojьna 'bellum';
uia? 1b2.-vea, uīdayati<sd
'uī' ; ιεµαι 'eō, vina 'culpa'
via? 'affirmat'
intendō' 5.5.-huya- 'currō'
weisnā
2b1.-gwyar weisant 'arteriae'
weisō uēna 'sanguist' 3a2.-weasanð vēṣ ati
<*ueisaro- 'conductus'
weitēks
weitis uieō, uītis féith vīda 'salix' υιην αµπελον ( vetasáh 'bambu' vetvi(je)
783
'ligāmentum, Ηεσ.) 5.3.-vaēitish 'salix' 6.3.-výtis vejù

corda' (F)ιτεα 'salix' 5.6.-bēd 'salix' 'uertor'
weitō
eihhurno, vyvirka
wéiwersā uīuerra iora rūadh ? 2b1.-gwiwer <lat. Eichhorn 5.4.-varvarah 6.3.-vaiverẽ,
3a2;-āc-weorna vovere
uōs, wir; vayám, vah
wejes / vy (ac.)
uestrum, 1b4.-uus 3a2.-we weis TOK.-wes 5.3.-vaem, vo
weje 6.9.-wans (ac.)
uōbis 3a3.-vēr 5.5.-wēs
vañcati, vivaṣṭi
εκων
wekmi 5.5.-wek; wewakk;
'uoluntārius'
uwekir 'uoluēre'
Matres váñcati; vakrá-
Vocallinehae; 3a2.-wōh 'tortus, 'convexus'; vakṣáṇā
un-wāhs
conuexus, Ούακο-μάγοι flexus'; wāh 'pantica,
<impeccābi
wekō subuexus; feccaid 'flectit' 2b1.-gwaeth 'malum' maeandrum'
lis
uacillō ? <*wǝk-to 'peius' 3a3.-vā 'angulus, 5.3.-vašta- 'flexus'
<*wonko
2b2.-gweth 'id' damnum' 5.4.-gangur 'id'
2b3.-goaz 'id' <unkuro-
weksós
2b1.-gwellaif wilwan
γελλαι τιλαι
weldō uellō 'forfices' 'capere,
(Hes.)
2b2.-gwillihim 'id' rapere'
fail, foil (falach)
welīks ελιξ
'anus'
1b2.-veltu
welmi uolō uelor 3a2.-will wiljan vṛṇāti, vrnīté
'uelle'
vlъna, volná
ALB.-valë ūrmí-
welnā uallis ? wella , welle 6.3.-vilnìs <*wḷni-
*<wḷnā 5·3.-varǝmi-
6.4.-vilna
welnos
wulþus
fíl 'est, voici' 3a2.-wlītan ; 5.4.-gel <*welno-,
uoltus, 2b1.-gweled 'gloria,
welō <uele OGH;- wlatian 'quaerō, *welso-
uultus 2b3.-guelet 'uisus' magnificen
velitas 'uisus' sāgiō' 'pulchritūdō'
tia' wlits

''forma'
wulþrs
'ualor'
uolup(e),
welpō uoluptās; ελπιζω
lepeō
VENT.-
ILLYR.-Voltius,
weltis Voltiχnos, 6.3.-viltìs 'spēs'
Voltisa
Voltiomnos,
ειλυµa
wélwṃen uolūmen 5.4.- gelumn 'torsiō'
'tegmen'
válati, valitáh
welwō uoluō fillim 3a2.-wallow walwjan ειλεω, ειλυω
5.5.-hul(a)-
wélwtrom inuolūcrum ελυτρον varútra- 'toga'
wémāmi uomō εµεω vámit
vimpi
wēmos <*wēmokwis vāma-
2b1.-gwymp
vánati, vanṓti
winnō, 'uincit, desiderat' uniti 'uelle'
winnan 'pugnō';
wḗnāmoi uēnor winna 5.3.-vanaiti 'capit' TOK A wañi, В
gewinnen 'uincō'
'passiō' 5.5.-wen(t)- wīn- 'delicia'
'futtuere'
2b1.-ymwan
'pugnō' wunta, uunde wunds
wendhō 2b3.-gwane 'uulnus' 'uulnerātus 5.4.-vandem 'deleō'
'forāre' gwa^n 3a2.-wund, wound '
'punctiō'
wenēsnom
wenjā
fine 'familia' vánati, vanṓti;
uenus, fingalach wini 'amīcus' winja vanas- 'lasciuia'
2b3.- coguenou uniti `bene', unjii,
wenō uenustus, 'parricida' 3a2.-wine 'id' 'pāstus, 5.3.-vanaiti 'uēnor'
ìndigena' uneji 'potius'
uēnor coibnius 3a3.-winr<wenis cibus' 5.5.-uen(t)-
'familiaritās' 'futtuere'
wenos Venus (fem.) Venusia fine <wenyā 3a3.-vinr 'amīcus'
785
(Apulia) 'familia';
coibnius,
coibnes
(coibnis)
'familiāritās,
affinit.'
ηνυστρον
wan(a)st, wenist vastí-;
wenseikā uē(n)sīca 'stomachus
'pantica' vaniṣṭhú- 'rectum'
ruminantis'
−εισ (νιφοεισ, -vat (vinovat
went --vān (putravān)
νιφουσ) 'culpābilis')
2b1.-gwynt vātah
fet, ac. fit wint
wentos uentus 2b2.-gwyns αεντα vānt- 'siffilātiō'
'siffilārium' 3a2.-wind
2b3.-gwent 5.5.-huwantes
ni-wiht 'nihil'
weqtis 3a2.-wikt, wight waíhts 5.5.-uttar <ukt∂r vešti
'creātūra'
2b1.-gwaethl
weqtlom foccul 'uerbum' vaktram 'ōs'
'disputātiō'
veru 'portam' vara-, vala- vora
uestibulum
1b2.- 3a1, 3a2, 3a3.-wer 'spatium, 'saepīmentum';
wēr <werstidhlo
verofeìn 'saeptum aquae' circumscriptiō' zavor 'transitus
m
portam' 5.3.-vala- 'id' clausus'
ραµνοσ <w°rb
hrimpfan, nos
'Rhamnus'; vérba
rümpfen 'uultum
uerbera, 'rāmussalicis'
1b2.gwrym contorq.'; werfen waírpan ραβδοσ 'ui 5.5.-hurpasta(n)-,
werbos uerbero, 6.3.-vir̃bas 'uirga'
'fimbria, limbus' 'iaciō' 'iaciō' rga' hurpusta- 'folium'
verbēna 6.4.-virbs
3a2.-weorpan, ρεµβω 'baculum'
warp 'distorqueō';
ροµβοσ
αειρω 'leuō'; vrndam 'multitudō' vereníca 'corda' ;
2b3.-guerin wriþus συνωρισ 3a2.-weorn, wearn веревка
wereinā foirenn 'factiō' 3a2.-wræd 'grex'
'factiōnes' 'grex' 'biga' 'id' 5.5.- 6.3.-virve 'corda';
αρταω hurai ? 'ornō' virtene 'fila'
'pendō'
birenkit, verrenkt
vṛṇákti, várjati vrigo, vrьsti 'iaciō'
'tortus'
TOK A.- 'rotat, uertit'; 6.3.-reñgtis
uergō, 2b1.-gwraint ? 3a2.-wrincle
wergō wärkänt, B.- abhi-vlag- ? 'rēti 'contorqueor'
uermina 'uermēs' 'ruga'; wrencan
yerkwanto captō' 5.5.- rangštù s
'torqueō,
hurki 'festīnātus'
manipulō'
vergo-bretus
1b1.-gwreith werc, werah ρεζω , ερδω 'fa
frawaúrhts
wergom 'factur' 3a2.-weorc, work ciō'; εργον, οργ 5.3.-v∂r∂zyeiti
'peccatum'
1b3.-guerg 3a3.-verkr ανον
èfficax'
ραινω
'spargō'; vr, vri
3a3.-vari 'fluxus;
αρυω < ∗αρ 5.3.vār-
ūrīnor, geir 'sebum' aqua', ūr 'parua ALB.-hur- TOK.-A wär, В
weri 2b1.-gwer 'sebum' υ[σ]ω ? 5.4.-gayṙ <u̯eri̯o-
ūrīnātor <gwer? pluuia'; aurr dë 'palūs' war
'hauriō'; 'palūs' 5.5.-
'aqua, madidus'
*αυρα > αναυ hurnai- 'madefaciō'
ροσ 'torrens'
2b1.-gwernen 'id'
2b2.-guern ALB.-verrë 5.4.-geran `trabs,
wernā fern 'et mālum'
'mālum' 'Pōpulus alba' tignum'
2b3.-gwern 'id'
ηρα ??
Co-vīrus 'seruitium,
wār, wahr; wāra
2b1.-gwir satisfactiō'??, ε 5.5.-warri- ?
wēros uērus fír <wērā 'pactus' vera <wērā 'fidēs'
2b2.-goyr ρι−ηρεσ εταιρ 'subsidium'
3a2.-wāer 'id'
2b3.-gwir οι (iunctūra)
???
ραπτω
repēns ? (cf.
'suō'; ραπισ, ρ vьrpu, vьrpsti
kwerpō); worf 'manubrium'
αφισ várpas- 'artificium, 'rapiō'
werpō ueprēs?, 3a2.-wrappen,
'acus'; ροπη acumen' 6.3.-verpiù, ver̃pti
uerpa? wrap 'inuoluō'
<*wrpr- 'impetus'; 'neō'
δευρο <δεωρο
787
π 'hunc'
varṣá- 'pluuia'
vṛṣán-'uirīlis'
frass, fross reineo vrṣabhá- 'taurus' 6.3.-ver̃šis
ερση 'rōs
wersis uerrēs 'pluuia' < 3a2.-wræne vršaṇ a- 'testiculus' 'uitulus'
'
wrostā 'lascīuus' 5.3.-varšna- 'uirīlis' 6.4.-versis 'id'
5.5.-wa-ar-ša-aš
'pl'?
vrьchъ. verch ''id'
2b1, 2b2, 2b3.-
uerūca, fern 'bonus' werra, Werre, ερµα 'tumulus' varṣmán 'promunt.' 6.3.-viršù s
gwell <werlo-?
wersmṇ uarus, uarix, ferr 'potius' Warze ουρανοσ várṣīyas- 'altior', 'cacum.'
'potius'
uarulus uide uperi 3a2.-wearr 'caelum' várṣiṣṭha 'summus' 6.4.-vìrsus
uide uperi
'superus'
werran,
vrešti 'tribulō';
verwirren?
5.5.-uaršīa-, uarš- vóroch 'id'
wersō uerrō 'conturbō' ερρω
'metō, tribulō' 6.4.-varsms
3a3.-vorr
'fruminis aceruus'
'remigātus'
werstidhlo
m
wertm∂n
6.3.-vertė; vèrtas
2b1.-gwerth; Wert
wertos wairþs 'pretiōsus'
gwerthe 'uendere' 3a2.-worth
6.9.-werts <3a?
2b1.-gwerthyr
wertrom vartra-
'oppidum'
3a2.-wearn
ferenn; feronn, ALB.-varr <*u̯ornā vora
wérunos 'resistentia'
ferann 'aruum' 'sepulcrum' 'saepīmentum'
3a3.-dēfensiō
wist
fess, feiss <uestā ánu vāvasē 'uorāuit'
`pulmentum'; waila wisan
'cibus' 2b1.-gwest 'festa' vástōḥ 'uoratiōne'
wastel>gâteau 'oblector'
weskai uescor fiach 'coruus' 2b3.-ban-ves 5.3.-vastra 'fauces'
3a2.-wesan frawisan
ban-[f]ess 'festa' 5.5.-ueši, uešīa
'dapem habere'; 'uorō'
'nuptiae' 'pastus'
wist 'id'

3a3.-vist 'id'
vannus; 2b1.-gwasgu
wēskō fáisc vāhatē
vatillum 2b3.-gwasgu
ort 'spīca, locus' ALB.-usht nivāsita- 6.3.-usnìs 'id'
wésnāmi fennaid 'mulcat'
3a2.-ord 'cuspis' 'arista' 'interfectus' 6.4.-ušna 'spīna'
wesnējō
vasná- 'pretium'
uēnum,
vasnayati
uendō, ωνοσ
'negotiātur'
uēneō 'pretium'
wesnom 5.4.-gin 'pretium' veno 'dōs'
<uēnum+eō; ωνη; ω
5.5.-uššaniya-
vīlis νεοµαι 'emō' 'uendō'; uašīa-
<*ues(o)-li-
'emō'
foïd 'pernoctat'
vasati 5.4.-
(cf. subsum,
wesō wisan aor. αεσα goy 'exsistit'
υπειµι) foss
5.5.-huiszi 'uīuit'
'permanentia'
wésolis
ksap- 'nox' vьčera 'here'
uesper εσπεροσ; ψεφ 5.3.-xšapar/xšapan 6.3.- vãkaras
2b1.-ucher
wespros umbra ασ; ζοφερησ 5.4.-gišer 'nox' 'uesper'; ùnkn
2b2.-gurthuher
<*unksrā 'obscūrus' <*u̯oikero- 5.5.- 'umbra'
ispant- 6.4.- vakars
2b1.-guiannuin,
vasantá-s
gwaeanhwyn
wēsṛ uēr errach 3a3.-uār εαρ 5.4.-garown
<*wesṇteino-
<*wesontó
2b2.-guaintoin
2b1.-gwawr
fáir 'aurōra ,
'aurora' 2b3.- vasar- 'mane'
wēsros oriens'
gwerelaouenn vāsarás 'matutīnus'
(cf. ausōsā)
'stella matinae'
westā
επι−εσται váste 'uestītur'
'uestītur' 5.4.-z-gest 'uestis'
westijō uestiō, uestis wasjan
(Herod.); 5.5.-wastanzi
(F)εσται 'uestiuntur'
789
γεστια ενδυσι
westis uestis wasti 5.4.-z-gest *<westu-
σ (Hes)
feis, fess 2b1.-gwest
vástōḥ 'ante
westos ban-fheiss 2b3.-ban-ves 3a3.-uist 'cibus'
uoratiōnem'
'nuptiae' 'daps'
foss 'quies' wists
MESSAP.- 3a1, 3a2.-wist αστυ 'urbs' TOK.-A waṣt, В
westus Vesta <upo-wostu; i gwesti 'domus' 'modus, vstu-
vastei (dat.) 'habitus' MYC.- wa -tu ost
foss 'domī' pactus'
fó <*wosu; fíu
iusiza ?
'dignus'; feb
Bello/Sego-uesus 'melius' ;
1b2.-Vesune <weswā εαων ? (gen veselъ 'alacer'
wēsus 2b1.-gwiw, gwych Wisu- iusila ? vásu-h 'bonus'
'Vesonae' 'excellentia' pl.) 'diuitiiae' 6.4.-vęsęls 'sānus'
2b3.-gwiou 'laetus' 'laxāmentu
febtu (febtad)
m'
'subst.'
guetid 'dīcit';
wétāmi uetō
di-wedaf 'dīcō'
Viteliu
ετελον, εταλον
'italia'; 1b2.-
wetlos uitulus 'annucula
vitluf
creātūra'
'uitulōs'
(Φ)ετοσ
uetus Viteliu vatsa(ra) 'annus';
'annus'; διετησ vetъchъ 'uetus'
<*wetwos, 'italia'; 1b2.- widar 'ariēs'; wiÞrus uatsaka 'uitulus'
wetos
ueterīnus, vitluf
feis <*wetsi 'sus' 2b2.-2b3.-guis 'id'
Widder 'uitulus' 'biennālis'; ετε 5.5.-vitt, wettant
6.3.-uẽtušas
λον, εταλον 'uetus'
uitulus, italia 'uitulōs' 'annus'
'uitulus'
2b1.-gwys 'id'
2b2.-guis 'id' ALB.-vitsh vatsá-, vatsaká- 'et
wetsós ueterīnus feis <*wetsi 'sus'
2b3.-guis, gwes 'uitulus' uitulus'
'id'
uetus vetъchъ 'uetus'
wetwos <*wetwos; 6.3.-uẽtušas
uetustus 'uetus'
uitium, vьsь 'omnis'
(Φ)ισ(F)οσ, ισ vi; víśva 'omnis'
wī uituperō, 6.3.-vìsas 'omnis'
uitilīgō οσ 'aequus' 5.3.-vī; vispa
6.3.-viss 'id'
weif 'nexus';
weipan 6.3.-vỹbur-iu, -ti
femm? 'cauda' weifen 'oscilō' ;
uibrō, vībix, 2b1.-gwynmon 'coronō', 'oscilāre'
wibrājō wimpel 'vēlum'
vipex, vimex <* ∂ngwḗn ? 2b3.-gwemon 'id.' wipja 6.4.-viebt, viebties
3a2.-wīpian
'corōna' 'reuertor'
'abterō'; wimpel
(find-)fad
wid 2b1.-gwedd vid 'scientia'
'capillum'
ro-fitir<widṛ 2b1.-gwyr vetti; véda 'nōuī'
wait/witun ειδω, οιδα, pl. vede 6.3.-
widējō uideō 1b2.-vírseto 'scit' (orig. 3ª 2b2.-gor vidúr 'nouēre'
, inf. witan ιδµεν véizdmi <*weidmi
pl.) 2b3.-goar 5.4.-gitem
2b1.-gweddw ηιθεοσ vidhávā
wídhewā uidua fedb 3a2.-widow widuwō vъdova<vьdova
2b2.-guedeu 'ephebus' 5.3.-vidava
Uiducasses
2b1.-gwydd witu, wito 'lignum'
'arbor'; syb- 3a2.-widu, wudu
fid (fedo) 'arbor'
widhus wydd 'pīnus' 3a3.- viðr (viðar)
<fiodh
2b2.-guiden; 'silua, arbor,
sibuit lignum'
2b3.-gwez
unwiti
airde <*[p]ari- (gi)wizzi; wizzī (f.) ιδεα <*widesa vidy 5.3.-
widjom 2n1.-arwydd 'id' <*-di̯o-
vidi̯om 'signum' 3a2.-(gi)witt ? viđya
'ignorantia'
3a3.-vakr wahan
wigējō uigeō
'uigilans' 'uigilō'
viti; vitь 'res torta
vyáyati in modum funis'
uieō, uitus, gwden 'vinculum, waddjus
wijējō fēith 'fibra' ιτεα 'salix' 5.3.-vaēiti 6.3.-vejù, výti ;
uitta s, uītex ligamen 'uallum'
5.5.-reh- výti, vytìs
'rāmussalicis'
feugud 'marcor'; wesel, verwest'
6.3.-výsti
wijēskō viēscō, viētus fēo `'viētus' 3a2.-wesanēn,
6.4.-vietēt, vītēt
<*ui-uo- wisnian
weichen 'uirō'; εικω, ε(F)ειξε 6.3.-vīkstu, vīkt
waihsta vci- 'dolus'
wikis uicis, uicem weigen oscilō'; 'cēdō' (cf. 'd. 'plecor'
'angulus' <*mutātiō
Geweih 'cornua' brazo a torcer') 6.8.-vẹ́gati 'oscilō'
791
wehsal 'mutātiō'
3a2.-wīcan 'uirō'
wicu 'hebdomas'
wikjō
uictima (cf. wicker 'sortilegus'
wikkā
wéiktoma) 3a2.-wicca, witch
wíklutom
vindáti
windō ro·finnadar 2b3.-gounn
5.4.-gtanem
windō peri airde 'signum' 2b1.-arwydd 'id' pari-vindáti
uindo-bona (PN)
2b1.-gwyn
windos find 'albus' ινδαλλοµαι
2b2.-guyn
2b3.-gwenn
3a2.-wine-wincla
winis 'serpens ripārius' ισ (ινοσ) 'fibra' venьcь 'corōna'
wining 'ligatūra'
1b2.-
uinciō, previślatu vi-vyákti
winkijō
uincia 'praevinculāt 'amplectitur'
ō'
weihan;
fichid <*wíkyeti 2b1.-guith wīgan wigana vekъ 'uis'
winkō uincō vincter
'pugnat' 'proelium' 3a2.-et gewegan 'pugnae' 6.3.-viẽkas 'id'
(dat.)
uīrēs (r ad
winsō vivēṣ ṭi, vḗṣati 'agō'
mōs?)
uir, virāgō , Werwolf 'id'
1b2.-u(e)iro 2b1.-gwr
uirtus, fer 3a2.-wer; vīrá-; virapśá- 6.3.-výras
wīrós 'mancipia'; 2b2.-gur/gour waír
cūria<*kom- 2a3.-2a4.-fear werewolf 5.3.-vīra- ; pasu vīra 6.4.-wi^rs
ueiro pequo 2b3.-gour, uurgost
wir- 'lycanthropos'
wīsa 'gemma 6.3.-veĩsti 'augō'
Wiese 'pratum' veislùs, vislùs
wisējō uireō, uiridis 3a2.-wīse 'uber' ; veislẽ 'pr.'
'propāgō 6.4.-vaisla `
3a3.-vīsir 'germen' 'prolēs'
wiskom uiscum wichsila ιξοσ višnja 'cerisia'

wisc, Wisch 6.3.-vizgù, vizgéti
uirga; uirgō; veṣká- 'laqueus,
wísogā 'penniculum' 'tremō' , viskiù,
uiscus, -eris nōdus currens'
3a3.-viska 'scopae' viskéti 'id'
witājō uitō vitátь 'grassor'
widar, wider vítara-, vītara-
'contra' wiþra vъtorъ àlter,
wíteros vītricus ? 5.3.-vītar∂m
3a2.-wið, with 'contra' secundus'
'cum; contra' 'perperam'
vilá <*wHi-
fíthe, fíthe
6.3.-vytẽ 'rāmus,
wītj <*witjo- (tech ιτεα (i longa) part. vītá-
gerra'
fithe) 'textus'
6.4.-vĩte
witjom
witus uitus ιτυσ (ιτυοσ)
vákti, vívakti
'loquitur', aor. 6.9.-wackītwei
giwahanen, ειπον 'dīxī'
avocat 5.4.- 'allicere';
wíweqmi vocō, -āre erwähnen 'moneō' <*e-u̯e-u̯kʷ-
gočem 'clamō' enwackēmai
<wokwnēyō om
5.5.-ḫuek-, ḫuk- 'applellāmus'
'coniūrō'
velьbądъ,
cf. ulba, 3a2.-olfend ελεφασ cf. úlba- ? 'uulua'
wḷbhontis ulbandus velibǫdъ verbljud
uulua ? 3a3.-ulfalde 'barrus' 5.5.-huwalpant-
<got.
ελδοµαι 'uolō';
Vlido-rīx ελδ 5.5.-huldalai-
wḷd fled
2b1.-gwledd ωρ 'gratiam facere'
'desiderium'
waltan, giwalt 'id'
vlado, vlasti
3a2.-geweald 'id'
wḷdhējō waldan 6.3.-veldéti
3a3.-vald
6.4.-vàldît
'potestās'
wḷeiqos
wḷeisō flesc 'uirga' wlizjan lés 'lignum, silua'
793
leskovъ 'styraceus'
fal-n-, fol-n-
'imperō' flaith Vlatos 'id'
vale 'auctoritās'; 2b1.-gwlad, 'terra'
5.5.-walliyatar
'vale(ns)' flaithem ; guletic,gwledig
ualeō, 'laus';
wḷējō ualaemom, dominus' 'id' 2b2.-
aequiualens annawali, annauli-
valaimas gulat, gulas 'id'
<*u∂latyomos; 'aequiualens'
òptimus' 2b3.-gloat, glat
Conall 'patrimonium'
<*komwal-
wḷepējō
2b1.-gweli αναλοω 'deleō'
(ver)letzen
uellō, fuil 'sanguis' <*uolīso-?) wilwan ; αλισκοµαι 5.5.-ualhmi valka 'bellum'
'uulnerō'
wḷeumi uulnus, <*woli-; fuili 'uulnus' 'capere, 'capior' 'oppugnō', hullāi-, 6.3.-vẽles
3a3.-valkyria
uolnus 'uulnera' 2b2.-goly 'id' rapere' ουλη hulliia- ? 'id' 'cadauer, spiritus'
'furia'
2b3.-golyow 'id' 'uulnus'
wlewā λε(F)ων 5.5.-(wa)-lwa-lla-
Волга
ΜΑΚ. Ολγανο 6.3.-pavalga 'salsa'
wḷghis uallis folc 'currens' Wolke 5.5.-uellu-
σ 6.4.-val^gs
'humidus'
2b1.-gulip/gwlib
6.3.-wa'lks
liqueō, 2b2.-glibor
wḷiqējō fliuch 'madidus' 'madidus' wa'lka
liquidus 'humor' 2b3.-
'palūs'
gloeb/gleb
2b1.-gwlan Wolle 3a2.- ληνοσ ūrnā vlъna
lāna, uellus,
wḷnā olann 2b2.-gluan wull(e), wool wil- wulla 4.3.− gelmn 'pannus' 6.3.-vìlnos (pl.)
uillus
2b3.-gloan mod 'colus' λανοσ 5.5.-hulana 6.4.-vilna
lōrum, ευληρα 'habēn
5.4.-lar 'corda,
wḷōrom lōrica, a', αβλϕρα monīle'
lōripēs (Hes.)
olc 'malus' (dat. wulf wulfs vṛ́ka-, fem. vṛkīḥ vlьkъ
wḷqos lupus uilc, acc. pl. 3a2.-wulf, wolf RUN.- λυκοσ 6.3.-vil̃ kas
5.3.-v∂hrka-
ulcu) 3a3.-ulfr, fem.ylgr wulafa 6.4.-vìlks
λασιοσ <∗ω7τι
ψοσ ∋χαπιλλ vāla-, vāra- 'iuba' volodь 'capillum';
Wald 'pratum';
2b1.-gwallt συσ∋; λαχνη < vlasъ, volos <*lko-
wild 3a2.- wilÞeis 5.3.-var∂sa-
wḷtis folt <*wolto- 2b2.-gols ∗ω7κ−σν ∋υε
weald 'id' 'saeuus' 6.3.-váltis
2b3.-guolt
3a3.-vollr 'id' λλυσ∋, ουλοσ <*wolko- 5.6.-
'paniculum
<∗λσο− ∋χρισπ gurs <*-ko
avenae'
υσ∋
wulÞus
'gloria,
wḷtus uultus wuldor 'gloria'
magnificen
tia'
wṇdā
winchan, winken
'oscillō' 6.3-véngiu, véngti
wṇghējō váŋgati 'claudus est'
3a2.-wincian, 'uitō'
winch 'inuoluō'
1b2.-uufetes vāghá t- 'sacerdōs'
'uōtīs'; uufru ṓhatē 'promulgat'
ευχοµαι
wochējō uoueō ùōtīvum'; 5.3.-aoxta 'dīxit'
'promulgō'
uofione 'deo 5.4.-gog, gogc̣es
uōtōrum'. 'dīc(as)'
wodā
avatá 'puteus'
unda (cf. watō dat. *aw∂ntos
APR wundan 1b2.-utur, u(i)sce wazzar pl. voda
υδωρ (υδατοσ) udán(i) l., (udnáḥ)
wodṛ n., unds abl.une <*udeskio- 3a2;-wæter watnam. samudra 'mare' 6.3.-vanduõ, -eñs
'aqua') *udni. odar 'spādix' 3a3.-vatn Wintrus ; υδοσ 6.4.-avuõts 'fons'
5.3.-aođa- 'fons'
Auentiinus ? 'hiems' 5.5.-wa-a-tar
(wātar)
wegan, wiegen 'id'
woghējō 3a2.-wegan vāháyati voziti 'portō'
'moueō'
couinnus wagan
woghnos uehō fén 'waggon'
2b1.-gwain 3a3.-uagn
woghos οχοσ 'carrus' vaha- 'dūcens' vozъ < vozú
795
5.3.-vāza- 'id et <*woghó- 'carrus'

uolans'
waganso; wecki 6.3.-vãgis
uōmis, -eris, οφνισ, υννισ α
wogsmis Wecken 'cuneus' 'cuneus, malleus'
uōmer
3a2.-wecg, wedge ροτρον (Hes.) 6.9.-wagnis 'uom.'
weiz, wizzumēs wait, vḗda vidmá vědě 6.9.-
woida uīdī rofitir 2b1.-gwyr οιδα, ιδµεν
3a2.-wāt, witon witum 5.4.-gitem waisei 'scis'
woidējō fóidid 'mittit' vedayati 'indicat'
ινοοµαι
woidlos uidulus veda 'scopae, fascis'
'uieor';
weitwōþs vidús, vidvn
woidwṓs fíadu 'testis' ειδωσ, ιδυια
'testis' 5.3.-viduš
KURD.-viz vjazú
woighos 3a2.-wice, witch
ALB.-vidh 6.3.-vinkšna
fích <*woikos věkъ 'uigor,
woikā
'īra, inimicitia' saeculum'
(F)οικοσ
woikos vīcus weihs ALB.-vise 5.6.-vith
(pl.)
weigar <-kró
2b1.-gwych 6.3.-véikus 'celer',
'superbus'
woikós 'splendens, veiklùs 'agilis',
3a3.-vígr 'capax
excellens' vikrùs 'alacer'
pugnandī'
woikslā
woinā uindex vīna 'culpa'
5.4.-gini
woinos uīnum (F)οινοσ vino
5.5.-wiyana-
viṣá- TOK.-A wäs, B
woisos vīrus fi ιοσ
5.3.-viš-, viša- was
weida, Weide
2b1.-gwit 'pastus, uenātus' vītí- 'pulmentum,
woitā
'pulmentum' 3a2.-wāð 'uenātus, delicia'
iter'
wellen, wählen voljǫ, voliti
wolējō waljan varáyati
3a3.-velja 'dēsiderō'

2b1.-gwala 'satis'
wolgos uulgus οχλοσ ? vàrgah 'turma'
2b3.-gwalch '-etās'
walm 'feruor' ολµοσ 'et ūrmí- 'unda'
félmae, felmae
wolmos 3a2.-wielm, wylm mortārium': 5.3.-arǝmiš 'unda'
'saepes'
'id' ελµισ 'uermis' 5.4.-gil <*u̯ēl-
wala
wolos vāra-, vara-
3a3.-val
2b1, 2b2, 2b3.-
(bene-, male- wela, wola, wohl waíla 'benē' vará- 'ēlector,
wolós gwell <*wel-?
) uolus 'id' 3a2.-well 'id' <*wel- ? ēlectus, bellus'
'potius'
lopāś á- 5.3.-raopis;
urupis <lupi 'canis' lisъ <*wleipso- ?
5.4.-alues (aluesu) 6.3.- lãpe <ulopē;
αλωπηξ, αλοπ
wolpis uulpēs 5.5.-ulip(pa)na vilpišỹ s'felēs fera'
οσ 'lupus' 6.4-lupsa
5.6.-rōpās; gurpak, <ulopekā?
gurba 'felēs'
2b1.-gweli
uulnus, flann 'ruber, ουλη <∗ ολνα,
wolsnos <*u̯olīso-? 5.6.-valāna, vālāna
uolnus sanguinolentus' ∗ολσα
2b2.-goly
ελεφαιροµαι 'd виля́ть 'subrēpō'
fell 'dolus' 2b1.-guall
ēlūdō'; 5.4.- gaɫt 'clam'; goɫ 6.3.-vìlti, vìlbinti
wolsom faill; fall 'defectus'
'negligentia' 2b3.-gwall 'malē' ολοφωιοσ 'f 'fur' 'fallō'
allax' 6.4.-vilt 'id'
obьlъ, о́блый;
ualua αιολοσ <*aiwe valá- 'cauerna'; valъ 'unda'
wolwós (=tortilis) 3a3.-valr si-wolos cakra-vāla- 6.3.-арvаlùs
<*u̯elu̯ā 'tremulus' 'circulus' 6.4.-apál̨š; võls
significātiō?
1b2.-pre-
uendu wintan, winden, wandjan; Ρ∆.− αθρασ vandhúra- 'sella
TOK.-A, B wänt-
wondhējō 'aduertitō', wenden, wandern inwinds 'currus'; καννα currūs'
'circumtegō'
aha-uendu 3a2.-windan 'contrārius' θρον (Ηεσ.) 5.4.-gind 'anus'
àuertitō';
wondhos find (gen pl. wintbrāwa, ιονθοσ <wiwo vosъ, osъ 'barba
797
finnnae); fés Wimper 'palpebra' ndhos; ιονθασ AP-wanso 'p.

<wendhso 'dispexus.' barba'
2b2.-
vacetum,
uasetom ευνισ (ευνιδοσ ūná- 'deficiens'
6.3.-vañs-kariai
uānus; uacō, 'vitiātum', 3a2, 3a2.-wan 'id' wans ) 5.3.-ūna 'id'
wōnós 'ouum
uocō? uas 'vitium'; 3a3.-wanr 'id' 'deficiens' 'inops'; ετοσ ? 5.4.-unain 'uacuus' incomplētum'
antervakaze, 'uānus' 5.6.-vang 'inops'
anderuacose
'intermissiō'
uxantia<up
vāpī 'aqua, lacus' osa<vosa
wopjā 'Aurel';
5.5.-uappu 'ripa' 6.3.-vapsà, vapsva
trubia<trāns-w
2b1.-gwychi,
gwchi 2b2.-guhi- wafsa 5.3.-vawžaka- vapa<wōpa 'mare'
wopsā uespa foich<lat. fūcus
en 2b3.-guohi 3a2.-waefs, waeps `skorpion' 6.3.- ùpe 'flūmen'
'fucos'
vacas, vacana-
Vepolitanos giwahanen 'ēuocō' (F)εποσ; οπα, 5.3.-vaxs;vak-,uxta
foccul 'uerbum'
'ampliruultis' 3a3.-uāttr οσσα; ενοπη 'lq' 5.4.-
woqs uox (uōcis) fúaimm<smn TOK A wak, В wek
2b1.-gwaethel 'indicium' 'uocātiō'; gocem 'uocō'
'strepitus'
gweb 'uultus' ōmun 'uox' ειπον 'dīxī' 5.6.-uek, uk
'coniurātus'
Vorgium Carhaix
2b1.-cy-warch
werih, Werg
worgjom 2b3.-
'stuppa'
coarcholion>koarc
'h
uermis
frige pl. friget; gwraint pl. 3a1, 3a2.-wurm vьrmьje 'insectus'
wormis 1a1.- waúrms ροµοσ
gorm<gmc 'uermes in pelle' 3a3.-ormr 6.3.-var̃mas 'id'
brigantes
uarius,
wornos varna
uariāre
worós
frawarten fra- vratiti sę
wortējō vartáyati 'uolūtat'
'corrumpere' wardjan 'inuoluere se'
'corrumper
e'
werian vāsáyati
wosējō 3a2.-werian 'gerō wasjan 5.5.-wassija-,
indūtui ' wessija- 'et tegō'
3a2.-wase 'textus'
usnisa
wosis 3a3.-wasask
5.5.-huesa 'fusus'
'inuoluor'
wasem 'palūs' vasā 'oleum'
1b2.- wasal 'plūia'; waso εαρον λουτηρ uṣṭra 'bōs'
wosmós vestikatu 'specus' 3a2.- α η προχων (Η 5.3.-vanhu-tāt
'libātō' wōs, ōze εσ.) 'sanguis' ; ustrō
'humiditās' 'camellus'
ραχοσ, ρηχοσ 6.3.-rãžas
wṛaghmṇ fracc 'spīna' 'spīna'; ραχισ 'extrēmum,
'spīna dorsālis' cuspis, furca'
vru, vrati 'uoueō'
βερθει φθεγγει vrata- 'sententia' rotá, рота́ 'uōtum'
αι (Hes.) 5.3.-urvāta
1b2.-uerfale ειρω <(F)εριω 'affirmātiō' vračь<workyos
wṛdhom uerbum fordat (signif.?) wort waúrd
'templum' ρητοσ, (F)ρητ 5.5.-weriya 'uocō'; 'medicus'
ωρ; ρηµα, ρη PALAIC.-wērti 6.3.-var̃das
σισ 'uocat' 'nōmen'
6.9.-wirds
rādix, rāmus ριζα (i schwa
frén <wṛdno cf. wurz , Wurzel
wṛdjā <dhm ?; 2b1.-gwraidd waúrts secundum), ρα
radamnos 3a2.-wyrt 'herba'
radius ? διξ
ach-vre 'pariēs εργω, ειργω, ερ vrajá- 'uallum'
wṛegis fraig 'mūrus'
plexa' γαθω 'inclūdō' 5.3.-var∂z- 'inclūdō'
reisan 'uertor,iter
6.3.-rišù, rìšti
f.'; Rist 'arcus ροικοσ 'tortus'
'ligō'
rīca, pedis' ρικ urvisyeiti <*vriśyati
wṛeikā rýkšte 'fascis'
rīcinium 3a2.-wry νοσ, ρισκοσ 'torquitur'
ráišas 'paralyticus'
'obliquus' wrist 'cista' 6.4.-riešu rist 'id'
'artus p., manus'
799
wrīon 'operiō'
3a3.- ræx 'nodus'
wṛéikonjo
m
ουρον; ουρεω
ALB.-shurë; shure
wṛeinā ūrīna < *u̯orseiō
'mingō'
'mingō'
ρυ(ο)µαι
warjan 'defendō';
'protegō'; vrṇṓti 'tegit, cauet'
ουροσ
we(h)ren 'caueō'; war(s) vártra- 'scūtum''
'uigil'; φρουρα
cō(a)ir 'rectus' warnen; warten 'protector' vrtra- 'oppositiō';
1b2.-cywair <προ−ορα véru, vērt
wṛējai uereor <*kom-uerios); giwar 'cautus' <worós; varūtár 'protector'
'rectus' 'uigilia'; 'obseruō'
faire? 'uigilantia' 3a2.-wær 'id' warai Váruṇa-
3a3.-varr 'id' 'cautiō'; εφοροσ, 4.8..- 5.5.-weritema
daúraward wo-wo 'metus'
s 'ianitor' 'obseruātoriu
m'
(F)αρην (αρνο
σ) uran-
ueruēx
wṛēn 4.8.- 5.3.-barra <*varnak
renō <germ.
we(r)wesijeja 5.4.-garn
'lanifica'
operiō, (za)/vьro, vreti
aperiō; 'operīre'; ot-voriti
veru 'portam'
uestibulum ερυω, ερυκω api-vrṇóti 'operit' 'aperīre'
wṛeumi 1b2.-verofe
<werstidhlo 'dēfendō' apa-vrṇoti 'aperit' 6.3.-ùžveriu, -
'in portam'
m; uruum, vérti; atvérti 'id';
uruō? var̃tai; 'porta'
wṛeumi ot-voriti 'aperīre'
aperiō apa-vrṇoti 'aperit'
apo 6.3.-atvérti
wṛgā
vragъ 'inimīcus'
rehhan 'puniō';
wrikan 6.3.-vérgas
wṛgējō urgeō Rache 'īra' vrájati? 'graditur'
'persequor' 'seruos' 6.4.-
3a2.-wrecan 'id'
vērgs 'id'
wirken waurkjan,
ρεζω , ερδω 'fa
wṛgjō 3a2.-wirkian, waúrkeiþ 5.3.-v∂r∂zyeiti
ciō'
work 'laborat'
uergo-bretus
2b1.-gwery ūrj 'magnus uigor,
wṛgos ferg/fearg 'ira' οργη 'īra'
'impiger' 2b3.- succus'
grerg 'efficax'
wṛijō
3a2.-wraestan vrīdate 'eī purōrī
wṛisdējō rideō
3a3-reista uieō' est'
αυρι−ταχεωσ
'celeriter' variti 'currō'
wṛnāmi 5.5.-hurna- 'uēnor'
αυριβατα 6.3.-varúti 'id'
σ 'pernix'
regnoti 'hiscere'
wṛṇgai ringor
rogъ 'ridiculum'
frac, frag;
branca <gall.
tuargbais A. a roka, ruká 'manus'
wṛonkā 'ungula' (fr.
fraca 'A manūs 6.3.-rankà 'id'
branche)
sustulit'
fróg 'cauit.,
cf. worgjom 3a3.-vrā 'angulus,
wṛonkis latēbra' feirc
'cannabis' cuspis'
'protuberāntia'
wṛrādīks
varṣ, varṣá- 'et vēr,
ερση, εερση, α annus'
wṛstā frass, arc. fross
ερσα 'rōs' 5.5.-wa-ar-ša-aš
'pl'?
vṛtti- 'rotātiō,
indolēs, actiō, sъvьrstь 'coaeuus,
wṛstis uersiō dispositiō, modus par' 6.8.-vr^st
conversandī', forma 'seriēs, indolēs'
rythmica'
vṛttá- 'rēs, actiō, verstá <*-ā 'seriēs,
wṛstos uersus
modus conuersandī, aetās, 1,07 km'
801
forma rythmica' 6.3.-varstas

'meātus arātrī'
1b2.-kuvetu, fri(th) 'uersus'
uertō, 2b1.-gwrth/wrth vártati(-te), vavartti vrьteti se
covertu fertas werdan, werden
uersus, 'per' gwerthyd pf. vavárta 'reuertor' 6.3.-
wṛtō 'conuertitṓ'; 'uenābulum' 'fiṓ' waírþan
uortex, 'fusus' 2b2.-orth 5.5.-hurtalliya verčiù, ver̃sti
trahvorfi adbart 3a2.-weorþan
uertex 2b3.-ouz 'mixtūra' 6.4.-veršu, verst
'transuersē' 'aduersārius'
fertae 'tumulus wurt, wort vrata, voróta 'id'
sepulcrālis' 'fundus' 3a2.- В wärto, wart(t)o 6.3.-var̃tai 'porta'
wṛtom ALB.-vathë
<*wertom weorð, worð 'hortus, silua' 6.4.-vàrti 'porta'
2a2.-fert 'id' 'claustrum' <*wortom
rocko, Roggen rъžь, rožь
wṛughis 3a2.-ryge, rye βριζα 6.3.- rugỹs
3a3.-rugr 6.4.-ruzdi
NOTE. For etymologies of common English words (of Germanic, Latin or Greek origin) see the Etymological Notes of A Grammar of Modern Indo-
European, pre-version 4, available online at <http://dnghu.org/en/Indo-European grammar/>.

III.2. INDEFINITE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS
III.2.1. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
PIE Latin Greek Sanskrit Hittite English German Gothic Gaelic Russian
(sol)woi omnes ολοι visva, sarva hūmant- all alle, jeder alls u(i)le все
qāqos quisque εκατεροσ, pratieka kuissa every one jeder ainhvarjizuh cach, cách каждый,
εκαστοσ ainhvaþaruh (gal. papon) еже--какой
'what, which
qisqis quisquis τισ kacit kuis kuis, kuis- anyone jeder duine ar bith всякий
quīlĭbĕt οστισ δη kaścana as kuis, hvazuh
quīvis οστισ δηποτε kopi hvarjizuh
quīviscumque οστισ ουν
qiskomqe, quiscumque τισ αν yah kaś cit kuis imma, whoever jeder der, wer sahvazuh cibé duine кто бы ни
qisimmoqe τισ εαν yo yah kuis imma auch immer saei
yadanga kuis, kuis-as
imma (kuis)
qéjespejoi quidam οιτινεσ katipaya some etliche несколько
qis, edqis ecquis, aliquis, anyatama kuis ki someone jemand, hvas, nech, nach, кто-нибудь,
(cf. rus. edvá) quis, quispiam, τισ irgendeiner, hvashun duine кой-что,
aliquisquam etwas eтeръ
enis quīdam (cf. ενιαυτον) ekaścana certain ein gewisser sums áirithe некоторый
somós īdem (osc. ο αυτοσ eka (aequus), eni, uni, anni, the same der selbe sama an céanna; тот же
ekkum) sama, sah eva asi самый
se epse, epe, ipse; arc. εαυτοσ atman, svayam apāsila (cf. himself selbst silba fessin, сам, о́нсий
s(w)el (e)pe sapsa, sumpse hit. kinun lat. fadessin
nunc) >féin
803
neqis nullus, nec ουδεισ na kah UL kuiski none, nobody niemand, (ni) hvashun ní aon duine никто
quisquam keiner (gal. nepon)
álteros, alter anyatara (kuis)....kuis the other one der andere an ceann eile
ónteros другой,
aljos*, onjos alius αλλοσ anya, itara, tamai- someone else anderer aljis* aile, aill, eile ино́й (инъ)
apara
*from aljos cf. lat. alibi, gr. αλλυδισ, got. aljaþ, etc
III.2.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
is, se is (anaf.) αυτοσ sah, esah apā he er, der is (h)í он

(e)ke, ghei- hic<ghe-i-ke ουτοσ ay-am, id-am, (gen. kā, eda (def) this dieser hier hi-, sa(h) sin этот,
(ke), se, ete asya -air. a + len) сей.(ant)
<* e/ei; esah (cf.
lat. equidem)
oise, iste, ene iste <is-te οιοσ <oihos enam (enclit.) ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
(tal)
el-ne ille, ollus <el- εκεινοσ a-sau, u- apā that, yonder dieser da, jains (s)ut тот
ne/ol-nos jener
III.2.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

IE TON. AT. LAT OSC-UMB PTOCEL OIr I Oir D Welsh I Welsh D CORN BRET GR ARM
me, mi, myvi,
N egṓ, egóm ego deest mé, meisse ----- ----- my, me me εγω, εγων es
mesme ? myvy, mivi
mē mi, vi, -vy, -ma, -me, -m-,
A mewom; me deest *me, *mī ----- -m- ----- εµε; µε is
(arc.mēd) vyvi, vivi -m-, f(f) ff
*mewe,
mui, mo mi, my, vy ow, ov; - εµου; µου <µ
G mene; mo, mei meī deest *mene, meu ma, va; -m im
muisse (len) (ecl.); -m m εσο
*meme
imdz
*me, *mī, mi, vi, vy, ma, - -me, -m-,
D meghei; moi mihī deest ----- -m- ----- εµοι; µοι <*imij
*moi vyvi, vivi m-, f(f) ff
<*emegh
L mei, moi mē deest ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−− is
I mojo ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−− inew
inén,
Ab. med mē mehe ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−−
indzén
N tū tū tiium, tiú *tū, tustu tú, tussu ----- ti, tydi, tidi ----- ty, te te συ du
tiu, tiom, tio, di, dy, de, -te, -ta,
A tewom; t(w)e tē *tu ----- -t- ----- -de; -z-, -t σε; σε <*twe k'ez
teio dydi, dydy th-, -s
tuvai 'tuae',
tewe; t(w)o, tui; adj. *towe < do dy (len); - the; -th, da (len), -z
G tuua, tua, touer, tái teu σου <∗tweso k'o
t(w)ei touos, tuus *tewe (len) th (len) -t, -d (len)
tuer
di, dy, de, -te, -ta, σοι; σοι <*t
D tebhei; t(w)oi tibī tfei, tíf, tefe *t(w)oi ----- -t- ----- -de; -z-, -t k'ez
dydi, dydy th-, -s woi
deest (cf. 3ª
L t(w)ei, t(w)oi tē ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−− k'ez
sueso, seso)
I t(w)ojo ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−− k'ew
k'én,
Ab. ted tē deest ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- −−−−−
k'ezén
805
GMC GOT ON OE OHG LIT PRUS SLAV SKR AV TOCH ALB HITT
*eka u:k
(cf. vén. ik ek ic ih aš as azъ ahám azə̄m näṣ, ñuk unë (arc.),
.e.go) ammuk
*mike
mec, mien ammuk;
(cf. vén. mik mik mih mane me^ mm, mā (mā) *mekwe mua, mue
mē <*men -mu
mego)
*mīnō meina mīn mīn mīn manęs mais(e) mene máma, me mana ñi <*mäñi im <I + em ammēl
mennei,
mâni(e), máhya, mabya, ammuk;
*miza mis mēr mē mir māim mi'nje'; mi
man máhyam, me mabyah (mai) -mu
<instr.
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. manyje ----- mi'nje' máyi ----- =dat.
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. manimi ----- mъnojo^ máyā deest …..
ammēda
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- ----- mát mat
z
toū, tou, tvə̄m, tūm
*þū þū þū þū dū, du tu ty tvám A tu, В t(u)we ti <*tū zik
thou, tu (tard.) (tū)
tien, tin tuk; -tta,
*þeke þuk þik þe(c) dih tave te^ tvm, tvā θąm (θvā)
<*ten -ttu
adi. y-t, ac.
*þīn þeina þīn þīn dīn tavęs twais(e) tebe táva, te tava (tai) tuēl
tën-t
tebbei, túbhya, tabya, tabyah tuk; -tta,
*þeza þus þēr þē dir tâvi(e), tau tebje'; ti
tebbe túbhyam, te (tai) -ttu
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. tavyje ----- tebje' tváyi, tvé ----- =dat.
θvā
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. tavimi ----- tobojo^ tváyā …..
(tardiiuum)
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- ----- tvát θat tuēdaz

TON. AT. LAT O-U PTOCEL OIr I Oir D Welsh I Welsh D CORN BRET GR ARM
*(s)nīs snisni, sníni, ηµεισ <nsm
mek'
N wejes, n̥smé nōs <*(s)nēs; sisni, sinni, ----- ni, nini ----- ny ni, ny e + es , eol.
<*wes
*snīsnīs sní αµµε <nsme
nōns ny, ny ny; -
-n-, -m, ni, -n-, -on-,
A <*nosms, nōs *snōs ----- -nn- ----- n-, -gan-, - ηµασ mez
n(n) -hon-;-mp
n̥smé; nos gen-
*aterom an, agan,
athar, ár einym, hon, hor,
G n̥seróm; nos nostrum, -ī desunt <*n̥serom /so
<*n̥s-rō-m
ar n- an, yn; -n agen; -n, - ηµων mer
einom hol; -n, -on
n̥sme gan, -gen
ny, ny ny, -
n̥sméi, -n-, -m, ni, -n-, -on-,
D *snōs ----- -nn- ----- n-, -gan-, - ηµιν mez
nosbhos nōbis n(n) -hon-;-mp
gen-
<*nosbhis
L n̥smí, nosi (cf. pubēs ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- mez
I nosbhis <*pusbh-) ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- mewk'
Ab n̥sméd ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ménj
juwes, *swīs <swēs; chwi, hui, huy,
N uōs sib, sissi, síi ----- ----- why, wy υµεισ duk'
jusmé FAL uēs swīswīs chwichwi c'houi
wōns PAELIG why,-s-, - -huy, -hu, -
A <*wosms, uōs N.-uus *swōs ----- -b- ----- -ch-, -ch gas-; --ges-; uy. -u; -oz-, υµασ dzez
jusmé; wos ugh -ch
sethar, far n-, as, agas, (h)oz,
wesróm; uestra einwch, awch, ych;
G uostrum, -ī *(s)wesrom sethar-si, for n-, ages; -gas, (h)ouz, ho; - ηµων dzer
wos 'uestra' einywch -ch
sar, fathar bar n- ges oz, -ouz
jusméi, why,-s-, - -huy, -hu, -
D wosbhos; *swōs ----- -b- ----- -ch-, -ch gas-; --ges-; uy. -u; -oz-, ηµιν dzez
wos ugh -ch
uōbis
L jusmí, wosi desunt ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- dzez
<*wosbhis
I wosbhis ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- dzewk'
Ab jusméd ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- dzénj
807
GMC GOT ON OE OHG LIT PRUS SLAV SKR AV TOCH ALB HITT
mes wēs (arc.);
*weys weis vēr wē wir mes <*wes my <*wes vayám vayam wes na <*nŏs
<*wes anzās
mans<*nans anzās; -
*uns uns(is) oss ūs(ic) unsih mus ny asmn, nas ahma -m, -äm ne <*nōs
<nṓns; *nō nnas
nōuson, nasъ
*unserō unsera vār ūser, ūre unsēr mūsų nōusan *- <*nōs- asmkam, nas (nah) ne <*nōs anzēl
sōn.- sōm
noūmans asmábhyam, ahmabya anzās; -
*uns uns(is) oss ūs uns mums namъ; ny ne <*nōs
*nōmṓns asmé, nas (nah) nnas
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. mumyse nasъ asmsu, asmé ----- =dat.
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. mumis nami asmbhis deest …..
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- asmát ahmat anzēdaz
*yūs jus ēr gē, gīe ir jūs ioūs <jūs vy yūyám yūžam ju < *u sumēs
wans<*vans sumās; -
*(w)izwiz izwis yðr ēow iu jus vy yuṣmn, vas (vāh) -m, -äm
<vṓns; *vō smas
ioūson, sumenzan
yuṣmkam,
*izwerō izwara yð(u)ar ēower iuwēr jūsų ioūsān <*- vasъ (vah) (arc.),
vas
sōn- sumēl
šmabhya,
ioūmans < yuṣmábhyam, sumēs; -
*(w)izwiz izwis yðr ēow(ic) iuwih jums vamъ ; ny yušmabya
*jōmṓns vas smas
(vah)
yusmsu,
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. jumyse vasъ ----- =dat.
yuṣmé
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. jumis vami yuṣmbhis šmā …..
šmat,
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- yuṣmát sumēdaz
yušmat

III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS AND SUFFIXES
PIE Latin Old Irish West Gmc. East Gmc. Greek Indian Slavic
------ uox φλεψ vāc 'uox'
rex rí πουσ rāt
lex bó 'bos' ko βουσ gáu/go
lux ονυξ ruk
grex ap 'aqua'
mūs mūs µυσ mū mysi (ac.)
pes
nux
trabs
nix
-os kamb 'pecten' snaiws 'nix' λογοσ 'uerbum' śoka 'splendor' snegъ 'nix'
γοµφοσ 'dens' jambha 'dens' zobъ 'dens'
φοροσ tokъ
στοιχοσ
τροχοσ 'cursus'
οχοσ 'currus'
-ós procus τοµοσ 'secans' vará 'sequitor'
coquus τροχοσ 'rota' śoká 'splendens'
λοιποσ 'reliquiae' ghaná 'occisor'
-us genu(īnus) gin (geno) kinnus γενυσ hanu
dens
pecus/pecu haidus ketú
faihu paśú
809
dāru
domus δοµοσ dáma domъ
-jom/jā ingenium cride 'cor' ικριον vairya 'uirilitās' stoletie 'saeculum'
officium sétig <-yā 'mulier' σοφια 'sapientia' saujanya 'probitās' dolia 'pars'
hospitium
gremium
prolubium
repudium
uaticinium
principium
dolium
feria
reliquiae
-nos/nom dōnum υπνοσ 'somnus' sthānam 'locus'
somnus χοανοσ 'olla' svapnah 'sopnus'
regnum οργανον snānam 'nātus'
'instrumentum'
λυχνοσ <ksn dānam 'dōnum'
'candēla'
varna 'color' (uarius)
arambhanam 'initium'
rodanam
śasanam
anusthānam
adhyayanam
āsānam
adhyānam
abhidhānam
indhanam
kārnam
tādanam
grathanam
patanam
ádanam
darshanam
sváadanam
-nā lūna ποινη 'pūnitiō' tsená 'pretium'
habēna ηδονη 'uoluptās' luna 'id.'
pruina
ruina
-njom somnium blíad(a)in <yā 'anūs' svápn(i)ya sunie
dominium prāvīnya žnanie 'scientia'
patrimonium kārtsnya 'totālitās' upražnenie
'exercitium'
matrimonium kārpanya 'miseria' cozarenie
triennium znamenie
'importantia'
somnium značenie
'significātiō'
scrutinium obъiavlenie
'nuntiātiō'
lenocinium prepodavanie
ricinium čtenie 'lectiō'
cobranie 'collectiō'
-tjom/tjā exercitium antastya- 'intestīna'
seruitium
811
initium
praeputium
tristitia
indutiae
-twom pañcatvam 'quique lekarstvo
elementa' 'medicāmentum'
gurutvam 'grāuitās' gosteprimstva
'hospitālitās'
stroitelstvo
'constructiō'
proizvodstvo
'productiō'
znakomstvo
'scientia'
-men
nōmen ainm ονοµα 'nōmen' nāman 'nōmen' breme 'tempus'
agmen φερµα 'onus' bhárma/bhárīman
flūmen<gsm τερµα 'terminus' preman 'affectioo' čisme (s+m
ºn)
'numerus'
flāmen<gsm α(F)ετµα 'halitus' ashman 'saxum'
στιγµα 'plāga' bharman 'onus'
τιµηµα 'honor' tarman
lūmen<ksm γραµµα, γρασµα bráhman
αγεµεν 'ferre'
-mon/mēn pulmō αυτµην (αετµα) brahmáan
πυθµην dharmáa
υµην
λιµην 'portus'

λειµων
ιδµων 'scius'
πνευµων 'pulmō'
-mºntom augmentum hliumant śrómatam 'reputātiō'
'reputātiō'
excrēmentum
-on tēmōn τεκτων 'tignārius' taksan
nefrōnēs αρσην 'mas' uksán
pecten (F)αρην 'ariēs' yúvan
gluten
-mos rēmus<tsm καλαµοσ 'calamus' kāma
fūmus ανεµοσ 'uentus' drumá
ολµοσ<λσµ dhūmá
'mortārium'
trmá
-mā flamma<gsm δρυµα
glūma αιχµη <ksm 'cuspis'
plūma
-los/lom/lā prēlum οµφαλοσ
candēla
fidēlia
-kos/kā pertica prāś nika
parca sainika
bhiksuka
balaka
karabhaka
maryaka
813
abhisoka
-ro stuprum πτερον 'āla'
ολεθροσ 'dēlētiō'
-er leuir δαηρ 'leuir'
φρεαρ 'puteus'
πι(F)αρ 'adeps'
ουθαρ 'ūter'
ηµαρ 'diēs'
αλειφαρ 'adeps'
super υπερ 'super'
-tā iuuenta ολ(F)οτησ 'totālitās' krtajnatā

βιοτη 'uīta' devatā
rjutā
gurutā
sarvatā
-tāt(i) ικανοτησ aristátāti
ισοτησ ayaksmátāti
ιδιοτησ gṛbhītátāti
µεσοτησ jyesthátāti
deitās/dīvīnit devátāti
ās
acritās vasútāti
firmitās ástatāti
commūnitās gamaindaiths dáksatāti
gemeinde gamainths śámtāti

managduthai
s
-ti mens φυσισ 'nātūra' mati
pars ζευξισ 'uinculum' krti
mors τερψισ 'oblectament bhakti
um'
ars βασισ 'grasus' bati
υστερησισ 'dilātiō' drsti
κινησισ 'mouimentu vipatti
m'
bhrti
pankti
-tu portus furt αστυ 'urbs' av. p∂r∂tu-š 'pons'
saltus gántus
-tūt iuuentūs oítiu 'iuuentūs' mikiduÞs
'magnitūdō'
senectūs sentu 'senectūs'
salūs bethu 'uita'
uirtūs oíntu 'ūnītās'
slántu 'salūs'
cáttu 'sanctitās'
nemarbtu 'immortālitās'
-to νοστοσ
φορτοσ
καµατοσ
βιοτοσ (βιοτη)
κοιτοσ
ερπετον
815
-tor/tēr genitor γενετωρ/γενετηρ janitr

πευστηρ gntr
krtr
drstr
dhaatr
raksitr
bóddha
-in bhāvin graždanin 'ciuis,
homō urbānus'
puspadhārin krestianin 'homō
rusticus'
medhavin angličanin
'anglensis'
kuśalin parižanin
'parisiensis'
ksayin
-dhrom crībrum
-trom arātrum αροτρον 'arātrum'
rostrum φερτρον 'faretra'
lūstrum λεκτρον 'lectus'
tarātrum νιπτρον 'lauabum'
σωστρον
-dhlom stābulum χυτλον 'olla'
pābulum γενετλον<θλ
-tlom poculum mántra
situlum shrotra
-os- (n) onus slíab 'mons' κλεοσ 'gloria' anas 'onus'
opus νεφοσ 'nubēs' apas 'opus'

ερεβοσ 'inferus' shravas

candramas
tejas
chandas
tapas
nabhas
payas
manas
yaśas
raksas
rajas
vaksas
vayas
vasas
vedhas
śiras
saras
-os- (m) aurōr(a) aurōr-a εωσ 'aurōra' usáa 'auroora'
calor αιδωσ 'pudicitia'
tepor
honor
-estu <ed+tu inruccus 'opulentia' cvežestь 'frescor'
/esti <ed+ti
comláinso 'plēnitūdō'
áthius 'acerbitās'
diuitius 'simplicitās'
cosmuilius 'similitūdō'
cuibdius 'harmonia'
817
erdarcus 'pulchritūdō'
faitigus 'cautiō'
inderbus 'incertitūdō'
cutrummus 'equalitās'
mórálus 'moralitas'
comarbus 'hereditās'
coibnius 'familiāritās'
astu<ad+tu flaithemnas 'dominium' thiudinassus glupostь 'stultitia'
/ 'regnum'
asti<ad+ti
airechas 'nōbilitās' gudjin-assus polnostь
'sacerdotium' 'plēnitūdō'
óclachas podrobnostь
'indicātiō'
muntaras 'familiāritās' grustь 'tristitia'
remthechtas 'antepositiō' gordostь
anamchairtes 'directiō molodostь
spirituālis' 'iuuentūs'
lánamnas 'matrimonium' starostь 'senectūs'
testas 'testimonium' iarostь
'exasperātiō'
émechas 'opportunitās'
coitchennas 'generālitās'

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
This work is mainly a compilation of scholar knowledge, the output of two centuries of
thorough research in comparative linguistics. It is highly recommended to consult other
books on IE linguistics to learn Proto-Indo-European. Google books at
<http://books.google.com/> is a great tool to read some parts of any of these works and
decide whether it is interesting to buy them or not.
For this specific book we have used (among other, less important references) the
following works:
o Adrados, Francisco R., Bernabé, Alberto, Mendoza, Julia. Manual de lingüística indoeuropea
I, Ediciones Clásicas, 1995.
II, Ediciones Clásicas, 1996.
III, Ediciones Clásicas, 1998.
o Baldi, Philips. The Foundations of Latin, Mouton de Gruyter, 2002.
o Bauer, Brigitte. Archaic Syntax in Indo-European: The Spread of Transitivity in Latin and
French, Mouton de Gruyter, 2000.
o Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the
Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press, 2007.
o Beekes, Robert S. P. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction,

Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.
o Benveniste, Émile. Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes. Paris: Les Editions de
Minuit, 1969.
o Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
o Buck, Carl Darling. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1933.
o Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press,
2007.
o Cooper, Robert L. Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1989.
o Crépin, André. Problèmes de grammaire historique. Presses Universitaires de France, 1978.
o Fortson, Benjamin W. Indo-European language and culture: an introduction. Wiley-

Blackwell, 2004.
o Ganesh Gadre, Vasant. Estructuras gramaticales de hindi y español. Madrid: CSIC, 1996.
o Güterbock, Hans G., Hoffner, Harry A. The Hittite Dictionary, fascicle 1, volume 3. Chicago:
The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1980.
o Gvozdanovic, Jadranka. Indo-European Numerals. Mouton de Gruyter, 1991.
o Kerns, J. Alexander. A sketch of the Indo-European finite verb. Brill, 1972.
o Krahe, Hans. Lingüística indoeuropea. Madrid: CSIC, 1953.

o Lazzeroni, Romano. La cultura indoeuropea. Bari: Gius, Laterza & Figli, 1998.
o Lehmann, W. P. Theoretical Bases of Indo-european Linguistics. London: Routledge.
o Lehmann, W.P. Proto-Indo-European Phonology. Austin: University of Texas Press and
Linguistic Society of America, 1952
o Lehmann, W.P. A Reader in Nineteenth-Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics.
Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1967
o Lehmann, W. P. Proto-Indo-European Syntax. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974
o Lehmann, W., Zgusta, L. Schleicher’s tale after a century. In Festschrift for Oswald
Szemerényi on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Amsterdam: B. Brogyanyi, 1979. p. 455–66
o Lindemann, F.O. Introduction to the Laryngeal Theory, Oslo: Norwegian University Press,
1987.
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-
Indo-European World. Oxford University Press, USA, 2006 (Reprinted 2007).
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Routledge, 1997.
o Martínez, Javier, de Vaan, Michiel. Introducción al avéstico. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas,

2001.
o Mayrhofer, Manfred. Indogermanische Grammatik, i/2: Lautlehre, Heidelberg: Winter,
1986.
o Masson, Emilia. Les douze dieux de l’immortalité. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1989.
o Meid, W. Archäeologie und Sprachwissenschaft. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft
der Universität.

Bibliography and Further Reading
o Meier-Brügger, Michael, Fritz, Matthias, Mayrhofer, Manfred. Indo-European Linguistics.

Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.
o Miller, Gary. Latin suffixal derivatives in English and their Indo-European ancestry. USA:
Oxford University Press, 2006.
o Monier-Williams, Sir Monier, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymologically and

Philologically arranged, Oxford University Press, 1899.
o Penney, J.H.W., Indo-European Perspectives, Studies In Honour of Anna Morpurgo Davies,
Oxford University Press, 2004.
o Ramat, Anna Giacalone, Ramat, Paolo. Le lingue indoeuropee. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1993.
o Renfrew, Colin. Archaeology and language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. London:
Jonathan Cape, 1987.
o Ringe, Donald, et al. A History of English: Volume I: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-
Germanic. USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.
o Roberts, Edward A., Pastor, Bárbara. Diccionario etimológico indoeuropeo de la lengua
española. Madrid: Alianza, 1996.
o Renfrew, Colin. Arqueología y Lenguaje: La cuestión de los orígenes indoeuropeos.
Barcelona: Crítica, 1990
o Sánchez Salor, E. Semántica y sintaxis. La oración compuesta latina. Cáceres: Universidad
de Extremadura, 1993.
o Shields, K. A history of Indo-European Verb Morphology. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992.
o Sihler, Andrew L. New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
o Szemerényi, Oswald. Einführung in die Vergleichende Sprachenwissenschaft. Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989.
o Szemerényi, Oswald. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1996.
o Tovar, Antonio. Antiguo Eslavo Eclesiástico. Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 1987.
o Tucker, T.G., Etymological Dictionary of Latin, Ares Publishers, 1976
o Villar, F. Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Madrid: Gredos, 1991.
o Watkins, Calvert, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed.,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.
o Watkins, Calvert, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2001.
o West, M.L. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press, 2009.
821
o Whitney, William Dwight. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass (reprint), 1924.
We have also used these quick sources on the Net:
o Indo-European dictionary-translator, <http://indo-european.eu/>, managed by the Indo-
European Language Association.
o Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (revised from Julius Pokorny’s Indogermanisches

etymologisches Wörterbuch, 1969), available for download at <http://dnghu.org/en/Indo-
European%20etymological%20dictionary/>.
o The Linguistics Research Center (LRC), University of Texas, at

<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/> offers online books, lessons, texts, etc. on Proto-
Indo-European and early Indo-European dialects.
o The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED) at <http://www.indo-european.nl>,

managed by the Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University,
with some etymological dictionaries of Indo-European dialects.
o The Tower of Babel project at <http://starling.rinet.ru>, a lexicon project oriented to Indo-

European, Eurasiatic, Nostratic and other language families, with free software and PDFs for
download.
o Frederik Kortlandt’s personal website offers some of his publications online at

<http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/>.
o The Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien (TITUS), at

<http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/>.
o The Digital Library Perseus Hopper at <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>.
o Wikipedia, the Free Online Encyclopaedia, and Wiktionary, are excellent sources for
common knowledge. Thanks to all contributors and to their founders.

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A GRAMMAR OF

Language and Culture

Writing System and Phonology

Texts and Dictionary

DNGHU Carlos Quiles

with Fernando López-Menchero

Copyright © 2007-2009 Asociación Cultural Dnghu.

© 2006-2009 Carlos Quiles Casas.

With contributions by Fernando López-Menchero Díez, M.Phil. in IE studies © 2007-2009.

Printed in the European Union.

Published by the Indo-European Language Association.

Edition Managed by Imcrea Diseño Editorial ® at <http://www.imcrea.com/>.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... 3

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.............................................................................................. 11

1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY .........................................................................23

2. LETTERS AND SOUNDS ................................................................................................... 109

2.1 THE ALPHABETS OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN................................................................ 109

2.6. ACCENT ...........................................................................................................................122

3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS ......................................................................................... 129

3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH .................................................................................................... 129

4. NOUNS ..................................................................................................................................... 145

4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ...................................................................................................145

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

4.5.1. Fourth Declension Paradigm ................................................................................ 159

5. ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 169

5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES ............................................................................................. 169

6. PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................................... 181

6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS .................................................................................................... 181

6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS ...................................................................................................... 191

7. VERBS ...................................................................................................................................... 193

8. PARTICLES ............................................................................................................................ 257

8.1. PARTICLES ...................................................................................................................... 257

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

9. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN SYNTAX ........................................................................... 265

9.1. THE SENTENCE ............................................................................................................... 265

APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE ....................................................................... 325

I.1. TEXTS TRANSLATED INTO MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN.......................................................325

I.1.2. Slwēje Marijā (Hail Mary) ................................................................................... 326

APPENDIX II: PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN PHONOLOGY........................................ 455

II.1. DORSALS: THE PALATOVELAR QUESTION ....................................................................... 455

APPENDIX III: ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES....................................................................... 489

III.1. PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN VOCABULARY ........................................................................ 489

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING ................................................................ 819

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

This second edition of A Grammar of Modern Indo-European is a renewed effort to

Some known philologists, university professors, experts in Classical Languages, still

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

The rapidly increasing profusion of languages in the EU is quickly becoming intolerably

Only in public numbers, the EU official translation/interpretation costs amount to

Indo-European is already the grandmother of the majority of Europeans. The first

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION

This is A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Second Edition, with Modern Indo-

“Europe’s Indo-European” version 4 continues “Modern Indo-European” version 3

1. Apart from the unified “Modern Indo-European”, based on Europe’s Indo-European

5. The historically alternating Oblique cases Dative, Locative, Instrumental and

7. The whole section on Morphosyntax is taken from Michael Meier-Brügger’s Indo-

8. Appendices I and III were written by Fernando López-Menchero and published

Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

To Fernando López-Menchero, Civil Engineer and Classic Languages’ Philologist,

CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK

1st P. singular -m -m

1st P. plural -me -me

2nd P. singular -s (active), -tHa (perfect) *-t

2nd P. plural -te -te

Relative pronoun jo- -ja (nomen agentis)

Accusative -m -m

Ablative/partitive -od -ta

Nom./Acc. plural -es (Nom. pl.), -m̥-s (Acc. pl.) *-t

Dual -H₁ -k

Stative -s- (aorist); -es-, -t (stative substantive) -ta