International Political Economy

Godfrey Anthony D. Bañares March 8, 2018

ABFS 302 Mr. Jumel G. Estrañero

Gender Matters: Philippines’ Political Economy on Gender Issues

I. Introduction

Going back to the basics of being a human, our gender and sexuality have always
been overlooked by almost everyone. This is often overlooked in a way that this topic
should not even be argued in the first place; this shouldn’t be addressed because there
are no problems in here; this shouldn’t be worried about because it doesn’t affect us.
Also, these are overlooked in a way that most of us have something more crucial and
vital things to debate about or to be discussed. However, overlooking on this “simple” or
“little” issue is why we have more issues to solve. While it may seem small, the ripple
effects of small things are extraordinary.
Most of us would think, the matter of gender is only for those overcrossing the binary
genders or simply, for non-binary genders. Most of us would think, gender issue is
equals to homosexuality or a matter for members of LGBTQIA+ community. Most of us
would think, if it’s not for LGBTQIA+ community, then women are the only ones affected
here. What’s sad is that some men only demand equality when it only suits them or it’s
convenient for them. Nonetheless, men and women and non-binaries, these are all
genders. Hence, everyone is affected and involved. Gender matters.
In the context of Philippines’ Political Economy, arguments and debates on gender
issues have been taken aback by most. Philippines is a country considered as
‘conservative’ by other countries and the country itself. Filipinos follow the track of the
traditional beliefs and principles, and of course, religious conservatism. Gender
inequality is still prevalent here in the Philippines.1 Our beloved home country has been
left out by most of our neighbouring countries from not adjusting to the evolving roles of
genders in society and what should we be more open about. The phenomenal
economic progress achieved by East Asia and Pacific nations has not removed gender
inequality and need to put in place policies that would address the issue. Yes, we are in

1
Rema, Michelle V. "World Bank: Gender Inequality still prevalent in PH." June 23, 2012.
http://business.inquirer.net/66899/world-bank-gender-inequality-still-prevalent-in-ph.
many ways advanced in gender and development. However, there are still problems
that need to be addressed such as: there is a prejudicing on sexual orientation; lack of
knowledge on gender identity; heteronormativity; homophobia; sexism; male privilege
and/or misogyny; stereotyping genders; and societal preferences on how should
genders be expressed.
With the aim of realization of how gender matters, witness how political economy
plays out in this topic. This worthwhile lengthy paper introduces and will discuss gender
and political economy, their relation, international political economy of gender, political
economy of gender in the Philippines, gender issues and matters on the context of the
latter two. This also tries to show the tense relationship of gender and political economy
to a more distinctive and gender sensitive understanding of modern politics.2 This
reading explores the multifaceted ways in which gender relations constitute and how it
is shaped and how it will shape the political economic processes. Furthermore, we will
mainly encounter topics of ‘feminism’, the genderqueer community, gender inequality,
gender divisions, and gender reform. We will see the importance of gender and how it is
embedded in all social relations. We will see the limitations of this topic as well.

II. A. Statement of the Problem

 How does gender matters in political economy of the Philippines?

What is the significance and relevance of the dimension of gender in the

political economy and in the Philippine context? How does gender directly
impacts on political economy? What are the things than we often overlook or
not given attention to that we don’t realize that they have implications on the
political economy of the Philippines? Does addressing gender really matters?
Does gender and political economy really correlate with each other? What
does Philippines has to say on these gender matters and its connection to its
political economy?

 What are the gender-related issues in the Philippines that need to be

addressed for the betterment of its political economy?

What are the most pressing gender-related issues we’re experiencing inside
the country? What is sexism? What is homophobia? What is misogyny? What
is gender inequality? Are they really vital or are we only overstressing these

2
Rai, Shirin M. "Gender and (International) Political Economy." August 2013.
http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199751457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199751457-
e-10.
 things? What are the circumstances that made these gender-related issues to
arise? Have they been already there from the start? How does gender reform
will play on this situation? In what manner these kinds of issues are
addressed? Are they imposed and advocated by support groups? What
improvements shall we create and practice in order to address this?

 How do Filipinos react and act upon the circumstances and situation of the
Philippines’ political economy on gender issues?

Do Filipinos overlook the situation? How do we feel that there are gender-
related issues? Do most of us rally up on the gender-related issues they are
facing? Do they support gender reform and other related support groups? Do
Filipinos protect every citizen involved and mostly affected by the issues and
inequalities they are facing? Do the Filipino people speak up to what they are
experiencing or they keep on silence with the fear of being neglected and
invalidated by the society? What are the solutions we are making to solve
these kinds of issues? What are the changes in the society and with our
behaviour that we are trying to make as one of the resolutions for the gender-
related issues?

B. Methodology

Through the help of the Internet, the extensive research done was made a lot
easier. The research method used in this is ‘Qualitative Research’. Through collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data by observation of what people have done and is doing.
I’ve used it to gather meanings and definitions. It is used to actually determine what
‘Political Economy of Gender’ is. The gender differences in the Filipino culture can be
seen in dating, marriage, education, workforce, and families. So before we delve further,
we also have to take a moment to examine the change in gender roles that occurred in
the Philippines.3 Defining such terminologies connecting and related to gender was vital
since most of the people are not aware and unconsciously apathetic to these terms.
Now this mainly gives out such knowledge and information for all to be guided in
addressing the gender matters. Knowing such characteristics are also important for this
research because it is essential especially it concerns genders.
I also used this method to obtain the information concerning the current status of
the phenomena of gender-related issues here in the Philippines and to describe what
they are and what exists. We’ll be able to determine how the behaviour of the people
affects on the gender matters we’re tackling. This method is mainly analytical to the
basis and context of what other related studies that has been gathered which serves as
gears working together to make the machine fully function.

3
Nodalo, Macky. " Gender Roles in the Philippines." February 27, 2015.
http://cgacadthephilippines.weebly.com/blog/gender-roles-in-the-philippines.
 These are made on purpose of letting the Filipino people be more knowledgeable
about it because their ignorance on these kinds of issues is what makes things worse.
Many of the local schools have no gender and sexuality education incorporated into
their general curriculum.4 On the top of that, if they are more aware, they can easily
address and determine how to properly approach these gender matters. With much
hope, in the near future, perhaps we won’t need to question what these gender-related
terms are all about. Perhaps, we can successfully get pass on the constant questioning
what these are and if they really exist and how it matters. With that being said, we can
go straight to what problems are we addressing and so we can solve them right away.
The data gathered and analyzed here aren’t that copious, most especially in the
local studies. That probably serves as one truth or reality here in the Philippines that we
don’t really give much of attention in the gender-related issues happening. The
Philippines has a high-rating of ninth out of 142 countries in terms of gender equality.5
Nonetheless, the gender situation in the Philippines is characterized by sharp
contradictions.6 Cries for inequality were mostly treated as futile because they are being
silenced by the community. And if they are aware, they often overlook it. Hence, that’s
the reason of lacking of studies about the Political Economy of Gender.
The nature of this research is exploratory and open ended. The approach used is
much more subjective, most specifically on the gender issues on hand. There can be
conflicting ideologies but it mainly focuses on the goal of equality or equity. The
research design of this research can somehow be determined as a ‘Grounded-Theory
Approach’ because it develops an explanation, model or theory that helps in
understanding and comprehending a phenomenon or situation of the Political Economy
of Gender in the Philippines. There are approaches and variation of methods used that
can be subjected, however, they only fall under this qualitative type of research.

III. Review of Related Literature

The researcher have collected and gathered the following information and studies
for better features and development of the paper. The following studies gathered and
analyzed were relevant, coming from both foreign and local studies. Some of it directly
answers the problems we’re addressing in the paper. This includes ideas,
generalizations or conclusions, methodologies, design features and structures, and
other information that will help familiarizing the present study. They are assembled for
better understanding and comprehension of those who will read or study this research
paper.

4
Sayson, Frances, and Mayelle Nisperos. "Gender and Sexuality 101: Learn before you discriminate." July 22, 2015.
https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/issues/gender-issues/100125-gender-sexuality-terms-education.
5
MacPhail, Fiona. "Is gender inequality really so low in the Philippines?" March 21, 2015.
http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/03/21/is-gender-inequality-really-so-low-in-the-philippines/.
6
Anonuevo, Carlos Antonio Q. "An Overview of the Gender Situation in the Philippines." September 2000.
http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50069.pdf.
  How (the Meaning of) Gender Matters in Political Economy7

Gender needs to be examined first to further understand how it is embedded in

all social relations. They have a collective fear that the new political economy will fail to
adopt a gendered analysis at its core, and will implicitly accept the androcentric bias or
patriarchal bias that has characterized the discipline to date. We have to identify ranging
positions on ‘gender and political economy’. In the last two decades, there’s only a few
number of evidence that political economy scholars assume the centrality of gender,
and that they do observe more attention to the category of ‘women’. Therefore, the
literature mainly focuses on feminism. There’s also an observation regarding the
inclusion of ‘gender-thematic’ articles in journal issues, together with the ‘gender’
chapters in edited volumes dedicated to encompassing topics such as globalization. A
great number of people fuel the resistance (mostly against feminism) presumably
because of their individual investments and ideological factors that they prioritize no
matter how significant these matter. Hence, this was difficult to document and most of
them are unresponsive to critique.
In the field of economics and political economy, feminists have given their
exposition on how men mainly dominate the practice of and knowledge production
regarding (what men give definition as) ‘economics’. As well as how particularly based
women’s domestic, reproductive and caring labour is deemed marginal to (male-
defined) production and analysis of it. Not to mention how normative or orthodox models
and methods presuppose male-dominated activities and masculinised characteristics.
As a practical consequence that follows naturally, ‘women’s work’ and feminised
qualities—in whatever sphere—are devalued. They consider those as ‘economically’
irrelevant. For most economists, social reproduction through heterosexual families and
non-conflictual intra-household dynamics are simply taken for granted.
Through mounting evidential system, they have a strategy of ‘adding women’
(and their experiences) to the equation to correct the androcentric bias to the existing
analytical frameworks. The women’s live became more visible and as well as the
interdependence of both stories are illuminated which drastically improves the
understanding of the featured story and the picture of male-only protagonists.
In an analytical perspective of understanding, gender is a governing code that
penetrates through language and of course, systematically enhances and shapes how
we think, what we presume to ‘know’, and how such knowledge claims are legitimated.
Numerous subsequent and on-going studies demonstrate that focusing on women and
gender ameliorates the analysis. They also claim how ‘women in development’ (WID)
benefited everyone in the political economy in terms of their inclusion and their
experiences and works on the field.

7
Peterson, V. Spike. "How (the Meaning of) Gender Matters in Political Economy." December 2005.
https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/92067/original/gender%2Bmatters%2Bin%2BIPE.pdf.
 On this point of view, gendering the political economy accompanies a
questioning of orthodox methods and foundational inquiries in the expense of it
generally rely on gendered assumptions and biases. Globalisation is considered as a
gendered process that has a reflection on both continuity and change. Men, most
especially on those who are economically, ethnically and racially privileged, continue to
dominate institutions of authority and power worldwide. However, globalisation is also
throwing into disorder the gendered patterns by altering conventional beliefs, roles,
livelihoods, and political practices worldwide. Generally, globalisation increases flow of
people and their interaction. Hence, different genders mean different treatments.
There’s an addressing the exploitation of all identities, labour, and livelihoods and
advancing the critical project of theorising how hierarchies of race/ethnicity, gender,
class and nation intersect.8
Gender is an essential orientation for advancing theory and practice of political
economy. There are orthodox models and norms that we used to follow and they’re
androcentric biased. There’s a tradition of masculinised works and feminised works. As
well as preferences that this works fit for this certain gender, or a must say that this will
work better if this specific gender would be employed for this. In reality, most works are
more favourable to men. This is mainly because people are used to the way of thinking
that men should be working and the women should stay at home taking care of the
household. There’s an egotistical thinking that men will refuse to what women are
‘supposed’ to do. And if the women are doing ‘manly’ work, people would think that’s
unconventional and would eventually turn to ‘why his husband or the man in their family
does not do that kind of work?’
Not only in the Philippines but worldwide, this gender issue matters. In the
international political economy, it remains until now as an issue and how privileged men
dominate the arena still. Presently, the structures of involving women in what
masculinised works and accepting men working for feminised works have innovated.
However those sound promising, we still have to work on the discrimination and
inequality people still face including the non-binary people working as well.

 Gender – the power relationship that Political Economy Analysis forgot?9

“It’s easy to forget that ‘gender’ does not mean ‘women’ but actually means
‘gender relations’, or the relations between men and women. Gender analysis examines
how power is distributed between women and men, how it operates, who can use it and
for what purposes. It’s best understood as a system which shapes everything around
us—what we think, what we know, whose knowledge is privileged, and which values are
supported. If this isn’t political, I don’t know what is.”
8
Peterson, V. Spike. "How (the Meaning of) Gender Matters in Political Economy." December 2005.
https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/92067/original/gender%2Bmatters%2Bin%2BIPE.pdf.
9
Browne, Evie. "Gender - the power relationship that Political Economy Analysis forgot?" February 13, 2014.
http://www.dlprog.org/opinions/gender-the-power-relationship-that-political-economy-analysis-forgot.php.
 As it was saying, gender is evident in the analysis of political economy. The
gender analysis is delving deeper into how political economy affects men and women
differently. It mostly looks into how the existing gender inequalities shape the society
and/or how gender dynamics block or facilitate change. The following are the three
broad themes indicated and focused in the literature:
o The role of gender in society: such as gender equality in formal and
customary law, women’s property and business ownership.
o Women in positions of power and influence: for instance, how many
women sit in parliament, how many are business or civil society leaders.
o The representation and influence of women’s groups: whether lobbying
groups exist for women’s rights, and how much success they have.
One good example stated in the literature is the political economy analysis of
Malaysia’s economic success. It was considered that it’s corroborated by the
institutionalisation of gendered and racial inequalities. The businesses on Malaysia
regularly recruit female migrants with lower social capital and higher vulnerability, and
pay them a lower wage than men.10
Some particular sectors are defined in gendered terms—‘women’s work’ or
‘men’s work’. Pragmatically, the interests of bureaucratic agencies can be gendered and
have an impact on gender equality; if a ministry of women or social affairs is in charge
of a programme, it is more likely to include gender equality goals than a ministry of
finance or rural development.11 Last but not the least, gender analysis allows the
inclusion of different and possibly competing voices.
Of course, counter-arguments will not let themselves be left out. Some argues
that why does the analysis pay more focus and attention to the women than, let’s say,
ethnic minorities or the youth? They also argue that there are a lot more pressing
matters to consider first. The political and economic tools are many, varied, and
differently applied so some do include gender when it appears relevant. But the fact is,
the political economy analysis remains very much about the power analysis. Which then
it entrusts the gender studies that it appears to be established in this body of work. It is
certain that the political economy of most countries is male-dominated, and that states
and governments tend to be patriarchal. Nevertheless, it’s peculiar to find a political
economy analyst who uses gender as part of their analysis, unless they have an
explicitly feminist perspective.12
There is a quite improvement in the roles of gender in our society. The ‘preferred’
roles of men and women are now intersecting. There are crossing of barriers that have
been made, especially here in the Philippines where there are a lot of corporate women

10
Griffin, Penny. "Taylor & Francis Online" August 13, 2007.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09692290701475437.
11
Jones, Nicola, and Rebecca Holmes. "Why is Social Protection Gender-blind? The Politics of Gender and Social
Protection." Wiley Online Library. November 7, 2011. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1759-
5436.2011.00272.x/abstract.
12
Browne, Evie. "Gender - the power relationship that Political Economy Analysis forgot?" February 13, 2014.
http://www.dlprog.org/opinions/gender-the-power-relationship-that-political-economy-analysis-forgot.php.
rising in the position. The women’s position in power and influence has also innovated.
We can proudly say that the Philippines had the first woman president in Asia. In our
history, the Philippines already had two woman presidents. The rise of women in the
political arena is empowering for all the women out there; that they can prove
themselves that they’re exceptionally good and standing out in the field of male-
dominated influence. That serves as representation and some groups and parties in the
politics have influenced to protect the women and advocate gender equality.
Furthermore, the gender of those in power creates an impact in the field of
politics. Voters who would choose between two genders must know what they
represent, which I may add, that regardless of their gender, they should pick those who
would represent them more and would do more if given the chance to be in position. It is
not the pushing or forcing to have a variation of gender in the field of politics but to voice
out and let the matters being left out become heard and given attention to.
Like the author, tackling these gender matters has reached a certain degree of
difficulty. We may think that things are being attended to but why does gender inequality
still exists? Even if gender is ought to be important, analysts still tend to overlook at it
and it would be rare if one does talk about the political economy of gender; and only a
few people would discuss about this pressing issue and if this directly affects them
individually.

 Why do we need a Gender Analysis in International Political Economy? 13

Answering that question exposes the dependence of most political and economic
systems on certain kinds of relations between women and men. It is argued that a
gender analysis is important for International Political Economy in order to challenge the
hegemony of ‘masculinist’ and ‘economistic’ methods that restrict what is ‘thinkable’ by
many IPE scholars. On the following are the discussed realities of hegemonic
masculinities in relation to global restructuring to give exposition on how a gendered IPE
analysis is essential for highlighting the masculinised nature of markets, for instance,
the finance, as well as the invisibility of social reproduction and the discipline of workers
in the ‘feminized’ labour force. In that sense, masculinity is defined as a structure of
power rather than necessarily a feature of biology.
It therefore concludes that a gender analysis is fundamentally needed to IPE
mainly because it shows the centrality of the differential valorisation of the masculine
and the feminine to the functioning of the global political economy. Thus, it creates
various opportunities for political activism and resistance. But, the expression of
‘difference’ in the study of gender still stands fraught with difficulties. An inherent tension
still exists within a gendered IPE that struggles to express difference and combat

13
Melhuish, Francesca. "Why Do We Need a Gender Analysis in International Political Economy?" E-International
Relations Students. February 23, 2016. http://www.e-ir.info/2016/02/23/why-do-we-need-a-gender-analysis-in-
international-political-economy/.
universalism while resisting essentialist biological assertions and problematic depictions
of men and certain groups of women as the ‘Other’.14
Given the importance of gender in the international political economy, the
androcentric dominance is not only on their biological attributes but also with their power
and influence in the field. Again, the work is heavily ‘masculinised’ and they make it
more favourable for men. A new form of orthodoxy must be applied because the world
is drastically changing. In the Philippine context, most of the Overseas Filipino Workers
working abroad are facing different international political economy. There’s a level of
competency where one would stand out, regardless of their gender. Thus, if some are
average in their capabilities, their gender will be subjected and would mostly treat the
women as ‘weak’. IPE scholars are really taking a hard time on making a difference in
the situation, that’s probably the reason why representation is important to make a
change in the way the political economy would alter its perspective.

 Women, Work, and Politics: The Political Economy of Gender Inequality15

It is pretty much very obvious that for over thousands of years, in most of the
world’s societies, women have had fewer life chances than men. They definitely
remained underrepresented in the ranks of the nobles. However, even in among the
laymen, women have been subordinated (and were thought to submit) to their fathers
and husbands, and often to brothers and grown sons. In the present twenty-first
century, men still dominate, although to a lesser extent. It was considered that
patriarchy is so much deeply rooted in part of our lives that for many people, it is widely
invisible.
Patriarchy—the dominance of males in social, economic, and political
organization—makes up or characterizes much of human history. The gender roles from
before was not different from what we have today. There’s still a stereotypical
heterosexual families who have fathers who rule over their wives (that does the
household activities) and children. The variance in gender norms across societies stays
as it is within recognizable parameters.
With what the orthodox and norm structure of the gender roles, the gender
division of labour exists, and still does in the present time. Most of women are expected
to remain as housewives, in which is tantamount to their less participation in labour
markets. Economists treat this explained pattern as a tradition and that is the efficient
solution. They say that people get better and better at tasks they undertake, so the
division of labour is essential. They consider the fact that the biological characteristics of

14
Melhuish, Francesca. "Why Do We Need a Gender Analysis in International Political Economy?" E-International
Relations Students. February 23, 2016. http://www.e-ir.info/2016/02/23/why-do-we-need-a-gender-analysis-in-
international-political-economy/.
15
Iversen, Torben, and Frances Rosenbluth. "Women, Work, and Politics: The Political Economy of Gender
Inequality." JSTOR. 2010. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq33z.
women specializing in the work of household are slim in a modern economy. In addition
to that, the women gravitate to the household probably because of their supposed roles
as mother or the childhood socialization.
Good thing in the modern world is that the government have innovated policies
that particularly influences the demand for female labour. It created a massive impact
on women’s lives. Given the fact that women make up half of the human race, it is way
more better to unite them with half of the human race than to divide them to the
equation.16
The patriarchy in the Philippines is also widespread and subtly ignored. Yes, we
have been living in this kind of orthodox structure and some will think it is the default,
but the world is changing. Change is a powerful thing and people are powerful beings.
We cannot continue and settle to what people are used to. The gender roles in the
society is changing and intersecting. If the patriarchy continues to set the women aside
or limit them from only doing the household works, that’s where it goes wrong big time.
They argue that women are way better in the household but have they thought that they
would be also good in handling the political economy? It’s fundamentally management
of household, so imagine what they can do in that field. The gender division, on labour
or on other fields, will not bring any good. Always remember: United we stand, Divided
we fall.

 The political economy of gender reform17

Development towards gender equality is consequential to the turns leading to a

new equilibrium. In this new arrangement, women are accessible to more endowments,
more economic opportunities, and more ways to exercise their agency. Policy design
and implemented actions must be inclined to the societal actors and the policy
environment. Through a conceptual framework, this literature describes the role of
societal actors and their interconnections.
The formidable force in promoting and advancing gender equality is the collective
action through social networks and civil society groups. Even the markets have a vital
role to play too. Firms, regardless of how big or small, have a business case for gender
equality. In the inevitably fast-changing global economy, the demand for skills has
expanded; therefore, the necessity to increase their talent pool has grown. Lastly, the
state action is at the epicentre of gender-progressive policy making and implementation.
The social contract establishes the form, timing, and legitimacy of state regulation and
intervention in markets, formal institutions, and social norms.

16
Iversen, Torben, and Frances Rosenbluth. "Women, Work, and Politics: The Political Economy of Gender
Inequality." JSTOR. 2010. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq33z.
17
Team, WDR. "The Political Economy of Gender Reform." World Development Reform. 2012. Accessed March 9,
2018. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-
1315936222006/chapter-8.pdf.
 In our home country, Philippines proudly established way back 2009 the “Magna
Carta of Women” which affirms the role of the state to “provide the necessary
mechanisms to enforce and guarantee the realization of women’s rights as well as
adopt and undertake steps to include temporary special measures which encompass a
wide variety of legislative, executive, administrative and other regulatory instruments,
policies and practices aimed at accelerating the equal participation of women in the
political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”18
In the following figure is the conceptual framework of the political economy of
gender:19

18
Philippines House of Representatives 2008
19
Team, WDR. "The Political Economy of Gender Reform." World Development Reform. 2012. Accessed March 9,
2018. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-
1315936222006/chapter-8.pdf.
 Speaking of mechanisms, there’s this called “Gender machineries” in which they
are specialized state structures to deliver on specific gender equality goals. For
instance, they can be involving institutions that checks the social conditions of men and
women, generate knowledge, provide operational support for gender reforms, or ensure
their enforcement. Social networks can engage public opinion, mobilize support, and
inspire change. Political economy structures and dynamics have the ability to create the
difference between a well-designed and sustainable intervention that mobilizes support
and a failed initiative that alienates crucial constituencies. Economic and political
economy considerations have prodded firms to promote gender equality policies. State
action is central for the design and adoption of gender-progressive policies.
“Race, religion, sexuality, ethnicity, and class identity coexist with gender (or
“intersect” with gender, where their interactions create specific effects).” It is necessary
for all genders to work together to terminate harmful gender norms. In order for us to
achieve greater gender diversity, we must practice the following: Create transparency
through gender diversity, knowledge, and performance indicators; Implement measures
to facilitate work-life balance; Adapt the human resource management process; Help
women master the dominant social codes and nurture their ambition. As measured by
various indicators, gender diversity practices have been followed as a means to achieve
greater organizational effectiveness.20
The gender reform we have achieved so far has resulted to multiple and various
positive outcomes that have given way to a more attainable gender equality. It’s good
that our very own country, Philippines, leads on creating state actions and policies to
promote the equality everybody (especially the women) deserves. In this 21st century
where communication is almost accessible to everyone, our voices and opinions have
great impact on reaching the formal and informal institutions to propose and provide
reform. The gender fluidity played a vital role on oiling the rusty mechanism and made
the gears work efficiently. Knowledge on political economy of gender is essential mainly
because it always intersects with various fields and has specific effects on them. Now
that we’ve learned its importance plus we’ve proven its relevance and evidential positive
outcomes, we must retain the support and continuously help innovating gender reforms
we have to achieve gender equality.

 The Political Economy of Gender: Women and the Sexual Division of Labour
in the Philippines21

20
Team, WDR. "The Political Economy of Gender Reform." World Development Reform. 2012. Accessed March 9,
2018. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-
1315936222006/chapter-8.pdf.
21
Eviota, Elizabeth Uy. "The political economy of gender: women and the sexual division of labour in the
Philippines." Scribd. December 10, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2018.
https://www.scribd.com/document/249754176/Eviota-1992-2-Gender-Political-Economy. Originally came from the
book: The political economy of gender: women and the sexual division of labour in the Philippines 1992 pp.220 pp.
 The allocation of tasks throughout the society on the basis of sex or the so called
“sexual division of labour” in the Philippine context is examined. In all other societies,
like the Philippines’, some works are performed by women, some by men, and some
are done by both men and women. Some tasks are reallocated between them and other
tasks are added on. Social division of labour rose when a specified stable surplus
became available inside the community. Both men and women have established
specialized skills, production increased, the economic base expanded and social
classes producers and non-producers began to emerge.
It has become a tradition to designate males as heads of family households,
certifying the private authority of men over women. As an outcome, there’s a
reallocation of work effort between men and women and among family members in
household production and reproduction. The work of women and men exerts is
reallocated from the necessity of the household to production for the market. Implicating
women are more inclined into production of certain commodities, whilst men into others.
With that being said, gender is playing a major role in the reorganization of the
production process and the division of labour.
“In summary, capitalism develops within a specific constellation of class and
gender relations at local and global levels; it absorbs and releases women’s labour
differently from men’s labour and women’s productive work increases and decreases as
it reacts to the demands made by the household.” The consequence of sexual division
labour and the separation of spheres made women be defined by their relation to their
responsibility for the home and economic dependence on a male wage. On the other
hand, men in their responsibility for the public sphere, serves their role as household
head and their primary right to work.22
Philippines, like other societies, have been following the gender roles in the
community, especially in the gender roles inside the household. Sexual division of
labour rooted in the division of roles within the sphere of household. Women are into
domestic kind of labour and men are into working outside. Men are designated as
household heads and that’s when it was incorporated in the context of political economy
where men are also the ‘heads’ and men dominated the authority in it. Hence, women
are defined by their submission to men and if for instance they’re going to the sphere of
market, they are entrapped on being subordinate or just subsidiary to men. The
allocation of tasks within the household was instituted to the allocation of tasks in the
context of political economy.
The gender hierarchy the tradition established needs to be changed. The roles
inside the household are intersecting now and shifting into a modernized way. Thus, the
sexual division of labour shall be innovated too. And if perchance removed, because the
roles are interchanging and women can do what men can do and so is the otherwise.

22
Eviota, Elizabeth Uy. "The political economy of gender: women and the sexual division of labour in the
Philippines." Scribd. December 10, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2018.
https://www.scribd.com/document/249754176/Eviota-1992-2-Gender-Political-Economy. Originally came from the
book: The political economy of gender: women and the sexual division of labour in the Philippines 1992 pp.220 pp.
Both genders have their own responsibility and roles to play but it must not be
generalized and hence, have their own discretion as individuals.

 The Political Economy of Violence Against Women23

In the purview of achieving a more developed gender equality—women are

finally getting the equal rights they deserve—violence against women appears to be
becoming more common and more egregious. Violence against women is a major
problem, not just in the Philippines, but worldwide. And the poor women are more
vulnerable to violence. This kind of gender-based violence has far-reached
consequences to our societies. Because of the prevalence of this, it has surfaced many
political challenges globally. The poverty that heightens the women’s vulnerability is one
of the effects of economic inequalities.
Violence against women is gender-based. Therefore, gender inequalities are also
a form of violence that constitutes to the insecurity of all individuals. It debates that
these gendered inequalities are rooted in the structures and processes of political
economy that increases globally. The equal rights women are getting are not shared
equally in the world. The contemporary global political economy often neglects and
overlooks the analysis of gender issues and inequalities. Thus, the achievement of
gender equality is vital to amending socioeconomic inequality.
The concept of “gender-based violence” is not only exclusive to violence against
women because men are also victims of violence due to gender stereotyping and not
living up to the dominant forms of masculinity. Consequently, many governments
adopted the “gender neutral” language to examine and discuss the gender-based
violence. Proliferation of knowledge and awareness on gender-based violence directs
us to understand the phenomenon better and to establish policy change. Approaching
the overview or looking at the “big picture” of the situation creates and addresses a
better utilization of political economy.24
This literature that focused on the platform of tackling and resolving the issue of
violence against women has also introduced us to what is gender-based violence and
how it impacts the political economy. The contemporary global political economy
concentrates on a lot of issues emerging. The severity of violence, regardless of their
gender, must be taken seriously and even if we’re experiencing gender equality, the

23
& 24 True, Jacqui. "The Political Economy of Violence against Women." Google Books. 2012. Accessed March 11,
2018. https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=sSb-AgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=political economy
gender philippines&ots=K8_UCZl-
me&sig=sbrWWphJdPcS5jexIpO81RVzQh8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=political%20economy%20gender%20philip
pines&f=false.
prevalence of the gender inequality must continuously meliorated by everyone. The
implications of socioeconomic inequality also affect the gender inequalities in the same
way. Hence, the significance of both must be expounded for political economy analysts
to be knowledgeable and astute on how to resolve these pressing matters.

 Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines25

“Gender equality refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of

women and men and girls and boys.” It is a basic human right and also a necessity to
combating poverty and achieving national social and economic development. Since
gender equality is a basic human right, its principality calls for equal civil, political,
economic, social and cultural rights for all individuals. In the Philippines, and worldwide,
there’s an increasing acknowledgement that development and poverty reduction cannot
be attained without equal access provided for and by all groups to decision-making,
planning, political participation, education, and productive resources.
However easy it may sound, gender equality is difficult to attain. But, there has
been much of a progress. Filipinas and women elsewhere still chase men in their
political representation, economic opportunities, health and well-being and other
outcomes. Philippines adopted the international mandates (Women’s Bill of Rights,
Declaration of Elimination of Violence Against Women, The International Labour
Conventions concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of
Equal Value, et al.) promoting gender equality. The Philippines has taken positive steps
to achieve gender equality by constituting laws and policies that promotes gender
equality and recognizes women and men’s roles in nation-building and their equity in
law.
UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan stated that: “Gender equality is critical to the
development and peace of every nation [...] every society that wishes to overcome
poverty, hunger, armed conflict and disease must draw fully on the talents and
contribution of all of its members.” Knowing its importance and UN holding gender
equality as one of its core commitments for achieving human development, its agencies
have undertaken various programs and initiatives to assist the Philippine government,
civil society, trade unions, the private sector and other institutions in taking action
against barriers to equality.
Full and effective implementation of these laws is a tough challenge. Cooperation
and coordination of participating governments is a necessity in order to accomplish the

25
“Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines." Ombudsman Government Philippines. 2014. Accessed March
11, 2018. http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/UN-Gender-Equity-Manual.pdf.
Edited by the Gender Mainstreaming Committee, United Nations Country Team - The Philippines Lay out: Med
Ramos. Published January 2006
common international agenda of gender equality. Efforts from private sectors and of
course, from Filipino women and men must be exerted in building a more stable
platform of attaining the gender equality every individual deserves. It is everyone’s
responsibility and everybody’s commitment.26

IV. Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of the Data (PAID)

The following figures are the interpreted data conveyed through extensive research
made by different global rankings ranging from different years:

Figure 127

26
“Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines." Ombudsman Government Philippines. 2014. Accessed March 11,
2018. http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/UN-Gender-Equity-Manual.pdf. Edited
by the Gender Mainstreaming Committee, United Nations Country Team - The Philippines Lay out: Med Ramos.
Published January 2006
27
Bekhouche, Yasmina. "Top 10 most gender equal countries in Asia and the Pacific." World Economic Forum.
October 28, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2018. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/10/top-10-gender-equal-
countries-asia-pacific/.
Figure 228

Figure 329

28
"Global Gender Gap Index 2016." World Economic Forum. 2016. Accessed March 11, 2018.
http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/rankings/.
29
Haines, Gavin. "Mapped: The best (and worst) countries for gender equality." The Telegraph. November 4, 2017.
Accessed March 11, 2018. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/maps-and-graphics/mapped-the-best-and-worst-
countries-for-gender-equality/.
 Based on the figures and their rankings, the Philippines is the only country in the
Asian region that is always on the global top 10. With that satisfactory rating, we rank
strongly for economic participation and wage equality. Philippines reigns as the second-
best country (next to Norway) on the ability of women to rise to positions of leadership in
enterprise. In addition to that, our country has the highest percentage of firms with
female participation in ownership.30
So if we have high ratings on gender equality and such, what is the problem?
Again, overlooking at these matters is the problem. We are so complacent with our rate
in gender equality. That’s probably the reason why the latter three in the related
literature are the only local studies that are the most relevant concerning the gender-
related issues.
Let’s start with the first one to be undermined in gender-related issues, the
women. Sexists and misogynists would say that women are the ‘weaker’ gender. We
are blinded by the idea that women are only subordinates to the dominant gender, men.
Women are stereotyped of only doing the domestic work and submissively serve as
wives and mothers to children. Because of those stereotyping and traditional beliefs that
make the women vulnerable to gender-based violence, discrimination, exploitation, and
underestimation. But, let’s remember and instil in our minds that there’s no weaker
gender. Women can do what men can do.
We already had two female presidents, (and the first one was also the first
woman president in Asia) and had great female politicians that empowered Filipina
women; which just shows how political representation is important to achieving gender
equality in political economy. Filipina women are helping our political economy
immensely. They make up the 73% of Overseas Filipino Workers, and many of them
work as domestic workers.31 However, we should not look at it in a way that they work
as domestic workers because they are women. The women work as it is because they
are mostly good at it and some men are entrapped with the idea that only women can
do it. Most people entrap women as just for the management of household but that
undermining drove Filipina women to be involved in the political economy. These strong
and independent women have proven us that the entailed idea of them can be turned as
an edge in dealing with political economy.
Now, most of the studies are about women and rarely talks about men. The
reason is because men dominated in every aspect. They also have the advantage to

30
Bekhouche, Yasmina. "Top 10 most gender equal countries in Asia and the Pacific." World Economic Forum.
October 28, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2018. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/10/top-10-gender-equal-
countries-asia-pacific/.
31
“Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines." Ombudsman Government Philippines. 2014. Accessed March
11, 2018. http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/UN-Gender-Equity-Manual.pdf.
Edited by the Gender Mainstreaming Committee, United Nations Country Team - The Philippines Lay out: Med
Ramos. Published January 2006
always (sometimes only) take part in the political. However, we must not demonise the
men. They are also victims of gender-related issues because of the stereotyping that
they should always be strong and they are taught to be filled with ego and pride. Men
are also humans and also vulnerable. It doesn’t mean that because of the patriarchy
that undermines women, it will be a passport or clearance for the women to abuse and
attack men. Let us not generalize. Men can also (and should) be supporting women.
Men can be feminists. And feminism is not all about glorifying women but supporting the
gender equality. Like for women, men should not also be entrapped by their masculinity.
In gender equality, we are aiming the equity and fairness on treatment to all genders.
Gender matters do not only cover the issues related to men and women. The
genderqueer community is also included in the equation. In a modern world where we’re
getting more and more accepting, we should also not forget that they are part of the
society and they bring good cause to it. They also deserve the gender equality we’re
pursuing. It’s not even surprising that there were no literature that discusses the political
economy of gender that also covers the genderqueer community. They are overlooked.
This is a big gender issue and problem inside the Philippines. Albeit the high
ranking of Philippines in terms of gender equality, when it comes to gender equality for
genderqueer community, it’s problematic. On the facade, Philippines appears to be one
of the more “liberal” ASEAN countries when it comes to LGBT community. However, our
country also has one of worst records (second highest in Asia) of violence against Trans
community. The genderqueer community is also victims of stereotyping like
heterosexual men and women.
In terms of political economy, the stereotyping of jobs befalls on the genderqueer
community as well. Most of gays and transwomen are stereotyped and entrapped on
being “parloristas”.32 They are victims of discrimination and most of them are not
accepted in particular jobs (e.g. becoming teachers) for their sexual orientation and
gender identity. They are pushed to be conforming to the norms and gender-based jobs.
Their voices aren’t heard and their problems aren’t ameliorated mainly because the
government aren’t that accepting and mostly influenced by the religion to treat them
unequal because they are “immoral”. That was proven when COMELEC refused (for the
second time) the petition of Ladlad (Filipino LGBT political party) to contest on the
elections on the grounds of “immorality”.33 Gender equality remains absent for them.
There are works that would help the political economy are denied for them to acquire
because of the gender inequality and homophobia here in the Philippines. That limits
the opportunities for better employment and better education.
In my own analytical perspective, regardless of the high rating of gender equality
here in the Philippines, it’s only a facade. The gender inequality here in the Philippines
is still prevalent. You can also see the inconsistency of our ranking in the years that
went by. I have this certain belief that some Filipinos are not ‘conservatives’ but

32
"LGBT culture in the Philippines." Wikipedia. Accessed March 12, 2018.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_culture_in_the_Philippines.
33
"LGBT rights in the Philippines." Wikipedia. Accessed March 12, 2018.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Philippines.
‘hypocrites’. Sexism (that often leads to misogyny) and heteronormativity (that often
leads to homophobia) prevails in our country. There is high tolerance here rather than
real acceptance. They say that they’re accepting but their actions are contradicting; and
mostly, the society has subtle discrimination and exploitation perchance. Some are just
apathetic in the situation. Some remain in silence for the fear of their own status, and
because of that, it also silences those who are treated unequally.
If there’s bad, there’s also good. The good ones remain driven on supporting the
gender equality everybody deserves. Because of them, we continue to experience this
high level of gender equality compared to other countries. Support groups like Gabriela
and Equality Philippines give platform for Filipinos to step up and overcome the gender
inequality. Political representations also played a crucial role, which is successfully
proven by our former female presidents and known female politicians and of course, the
first transgender person to be elected to the Philippines congress, Geraldine Roman.34
She notably urged the congress to pass the anti-discrimination bill.35 That campaign
then paved way to the House of Representatives to pass “House Bill Number 4982 or
Prohibiting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity or
Expression and Providing Penalties” simply known as, SOGIE Equality bill which
protects people from discriminatory acts.36 With them representing all genders, they can
facilitate the political economy of gender in the Philippines better and establish gender
reforms to promote gender equality. It’s good that there are growing numbers of
Filipinos that are “woke” to the old system that implores for change.
Gender division of labour, discrimination, violence, abuse, exploitation, gender
bias, and other issues that diminishes gender equality exacerbates the betterment of
Philippines’ political economy. How Filipinos react and act on this is significant and must
be conforming to the promotion of gender equality. Promotion of gender equality leads
to better economic opportunities for everyone and easeful community for all that can
make them freely move as productive individuals.

V. Summary, Conclusion & Recommendation

Overlooking at the gender issues causes more issues in the political economy. We
all have genders, thus everyone is involved. Gender matters. The Philippines has
religious conservatism that somehow has implications on the gender inequality
prevalence in the country. Gender has multifaceted relations to the political economy of

34
Chen, Heather. "Geraldine Roman: First transgender politician elected in the Philippines." BBC News. May 10,
2016. Accessed March 12, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36253666.
35
Cepeda, Mara. "Emotional Roman urges Congress to pass anti-discrimination bill." Rappler. September 19, 2016.
Accessed March 13, 2018. https://www.rappler.com/nation/146686-emotional-roman-urges-congress-pass-anti-
discrimination-bill.
36
Cupin, Bea. "House passes SOGIE equality bill on final reading." Rappler. September 20, 2017. Accessed March
13, 2018. https://www.rappler.com/nation/182796-sogie-equality-bill-passes-house.
a country (e.g. gender division, gender reform, et al.). Lack of studies on gender related
issues is a proof of neglect on the gender matters.
Gender is an essential orientation for advancing theory and practice of political
economy. Some of works are being gender based and that’s how it crosses hairs with
the gender equality. The gender roles are changing and intersecting so stereotyping
and preferring genders complicates things. Political participation and representation
from all genders played a crucial role as well.
Most of those who studied the gender studies in relation to political economy, like I
do, find it difficult because it is overlooked and often neglected. Political economy
scholars really took a hard time on making a difference in the situation. However, we
hope to use our literatures to raise awareness.
The subtlety of conforming to the traditional norms and orthodox structure (which is
heteronormative and sexist) limits the political and economic opportunities for any
individual. Gender hierarchy was also present. Allocation of tasks and management of
household was deeply incorporated to a gender biased system. Gender reforms are the
‘oil’ that is needed to make rusty mechanisms to work better.
Gender-based violence and abuse have taken a toll on the political economy which
strengthened the heavy implications of gender to the political economy. In addition to
that, socioeconomic inequality and gender inequality both have interconnection on their
occurrence. And to reiterate what the UN Secretary General stated: “Gender equality is
critical to the development and peace of every nation [...] every society that wishes to
overcome poverty, hunger, armed conflict and disease must draw fully on the talents
and contribution of all of its members.”37 Full and effective implementation of the gender
reforms and promotion of gender equality remain difficult to maintain but baby steps is
still a way to move forward.
The Philippines has proven to have high gender equality rate worldwide, ranking
highest in Asia and always on top 10 worldwide; second-best country on the ability of
women to rise into power; highest percentage of firms with female participation. Gender
equality is actually good here in the country and so we must to continue ameliorating
the prevalence of gender inequality, discrimination, and abuse happening here. It may
seem only a mask or a facade but with the gender reforms passed here, it makes us
hopeful to the truthfulness of the gender equality here in the country.
We’re not overstressing this issue but only addressing the often overlooked and
neglected pressing matters that actually impact the political economy. Continuous
support to gender reforms and promotion of gender equality is important as well as the
political representations that empower everyone regardless of their gender. Stop
discriminating and downing individuals because of their gender and hence, we must
support and fully accept each other as a human being. Treating everyone like humans

37
“Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines." Ombudsman Government Philippines. 2014. Accessed March 11,
2018. http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/UN-Gender-Equity-Manual.pdf. Edited
by the Gender Mainstreaming Committee, United Nations Country Team - The Philippines Lay out: Med Ramos.
Published January 2006
just like you is the key to gender equality. Anyone can feel and do what everyone else
does. We must be united in this and not divided, because it will be our downfall. We’re
all the same because we’re all human beings. The only time we’ll going to be
generalized and stereotyped is when we say that we’re all humans. Gender equality is
not only for a specific gender but it IS a human issue. We have roles to play in the
society not because of our gender but because of our individuality. Gender matters
prove that gender matters.

VI. References

R, M. V. (2012, June 23). World Bank: Gender Inequality still prevalent in PH.
Retrieved from . http://business.inquirer.net/66899/world-bank-gender-inequality-still-
prevalent-in-ph.
2R, S. M. (2013, August). Gender and (International) Political Economy. Retrieved from
http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199751457.001.0001/oxf
ordhb-9780199751457-e-10.
3Nodalo, M. (2, February 27). Gender Roles in the Philippines. Retrieved from
http://cgacadthephilippines.weebly.com/blog/gender-roles-in-the-philippines.
4 Sayson, F., & Nisperos, M. (2015, July 22). Gender and Sexuality 101: Learn before
you discriminate. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/issues/gender-
issues/100125-gender-sexuality-terms-education.
5 MacPhail, F. (2015, March 21). Is gender inequality really so low in the Philippines?
Retrieved from http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/03/21/is-gender-inequality-really-so-
low-in-the-philippines/.
6Anonuevo, C. Q. (2000, September). An Overview of the Gender Situation in the
Philippines. Retrieved from http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50069.pdf.
7Peterson, V. (2005, December). How (the Meaning of) Gender Matters in Political
Economy. Retrieved from https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/92067/original/gender
matters in IPE.pdf.
8Browne, E. (2014, February 13). Gender - the power relationship that Political
Economy Analysis forgot? Retrieved from http://www.dlprog.org/opinions/gender-the-
power-relationship-that-political-economy-analysis-forgot.php.
9Griffin, P. (2007, August 13). Taylor & Francis Online. Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09692290701475437.
10 Holmes, R., & Jones, N. (2011, November 7). Why is Social Protection Gender-blind?
The Politics of Gender and Social Protection. Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2011.00272.x/abstract.
11 Melhuish, F. (2016, February 23). Why Do We Need a Gender Analysis in
International Political Economy? Retrieved from http://www.e-ir.info/2016/02/23/why-do-
we-need-a-gender-analysis-in-international-political-economy/.
12Iversen, T., & Rosenbluth, F. (2010). Women, Work, and Politics: The Political
Economy of Gender Inequality. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq33z.
13Team, W. (2012). The Political Economy of Gender Reform. Retrieved March 9,
2018, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-
1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/chapter-8.pdf.
14Philippines House of Representatives 2008
15 Eviota, E. (2014, December 10). The political economy of gender: Women and the
sexual division of labour in the Philippines. Retrieved March 11, 2018, from
https://www.scribd.com/document/249754176/Eviota-1992-2-Gender-Political-Economy.
Originally came from the book: The political economy of gender: women and the sexual
division of labour in the Philippines 1992 pp.220 pp.
16True, J. (2012). The Political Economy of Violence against Women. Retrieved March
11, 2018, from https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=sSb-
AgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=political economy gender philippines&ots=K8_UCZl-
me&sig=sbrWWphJdPcS5jexIpO81RVzQh8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=political
economy gender philippines&f=false.
17 Promoting Gender Equality in the Philippines. (2014). Retrieved March 11, 2, from
http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/UN-Gender-
Equity-Manual.pdf. Edited by the Gender Mainstreaming Committee, United Nations
Country Team - The Philippines Lay out: Med Ramos. Published January 2006
18 Bekhouche, Y. (2014, October 28). Top 10 most gender equal countries in Asia and
the Pacific. Retrieved March 11, 2018, from
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/10/top-10-gender-equal-countries-asia-pacific/.
19 Global Gender Gap Index 2016. (2016). Retrieved March 11, 20, from
http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/rankings/.
20Haines, G. (2017, November 4). Mapped: The best (and worst) countries for gender
equality. Retrieved March 11, 2018, from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/maps-and-
graphics/mapped-the-best-and-worst-countries-for-gender-equality/.
21 LGBT culture in the Philippines. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_culture_in_the_Philippines.
22 LGBT rights in the Philippines. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2018, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Philippines.
23 Chen, H. (2016, May 10). Geraldine Roman: First transgender politician elected in the
Philippines. Retrieved March 12, 2018, from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-
36253666.
24 Cepeda, M. (2016, September 19). Emotional Roman urges Congress to pass anti-

discrimination bill. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from

https://www.rappler.com/nation/146686-emotional-roman-urges-congress-pass-anti-
discrimination-bill.
25 Cupin, B. (2017, September 20). House passes SOGIE equality bill on final reading.
Retrieved March 13, 2018, from https://www.rappler.com/nation/182796-sogie-equality-
bill-passes-house.