Building Maintenance & Repairs PDF

Building Maintenance & Repairs
Study Material
on the subject
PRACTISING VALUERS ASSOCIATION INDIA
www.pvai.org
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CONTENTS
1. Specification
2. Notes on Bricks, sands etc.
3. Cracks
4. Lift
5. Air Conditioner
6. Termite Treatment
7. Civil Maintenance
8. Dilapidation
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Building Maintenance
SPECIFICATION:
A specification is a specific description of a particular subject. An engineering specification

contains detailed description of all workmanship and materials which are required to
complete an engineering project in accordance with its drawing and details. The technical
drawing will show proportions and relative positions of the various components of structure.
Many a time it is not possible to furnish information on the drawings, regarding the quality
of materials to be used and the quality of workmanship to be achieved during construction.
This data regarding material and workmanship is conveyed in a separate contract document
which is known as ―Specificationsǁ for the work.
Thus the drawing along with specification will completely define the structure.
Necessity of Specification.
i) The cost of an unit quantity work is governed by specification.

ii) To describe the quality of materials required for a construction work and also the
various
proportions of materials required for a particular item of work.
iii) This also specify the workmanship and the method of doing the work. Thus
specification of a work serves as a guide to the supervising staff of the contractor
as well as to the owner to execute the work to their satisfaction.
iv) A work is carried out according to its specification and the contractor is paid for
the same. Any change in the specification changes the tendered rate.
v) Specification is an essential contract document and is required for Arbitration or
Court
Case.
How to write specification:

a) Description of materials: The quality and the size of materials. The proportion
of mixing
or treatment of materials if required.
b) Workmanship: The complete description of workmanship, the method of mixing to
the
the proportion, the method of laying, preparation of base or surface, compaction
finishing curing etc.
c) Tools & plants – The types of tools to be used.
d) Protection of new work – How to protect new work from damage.
e) Clear expression – Regarding the language, no ambiguity should be there in the
tender specifications.
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NOTES ON BRICKS
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning these blocks: As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly
arranged and fixed, and as they are light in weight no lifting appliances is required for
them. Composition of Good Brick Earth:
1. Alumina: About 20%--30% =>gives plasticity so that the brick can be moulded
properly.
Excess of Alumina=>shrink and wrap during drying and burning.
2. Silica: 50% to 60% =>It exists in chemical composition with alumina or as free sand. It
prevents cracking and shrinking and wrapping => durability depends on proper
proportioning of silica. Excess silica destroys cohesion between particles and bricks
become brittle.
3. Lime: Small quantity: prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. Sand alone is infusible but it
slightly fuses in presence of lime and such fused sand used as a cementing material for
brick particles.Excess: causes bricks to melt and shape is lost, and lump forming lime
after burning absorbs moisture, and expands and bricks split.
4. Oxide of Iron:5%--6%=>helps lime to fuse sand and also imparts red colour to bricks.
Excess =>make brick dark blue or blackish and less oxide makes
yellowish.
Harmful ingredients:
1. lime
2. Iron pyrites (if present) => bricks are crystalised disintegrate during burning
3. Alkalies: absorb moisture , they cause bricks to fuse, twist and wrap
4. Pebbles: bricks containing pebbles will not break regularly as desired
5. Organic matters: presence make bricks porous
6. Magnesium sulphate causes surface scum efflorescence
Manufacturing of Bricks:
1. Preparation of clay: sun soiling, digging, cleaning weathering, blending, tempering

2. Moulding: i) Hand moulding =>a)Ground moulding –wooden mould b) Table moulding
—steel mould
ii) Machine moulding iii) Extruded and wire cut
3. Drying: 3 to 10 days period is given for drying of the moulded brick and
thereafter burning.
4. Burning: this is the most important operation in brick manufacturing. If the bricks
are over
burnt they become brittle. If under burnt they become soft and can not sustain load.
Burning temperature=>750º C--1000º C (approx.) ---depending on earth composition.
Qualities of good bricks:
1). Brick should be uniform in shape and of standard size .

2). Should be well burnt, copper coloured free from cracks with sharp
edges. 3). Bricks should give ringing sound when struck with each other.
4). Bricks when broken should be of homogeneous and compact texture.
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st nd
5). Should not absorbed water more than 20% by weight for 1 class and 22% for 2
class bricks when soaked for a period of 24 hrs.
6).Bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface when it
is scratched with finger nails.
7). Bricks should not break dropped flat on hard ground from a height of one meter.
8). The bricks should have low thermal conductivity.
Size: (without mortar)

The old Indian Bricks: 30X15X6 cm. ( not in use )
― ― Bengal ― :25X12.5X7.5 cm.
The moduler size :19X9X9 cm.
Density:
Specific gravity - 2.00 to
1.80gm./cc
Strength:
IS 1077-1957 stipulates the compressive strength of bricks is 35kg/sqr.cm.
Bricks with compressive strength above 140 kg/sq cm are graded ‗AA.‘
Between (70-140) kg/sq cm=>‘A‘
Bricks in cement mortar (1:3) safe pressure is 100 ton/sq. m.
Presence of soluble salts:

Soluble salt if present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks. For
finding out the presence of soluble salts in a brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is
then taken out and allowed to dry in shade. Absence of grey or white patched indicates
absence of soluble salt. Up to 10% white patches of the total surface area are considered all
right. When it is 50% then it is required to be treated seriously.
Class of Bricks:
First class Bricks: The surface & edges are sharp. They comply with all the good qualities
of bricks.
Second class Bricks: surfaces of edges slightly inferior, some what rough, out of shape
and is slightly irregular.
Third class Bricks: when the bricks are not hard, have rough surface , irregular shape and
distorted edges and also poorly burnt
Fourth class Bricks: Over burnt with irregular shape, jhama and dark colour.
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NOTES ON SANDS:
Sand is a granular form of silica (SiO2). The grains vary in size and shape and these may be
rounded and angular. Good sand is that whose mineralogical composition approaches to pure
quartz. Natural sands are the weathered particles of rocks/stones.
Natural sources of sands: i)Pit sand ii).River sand iii).Sea sand.
Pit sand: It is obtained from pit dug into soil. Pit sands are generally sharp and angular, it is
free from salts, and good for concrete work. Sand is light brown and golden yellow in
colour. River sand: River sand is rounded and whitish in colour. It is suitable for plastering
work. Sea sand: Grains are fine and rounded, light brown in colour due presence of salts. It
is unsuitable for work
Properties of good sand:

i) the grains should be sharp angular and .
ii) it should be chemically inert.
iii) It should be free from clayey material and organic matters.
iv) It should not contain salt to attract moisture.
v) Gradation of grains should be such that it will give minimum voids.
Examination of sands:
i) The size and sharpness of grains may be examined by the feel and eye.
ii) The presence of salts may be detected simply by taste.
iii) When rubbed between moist fingers , clean sand will leave no stains .
iv) Fineness , durability, void ratio etc. should be examined by mechanical
(sieve) analysis.
v) Colour of sand will indicate the purity of sand.
Bulking of sand:
It is seen that the volume of sand (dry) increases to about 25% when its moisture content is
raised by 5%. This is known as bulking of sand. This occurs because sand grains surrounded by
thin films of water which prevent the grains to come into contact with each other and hence
swells up. This bulking decreases by beyond 5%, when moisture content is increased. voids: the
voids in sand are the interstices between sand grains. When rammed the voids of
natural sand vary from 30% - 35%.
Fineness modulus(F.M.): fine sand medium sand coarse sand
2.20-2.60 2.60-2.90 2.90-3.20
F.M. is ready index for coarseness or fineness of sand or of the material. F.M. is an
emperical factor obtain by adding cumulating percentage of aggregate retained on each
standard sieves ranging from 80 mm. to 150 micron and dividing this by number by 100.(
1000micron =1mm).
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Wt retained in cumulative weight cumulative % cumulative %

gram. retaining. Weight retain passing.
80mm. --
40mm --
20mm --
10mm 0 0 0 100
4.75mm 10 10 2 98
2.36mm 50 60 12 88
1.18mm 50 110 22 78
600micron 95 205 41 59
300micron 175 380 76 24
150micron 85 465 93 7
lower than 35 500 --
150micron
total 500gm. 246
Function of sand: (in mortar)
i) Bulk: it does not increase strength of mortar but it acts as an adulterant.

Hence volume/bulk of mortar is increased which results in reduction of cost.
ii) Shrinkage: it prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar in the course of drying,
hence cracking of mortar during setting is avoided.
iii) Strength: It helps in the adjustment of strength of mortar or concrete by variation of
its proportion with cement. It also increases the resistance of mortar against crushing.
Coarse Aggregate
The study of aggregates should be under the following heading –

1. classification
2. source
3. size
4. shape
5. texture
6. strength
7. specific gravity & bulk density
8. moisture content
9. cleanliness
10. soundness
11. chemical property
12. thermal property
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13. durability
14. sieve analysis
15. grading
Classification of aggregate( coarse or fine)

a).Normal weight aggregate
b).Light weight aggregate
c).Heavy weight aggregate
Normal weight aggregate should be covered by two types :

i).Natural --sand, gravel, crushed rocks e .g granite, quartzite, basalt ,sand stone.
ii).Artificial—broken bricks, air cooled slag, clinkers
Source:
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from natural bed rocks. There are three
kinds of rocks:
i) Igneous rocks: are formed by cooling of molten magma at top crest—trap or basalt,
bottom --granite. Igneous rocks may be dark coloured or light coloured, make highly
satisfactory coarse aggregate for concrete, because it is normally hard , tough and
dense.
ii) Sedimentary rocks: are formed beneath the sea bed by cementing the layers of deposit
various materials and subsequently lifted up. The sedimentary rocks, with stratified
structure are quarried the quality of aggregates derived from sedimentary rocks will vary
in quality depending upon the cementing material and the pressure under which it is
formed. Some siliceous sand stones have proved to be good concrete
aggregate. Stratified or sedimentary rock is less used, as it shows flaky aggregate
with less strength.
iii) Metamorphic rocks : are originally either igneous or sedimentary which are
subsequently metamorphosed due to heat pressure quality of rock depends on the
quality of parent rock. Particularly quartzite gneiss have been used for production of
good concrete. Metamorphic rock shows foliated structure. The thickness of foliation
may vary from few centimeter to meters. If thickness of foliation is less than
individual aggregate, it is not desirable for use as concrete aggregate.
Size : The largest size of aggregate is 80 mm. Perhaps 80 mm size is maximum size
that can be used for concrete making. Using big size aggregates result in (i)
reduction of cement consumption, (ii) reduction in water content , (iii) reduction in
drying shrinkage.
However the maximum size of aggregate that can be used in any given condition may
be limited try the following condition.
i)Thickness of section. (ii) Spacing of reinforcement. (iii) Clear
cover, (iv) Mixing, handling & placing.
i) Thickness of the section : Should not be more than one-fourth of the minimum
thickness of member.
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ii) Reinforcement : For heavily reinforced concrete maximum size to be restricted

to 5 mm less than the minimum clear distance between the reinforcing
bars. (generally in use 20 mm )
Course aggregate – size of aggregate more than 4.75 mm is termed as coarse. Less
than that is fine aggregate.
Shape : Shape of aggregate is an important characteristics, since if affects workability
of concrete. Shape of aggregate depends on characteristics of parent rocks and the
type of crusher.
Rounded – pebbles, gravels has minimum surface area of the same mass and therefore
require minimum cement paste for bonding as compared to other shapes. Therefore
from the stand point economy in cement requirement, round shapes are preferable,
and workability is higher.
Angular – higher bond characteristics between aggregate and cement paste.
Flaky and elongated shapes have larger surface area for the same mass as compared
to rounded or cubical shapes. The cement paste required to coat the surface and hence
the water demand is more for flaky elongated aggregates. These shapes are not
preferred in concrete mixes and it will be prone to segregation, and have poor surface
and high cement and sand demand.
Generally rounded, irregular rounded and angular cubical shape are preferred.
TEXTURE: Smooth surface has less contact area, hence highly polished have less
banding Area.
It is shown by experiments that rough textured aggregate develops higher bond stress.
STRENGTH: IS 2386 IV 1963. Mechanical properties of aggregates.

Aggregates size passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm ht. – 6.5 Kg. of aggregate
palaced in a cylindrical mould and material pached in mould. Tampling each larer
by 25 time, in three layers 40 TM is applied in 10 minutes .
The aggregates crushing value : B/A X 100
B: Wt passing 2.36 mm sieve .
A: Wt. Of surface dry sample taken in mould.
Value should not be more than 45% for weaving surface such as runway - 30%
pavement.
Aggregate impact value : A hummar weing 14 kg. dropped from 380 mm ht. above
the upper surface of aggregate for 15 times at an interval 1 second.
Abarasion Test : Material taken in a cylinder, rotated at a speed 20 – 23 rev/min. for

500 revolution and abarasive charges are placed in the cylinder.
The sample is place don a sieve coarser than 1.7 mm. The finer portion is then
sieved on 1.7 mm IS sieve .
The material coarser thus 1.7 mm IS sieve is washed and dried and weight.
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The different between Original & Final Wt. Of the test sample is expressed as
the percentage of the original ht. of the test sample. This value is reported as the
percentage of weav, should not be more than 16% for concrete aggregate.
BULK DENSITY: Bulk density of aggregate is of interest when we deal will light
Wt.aggregate & heavy Wt. Aggregate.
This gives and idea about shape and grading of aggregate.
Sp:Gravity – it is required for the calculation of design mix. 2.6 – 2.8.
Absorption & Moisture content :Some of the aggregates are porous and absorptive.
Porosity & absorption , affects the water /cement ratio and hence workability of
concrete. The porosity of aggregate also affects durability of concrete when the
concrete is subjected to feeding and also chemically aggressive garid.
Immersed 29 hr. in water absorption – limited to 0.5 to 1% of ht. of aggregate.
Cleanliness : No clayee / material or other impurities should be present.
CEMENT:
Manufacture of Port land Cement :
Raw material required is calcareous material such as lime stone or chalk and
argillaceous material such as shale or clay, cement factories are located where
these raw materials found in abundance.
Chemical composition :
The raw materials used for Manufacture of cement consists %

Ca0 - lime 60-67
Si02 - Silica 17-25
AL203 - Aluminum 3-8
FC203 - Iron Oxide .5-6.0
Mgo - Magnesium Oxide - .10-4.0
Alkalis (K20,N9L0)) - .4-1.3
S03 - - 1.0-3.0
Identification of major oxides present in the raw material when subject to

high clinkering temperature is based on R.S.B gives work. %.
Tri calcium silicate C3S 54.1% Range 40-55 Strength high Liberation of heat
high.
Di calcium silicate C2S 16.6% Range 15-30 Low at first Low.
high later.
Tri calcium aluminate C3A 10.8% Range 8-11 Low Very High.
Tetra calcium aluminus C4AF 9.1% Range 13-17 Lowe Medium.
ferrite
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When the reaction of cement with water is enotherinic the reaction liheates
considerable quantity of heat. This liberation of heat is called heat of hydration. The
study of control of heat of hydration is very much essential for mass concreting,
dam construction.
• Water requirement for hydration is 38% ( 23% chemical reach on + 15 to fill

gel pore ) excess water will cause inclusively capilley cavity.
Types of Cement:
(1) ORDINARY PORT LAND CEMENT:-
(2) RAPID HARDENING CEMENT : higher rate of development of strength. The
repid hardening cement develops at the age of three days, the same strength as is
expected of ordinary port land cement at seven days.
Uses: a) Pre fabricated concrete construction.(b) Where form work to be remove easy
for re-use elsewhere.(c) Road work.(d) In cold weather concrete, where rapid
hardening cement, due to rapid development of strength reduces the
vulnerability of concrete ti the frost damage.
(3) Sulphate resisting : to prevent sulphate attack.
(a) For concreting in marine condition.
(b) Where working in Mursh region or sulphate bearing soils.
(c) Concrete used for sewage treatment work.
(4) Blast furnace Cement : with OPC blast furnace slage is mixed in proper
st
proportion rate hardening is P.S.C. is slower than OPC during 1 28 days ,
but there after increase becomes close to or even more than O.P.C.
(5) Quick setting Cement: is done by reducing the gypsum content, it is used in under
water construction. Where pumping is involved and for grouting purpose also it is
used.
Port land pozzolana (burnt brick and other dust) : Cement pozzolana is a essentially
silicacious material : mixed with O.P.C. adventure low heat if hydration and resists
the attack of aggressive water.
Testing of Cement: (a) Field Testing.(b) Laboratory Testing.

(a) Field Test : open the bag take a good look no lumps visible. Colour greenish grey.
(b) Thrust your hand inside the bag, it will give a cool feeling.
(c) Take a pinch of cement and feel between the fingers, it should give a smooth
and not a gritly feeling.
(d) Take a hand full of cement and throw and throw it on a bucket full of water
particle should floor some time before they sink.
(e) Take 100 gm. of cement make a stiff paste adding small water, on a glass plate,
give the paste a rectangular cubical shape with sharp edges. Slowly take the
glass plate under water in a bucket. After 24 hrs. the cake should retain its
original shape and attain some strength also.
If the cement satisfy this it may be concluded that cement is not bad.
Laboratory Test :
(a) Fineness test,(b) Setting time test, c) Strength test,(d) soundness test,
(f) Heat of hydration test, (f )Chemical composition test.
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(1) Fineness test : Fineness has important effect on rate of hydration and rate of gain
of strength finer cement offers more surface area for hydration therefore it has
faster and greeter development of strength.
(2) Setting time test : The time elapsed between the moment water is added to the
cement, to the time the paste starts loosing plasticity, final setting is the elapsed
time when the pastes loses all its plasticity and gains some strength.
(3) Strength : Compressing strength
After 3 days 16 n/mm2 43 quantity 27 grade

7 days 22 23 37
28 days 33 43 53
(4) Soundness test : It is very important that the cement after setting shall not under
go appreciable change of volume. The testing of soundness of cement, to ensure
that the cement does not show any appreciable subsequent expansion, is of
prime importance.
Expansion generally occur due to presence of free lime (cao) magnesium – after a
period over six months to one year.
WATER :
Water is an important ingredient in concrete as it actively participates in the

chemical reaction with cement, since it form the strength giving cement gel. The
quantity and quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully.
In practice, very often great control on properties of cement and aggregates

is excercised but the control on quality of water is neglected.
A popular yard –slick to the suitability of water for mixing concrete is that, if
the water is fit for drinking then it is fit for making concrete.
(1) Some specifications also accept water for making concrete if PH valve is between
6 to 8 .
PH valve
0 7 14
Acidic Neutral Alkali
(2) Instead of depending upon ph valve and other chemical composition, the best
course to find whether a particular source of water is suitable for making concrete or
not is to make concrete with this water and compare its 7 days and 28 days strength
with cubes of concrete made with distilled water. If the compression strength is 90
source I water may be accepted. This criteria may be safely adopted in places like
coastal area or murshy area or in the other places where water is brackish in nature
and of doubtful quality. However, it is logical to know what harm the impurities in
water do to the concrete and
(3) Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium affect the setting time
of cement.
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Sodium carbonate causes which setting - bicarbonate may accelerate or retard

setting.
> 1000 p p m is not accepted.
Sometimes it reduces strength.
(4)Brackish Water contains chloride and
sulphates Chloride > 10,000 ppm not
accepted. Sulphate > 3,000 ppm not accepted.
(5) Silts and suspended particle are undesirable. They interfere with setting
hardening and
Bond characteristics.
Turbidity limit > 2000 ppm not accepted.
(6) Algae in water cause a marked reduction in strength if concrete . Reduces

bond and a
large amount of air entertainment in concrete.
(7) Salts of Manganese, Fin, Zinc & lead cause a reduction of strength of concrete.
USE OF SEA WATER :
Water containing large quantities of chlorides (e.g. sea water) tends to cause
persistent dampness and surface efflorescence. Such water should, there, not be used
in where appearance of un reinforced concrete is of importance. Or a plastered finish
is to be applied. Much more importantly the presence of chloride in concrete
containing embedded steel can lead to its corrosion.
But sea water can be used for un reinforced concreting and mass concrete work.
Experiments have shown that corrosion of reinforcement occurred when concrete
was made with pure water and immersed in pure water when the concrete was
comparatively porous whereas, no corrosion of reinforcement was found when sea
water was used for mixing of concrete and specimen concrete was immersed in salt
water. When the concrete
was dense and enough cover to the reinforcement was given.
Therefore if sea water can not be avoided for making reinforced concrete, particular
precaution should be taken make concrete dense by using low water/cement ratio
coupled with vibration and to give an adequate cover of at least 75 mm.
The use of sea water must be avoided in pre stressed concrete work because of stress
corrosion and undue loss of cross section of small diameter wires.
FRESH CONCRETE :
Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be

moulded into any shape.
We have seen theoretical water / cement ratio is about 0.38 use of water more
than this will result in capillary cavities in concrete and less will result incomplete
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hydration. But apart from these considerations water is required to control of

workability of concrete.
Workability : A theoretical water/ cement ratio is not going to give an ideal situation
for maximum strength unless proper compaction of concrete has taken place.
Therefore 100% compacting of concrete is an important parameter for strength . Lack
of compaction will lead to air voids and presence of capillary cavity, which will affect
durability and strength. Therefore one of the function of water in concrete is as
Lubricant. Lubrication required for handling concrete without segregation, placing
without loss of homogeneity and compacting the concrete very smoothly, the
presence of a certain quantity of water is of vital importance. The quality of concrete
satisfying the above requirements is termed as workable concrete.
Factors Affecting Workability:

a) Water content: At site supervisors are not so much well-versed with the practice
of making good concrete, and add more water for increasing workability because
this is one of most easiest corrective measure that can be taken at site. It should be
noted that from desirability point of view increase of water content is the last
resource to be taken for improving the workability even in the case of
uncontrolled concrete.
In case all other steps to improve workability fail only as a last resort the addition
of water can be considered, more water can be added, provided a correspondingly
higher quantity of cement is also added to keep water cement ratio constant so
that the strength criteria remains same.
(b) Mix proportion : Aggregate / Cement ratio is an important factor.

Higher the ratio leaner the concrete, lesser the workability.
Lower the ratio richer is the mix, more is the workability.
(c) Size of Aggregate : For a given quantity of water and posts bigger size of
aggregate
will give higher workability.
(d) Surface texture : A smooth aggregate will contribute higher workability.

(e) Shape of Aggregate : flaky aggregate gives for workability then the
rounded aggregate.
(f) Grading of aggregate : The better grading of aggregate has less void contents
and higher the workability.
(g) Use of Admixture : Provide Lubricating effect.(plasticizer)
Measurement of workability :
(a) Slump test .
(b) Compacting factor test.
(c) Flow test.
(d) Kelly Ball Test.
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Slump Value Placing condition.
Mass concrete, lightly reinforced

Section in slabs, beams, columns,
Floor Footing etc. 25-75 Low
Heavily reinforced section in

Slabs, beams pumped concrete 50-100 Medium.
Trench filling pilling. 100-150 High.
Segregation : Segregation can be defined as the separation of constituents materials

of concrete. A good concrete is one in which all the ingredients are proper distributed
to make a homogeneous mixture. If a sample of concrete exhibits a tendency for
separation say coarse aggregates from the rest of the ingredients, then, the that sample
is said to be showing the tendency for segregation. Such concrete is not only weak
lack of homogeneity is also going to induce all undesirable properties in the hardened
concrete.
Bleeding : Bleeding is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of

segregation, in which some of water from. The concrete comes out to the surface of
concrete, being of the lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete.
Sledding is predominantly observed in a highly wet mix, badly proportion and
insufficiently mixed concrete. In this members like roof slabs or road slabs when
concrete is placed summary weather excessive heeding is observed. Due to bleeding
water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this water
certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface .When the surface is worked with
trowel and floats, the aggregate matter goes down and cement. Water come up at the
top surface. The formation of cement paste at the surface is called laitance. It will not
have a good weathering quality and will develop shrinkage crush. It water cement
ratio is more than of the bleeding channels will remain continuous and are often
responsible for permeable concrete.
Bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from surface
is equal to the rate of bleeding removable of water , after it had played it had played
its role in providing workability, from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will
do good the concrete. Early bleeding the concrete is plastic, may not cause much
harm because at the stage concrete can be completed. If is delayed bleeding when
the concrete has lost its plasticity, that cause undue harm to the concrete. Controlled
re-vibration may be adopted to over come the bad effect of bleeding.
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CURING OF CONCRETE :
In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix most be followed
by curing in a suitable environment during the early status of hardening, curing is the
name given to the procedure used for promoting the hydration of cement and consists
of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete.
A significant loss of water due to evaporation from the concrete or mortar surface
may result in slowing down or stopping the hydration process and resulting in
consequent reduction of strength and durability. In order to help the hydration process
to continue, water in the capillaries should be prevented from evaporating. It is
therefore necessary to maintain an environment of high humidity around the freshly
placed concrete or mortar till it attains reasonably good strength. This process is
called curing.
Since cement hydration is more rapid in first few days after fresh concrete or mortar is
placed, it is important for enough water to be retained within the concrete or mortar
mass during this period. This can be achieved by either reducing the evaporation
losses or try to replenish the water continuously on the concrete surfaces for an
adequate span of time.
Curing has a strong influence on various properties of concrete. Strength, durability
water tightness, wear resistance is much superior of a well cured concrete or
mortar. Besides these, curing reduces shrinkage.
METHODS OF CURING:
There are two broad categories of curing – 1) Wet curing, (ii) Membrane curing.
1) The first method is providing water which can be imbibed by the concrete. This
requires that the surface of concrete is continuously in contact with water for a
specified length of time, starting as soon as the surface of concrete is no longer
liable to the damage. Such condition can be achieved by continuous spraying or
flooding (ponding) or by covering the concrete by wet sand or earth, sawdust,
straw, periodically wetted clean hessian or cotton mats may be used. A continuous
supply of water is naturally more efficient then an intermittent one.
For low water cement ratio wet curing is highly desirable. W.C. < 0.4
As for as quality of water used for curing is concerned, ideally it should be
the same as mixing water.
(ii) The second method of curing relies on prevention of loss of water from the
surface of the concrete, without the possibility of external water ingressing into
it. This could be called a water barrier method.
Technique uses spray applied curing compounds which form a membrane. The
common ones are solution of synthetic – hydrocarbons resins in high volatile
solvent. Other resin solutions are available acrylic, vinyl, styrene, butadyne
sometime polyethylene papers, water proofing papers may be used for this
16
purpose. Care should be taken in laying and also there should not be any puncture
in the paper.
When to start curing & how long to cure :

It is a vital and most important criteria that when to start curing i.e. application of
water over concrete/ mortar. It will be such that uninterrupted and continued
hydration takes places, without causing interference with water/ cement ratio.
Because early application of water over the surface only influence the water /
cement ratio.
The first of all the concrete should not be allowed to dry fast in any situation.
Concrete that are liable to quick drying is required to be covered with wet gunny
bags or wet hessian cloth properly squeezed. This condition should be maintained
for 24 hours. Or at least till the final setting time of cement at which duration the
concrete will have assumed the final volume. Even if the water is poured after this
time it will not interfere with water / cement ratio. However the best practice is to
keep the concrete under the wet gunny bags for 24 hours and then commence
water curing by way of ponding.
The curing period should be such that concrete attains at least 70% of the
specified compressive or flexural strength. However, in warm or hot climate,
concrete may achieve this strength within 3 days. In order to ascertain the period
of curing or form removal, cubes or beams can be cast under field condition and
cured in an identical manner adjacent to the structure or pavement they represent.
The strength of these cubes will give a clear idea about development of strength.
Normally at least 7 days for reinforced concrete is recommended.
Reinforced Concrete:
GRADE OF CONCRETE
Ordinary concrete Characteristic compressive strength of

150 mm Cube at 28 days in N/mm2.
M10 10
M15 15
M20 20
Standard Concrete
M25 25
M30 30
M35 35
M40 40
M45 45
M50 50
M55 55
High Strength
M60 60
M65 65
17
M70 70
M80 80
Stripping Time : Normally where the ambient temperature does not

fall under 15 degree centigrade and where ordinary
Portland cement is used following striking period
of form work may be satisfactory.
Type of Form work Minimum period before striking form work.
1) Vertical form work to columns, walls 16 – 24 hr.

2) Props to slab :
Span < 4.5 m 7 days
Span > 4.5 m 14 days.
3) Prop to beams:
Span < 6 m 14 days
Span > 6 m 21 days
Side stripping may be done at early stage but it is better to avoid.
NOMINAL COVER :
It is the minimum thickness of concrete between reinforcing bars and exposed
surface (atmosphere).
The cover are mainly provided to save the steel from corrosion. For different type
of exposure out structural member cover varies.
For Footing cover shall be 50 mm.

Columns 40 mm
Section < 250 mm 25 mm
Beam 20 mm - 25 mm.
Slab 15 mm – 20 mm.
But in any case it should not be less than the diameter of bars used.
High strength deformed steel Bars.
IS. Code 1786 – 1985.
Yield Stress = 415 N / M2
Carbon Sulphur Phosphorus

Fe 415
Fe 500, Fe 550 0.3 0.06 0.060
Cross sectional Area and mass: Branded - SAIL / TATA
Local : KR STEEL UNIOW / TMT / CS.
18
CRACKS
Cracks in a building are common occurrence. The crack develops whenever stress in the
component exceeds it strength.
,
Stress in a building component could be caused by externally applied forces e.g. D.L.,
L.L.W.L. or seismic load or it could be induced internally thermal movement, moisture
changes, chemical action. Etc.
Cracks can be classified as structural and non structural cracks.
Structural Cracks: Structural cracks are those, which are due to incorrect, design; faulty
construction or overloading and these may endanger the safety of the building. Extensive
cracking of an RCC Beam is an instance of structural cracking.
Non structural cracks are mostly due to internally induced stresses in building material these
generally do not directly result in structural weakening. In course of time however sometimes
non structural cracks may appear, because of penetration of moisture through cracks or
weathering action resulting corrosion of reinforcement and may render the structure unsafe,
vertical cracks in compound wall due to thermal movement is an instance of non structural
cracks.
Non structural cracks normally do not endanger the safety of a building but may look
unsightly or may create an impression of faulty work or may give a feeling of instability.
The principal causes of occurrence of cracks.
1) Chemical reaction
2) Vegetation
3) Foundation movement and settlement
4) Thermal variation
5) Moisture movement
1) Chemical Reaction
Sulphate attack.
Soluble sulphates present in water / soils.

attacks C3 AL - (tricalcium alluminate) and hydraulic lime in presence of moisture and 19
expands,
(b) Carbonation.
Calcium hydroxide in cement in presence of atmospheric CO2 forms calcium carbonate and
resulting shrinkage crack.
c) Corrosion of Reinforcement.
d) Alkali aggregate reaction
in OPC sodium oxide, potassium oxide is present to some extent and reacts with silicious
mineral constituents of aggregate causes expansion and disintegration.
2) Cracking due to Vegetation
Existence of vegetation, such as fast growing trees in the vicinity of compound walls can
some times cause cracks in the walls due to expansive action of roots growing under the
foundation. Roots of a tree generally spread horizontally on all sides to the extent of height of
the trees above the ground and the trees located near a wall it should be viewed with
suspicious.
When soil under the foundation of building happens to be shrinkable clay, cracking in walls
and floors of the building can occur either' due to dehydrating action of the growing roots on
the soil which may shrink and cause foundation settlement or due to upward thrust on a
portion of walls/building, When old trees are cut off and the soil that had been dehydrated
earlier by roots, swells upon getting moisture from some source e.g. rain.
General measures:
a) Do not let trees grow too close to the building compound walls, extra care should be taken
if the soil under foundation is shrinkable.
b) If some large trees exist close to wall/building and not causing any problem do not disturb
the tree if soil under foundation is shrinkable clay.
c) If from any site, intended for new construction, vegetation including trees is removed, and
soil is shrinkable clay, do not commence the construction activity on that soil until it has
undergone expansion after absorbing moisture.
3) Foundation movement and settlement of soil :

Cracks in building occurs when there is a large differential settlement of foundation either
due to unequal bearing pressure, under different parts of the structure or due to bearing
pressure on the soil being in excess of safe bearing strength of the soil, or due to erratic / non
homogeneous nature of soil e.g. if constructed over filled up land.
Building constructed on shrinkable clay (expansive soils), which swells on absorbing
moisture and shrinks on drying. Effect of this moisture variation generally extends up to
about 3.5m
20
t. depth from the surface below which it may be neglected.
a) Foundation may be taken up to 3.5m depth and the entire pit is filled with sand / moorum.
b) Variation in moisture content may be considerably reduced by providing water proof

apron all long the building. (Apron work done after two to three months of peak rainy
season).
c) Under-ream pile foundation is costly but effective solution.
Creaks occur due to foundation movement of a comer on an end of a building are usually
diagonal in shape. These cracks are wide at top decrease in width downward.
Some times it is required to make horizontal expansion of a building, it is necessary to ensure

that the new construction is not bonded with old construction.
It is some times necessary to construct building on a site which is very low and deep filling
under the floors in plinth is required. If the filling is not well compacted, in course of time
moisture or water from some source may find, its way to the filled up soil and that may cause
settlement of soil and cracks in the floor.
Special precaution to be taken while filling operation is done, soil should be free from
organic matte, brick bats and debris filling should be done in layer not more than 25 cm. in
thickness, should watered and well rammed.
Some times to ensure fool proof compaction, bore holes 1m. apart up to the entire filling
depth is dug and it is flooded and allowed to partially dry and compacted with wooden ballies
and hand rammer.
4) Thermal Movement
It is well known phenomenon of science that all materials more or less expand on heating and contract
on cooling. Magnitude of variation depends on the molecular structure and other properties and that is
when there is some restrain to movement of a component of a structure, internal stresses are set up in
the component, resulting in cracks due share or tensile stresses. In extreme cases, due to changes in
temperature may exceed those due loading. Thermal movement is thus one of the most potent causes
of cracking in building and call for serious consideration.
While daily changes/ variations in temperature are due to rotation of earth round its own axis
in every 24 hours. Seasonal changes are due to the variation of incidence of the sun rays as
well their duration. Seasonal changes are practically negligible near the equator and go on
intensifying as one moves away from the equator, seasonal as well as daily changes are mild
in costal areas. In India diurnal changes and seasonal changes are generally 5° - 20°C and 0° -
25°C respectively.
Daily changes are rapid and have much more damaging effect, seasonal changes are gradual
and stresses are reduced.
5) Moisture movement:
21
As a general rule most of the building materials having pores in their structure in the form of
intermolecular space, as for example concrete, mortar, burnt clay bricks, some stone, timber
etc. expand on absorbing moisture and shrink on drying. These movements are reversible that
is cyclic in nature and are caused by increase or decrease in the inter-pore pressure with
moisture changes, extent of movement depending on molecular structure and porosity of
material apart from reversible movement. Certain materials undergo some irreversible
movement due to initial moisture changes after their construction. Instances of irreversible
movement in materials are shrinkage of cement and lime based material on initial drying and
expansion in burnt clay bricks and other clay product is on removal from kilns.
22
LIFT
Introduction
The general design of lifts is very well established and in this country nearly all the reputable
lift manufacturers will design and supply a satisfactory lift as a matter of routine if given the
details and size of building.
There are three categories of lifts. Passenger lifts are designed primarily for passenger use;
goods lifts are mainly for goods but can on occasion carry passengers; and service lifts are
for goods only and are of such a size that passengers cannot enter into the car. Lift speeds are
determined by the number of floors served and the quality of service required. They vary
from 0.5 m/sec to 10 m/sec in high office blocks.
In deciding the size of car one can allow 0.2 sq.m for each passenger, and when
determining the load the average weight of a passenger can be taken as 75 kg.
In hospitals some of the lifts must take stretchers on trolleys and these lifts must be the
full depth of a complete bed.
Grade of service
The quality of service is a measure of the speed with which passengers can be taken to their
destination. It is the sum of the time which the average passenger has to wait for a lift and of
the traveling time once in the lift.
The traveling time is made up of periods of acceleration, constant speed and retardation.
Accommodation
The machine room for the lifting gear is normally at the top of the lift shaft or well.
Room must also be left for buffers and for inspection at the bottom, or pit, of the well.
Drive
Nearly all lifts use a traction drive. In this, the ropes pass from the lift car around a cast iron
or steel grooved sheave and then to the counterweight. The sheave is secured to a steel shaft
which is turned by the driving motor. The drive from motor to the shaft is usually through a
worm gear. The force needed to raise or lower the lift car is provided by the friction between
the ropes and the sheave grooves. The main advantage of the traction drive is that if either the
car or counterweight comes into contact with the buffers the drive ceases and there is no
danger of the car being wound into the overhead structure. Other advantages are cheapness
and simplicity.
Motors
A lift motor should have a starting torque equal to at least twice the full load torque. It should
be quiet and it should have a low kinetic energy. The last requirement is necessary for rapid
acceleration and deceleration and also for low wear in the brakes. The theoretical power
needed can be calculated from the lifting speed, weights of car plus load and counterweight.
23
The actual power will depend on the mechanical efficiency of the drive which can
be anything from 30 percent to 60 percent.
Types of motor
In most cases, a three phase a.c. supply is required in a building which to have a
lift installation.
Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF)
The most widely used system today is the VVVF system, usually referred to as an inverter
drive. The principle of operation relies on a rectifier to produce DC into the DC link and an
inverter, which produces sinusoidal current into the windings. By changing the frequency of
the inverted signal, the synchronous frequency and hence the speed torque curve is moved to
the desired profile.
Brakes
Lift brakes are usually electromagnetic. In the majority of the case, they are placed between
the motor and gearbox. The shoes are operated by springs and released by an electromagnet
the armature of which acts either directly or through a system of links. The brake is used
only when the car is parked. To slow the car down, several methods are employed.
Plugging is reversing the phase sequence as the motor is running, the synchronous magnetic
field reverses direction, causing the motor to slowdown rapidly.
Eddy current braking uses an aluminium disc on the end of the end of the drive motor shaft.
A magnetic field is applied to the disc and currents are induced in the disc which act to slow
the shaft down. The braking effect is proportional to the speed of rotation of the shaft.
Another method is to inject a DC current into the motor winding. Injecting DC in a
motor winding will try to stall the rotor.
Lift cars
Passenger cars should be at least 2m high and preferably 2.15m or more. Most manufacturers
have certain standard finishes from which the client should choose.
Lift cars consists of two separate units, namely the sling and the car proper. The sling is
constructed of steel angles or channels and the car is held within the sling. The sling also
carries the guide shoes and the safety gear. The car is sometimes insulated from the sling
frame by anti-vibration mountings. Goods cars are of rougher construction than passenger
cars but otherwise follow the same principles.
All electrical connections to car are made through a multi-core hanging flexible cable.
One end of this is connected to a terminal box under the car, and the other end to a
terminal box on the wall of the well approximately half-way down.
Counterweights
A counterweight is provided to balance the load being carried. As the load carried varies, the
counterweight cannot always balance it exactly. It is usual for the counterweight to balance
the weight of the car plus 50 percent of the maximum load to be taken in the car.
24
Guides
Both the car and the counterweight must be guided in the well so that they do not swing
about as they travel up and down. Continuous vertical guides are provided for the purpose.
They are most commonly made of steel tees and there are standard tees made especially for
use as lift guides. The guides are fastened to steel plates by iron clamps at intervals of about 2
m and these plates are secured to the sides of the well.
Guide shoes are fitted on the car and on the counterweight and run smoothly on the guides.
For smooth running, the guides must be lubricated .
Doors
Solid doors have now almost entirely superseded collapsible mesh gates. Hey are
quieter, stronger and safer.
Doors can be opened and closed manually, but it is more usual to have them power operated.
In order not to injure passengers caught by closing doors, the drive has to be arranged to slip
or reverse if the doors meet an obstruction. Every lift car door must have an interlock which
cuts off the supply to the lift controller when the door is open.
The landing door must be locked so that it cannot be opened unless the car is in line with
the landing. The most usual way of doing this is by means of a lock which combines a
mechanical lock and an electrical interlock. The electrical interlock ensures that there is no
supply to the controller unless the gate is locked. The mechanical part can be unlocked only
when a cam on the car presses a roller arm on the lock. Thus the landing door can only be
opened when the car is at the landing. The controls withdraw the cam when the car is in
motion and return it only as the car approaches a floor at which it is to stop. This makes it
impossible for anyone to open a landing door as the car passes the landing, if the car is not
stopping there.
Indicators
Indicators are available for showing when the car is in motion, the direction of travel and the
position of the in the well. A position indicator may be installed in the car and at each
landing.
Direction indicators are provided at the landings.
Safety devices
Every lift car must have a safety gear which will stop it if its speed increases above a safe
level. The motor and brake circuits should be open at the same time as the safety gear
operates.
A lift must also have upper and lower terminal switches to stop the car if it overruns
either the top or bottom floor. There should be a normal stopping switch and a fixed
stopping switch at each end of the travel.
The final safety device consists of buffers in the well under the car and under
the counterweight.
Type of control
An automatic control system has a single call button at each landing and a button for
each floor in the car. A passenger presses the car button for the desired floor and the lift
25
automatically travels there. Calls made from landings while the car is in motion are stored in
the controller memory. With Automatic Collective Control, each landing has both an UP and
a DOWN button, and there is a set of floor buttons in the car. Every button pressed registers a
call, and up and down calls are answered during up and journeys respectively, in the order in
which the floors are reached.
There are also other types of control which are used as per requirement.
26
Air Conditioner
An air conditioner (often referred to as AC) is a home appliance, system or mechanism

designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple
refrigeration cycle. Its purpose, in a building or an automobile, is to provide comfort during
either hot or cold weather.
Refrigeration cycle
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve,
3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor
In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower-temperature heat source
into a higher-temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This
is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as
it pumps the heat out of the interior and into the room in which it stands.
This cycle takes advantage of the way phase changes work, where latent heat is released at
a constant temperature during a liquid/gas phase change, and where varying the pressure of
a pure substance also varies its condensation/boiling point.
The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor . In an
automobile, the compressor is driven by a belt over a pulley, the belt being driven by the
engine's crankshaft (similar to the driving of the pulleys for the alternator, power steering,
etc.). Whether in a car or building, both use electric fan motors for air circulation. Since
evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air
conditioners use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and
actively condense and pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the evaporator
coil, located in the compartment to be cooled, where the low pressure causes the refrigerant
to evaporate into a vapor, taking heat with it. At the opposite side of the cycle is the
condenser, which is located outside of the cooled compartment, where the refrigerant vapor
is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing the refrigerant into
a liquid, thus rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.
Humidity
Air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system.
The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil condenses water vapour from the
processed air, much as a cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. The water is
drained, removing water vapor from the cooled space and thereby lowering its relative
27
humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration
from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air
conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In
food retail establishments, large, open chiller cabinets act as highly effective dehumidifires
Some air conditioning units dry the air without cooling it. These work like a normal air
conditioner, except that a heat exchanger is placed between the intake and exhaust. In
combination with convection fans, they achieve a similar level of comfort as an air cooler
in humid tropical climates, but only consume about one-third the energy. They are also
preferred by those who find the draft created by air coolers uncomfortable.
Refrigerants
"Freonǁ is a trade name for a family of haloalka refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and
other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and
safety properties. However, these chlorene bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere
when they escape. Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun
cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine atoms catalyz
the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the
Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst
unless it binds with another chlorine radical, forming a stable molecule and breaking the
chain reaction. The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, being used in the
refigerants R-11and R-12.
In most countries the manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted
due to concerns about ozone depletion. In light of these environmental concerns, beginning
on November 14, 1994, the Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale,
possession and use of refrigerant to only licensed technicians, per Rules 608 and 609 of the
EPA rules and regulations; failure to comply may result in criminal and civil sanctions.
Newer and more environmentally-safe refrigerants such as HCFCs(R-22), used in most
homes today) and HFCs (R-134a) used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs
in turn are being phased out under the Montral Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) such as-410A, which lack chlorine. Carbon dioxide (R-744) is being rapidly adopted
as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan. R-744 is an effective refrigerant with a global warming
protocol of 1. It must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.
Window and through-wall units
Room air conditioners come in two forms: unitary and packaged terminal PTAC systems.
Unitary systems, the common one room air conditioners, sit in a window or wall opening, with
interior controls. Interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the
air is heated as a second fan blows it over the condenser. In this process, heat is drawn from the
room and discharged to the environment. A large house or building may have several such units,
permitting each room be cooled separately. PTAC systems are also known as wall split air
conditioning systems or ductless systems. These PTAC systems which are frequently used in
hotels have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaportive unit on the interior and the
condensing unit on the exterior, with tubing passing through the wall and connecting them. This
minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently.
PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather,
28
either directly by using an electric strip, gas or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant
flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner
into a heat pump. While room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when cooling
many rooms it is generally more expensive than central air conditioning.
Central air conditioning
Central air conditioning, commonly referred to as central air(US) or air-con (UK), is an air
conditioning system that uses ducts to distribute cooled and/or dehumidified air to more than
one room, or uses pipes to distribute chilled water to heat exchangers in more than one
room, and which is not plugged into a standard electrical outlet
With a typical split system, the condenser and compressor are located in an outdoor unit; the
evaporator is mounted in the air handler unit. With a package system, all components are
located in a single outdoor unit that may be located on the ground or roof.
Central air conditioning performs like a regular air conditioner but has several added benefits:
• When the air handling unit turns on, room air is drawn in from various parts of the
building through return-air ducts. This air is pulled through a filter where airborne
particles such as dust and lint are removed. Sophisticated filters may remove
microscopic pollutants as well. The filtered air is routed to air supply ductwork that
carries it back to rooms. Whenever the air conditioner is running, this cycle repeats
continually.
• Because the condenser unit (with its fan and the compressor) is located outside the home,
it offers a lower level of indoor noise than a free-standing air conditioning unit.
29
PROTECTION OF BUILDING FROM TERMITES
Growth of Termite Infestation in buildings
Care in Protection of Buildings
4) . In order to achieve ideal protection from termites in buildings the following care
should be taken:
5) The vicinity of building should be free from termite colony and breeding site. All
unused wooden members, logs and rubbish are food materials of termites and thus
are source of termite infestation. .
6) Special construction design should be followed to construct impassable

barriers for termites.
7) Wooden members in the buildings should be properly seasoned and treated

with termite resistant chemicals.
8) Wood and other cellulosic material should not have direct contact with the soil. In
unavoidable circumstances, the durable or chemically treated woods should be
used.
9) There should be good ventilation. illumination and drainage in the building. The
following conditions may be important, which favour the growth of termites in
buildings.
(a) Moist, warn soil with abundant food material such as decayed wood and paper etc.
(b) Wooden members directly in contact with soil.
(c) Root stumps. stakes. etc. in contact with soil under and around the building.
(d) Cracks and voids in foundations and floors through which termites can penetrate.
(e) Inadequate drainage, ventilation and lighting.
Remedial Measures for Termite Control

(a) Code of Practice for Anti-termite Measures in Buildings 18:6313 (Part 1) - 1981.
Construction Measures.
(b) Code of Practice for Anti-termite Measures in Buildings 18:6313 (Part - II) 1981, Pre-
constructional Chemical Treatment Measures.
30
(c) Code of Practice of Anti-termite Measures in Buildings 18:6313 (Part - III) Treatment for
Existing Buildings.
Remedial measures should be taken conforming to above code of practices.
31
SCOPE OF CIVIL MAINTENANCE WORKS

Civil maintenance work relating to building projects mainly consists of repairs, replacements
and periodic preventive maintenance in respect of the following works:
(A) Maintenance of internal civil works: Brick & stone works, RCC work, plaster, flooring,
painting, doors & windows, partitions, false ceiling and wall paneling, roofing structural steel
work, plumbing and sanitation, hardwires and fittings, furniture (some places it is not
included), aluminum works, PVC works, removal of seepage and dampness in buildings,
anti-termite treatment.
(B) Maintenance of external civil works:
1. Water Supply
2. Sewerages
3. Drainage
4. Rods, footpath, walkways, paved areas around buildings Parking Garage
5. Exposed structural steel works outside the buildings e.g. ladders, steel sheds (for
scooter/car
parking etc.) steel walkways and platforms, steel railings, boundary wall grills, steel
gates,
steel gratings etc.
CATEGORIES OF CIVIL MAINTENANCE WORKS
Type of works under civil maintenance can be divided into the following broad categories.
1. Day to day complaints or Routine Maintenance: These are carried out on the basis of day to
day complaints recorded by the occupants of buildings in a complaint register and also those
complaints which are observed by civil maintenance staff directly in their site rounds.
2. Breakdown Maintenance or Emergency, Maintenance: Those include such complaints which

need to be attended urgently as they affect the very survival of the occupants e.g. absence of
water supply, chokage in sewer lines, manholes and chokage in internal sanitary fittings in
the building e.g. W.C. sink, washbasin, bath etc.
3. Preventive or Periodic maintenance: These include such works which are done without any
specific complaint of the user in a cycle of fixed duration. List of such works is given in
subhead 1-5 Preventive maintenance works done regularly and properly increase the life of
buildings, and reduce the routine maintenance to some extent.
4. Major Maintenance of Special Repairs: These include replacement of major worn out items of
building which have become unserviceable with passage of time. Replacement of worn out doors and
widows, replacement of worn out flooring, plastering and roofing etc. This also includes water
proofing of some leaking roofs and tanks and solving specialized problems of seepage and dampness
in buildings.
32
TOOLS AND TACKLES REQUIRED FOR CIVIL MAINTENANCE WORKS
List of routine tools and tackles required to be kept by workmen for routine maintenance
works is given below:
1. Unskilled Labour/ helper: Pickaxe (Gianti), Kassi, Spade, Crow bar, Rammer, Basket.
2. Mason: Trowel, Try square, straight edge, plumb, string (Nylon rope) Brick hammer,
Floats, Tamping rod.
3. Carpenter: Drilling Machine (Both electrically operated & manually operated), Planer, Saw,
Screw driver, hammer, chisels, Auger, Try Square:, Scribing knife, marking gauge and
marking point, Pliers, Glass cutting knife.
4. Plumber & Fitter: Pipe Wrench, Pipe Cutter, Pipe Vice. Pipe Die stock, Files, Pliers Bench
Vice, Caulking tools, Hacksaw, Screw driver, Spanners, Chisels, Hammers, Grinding
Machine.
5. Painter: Brushes, Roller
6. Sewer man : Pusher, Rod, Brushes for c1eaning
7. Sweeper: Broom sticks. Brooms, Basket or Bucket for dust and waste collection.
8. General: Ladder, Gauge measure, measuring tapes (3m. 15m 30m) Measuring Box (40 cm x
35 cm x 25 cm), steel rule, wooden baIlis & planks, scaffolding steel pipes, shuttering plates,
rubber pipes, water level and water level pipe, spirit level, grinding stone, Rickshaw/Trolley
for moving materials at site. .
MANAGEMENT OF ROUTINE MAINTENANCE WORKS
(A) Steps in attending Civil complaints :
1. User writes the complaint in a complaint register, kept at a central place
2. Maintenance Supervisor sees the complaint register two times in a day:

one in the morning and one in the afternoon, and notes down the new
complaints in his job cards (see job card format ).
3. Supervisor distributes the job cards to the respective workmen for attending the
complaints.
4. Workmen collect necessary materials from the store after authorization from supervisors
or Junior Engineer, Maintenance or J.E., Maint.
5. Workmen after attending the complaints get the job card signed by the occupant/ user and
returns it to maintenance. Supervisors.
33
6. Workmen after completing the works return the balance materials in the store after informing
the Maintenance Supervisors. Maintenance Supervisors /Junior Engineer enters the details of
materials in the stock register (see format No.3, subhead 1-10.
7. Supervisors make necessary entries in compliant Register about date of complaints along
with his signature and remarks if any.
8. For any problems in attending any particular complaints, Maintenance Supervisors bring it to
the notice of .J.E. or Maint. In charge who issues necessary intimation slips to the occupant/
user (see item ahead).
(B) Possible problems in Routine Civil Maintenance and their suggested solutions
supervisor (see slip formal no 6 In item (c) ahead
1. Indenter not available in the house when workmen visited.

In the complaint register, there should be a coloumn where the indenter should mention the
time of availability.
2. Indenter not available at the time indicated by him in the complaint register.
A fresh coordination should be made with Maintenance Supervisors to fix up time.
3. Indenter is not able to locate and contact Maintenance Supervisor to whom he wishes to
contact for some discussion/ clarification / time coordination.
(i) There should be a service center or Maintenance office at a well designated place where
Maint supervisor should normally remain when not in field.
(ii) There should be a telephone in the maintenance Office.
4. Indenter wants to leave some written message to Maint Supervisor but maint office is
closed.
There should be a letter box or mail box fixed outside the Maintenance Office, where all
written messages can be left for the Maint. Supervisor or J.E.
5.Complaint written by the indenter is not clear.

Indenter should be apprised of the difficulty and requested to make clear his complain.
6. Maintenance Supervisor wants to contact indenter for some clarification.

Complaint register should contain the name, address and telephone number of the
indenter.
7. Location of the complaint is not clear.

The complaint register should contain a column for recording the location.
8. Complain is not straight forward and is of typical nature and some preparatory time will be
needed
before attending it.
The indenter is to be intimated about the technical/practical/contractual difficulty involved, by
a written message, and also indicate the expected date of remedy.
34
9. In some works, some precaution is to be observed by user in respect of green concrete,

curing
of concrete and freshly painted structures.
Precautions to be taken by the indenter should be intimated to him, by a written slip.
10. Complaint needs continuous working for some days and it cannot be done within the
time
span given by indenter.
A slip is to be given to the indenter stating the time required and fresh date to be fixed.
11. Complaint requires coordination with the occupant of upper floor, as some work is
needed to
be done in the upper floor for mitigation of damage in the lower floor.
Give a written slip to the upper floor occupant regarding working in their flat, to rectify
the
damage in the flat below. Date, time and duration of work should be settled by co-
ordination
and agreement.
12. Indenter has recorded some personal work to be attended to.

Give a written message that the work should be got done by the indenter on his own.
13. Indenter is not satisfied with the action taken.

Comments and signature of the indenter should be taken on the job card, and placed
before the maintenance engineer/ supervisor for their attention, and further action.
14. Incidence of breakage of fittings like cistern, water closet, wash basin etc. recorded
as complaint, by the indenter.
Normally the breakage is to be made good or replaced by the indenter. But if such
breakage is due to reasons beyond control of the indenter, the case should be dealt with
by higher authority.
15. Indenter complains about several problems after occupying a new flat, and also reports
about
missing fittings.
Before allotment of a (old) flat, it should be renovated and fully repaired. An inventory
of
fittings should be got signed by the allottee before giving the possession. Similarly on
the vacation of a house by a person, fittings should be got checked before giving
clearance to him.
Any fitting lost or broken should either be made good by the out-going party or it should
be
recorded and charged to the out-going party.
16. Indenter complains about delayed action to take rectification of damage/problem/defect.

Maintenance –in- charge compares the complaint No. and date with the actual time of
attending by workmen, and asks the supervisors to take corrective measures , in case of
delay in attending the report of complaint.
35
17. For attending complaints, workmen are not having proper tools, equipments.
Indenter should complain to the Maintenance – in - charge or to the J.E.
18 . Workmen does not observe safety norms leading to risky operations.

Indenter should bring it to the notice of J.E. and higher authorities, this being very
important
aspect of construction work, big or small.
19. Complaints regarding defects in common use areas, not recorded by any user.
For general sites or common areas, the maintenance staff and the supervisors themselves
should be vigilant, record complaints and rectify.
20. Complaint involves a big job or the indenter has written for a separate job to be done. The
indenter is to be intimated by a slip that the job shall be done by a separate work order.
He should make a separate note to the Maintenance Engineer giving the functional
requirements.
21. Some materials which are removed/ dismantled during maintenance, their parts, or as a
whole can be used elsewhere, but no place to store them.
The materials should be stored in a ‗ dismantled material store‘ kept for this purpose.
These
should be re-used at the earliest opportunity.
MANAGEMENT OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
The purpose of preventive maintenance or periodical maintenance is to

increase the life of building, reduce the day to day repairs and complaints. In fact routine
maintenance and periodical/preventive maintenance of buildings are inversely related to each
other. Better the routine maintenance, less the preventive maintenance required. Similarly, better the
preventive maintenance less the routine maintenance required.
(A) Planning for Preventive Maintenance:
All preventive maintenance works should be listed and the time of their execution should be
planned beforehand at the beginning of year.
For Preventive maintenance, a register should be maintained and for each preventive
maintenance work, some pages should be allotted. An index should be made in the beginning
of the register where each preventive maintenance work is listed with the page nos. of its
details.
In case any preventive maintenance work is done inside a residential flat or inside an office
room it is desirable to give a prior notice to the occupants about the work to be done and its
duration, so as to enable himto make necessary preparations, if required.
Further preventive maintenance work should be so organized that there is no complete

disruption of activities of the users and normal life/ movements is not completely
jeopardized. .
36
(B) Time for Various Preventive Maintenance Works
Time for various preventive maintenance works should be chosen so that it is most effective
and least discomforting to occupants.
and paint wont dry early. It should be done preferably iln summer or autumn (Sep/Oct) when
there is windy atmosphere and humidity is less.
For cement based paint, rainy season is preferred because it requires dampness of the
undersurface and curing with water. For whitewashing also a little humidity in the
atmosphere is not objectionable.
(C) List of Preventive Maintenance Wok in Civil Maintenance
1. Repainting of buildings.
2. Repainting of various steel structures at exposed locations on the site e.g. ladders, railings,
steel-sheds, transformer yards, street light poles. M. S. covers and platforms, steel gates steel
sign boards, steel stairs etc.
3. Cleaning of water storage tanks on roofs of buildings and at other places.
4. Cleaning of storm water drains.
5. Cleaning of septic tank, it any.
6. Greasing/ oiling of door /windows hinges.
7. Servicing of rolling shutters including greasing/ oiling of bearings.
8. Servicing of door closers and floor springs.
9. Cleaning of bushes and wild vegetation around the buildings.
10. Inspection of roofs at regular intervals and remove choking of drain pipes, if any, to
avoid seepage from roof.
11. Painting of road speed breakers and other markings and signage on the road.
12. Resurfacing of roads by bitumen carpeting.
13. Epoxy painting of some critical doors like bathroom doors and external doors.
14. Painting of aluminum doors.
15. Periodic removal of grass from roads and roots of building and
sealing them.
37
16. Annual inspection of all buildings for cracks, seepage, settlement or

any other problems including recording condition of doors,
windows, almirahs, pelmets, kitchen cupboards etc.
17. Periodic round of external areas of the buildings and recording observations bout condition of
curious manholes, chambers, gully gratings, gully traps and taking steps for removal of their chokage,
their repairs/ replacement.
18. Repainting of various exposed piping (water supply, rain water pipes, sol pipes, waster water
pipes).
19. Repainting of various sign (on buildings and road sign boards).
20. Epoxy painting of those steel structures and piping which are important and easily
corroded. .
21. Re polishing of mosaic flooring.
22. Providing silicone based coatings on exposed brickwork tiles and stone cladding.
23. Polishing of woodwork.
24. Bitumen painting of C.I, covers and C.I. piping.

25. General cleaning of rubbish and debris.
(D) Frequency of Various Preventive Maintenance Works Item
S. no Item Periodicity
Residential Office Hospital Laboratory School
Bldg Bldg
A B C D E F G
1White / Colour wash 2 2 2 2 2 Years
2Applying dry distemper 2 2 2 2 2 Years
Plastic/Synthetic Enamel paint, oil
3bound distemper, acrylic paint 3 2 1 2 3 Years
Painting external surface with
4cement based paint 3 3 3 3 3 Years
Cleaning and disinfecting water
5storage tanks and pipe mains 6 6 3 6 6 Months
Cleaning manholes, gully
chambers, flushing building
6sewers 12 12 6 12 12 Months
7Cleaning of storm water drains 1 1 1 1 1 Years
Painting steel water tank inside
8with bitumastic paint 2 2 1 2 2 Years
9Polishing wooden doors/ windows 5 5 5 5 5 Years
38
10 Silicon based exterior paint 5 5 5 5 5 Years

11 Cleaning electrical installation 1 1 1 1 1 Years
12 Premix , carpeting of roads 5 5 5 5 5 Years
Water sample for physical,
13 chemical and bacteriological test 6 6 3 6 6 Months
Painting of external steel
14 structure 1 1 1 1 1 Years
Painting of room cooler, window
15 grills and frames 1 1 1 1 1 Years
16 Polishing Mosaic flooring 5 3 3 3 3 Years
17 Cleaning flat roof surface 6 6 6 6 6 Months
MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR MAINTENANCE WORKS (OR SPECIAL

REPAIRS)
As the building ages. there is deterioration of the various parts of the buildings and services
major repairs, renovations and replacement of various items become inevitable. This becomes
necessary to prevent the structure from undue deterioration, wear and tear and to restore it
back tools original condition to the extent possible so that the structure can serve
satisfactorily for a longer period.
(A) Types of major maintenance Work (or special repairs)
Major maintenance or special repairs generally include the following types of works in the
buildings.
(1) Repairs/ replacements of flooring, skirting, dado and plaster.
(2) Replacement of doors, windows shutters and frames.
(3) Repairs of internal roads and pavements.
(4) Replacement of water supply and sanitary fittings eg. water tanks, W.C. cistern & seats,
washbasins, kitchen sink etc.
(5) Water proofing treatment to roofs and concrete water tanks.
(6) Anti termite treatment in buildings.

,
(7) Replacement of water distribution pipes.
(8) Special repairs pertaining to major seepage problems in buildings.
Recommended periods for replacement of various items of buildings are mentioned in item
(C ) . However it should be borne in mind that period of replacement far various items of
buildings can be substantially increased by proper routine maintenance, proper periodic or
preventive maintenance. The negligence in routine maintenance will lead to more preventive
maintenance and negligence in both routine and preventive maintenance will lead to more
major maintenance or special pairs which otherwise could have been postponed.
39
(B) Modus Operandi for execution of Major Maintenance.
Since maintenance works involve relatively larger amount of money to be spent, general1y for
execution of them proper case is made,
The estimate is prepared and the proposal put forward to appropriate committee or authority
for approval.
A major maintenance register is required to be maintained by concerned official where all

such jobs done relating to major repairs, renovations of replacements in various buildings are
systematically entered.
(C) Replacement Schedule for Various Items
Note. Period mentioned above is the minimum period and it is not necessary that items are to
be replaced by this period. Judicious and careful decision has to be made before replacement.
81. Name of item Minimum Remarks

No. period for
replacement
1 Replacement of water supply 10 years
sanitary fittings (e.g. WC,
wash basin sinks, water tank
Etc.)
2. Replacement of doors - do -
windows
3. Water proofing treatment on - do -
roof and in tanks
4. Silicon coating on exposed 5 Years
brickwork '
5.Replacement of flooring 10 years
plaster skirting and dado
6. Anti termite treatment 10 Years
buildings
7. Replacement of G.I water 20-25 years
supply pipes
8. Replacement of internal - do -
electrical wiring
9. Re grassing of lawns 5-10 years
10. Renovation of lawn 5-6 vears
11. Replanting of hedges 8-10 Years
12. Replanting of rose beds, 5-6 Years
perennial beds
40
COSTING IN CIVIL MAINTENANCE
Plinth Area Rates for Civil Maintenance of Buildings as on July 2001 (Rs./sq.m)
Type of Routine or Day to day Preventive Special Repairs or Major

Sl. No. Building Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
Age
Age 0-20 Age 21- above
years 40 years 40years
1 Residential 20.34 23.3 14.83 24.58 34.32
2Hostels 26.27 30.8 14.83 16.95 34.32
3Office 23.3 26.69 25.42 42.38 59.31
Hospitals
4& Lab 57.96 66.53 39.41 65.26 91.53
Notes:
(1) The above plinth area. rates exclude maintenance cost of electrical and mechanical works
like pumps, air conditioning, lifts etc.
(2) The above plinth area rates are only for buildings and do not include external civil works
of developmental works (e.g. external water supply sewerage drains, roads, pavements). To
account for their maintenance in a campus like situation 20% may be added in the above cost.
(3) The above plinth area. rates include the wages, other benefits and tools & tackles
provided to routine maintenance gang workers.
(4) The above plinth area rates are applicable for calculation of yearly maintenance budget.
(6) The above rates based on CPWD norms.

RECORD KEEPING FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF CIVIL
MAINTENANCE
For effective management of maintenance especially of large premises and Campus proper
record keeping is a must. Maintenance of the following registers will not only help smooth
management of maintenance but will also be helpful form audit and counts point of view.
1. Stock Register: Stock register give the latest status of various materials as on date
purchased for the purpose of maintenance works it has the entries relating to receipt of
material, issue, return and balance of each material as on date. One can have a clear idea of
the consumption of various material in different complaints and jobs from this register. Stock
register should be: filled regularly as when any material is received or issued or returned etc.
2. Preventive Maintenance Register: This register should have the details of all preventive
maintenance works being done annually or once in 2-3 years. An index should be prepared at
the beginning of register where various preventive maintenance works should be allotted in
41
register for each preventive maintenance work.
3. Routing Maintenance Register: This register is used to record day to day complaints of the
occupants of carious buildings and also the general complaints relating to site and common
areas noticed by maintenance staff, supervisor and Engineer.
On the basis of the complaints recorded in this register, a job card is prepared for each complaint and
handed over by supervisor to the concerned workman for execution. After attending the complaint the
workman gets signature of indenter or user and submit the job card to supervisor.
4. Major Maintenance Register: This register records special repairs done I various building.
Since such works involve relatively bigger expenditure, separate approvals generally need to
be taken before execution and they normally are done through a contract by issuing a work
order Recordings in major maintenance register are normally done building wise so that one
can know the frequency of such major maintenance works done for each building re take
corrective steps a required in the index various buildings names (name wise or nowise) can
be lisled and few pages allotted lo each building.
5. Scrap Register, This register is used to keep a record of those items which have become scrap after
being replaced by a new item/fixture. This scrap is deposited in a junkyard and a list of scrap items is
handed over at regular intervals to the concerned official responsible for auction of the scrap. For
bigger items, a proper write off procedure should be followed involving a committee for approval of
higher official as the case may be.
6. Useful Dismantled Materials Register: Sometimes in maintenance or renovation or

additional/alterations works, certain materials are dismantled which are in good shape and
can be utilized somewhere else. Such materials should be stored separately in a 'Useful
Dismantled
Materials Store and should be labeled with a slip indicating under which complaint. or
work order they have been removed. These materials can be subsequently used in any other
maintenance renovation / addition/ alternations work with proper noting.
7. Estate Information file or Register

There are may information data and figures which a maintenance engineer. should keep
with him for ready reference for efficient management of Civil maintenance e. g.
(a) Flat nos. for room nos. in case of office) and names of occupants.
(b) Alphabetical list of names of occupants and their telephone nos.
(c) Size (dimensions) of various buildings. no. of floors & story height of buildings.
(d) Floor areas of various buildings at various floors.
(e) Ground f1oor level, roof level and intermediate floor levels of various buildings.
(f) Areas for painting of various buildings (This will be helpful for making estimates and
carrying out painting of various buildings)
(g) Sketches or small size plans of various buildings and services ( under the charge of
maintenance .engineer) for ready reference.
(h) List of types of flooring and wall painting in various buildings at different locations (required
for the purpose of preventive maintenance).
(i) Other important data/figures relating to site water tanks. Bore wells etc.
42
A layout drawing of the whole site or project should be pen11anently put on the display board as it is
most often used for discussion.
8. Drawings Record .& Storage: For efficient maintenance, maintenance engineer. should have
a set of drawings for all buildings, services maintained under him where he can see any
details whenever required. For this, if possible, a drawing cabinet should be procured where
all the drawings should be systematically kept in proper categories.
Similarly a drawing register should be maintained where all the drawings should be listed serially
under respective categories.
9. Correspondence Files: Correspondence files should also be properly maintained for trouble
free maintenance.
43
DILAPIDATION AND DAMAGE MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER
DISTRESS IN BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES AND THEIR REHABILITATION
A. INTRODUCTION
Buildings/Structures undergoing dilapidation can be classified under two
categories:
a) those which could be rehabilitated after a distress or dilapidation
b) those which are completely unsuitable for rehabilitation after a distress or peril
and will have to be destructed for rebuilding.
The judgment on the above lines are normally carried out on technological or economic
cost considerations. Yet sometimes social or political influences play a role in arriving at
a decision on rehabilitation.
B. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DILAPIDATED BUILDINGS FOR WORKING
OUT REHABILITATION PLANS AND THEIR EXECUTION:
The dilapidated buildings selected for rehabilitation should be analysed for severity of
the damage under the two headings:
B.1. BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES WITH AFFECTED OR DISTRESSED
FOUNDATIONS.
B.2. BUILDINGS WITH AFFECTED OR DISTRESSED SUPERSTRUCTURE.
B.1. BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES WITH AFFECTED OR DISTRESSED
FOUNDATION
Distress of foundation of buildings and structures may be due to :-
B.1.a ) Ingress of ground-water into soil layers below foundation thereby altering the
moisture content of the soil.
B.1.b ) Increase in stress in adjoining area around foundation which is termed
―influence areaǁ (SKETCH NO. B1 illustrates the phenomenon). This may
be caused by additional stress generated in the area mentioned, by adjoining
buildings/ structures which may have come up recently and was absent
previously when the building under examination was built.
44
B.1. c ) Possible Remedies

1. As explained in SKETCH NO.B2 suitable no. of shallow bore holes with
pipe will have to be erected along the foundation raft and sand-water
slurry pumped in by slurry pump through the bore holes.
2. Stress relieving of foundation supporting soil, (stress generated by adjoining
building foundations as mentioned earlier) can be arranged by a girdle-channel
filled with sand and topping up soil around the foundation rafts. This method
has been illustrated by SKETCH B3.Afore-said relief girdle can save
foundations from evil effects of vibration generated by movement
of heavy trucks along nearby/ adjoining roads and also from similar
disturbances generated by moving Railway Vehicles if tracks for them are
situated nearby.
B.2. BUILDINGS WITH AFFECTED OR DISTRESED SUPER STRUCTURE
Except low rise buildings R.C.C. frames are used. These R.C.C. frames as
well as other R.C.C. oriented components like roofs, stair-case frames,
lintels etc. are also made out of reinforced or un-reinforced concrete
as their principal constituents. These concrete oriented structures or
structural components undergo distress due to:-
a) Aging
b) Damages caused by various perils such as lightning, fire, explosion
(internal and external), High-Wind etc.
a) Aging:- During normal process of aging of a concrete structure the
following causes deterioration
i) Mechanical:- aberration, erosion, wearing, fatigue.
ii) Physical :- shrinkage, swelling, freezing, thawing.
iii) Chemical :- leaching, formation of harmful components, corrosion of
steel re-inforcements.
Rehabilitation requirements of structures after the aforesaid occurrences can be
avoided or minimized if the following precautions are adopted during construction.
i) Use of high-density concrete.

ii) Adequate cover over re-inforcements.
iii) Use of corrosion resistant re-inforcements.
45
iv) Use of corrosion inhibitor.

In case of default during construction, the above mentioned arrangements should be
incorporated during rehabilitation of the building and structure.
b) Rehabilitation after occurrence of perils as mentioned above will be on the lines
detailed below:-
i) Incase of fire burnt out plasters, bricks or concrete blocks should be replaced.
Floor tiles similarly should be replaced.
In case of other perils, the damaged and semi-damaged components or sub-
units should be replaced.
During the processes of rehabilitation particular care should be taken for
Provision of external supports special chemicals and adhesives should be used for
creation of adequate bond between old and new concrete.
Incorporation of additional structural members of concrete with proper re-
enforcement whenever the strength of a particular portion of structure has
got affected.
c ) Arrangements for non-destructive testings after damaged units are repaired/
rehabilitated.
This in many cases will be essential for certifying the structures or portion of
structures fit for use after rehabilitation.
The Test-equipment should be of portable type such as calibrated
jacks, tensionometers, compression-recorder etc.
Size and type of equipments should be selected on a case to case basis.
Sometimes standard gadgets of afore-said testings will have to be incorporated
with specially fabricated devices.
The loads upto which the non-destructive testing will have to be carried out will have
to be worked out from stress-calculations or estimations befitting the applications of
the repaired or rehabilitated units or subunits of concrete structures.
46

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Building Maintenance & Repairs

PRACTISING VALUERS ASSOCIATION INDIA

2. Notes on Bricks, sands etc.

A specification is a specific description of a particular subject. An engineering specification

i) The cost of an unit quantity work is governed by specification.

How to write specification:

1. Preparation of clay: sun soiling, digging, cleaning weathering, blending, tempering

Qualities of good bricks:

1). Brick should be uniform in shape and of standard size .

Size: (without mortar)

Presence of soluble salts:

Natural sources of sands: i)Pit sand ii).River sand iii).Sea sand.

Properties of good sand:

Wt retained in cumulative weight cumulative % cumulative %

total 500gm. 246

Function of sand: (in mortar)

i) Bulk: it does not increase strength of mortar but it acts as an adulterant.

The study of aggregates should be under the following heading –

Classification of aggregate( coarse or fine)

Normal weight aggregate should be covered by two types :

ii) Reinforcement : For heavily reinforced concrete maximum size to be restricted

Angular – higher bond characteristics between aggregate and cement paste.

STRENGTH: IS 2386 IV 1963. Mechanical properties of aggregates.

Abarasion Test : Material taken in a cylinder, rotated at a speed 20 – 23 rev/min. for

Sp:Gravity – it is required for the calculation of design mix. 2.6 – 2.8.

Cleanliness : No clayee / material or other impurities should be present.

The raw materials used for Manufacture of cement consists %

Identification of major oxides present in the raw material when subject to

• Water requirement for hydration is 38% ( 23% chemical reach on + 15 to fill

Testing of Cement: (a) Field Testing.(b) Laboratory Testing.

After 3 days 16 n/mm2 43 quantity 27 grade

Water is an important ingredient in concrete as it actively participates in the

In practice, very often great control on properties of cement and aggregates

Sodium carbonate causes which setting - bicarbonate may accelerate or retard

(6) Algae in water cause a marked reduction in strength if concrete . Reduces

USE OF SEA WATER :

Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be

hydration. But apart from these considerations water is required to control of

Factors Affecting Workability:

(b) Mix proportion : Aggregate / Cement ratio is an important factor.

(d) Surface texture : A smooth aggregate will contribute higher workability.

Slump Value Placing condition.

Mass concrete, lightly reinforced

Heavily reinforced section in

Trench filling pilling. 100-150 High.

Segregation : Segregation can be defined as the separation of constituents materials

Bleeding : Bleeding is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of

When to start curing & how long to cure :

Ordinary concrete Characteristic compressive strength of

Stripping Time : Normally where the ambient temperature does not

Type of Form work Minimum period before striking form work.

1) Vertical form work to columns, walls 16 – 24 hr.

For Footing cover shall be 50 mm.

Yield Stress = 415 N / M2

Carbon Sulphur Phosphorus

Cross sectional Area and mass: Branded - SAIL / TATA

Local : KR STEEL UNIOW / TMT / CS.

Cracks can be classified as structural and non structural cracks.

The principal causes of occurrence of cracks.

3) Foundation movement and settlement

Soluble sulphates present in water / soils.

d) Alkali aggregate reaction