EXPERIMENTAL AND PREDICTION OF CTOD METHOD

USED MONEL AND INCONEL WELDING

 ABSTRACT

As one of the essential criteria of assessment to welding toughness,

CTOD(Crack tip opening displacement) is widely applied in engineering. With
the development of the ocean engineering and highly Critical Boilers material
wants the high-strength steel and ultra-high-strength steel. As the complicated
welding joints, high-strength and large thickness, the welding procedure of the
marine structure and critical boilers becomes the key to the construction of the
platform. So, the paper analysis the selection of promising Nickel alloy steel
like Inconel , Monel material weld performance through evaluate the Hardness
and Toughness through CTOD.
The assessments on welded joints of the CTOD values are in the acceptable
range. This method provides some useful guidance in researches of allowable
CTOD values.
 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION

With the development of the ocean engineering, the high-strength steel and ultra
high strength steel are widely applied in the Deep water Semi Submersible
Drilling Platform. As the complicated welding joints, high-strength and big
thickness, the welding procedure of the marine structure becomes the key to the
construction of the platform. The specification and classification societies
around the world are beginning to take the CTOD tests as a means to assess the
toughness of the welded joints and the high-strength and heavy steel plates.
However, there is much difference on the allowance value of CTOD with
different societies, especially for the new high-strength and heavy steel plates.
As the steel plates applied in the ocean engineering structure becomes more and
more thicker, the acceptable CTOD value of different Standards are applied to
prevent the structural safety and stability.

It is good practice in any measurement to evaluate and report the

uncertainty associated with the test results. A statement of uncertainty may be
required by a customer who wishes to know the limits within which the reported
result may be assumed to lie, or the test laboratory itself may wish to develop a
better understanding of which particular aspects of the test procedure have the
greatest effect on results so that this may be monitored more closely. Fracture
toughness is usually used as a generic term for measures of material resistance
to extension of a crack. It is restricted to results of fracture mechanics tests in
this work, which are directly applicable to fracture control and to fracture test in
describing the material property for a crack to resist fracture. The experimental
measurement and standardization of fracture toughness play an imperative role
in application of fracture mechanics methods to structural integrity assessment,
damage tolerance design, fitness-for-service evaluation, and residual strength
analysis for different engineering components and structures. The fracture
toughness values may also serve as a basis in material characterization,
performance evaluation, and quality assurance for typical engineering
structures, including nuclear pressure vessels and piping, petrochemical vessels
and tanks, oil and gas pipelines, and automotive, ship and aircraft structures.
Therefore, fracture toughness testing and evaluation has been a very important
subject in development of fracture mechanics method and its engineering
applications.

DISSIMILAR MATERIAL WELDING

In modern steel constructions it is extremely important, and sometimes

unavoidable, to perform a durable dissimilar metal weld between low alloyed or
carbon steel and stainless steel. A schematic picture of a dissimilar metal weld
is presented figure 1. When welding such dissimilar metal welds the choice of
filler metal plays a big role and usually has a composition differing from both of
the parent metals. The composition of the weld metal will therefore be a mix of
the parent metals and the filler metal at some specific ratio.

During welding of dissimilar metal welds it is important to control the

composition of the weld metal. From assumptions that the weld metal consists
of a mix of the parent metals and the filler metal the composition can be
estimated. Narrow control of the resulting weld metal composition is important
to decrease the risk of defects in the weld, such as hot cracks or sigma phase
formation. The composition is also important to control so that the weld metal
properties corresponds the required ones. The filler metal normally used in
dissimilar metal welds is over-alloyed austenitic stainless steel with a relatively
large amount of ferrite. If the welds are exposed to high temperatures or an
intense thermal cycle, nickel based alloys are usually used as filler metal.

In a dissimilar metal weld between carbon steel and stainless steel it is

important to reduce the dilution with the carbon steel, in order to obtain a good
microstructure. It is therefore common to not point the arc directly on the
carbon steel side, but rather to angle the torch slightly toward the stainless steel.
Another important factor to optimize during welding of a dissimilar metal weld
is the inter pass temperature, i.e. the actual temperature in the already present
weld bead before welding starts during multi pass welding.

Welding dissimilar metal welds faces many characteristic problems

caused by structural changes and several constitutional changes can occur
during welding. Changes in the dilution ratio of the parent metals are possible
and affected by the welding conditions. During welding a stable manufacturing
and good crack resistance is important. If the dilution between the filler metal
and parent metals increases, the ferrite content will decrease in the case of
welding low alloyed or carbon steel to stainless steel with a filler metal of over-
alloyed austenitic stainless steel. If the amount of stainless steel diluted to the
weld metal increases the structure can be fully austenitic and the risk of hot
cracking increases significantly.

On the other hand, if the dilution with the low alloyed steel increases a
structure with more martensite is created which is a hard and brittle structure. If
the ferrite content becomes too high, thermal ageing during operation at
elevated temperatures may lead to a transformation of the ferrite to sigma phase
or as spinodal decomposition. The sigma phase is very brittle, due to this joints
used in systems that operates at high temperatures should have as low ferrite
content as possible.
FACTOR FOR DISSIMILAR METAL WELDING

The weld metal composition is usually not uniform throughout the weld,
especially in multi pass welds. A composition gradient is likely to arise in the
weld metal between the two parent metals. The solidification procedure of the
weld metal is influenced by the dilution and the composition gradients, this is
important with respect to hot cracking. When designing a dissimilar metal weld
final weld metal and the mechanical properties must be considered. The factors
that usually are responsible for failure of dissimilar metal welds are:

 Alloying problems and formation of brittle phase and limited mutual

solubility of the two metals
 Widely differing melting points
 Differences in thermal expansion coefficients
 Differences in thermal conductivity

When designing a butt weld to a dissimilar metal weld, attention must be given
to the melting characteristics of the both parent metals and the filler metal, as
much as to the dilution effect. Large joints will permit better control of the
molten weld metal, decrease the dilution and provide room for control of the arc
for good fusion. It is important that the joint design provides appropriate
dilution for the first few passes. It is not unusual for dissimilar metal welds to
have a failure in shorter time than the expected lifetime. Most of the failures of
a dissimilar metal weld between austenitic steel and low alloyed steel occur in
the HAZ on the low alloyed steel side, close to the weld interface. These
failures usually fulfill one or more of the following criteria

 High stresses resulting in creep at the interface between the weld metal
and parent metals due to differences in thermal expansion.
  A weakening in the HAZ on the low alloyed or carbon steel side due to
carbon migration from the low alloyed steel side to the austenitic steel
side.
 Oxidation at the interface that is accelerated by the presence of the
stresses induced by the welding.

A chemical composition gradient is likely to arise in the weld metal and

especially close to the parent metals. If the dissimilar metal weld is operating at
an elevated temperature inter diffusion between the parent metals and weld
metal is possible which could result in a modified microstructure. This is can
happen when an austenitic stainless steel is used as a filler metal. Chromium
that has a greater affinity to carbon than iron, therefore it is likely for the carbon
to diffuse from the parent metal to the weld metal during temperatures above
425 °C. Carbon migration usually takes place during post-weld heat treatment
or when operating at elevated temperatures or cryogenic environment.

The parent metals and the weld metal has different corrosion behaviors
that must be considered when producing a dissimilar metal weld. For example a
galvanic cell could be created and trigger corrosion of the most anodic metal or
the most anodic phase in the weld. Corrosion at a micro structural level is
possible in the weld metal that usually consists of several different micro
structural phases. To avoid galvanic corrosion the composition of the weld
metal could be changed to provide a cathodic protection to the parent metal that
is the most vulnerable to corrosion attack. A cathodic protection is a good
option as long as it does not threaten the mechanical properties of the dissimilar
metal weld.
 Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

“standard technical features of BTG system for supercritical 660/800mw

thermal units”, Government of India Ministry of Power Central Electricity
Authority New Delhi .July 2013.”Supercritical technology is an established and
proven technology with 500 supercritical units. Ultra supercritical parameters
with pressure of 250-300Kg/cm2 and main steam temperature 600-610oc.
Research is underway to further increase the stream temperature to 700oC

David a. metzler, supplement to the welding journal, June 2012

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research
Council. Strain-Age Cracking Susceptibility of Ni Based Super alloys as a
Function of Strain Rate, Temperature, and Alloy Composition.

M V Venkatesan, N Murugan, B M Prasad, A Manickavasagam

discussed the influence of flux cored arc welding (FCAW) process parameters
such as welding current, travel speed, voltage and C02 shielding gas flow rate
on bowing distortion of 409M ferritic stainless steel sheets of 2 mm in
thickness. The bowing distortions of the welded plates were measured using a
simple device called profile tracer. An experimental regression equation was
developed to predict the bowing distortion and with this equation, it is easy to
select optimized process parameters to achieve minimum bowing distortion. It
is revealed that the FCAW process parameters have significant influence on
bead profile and the bowing distortion.

E. Taban, E. Deleu, A. Dhooge, E. Kaluc presented micro structural and

toughness properties and mechanical properties of gas metal arc welded 6 mm
thick modified X2CrNi12 stainless steel with two different heat inputs.
According to results, grain size has dominant effect on impact toughness. Grain
coarsening has no adverse influence either on tensile properties or on bend
properties but the heat affected zone impact toughness for sub-zero
temperatures generally decreases and this depends on the amount of grain
coarsened microstructures and eventual precipitates present.

P. Kanjilal, T.K. Pal, S.K. Majumdar developed a rotatable designs

based on statistical experiments for mixtures to predict the combined effect of
flux mixture and welding parameters on submerged arc weld metal chemical
composition and mechanical properties. Bead-on-plate weld deposits on low
carbon steel plates were made at different flux composition and welding
parameter combinations. The results show that flux mixture related variables
based on individual flux ingredients and welding parameters have individual as
well as interaction effects on responses, viz. weld metal chemical composition
and mechanical properties.

Chengwu et al. In their work on weld interface microstructure and

mechanical properties of dissimilar welding, the microstructure near the
interface between plate and the intermixing zone was investigated.
Experimental results showed that for the welded joint with high dilution ratio of
alloy there was a transition zone with numerous filler particles near the
interface. However, if the dilution ratio of alloy is low, the transition zone is
only generated near the upper side of the interface. At the lower side of the
interface, the turbulent bursting behaviour in the welding pool led to the
penetration of liquid metal. The welded joint with lower dilution ratio of alloy
in the fusion zone exhibited higher tensile strength. Jiang and Guan studied the
thermal stress and residual stress in dissimilar steels. They suggested that large
residual stresses are induced by welding in the weld metal and heat affected
zone (HAZ), which superimpose and increase the thermal stress. Gyun Na, Kim
and Lim studied the residual stress and its prediction for dissimilar welds at
nuclear plants using Fuzzy Neural network models. The factors that have an
impact upon fatigue strength are residual stress, stress concentration, the
mechanical properties of the material, and its micro and macro structure.

Gyun Na et al. Stated that residual stress is one of the most important
factors but its effect on high-cycle fatigue is of more concern than the other
factors. Residual stress is a tension or compression that exists in a material
without any external load being applied, and the residual stresses in a
component or structure are caused by incompatible internal permanent strains.
Welding, which is one of the most significant causes of residual stress, typically
produces large tensile stresses, the maximum value of which is approximately
equal to the yield strength of materials that are joined by lower compressive
residual stresses in a component. The residual stress of welding can
significantly impair the performance and reliability of welded structures.

The integrity of welded joints must be ensured against fatigue or

corrosion during their long use in welded components or structures. On stress
corrosion cracking Gyun Na et al. Stated that stress-corrosion cracking
usually occurs when the following three factors exist at the same time:
susceptible material, corrosive environment, and tensile stress including residual
stress. Thus, residual stress becomes very critical for stress-corrosion cracking
when it is difficult to improve the material corrosiveness of the components and
their environment under operating conditions. Khan et al. studied laser beam
welding of dissimilar stainless steels in a fillet joint configuration and during the
study metallurgical analysis of the weld interface was done. Fusion zone
microstructures contained a variety of complex austenite ferrite structures.
Local micro-hardness of fusion zone was greater than that of both base metals.
The welding fusion zone microstructure consists of mostly primary ferrite
dendrites with an interdendritic layer of austenite. This austenite forms through
a peritecticeutectic reaction and exists at the ferrite solidification boundaries at
the end of solidification. Some lathy ferrite morphology is also observed in this
zone. This is due to restricted diffusion during ferrite–austenite transformation
that results in a residual ferrite pattern.

Khan et al. Came to the conclusion that formation of ferrite along the
austenite grain boundary in the heat affected zone on austenite side is observed.
At the same time, microstructures are composed of two-phase ferrite and
martensite with intra-granular carbide on ferrite side. Also the variation in local
micro-hardness observed across the weld depends on the fraction intermix of
each base metal and the redistribution of austenite- and ferrite-promoting
elements in the weld. Itoh et al. Got a patent on the joined structure on the
metallic materials. This invention relates generally to a joined structure of
dissimilar metallic materials having different characteristics. More specifically,
the invention relates to a joined structure of a current carrying contact or
arching contact which are used for, e.g., a power breaker, or a coating end
structure of a metal base and a coating material for improving conductivity and
heat resistance
 Chapter-3

SELECTION OF
MATERIALS
 Chapter-3

SELECTION OF MATERIAL

Monel

Monel is a group of nickel alloys, primarily composed of nickel (up to 67%)

and copper, with small amounts of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon.
Stronger than pure nickel, Monel alloys are resistant to corrosion by many
agents, including rapidly flowing seawater. They can be fabricated readily by
hot- and cold-working, machining, and welding.

Monel was created by Robert Crooks Stanley, who worked for the
International Nickel Company (INCO) in 1901. Monel alloy is a binary alloy of
the same proportions of nickel and copper as is found naturally in the nickel ore
from the Sudbury (Ontario) mines and is therefore considered a puritan alloy.
Monel was named after company president Ambrose Monell, and patented in
1906. One L was dropped, because family names were not allowed as
trademarks at that time. The name is now a trademark of Special Metals
Corporation. It is a very expensive alloy, with cost ranging from 5 to 10 times
the cost of copper and nickel, hence its use is limited to those applications
where it cannot be replaced with Cheaper alternatives.

Properties of various Materials:

Material Density Young’s Poisson’s ratio

Modulus

Steel 7850 2.1 0.30

Stainless Steel 8000 1.9 0.30
Cast Iron 7300 1.1 0.26
Aluminium 2700 0.7 0.33
Copper 8800 1.1 0.34
Magnesium 1800 0.45 0.35
Titanium 4500 1.1 0.34
Nickel 8900 2 0.31
Inconel 8800 2 0.32
Monel 8400 1.8 0.31

Thermal Properties of Various materials:

Material Thermal Thermal Specific Heat
Expansion conductivity
Steel 11 50 486
Stainless Steel 11 20 550
Cast Iron 11 40 544
Aluminium 23 208 900
Copper 17 385 385
Magnesium 26 90 1050
Titanium 9 10 550
Nickel 14 70 450
 Inconel 13 10 410
Monel 14 20 427

Monel properties

Properties Monel is a solid-solution binary alloy. As nickel and copper are

mutually soluble in all proportions, it is a single phase alloy. Compared to steel,
Monel is very difficult to machine as it work-hardens very quickly. It needs to
be turned and worked at slow speeds and low feed rates. It is resistant to
corrosion and acids, and some alloys can withstand a fire in pure oxygen. It is
commonly used in applications with highly corrosive conditions. Small
additions of aluminium and titanium form an alloy with the same corrosion
resistance but with much greater strength due to gamma prime formation on
aging. Monel is typically much more expensive than stainless steel. Monel alloy
400 has a specific gravity of 8.80, a melting range of 1300-1350 °C, an
electrical conductivity of approximately 34% IACS, and (in the annealed state)
a hardness of 65 Rockwell B.
Monel alloy 400 is notable for its toughness, which is maintained over a
considerable range of temperatures. Monel alloy has excellent mechanical
properties at subzero temperatures. Strength and hardness increase with only
slight impairment of ductility or impact resistance. The alloy does not undergo a
ductile to-brittle transition even when cooled to the temperature of liquid
hydrogen. This is in marked contrast to many ferrous materials which are brittle
at low temperatures despite their increased strength
Uses of monal

 Aerospace applications

 Oil production and refining

 Marine applications
Aerospace applications

In the 1960s, Monel metal found bulk uses in aircraft construction, especially in
making the frames and skins of experimental rocket planes, such as the North
American, to resist the great heat generated by aerodynamic friction during
extremely high speed flight. Monel metal retains its strength at very high
temperatures, allowing it to maintain its shape at high atmospheric flight speeds,
a trade off against the increased weight of the parts due to Monel’s high density.
Monel is used for safety wiring in the aircraft maintenance to ensure that
fasteners cannot come undone, usually in high-temperature areas; stainless wire
is used in other areas for economy.
Oil production and refining
Monel is used in the section of Alkylation units in direct contact with
concentrated hydrofluoric acid. Indeed, Monel offers exceptional resistance to
hydrofluoric acid in all concentrations up to the boiling point. It is perhaps the
most resistant of all commonly used engineering alloys. The alloy is also
resistant to many forms of sulfuric and hydrochloric acids under reducing
conditions.
Marine applications
Monel’s corrosion resistance makes it ideal in applications such as piping
systems, pump shafts, seawater valves, trolling wire, and strainer baskets. Some
alloys are completely non magnetic and are used for anchor cable aboard
minesweepers, housings for magnetic-field measurement equipment. In
recreational boating, Monel wire is used to seize shackles for anchor ropes,
Monel is used for water and fuel tanks, and for underwater applications. It is
also used for propeller shafts and for keel bolts. However, because of the
problem of electrolytic action in salt water (also known as Galvanic corrosion),
in shipbuilding Monel must be carefully insulated from other metals such as
steel. The New York Times of August 12, 1915 published an article about a
215-foot yacht, “the first ship that has ever been built with an entirely Monel
hull,” that “went to pieces” in just six weeks and had to be scrapped, “on
account of the disintegration of her bottom by electrical action.” The yacht’s
steel skeleton deteriorated due to electrolytic interaction with the Monel. In
seabird research, and bird banding or ringing in particular, Monel has been used
to make bird bands or rings for many species such as albatross that live in a
corrosive sea water environment

2. INCONEL

Inconel is a non-magnetic, corrosion and oxidation resistant, nickel based

alloy. This alloy has high fatigue strength, exhibits excellent resistance to
stress corrosion cracking. Nickel and Chromium provide stabilizing effect
from oxidizing environments. The nickel based alloys like Inconel also resist
problems caused due to carbon migration. Pitting and crevice corrosion are
prevented by Molybdenum stabilizes the alloy against sensitization during
welding. Due to these properties, Inconel is widely used in dissimilar
welding. The composition of Inconel which has been used in this analysis.
Strength of INCONEL alloy is derived from the stiffening effect of
molybdenum and niobium on its nickel-chromium matrix; thus precipitation
hardening treatments are not required. This combination of elements also is
responsible for superior resistance to a wide range of corrosive environments of
unusual severity as well as to high temperature effects such as oxidation and
carburization. The properties of INCONEL alloy that make it an excellent
choice for sea-water applications are freedom from local attack (pitting and
crevice corrosion), high corrosion-fatigue strength, high tensile strength, and
resistance to chloride-ion stress corrosion cracking. It is used as wire rope for
mooring cables, propeller blades for motor patrol gunboats, submarine auxiliary
propulsion motors, submarine quick disconnect fittings, exhaust ducts for Navy
utility boats, sheathing for undersea communication cables, submarine
transducer controls, and steam-line bellows. Potential applications are springs,
seals, bellows for submerged controls, electrical cable connectors, fasteners,
flexure devices, and oceanographic instrument components.

High tensile, creep, and rupture strength; outstanding fatigue and thermal
fatigue strength; oxidation resistance; and excellent weldability and brazeability
are the properties of INCONEL alloy that make it interesting to the aerospace
field. It is being used in such applications as aircraft ducting systems, engine
exhaust systems, thrust-reverser systems, resistance welded honeycomb
structures for housing engine controls, fuel and hydraulic line tubing, spray
bars, bellows, turbine shroud rings, and heat-exchanger tubing in environmental
control systems. It is also suitable for combustion system transition liners,
turbine seals, compressor vanes, and thrust-chamber tubing for rocket the
outstanding and versatile corrosion resistance of INCONEL alloy under a wide
range of temperatures and pressures is a primary reason for its wide acceptance
in the chemical processing field. Because of its ease of fabrication, it is made
into a variety of components for plant equipment. Its high strength enables it to
be used, for example, in thinner-walled vessels or tubing than possible with
other materials, thus improving heat transfer and saving weight. Some
applications requiring the combination of strength and corrosion resistance
offered by INCONEL alloy are bubble caps, tubing, reaction vessels, distillation
columns, heat exchangers, transfer piping, and valves. In the nuclear field,
INCONEL alloy may be used for reactor core and control rod components in
nuclear water reactors. The material can be selected because of its high strength,
excellent uniform corrosion resistance, resistance to stress cracking and
excellent pitting resistance in 500°-600°F (260-316°C) water. Alloy is also
being considered in advanced reactor concepts because of its high allowable
design strength at elevated temperatures, especially between 1200°-1400°F
(649-760°C). The properties given in this bulletin, results of extensive testing,
are typical of the alloy but should not be used for specification purposes.
Applicable specifications appear in the last section of this publication.

Mechanical properties

For service at 1200°F and below, hot finished, cold-finished, and annealed
conditions (depending on requirements involved) are recommended. For service
above 1200°F, either annealed or solution-treated material will give best
service. The solution-treated condition is recommended for components that
require optimum resistance to creep or rupture. Fine-grained (annealed) material
may be advantageous at temperatures up to 1500°F with respect to fatigue
strength, hardness, and tensile and yield strength. Two-load was used for
determination of the true stress-strain curve for alloy 625 at room temperature.
The two-load test requires no strain measurement during the test, and only the
maximum and fracture loads are recorded. Data for both annealed and solution-
treated material are shown in Figure
 Figure – True stress-true strain of round.

Tensile Properties and Hardness

Typical tensile properties of annealed and solution treated material from room
to elevated temperature. The approximate relationship between the hardness and
tensile and yield strength of strip. Increased tensile properties for service at
moderate temperature can be achieved by cold work. See the section, “Working
Instructions” for some specific data. Upon exposure to intermediate
temperatures, some hardening takes place in alloy 625. To demonstrate this
reaction, samples of annealed rod were exposed to 1200°, 1400°, and 1600°F
for 2000 hours. The effect of exposure on properties both at room temperature
and at exposure temperature is shown in Table 6. Measurements were made to
determine dimensional stability; the samples exposed at 1200° to 1400°F for
2000 hours contracted about 0.048%.
Microstructure

INCONEL alloy 625 is a solid-solution matrix stiffened face cantered cubic

alloy. The alloy may contain carbides, which are inherent in this type of alloy.
Carbides that can be found are MC and M6C (rich in nickel, niobium,
molybdenum, and carbon). In addition M23C6, a chromium-rich carbide,
appears in solution-treated material exposed at lower temperatures. The
hardening effect that takes place in the material on exposure in the range
centered around 1200°F (See Mechanical Properties section) is due to sluggish
precipitation of a nickel-niobium-rich phase, gamma prime.

This phase gradually transforms to orthorhombic Ni3 Nb when the alloy

is heated for long times in the intermediate temperature range. Extensive
investigation of the stability of alloy 625 following exposure for extended
periods in the 1000° to 1800°F temperature range has shown complete absence
of embrittling inter metallic phases such as sigma.
INCONAL APPLICATION

 pollution control

 power, marine

 chemical processing

 Oil and gas industries.

INCONAL

Chemical composition

ELEMENTS % LEVEL
C 0.05 max

Mn 0.50 max.

Si 0.50 max.

Cu 0.50 max.

S 0.015 max

Cr 27.0 – 31.0

Ni 58.0 min

Fe 7.0 – 11.0

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL

Alloying elements are added to effect changes in the properties of steels. The
basis of this section is to cover some of the different alloying elements added to
the basic system of iron and carbon, and what they do to change the properties
or effectiveness of steel.
Carbon
As I've already stated, the presence of carbon in iron is necessary to make steel.
Carbon is essential to the formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and
to the formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite,
with martensite being the hardest of the micro-structures, and the structure
sought after by knife makers. The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the
hardenability) is increased by the addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65
percent. Wear resistance can be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent.
Beyond this amount, increases of carbon reduce toughness and increase
brittleness. The steels of interest to knife makers generally contain between 0.5
and 1.5 percent carbon. They are described as follows

 Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent

 Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent
 High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5 percent
Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.

Manganese
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the
hardness penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching
speed. This also makes the steel more stable in the quench. Steels with
manganese can be quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore are less
susceptible to cracking because of a reduction in the shock of quenching.
Manganese is present in most commercially made steels.
Chromium
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness penetration.
This element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5 percent chromium
or more is used in conjunction with manganese, the critical quenching speed is
reduced to the point that the steel becomes air hardening. Chromium can also
increase the toughness of steel, as well as the wear resistance. Probably one of
the most well known effects of chromium on steel is the tendency to resist
staining and corrosion. Steels with 14 percent or more chromium are referred to
as stainless steels. A more accurate term would be stain resistant. Stainless tool
steels will in fact darken and rust, just not as readily as the non stainless
varieties. Steels with chromium also have higher critical temperatures in heat
treatment.
Silicon
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel. It slightly increases
the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other alloys can help
increase the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.
Nickel
Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength of the
steel. It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability.
Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching
phase of heat treatment.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical
quenching speed, and increases high temperature tensile strength.
Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting grain
growth it helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.
Tungsten
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel during
heat treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no loss of
toughness. High amounts combined with chromium gives steel a property
known as red hardness. This means that the steel will not lose its working
hardness at high temperatures. An example of this would be tools designed to
cut hard materials at high speeds, where the friction between the tool and the
material would generate high temperatures.
Sulfur

Sulfur is added to certain stainless steels to increase their machinability. At the

levels present in these grades, sulfur slightly reduces corrosion resistance,
ductility, weldability, and formability. At Outokumpu the trademark PRODEC
(Production EConomy) is used for some grades with balanced sulfur levels for
improved machinability. Lower levels of sulfur can be added to decrease work
hardening for improved formability. Slightly increased sulfur content also
improves the weldability of steel.

Cerium: Cerium is one of the rare earth metals (REM) and is added in small
amounts to certain heat-resistant grades to increase resistance to oxidation at
high temperatures.

WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS

Gas : ARGON
Rod : ER304L (Filler Rod)
Flow Rate : 4-6L/min
Current : 60-110A
Speed : LOW SPEED
Class Diameter Range : 1.6mm
Voltage : 10-12V
Polarity : DCEN-Direct Current Electrode Negative
Bead : Weaving Bead
Heat Input : Medium Heat Input
NEED OF WPS

In the existing system the WPS, it does not contain any details regarding the
mechanical and thermal properties for the welding process. Hereby we are
going optimize the WPS for TIG and SMAW based on the mechanical and
thermal properties considerations in order to reduce the Stress, Thermal stress,
Residual stress achieve good weld strength.

Welding could be done without preparation of WPS, but which may

results in improper weld or with defects like weld decay, knife line attack and
stress corrosion cracking. To avoid such cases WPS is followed in all industries.
Sometimes improper welding will increase the strength due to this the life time
of materials may be changed. To overcome those weld defects WPS is
optimized, use extra low carbon electrode, avoiding hylogen family.
 Chapter-4

WELDING PROCESS
 Chapter-4

WELDING PROCESS

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials by causing coalescence in

which heat is supplied either electrically or by mean of a gas torch, This is often
done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint,
with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce
the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a
lower-melting-point material between the work pieces to form a bond between
them, without melting the work pieces. Welding is also the least expensive
process and widely used now a days in fabrication. Welding is also called as
secondary manufacturing process.

WELDING PARAMETERS

Tungsten inert-gas arc welding

Tungsten inert-gas arc welding (TIG) is a fusion welding method that was
developed in the late 1930’s. The TIG-method is characterized by its high
quality weld metal deposits, great precision, superior surfaces and excellent
strength. TIG is the most common welding method used for pipes and tubes
with a wall thickness from 0.3 mm and upward. In the TIG-method a non
consumable electrode of tungsten or tungsten alloy is used, in comparison to
other common welding methods where the filler metal also is the electrode.

FILLER ROD (Ref-A.W.S)

E 304 Corrosion resistant

E 316, 304L, 330 High and low temperature strength

E 410, 420 Abrasion resistant

E304-16 electrodes are used to weld unstabilized 18-8 stainless steels such as
Types 301, 302, 304, 305, and 308. E308-16 electrodes provide corrosion
resistance and physical properties equal to or greater than the steels for which
they are recommended. Typical applications include dairy, distillery and
restaurant equipment, and chemical tanks. To prevent oxygen in the air from
oxidizing the weld pool and the heated material, a shielding gas is used during
TIG-welding. The shielding gas is also important to promote a stable metal
transfer through the arc, the shielding gas commonly used for TIG-welding is
argon. The root side of the weld also needs protection from oxidizing in form of
a backing gas during the production of the first weld beads. The backing gas
helps the weld bead to form correctly and keep the weld bead from becoming
porous or crack.
The TIG-welding method has some great advantages, they are:
 Produces a high quality and a low-distortion weld
 Free of splatter that is associated with other methods
 Can be used with or without filler metal
 Can be used in a wide range of power supplies
 Can weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal welds
 Gives precise control of welding heat.
E316 FILLER ROD PROPERTIES

 All position stainless steel electrode for 304L or equivalent steels

 Excellent corrosion resistance in oxidizing environments such as nitric
acid
 High resistance to inter granular corrosion
 Smooth bead appearance
 Easy slag release
 High Toughness and strength.
TIG-METHOD IS A VERY HIGH QUALITY WELDING METHOD

THERE ARE SOME LIMITATIONS:

 Creates lower deposition rates than consumable electrode arc welding

processes
 Demands somewhat more skill and welder coordination than gas metal
arc welding or shield metal arc welding when welding manually
 Less economical than consumable electrode arc welding for sections
thicker than 9.5 mm
 Challenging in draughty environments due to difficulty in shielding the
weld zone properly
 Tungsten inclusions can be created if the electrode make contact with the
weld pool

INFLUENCE OF CURRENT

Dc electrode negative (DCSP) is one in which the work piece is connected to

positive and the electrode is connected to negative. In this type 70% of heat
goes to work and 30% to electrode. In this type we can get deep and narrow
penetration. Dc electrode positive (DCNP) is one in which the work piece is
connected to negative and the electrode is connected to work piece. In this type
35% of heat goes to work and 65% to electrode. In this type we can get wide
and shallow penetration.
Alternating current (AC BALANCED) is one in which the 50% of heat goes to
work and 50% to electrode. In this type we can get medium penetration. But the
capacity of electrode is good when compared to DCEP.

HORIZONTAL POSITION

The horizontal welding position is also known as the 2G or 2F. It is slightly

harder to do than the flat weld as gravity is trying to pull the molten metal down
towards the ground. But it is still easy to do.

VERTICAL POSITION

This is the one that we all have trouble with the dredded vertical up weld. This
is also called the 3G or 3F, and you can go up or down. As mention before
going up in this position is called the vertical up weld and going down is the
vertical down.
OVERHEAD POSITION

The overhead welding position is just that, overhead. The welding

position here is also known as the 4G or 4F.

DOWNHAND POSITION
The flat welding position when welding like this is called the 1G or 1F. It is the
most basic and easiest welding position

CTOD (CRACK TIP OPEN DISPLACEMENT): FRACTURE TEST

One of the important goals of material/component design is to avoid

catastrophic failure. If crack propagation is steady, then we can practice
preventive maintenance (i.e. replace the component after certain hours of
service) → this cannot be done in the case of catastrophic failure

• Fracture is related to propagation of cracks, leading to the failure of the

material/component.
• Crack propagation leads to the creation of new surface area, which further
leads to the increase in the surface energy of the solid.
• However, in fracture the surface energy involved (the fracture surface
energy) is typically greater than the intrinsic surface energy as fracture
involves ‘sub-surface’ atoms to some extent.
• Additionally, the fracture surface energy may involve terms arising out of
energy dissipation due to micro-cracking, phase transformation and
plastic deformation.
• Cracks in general may have several geometries. Even a circular hole can
be considered as a very ‘blunt’ crack. A crack may lie fully enclosed by
the material or may have ‘crack faces’ connected to the outer surface.
 Cracks connected with outer surface may be profoundly influenced by the
environment.
• Crack propagation leads to the creation of new surface area, which further
leads to the increase in the surface energy of the solid. However, in
fracture the surface energy involved (the fracture surface energy) is
typically greater than the intrinsic surface energy as fracture involves
‘sub-surface’ atoms to some extent. Additionally, the fracture surface
energy may involve terms arising out of energy dissipation due to micro-
cracking, phase transformation and plastic deformation.

Fracture mechanics is the subject of study, wherein the materials resistance to

fracture is characterized. In other words the ‘tolerance’ of a material to crack
propagation is analyzed. Crack propagation can be steady (i.e. slowly increasing
crack length with time or load) or can be catastrophic (unsteady crack
propagation, leading to sudden failure of the material

‘What dislocation is to slip, crack is to fracture’. Under tensile loading if the

stress exceeds the yield strength the material, the material begins to plastically
deform. The area under the stress-strain curve is designated as the toughness in
uniaxial tension. Toughness relates to the energy absorbed to fracture.
Similarly, in the presence of cracks we arrive at a material parameter, which
characterizes the toughness of the material in the presence of cracks→ the
fracture toughness. In most materials, even if the material is macroscopically
brittle (i.e. shows very little plastic deformation in a uniaxial tension test), there
might be some ductility at the microscopic level.

This implies that in most materials the crack tip is not ‘infinitely’ sharp,
but is blunted a little. The subject of Fracture mechanics has its origins in the
failure of WWII Liberty ships. In one of the cases the ship virtually broke into
two with a loud sound, when it was in the harbour i.e. not in ‘fighting mode’.
This was caused by lack of fracture toughness at the weld joint, resulting in the
propagation of ‘brittle cracks’ (i.e. crack propagation will little plastic
deformation). The full list of factors contributing to this failure is in the figure
below. It is seen that welding was done for faster production, but this resulted in
micro-cracks and residual stresses, which led to brittle crack propagation. The
problem became ‘global’ as this provided continuity of crack path across plates
(so instead of one plate breaking the entire ship ‘broke’). High sulphur in steel
contributed to the brittleness of the plates.
CRACK

Though often in figures the crack is shown to have a large lateral extent, it is
usually assumed that the crack does not lead to an appreciable decrease in the
load bearing area [i.e. crack is a local stress amplifier, rather than a ‘global’
weakener by decreasing the load bearing area].

A crack in a material

2a

Cracks can be sharp in brittle materials, while in ductile materials plastic

deformation at the crack-tip blunts the crack (leading to a lowered stress at the
crack tip and further alteration of nature of the stress distribution).
Even void or a through hole in the material can be considered a crack. Though
often a crack is considered to be a discontinuity in the material with a ‘sharp’
feature (i.e. the stress amplification factor is large). A second phase (usually
hard brittle phase) in a lens/needle like geometry can lead to stress amplification
and hence be considered a crack. Further, (in some cases) debonding at the
interface between the second phase and matrix can lead to the formation of an
interface cracks. As the crack propagates fresh (internal) surface area is created.
The fracture surface energy required for this comes from the strain energy
stored in the material (which could further come from the work done by
externally applied loads). In ductile materials energy is also expended for plastic
deformation at the crack tip. Cracks with some contact with external surfaces
are exposed to outer media and hence may be prone to oxidation and corrosion
(cracking). We will learn about stress corrosion cracking later.

 Crack length (the deleterious effect of a crack further depends on the type
of crack (i, ii or iii as above).
 Crack tip radius (the sharper the crack, the more deleterious it is). Crack
tip radius is dependent of the type of loading and the ductility of the
material.
 Crack orientation with respect to geometry and loading. We will see
modes of loading in this context soon.

Three ideal cases of loading of a cracked body can be considered, which are
called the modes of deformation
 Mode I: Opening mode
 Mode II: Sliding mode
 Mode III: Tearing mode
IMPORTANT FACTOR ABOUT FRACTURE

One of the goals of fracture mechanics is to derive a material property (the

fracture toughness), which can characterize the mechanical behaviour of a
material with flaws (cracks) in it. fracture can broadly be classified into Brittle
and Ductile fracture. This is usually done using the macroscopic ductility
observed and usually not taking into account the microscale plasticity, which
could be significant. A ductile material is one, which yields before fracture.
Further, one would like to avoid brittle fracture, wherein crack propagation
leading to failure occurs with very little absorption of energy (in brittle fracture
the crack may grow unstably, without much predictability).

Three factors have a profound influence on the nature of fracture:

(1) temperature,

(2) Strain rate,

(3) The state of stress.
Materials which behave in a brittle fashion at low temperature may become
ductile at high temperatures. When strain rate is increased (by a few orders of
magnitude) a ductile material may start to behave in a brittle fashion.

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS:

 Crack-tip stresses lead to plastic deformation at the crack-tip, which

further leads to crack tip blunting.
 Energy is consumed due to plastic deformation at the crack-tip (which
comes from elastic strain energy). This implies less energy is available
for crack growth (& creation of new surfaces).
 Crack-tip blunting leads to a reduced stress amplification at the crack-tip.
Blunting will avoid ‘stress singularity’ at the crack tip and may lead to a
maximum stress at a certain distance from the crack-tip (as in the figure
below).
 Crack-tip blunting will lead to an increased resistance to crack
propagation (i.e. increased fracture toughness).
In brittle materials the maximum crack opening stress (mode-I) is at the crack
tip and hence crack propagation involves breaking of bonds at the crack tip. In
ductile materials the maximum of stress lies a little ahead of the crack tip. In
this scenario the mechanism of cracking changes. Void(s) nucleate in the
region of highest stress (usually at some heterogeneity).The region between the
void and the crack tip acts like a tensile specimen and micro voids form in this
region. Crack extension occurs by the coalescence of these micro-voids.
 High magnitude of crack tip stresses can cause yielding at the crack tip
(plastic deformation).
  This leads to crack tip blunting, which reduces the stress amplification.

There develops a zone ahead of the crack tip known as the process zone.

AFTER WELDING STRENGTH MEASUREMENT

Tensile test

Tensile test is used to determine the tensile strength of the specimen, %

elongation of length and % reduction of area. Tensile test is usually carried out
in universal testing machine. A universal testing machine is used to test
tensile strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many
standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures.
The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an extensometer if
required can automatically record the change in gauge length during the test. If
an extensometer is not fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement
between its cross heads on which the specimen is held. However, this method
not only records the change in length of the specimen but also all other
extending / elastic components of the testing machine and its drive systems
including any slipping of the specimen in the grips. Once the machine is started
it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen. Throughout the tests the
control system and its associated software record the load and extension or
compression of the specimen.

HARDNESS TEST

A simple and economical way to characterize the mechanical properties and

microstructure is by performing hardness measurements. By performing
hardness measurements the highest and lowest levels of hardness can be
determined. In dissimilar metal welds the hardness level of parent metals and
weld metal are determined. The most interesting part is where the transition
from parent metal to weld metal takes place and in the root bead of the weld.

A cross-section from each sample is taken transverse the weld by

mechanical cutting. It is important that the preparations of the samples do not
affect the surface metallurgical by hot or cold work. After the samples are cut
they are grinded and polished in order to make as good preparation as possible.
The numbers of indentations need to be enough to assure that hardened and
softened zones are tested, i.e. that the indentations do not affect each other.

This gives the metals ability to show resistance to indentation which

show it’s resistance to wear and abrasion. Hardness testing of welds and their
Heat Affected Zones (HAZs) usually requires testing on a microscopic scale
using a diamond indenter. The Vickers Hardness test is the predominant test
method with Knoop testing being applied to HAZ testing in some instances.
Hardness values referred to in this document will be reported in terms of
Vickers Number, HV.

TOUGHNESS TEST :( FRACTURE TOUGHNESS)

It is well understood that ductile and brittle are relative, and thus interchange
between these two modes of fracture is achievable with ease. The term ductile
to-Brittle transition (DBT) is used in relation to the temperature dependence of
the measured impact energy absorption. For a material, as the temperature is
lowered, the impact energy drops suddenly over a relatively narrow temperature
range, below which the energy has a considerably lower value as a
representative of brittle fracture. The principal measurement from the impact
test is the energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Energy expended during
fracture is sometimes known as notch toughness. The energy expended will be
high for complete ductile fracture, while it is less for brittle fracture. However,
it is important to note that measurement of energy expended is only a relative
energy, and cannot be used directly as design consideration. Another common
result from the Charpy test is by examining the fracture surface. It is useful in
determining whether the fracture is fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage
fracture), or a mixture of both.
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
 Chapter-5

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

 Non-ferrous metals with high strength and toughness

 Higher creep stress and rupture properties when compared with 304
 Ideal for high temperature services
 Overcomes sensitization and inter granular corrosion concerns
 Can be used in elevated temperature applications for ASME boiler and
pressure vessel code application
 Corrosion resistance, wear resistance
 Aerospace aircraft gas turbines
 Steam turbine power plants, medical applications
 Chemical and petrochemical industries
 Strength at elevated temperatures and Excellent Mechanical properties
 Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes
them to change their shape when subjected to a magnetic field.
 Nickel-based alloys are used in many applications where they are
subjected to harsh environments at high temperatures. Nickel-
chromium alloys or alloys that contain more than about 15% Cr are
used to provide both oxidation and carburization resistance at
temperatures exceeding 760°C.
CONCLUSION
 Chapter-6

CONCLUSION

As the steel plates applied in the ocean engineering structure becomes more and
more thicker, the acceptable CTOD value of different Standards are applied to
prevent the structural safety and stability. Such as the minimum acceptable
value for required standard. This paper takes the single edge fatigue pre crack of
CTOD specimen as a flaw under the guidance of ASTM Standard, plots the
FADs of the welding seam center. The failure boundary value which are applied
in the acceptable value of CTOD. In the meanwhile, the present CTOD test
ensures the straightness of the front crack with the partial compression method,
which would cause the results of test much more conservative. According to the
critical CTOD value calculated above, it suggests that the CTOD acceptable
value of heavy plates could be modified lower appropriately based on value
specified by Standards.
REFERENCES
 REFERENCES

1. Parmar.R.S. “Welding Engineering and Technology”, Khanna publishers,

Delhi. (1997)

2. O.P.Khanna,“Text book material science & metallurgy” Dhanpatrai

publications (1999)

3. C.P.Sharma, “ Engineering material properties and application of metals

and alloys” PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, delhi 2013

4. R.B. Choudry, “ Material science and metallurgy” Khanna publications

2011

5. N.K. Srinivasan, “ Welding technology” Khanna publications 2012

6. P.R.RAMANATHAN “Piping and welding technology”, 2014.

7. PD6493:1991.Guidance on some methods for the derivation of

acceptance levels for defects in fusion welded joints.