force plates

force plates are measuring instruments that measure the ground reaction forces
generated by a body standing on or moving across them, to quantify balance, gait
and other parameters of biomechanics. Most common areas of application are
medicine and sports.

The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal, instrumented as a load
cell. Better designs have a pair of rectangular plates, although triangular can also
work, one over another with load cells or triaxial force transducers between them at
the corners. The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal,
instrumented as a load cell. Better designs have a pair of rectangular plates,
although triangular can also work, one over another with load cells or triaxial force
transducers between them at the corneThe simplest force plates measure only the
vertical component of the force in the geometric centre of the platform. More
advanced models measure the three-dimensional components of the single
equivalent force applied to the surface and its point of application, usually called
the centre of pressure, as well as the vertical moment of forcrs.

Force platforms may be classified as single-pedestal or multi-pedestal

Single pedestal models, sometimes called load cells, are suitable for forces that are
applied over a small area. For studies of movements, such as gait analysis, force
platforms with at least three pedestals and usually four are used to permit forces
that migrate across the plate. For example, during walking ground reaction forces
start at the heel and finish near the big toe.

Pressure measuring plates are useful for quantifying the pressure patterns under a
foot over time but cannot quantify horizontal or shear components of the applied
forces

The measurements from a force platform can be either studied in isolation, or

combined with other data, such as limb kinematics to understand the principles of
locomotion. If an organism makes a standing jump from a force plate, the data from
the plate alone is sufficient to calculate acceleration, work, power output, jump
angle, and jump distance using basic physics. Simultaneous video measurements of
leg joint angles and force plate output can allow the determination of torque, work
and power at each joint using a method called inverse dynamics.

pressure transducer
A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog
electrical signal. Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of
the most common is the strain-gage base transducer. The conversion of pressure
into an electrical signal is achieved by the physical deformation of strain gages
which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure transducer and wired into a
wheatstone bridge configuration. Pressure applied to the pressure transducer
produces a deflection of the diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The
strain will produce an electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure.

Pressure transducers are generally available with three types of electrical

output; millivolt, amplified voltage and 4-20mA. Below is a summary of
the outputs and when they are best used.

1. Millivolt Output Pressure Transducers

Transducers with millivolt output are normally the most economical pressure
transducers. The output of the millivolt transducer is nominally around 30mV.
The actual output is directly proportional to the pressure transducer input
power or excitation. If the excitation fluctuates, the output will change also.
Because of this dependence on the excitation level, regulated power supplies
are suggested for use with millivolt transducers. Because the output signal is
so low, the transducer should not be located in an electrically noisy
environment. The distances between the transducer and the readout
instrument should also be kept relatively short.

2. Voltage Output Pressure Transducers

Voltage output transducers include integral signal conditioning which provide

a much higher output than a millivolt transducer. The output is normally 0-
5Vdc or 0-10Vdc. Although model specific, the output of the transducer is not
normally a direct function of excitation. This means unregulated power
supplies are often sufficient as long as they fall within a specified power
range. Because they have a higher level output these transducers are not as
susceptible to electrical noise as millivolt transducers and can therefore be
used in much more industrial environments.

3. 4-20 mA Output Pressure Transducers

These types of transducers are also known as pressure transmitters. Since a

4-20mA signal is least affected by electrical noise and resistance in the signal
wires, these transducers are best used when the signal must be transmitted
long distances. It is not uncommon to use these transducers in applications
where the lead wire must be 1000 feet or more.
Styles of Pressure Transducers
• PC Board Mountable Pressure Transducers

• General Purpose Transducers

• Heavy Duty/Industrial Pressure Transducers

• High Stability/High Accuracy Pressure Transducers

• Flush Diaphragm Pressure Transducers

• Special Purpose Transducers

ISOKINETIC EXERCISE DEVICE WITH SPEED

CONTROL
An isokinetic exercise device comprises in a linking arrangement first and second manually-
operated members with a floating plate and brake assembly therebetween, all members
mounted in rotation about a shaft member. A series of paired arcuate raceways, having a
non-linear sloped profile, are located in the opposing faces of the floating plate and the first
member. Captivation of a ball bearing between the raceways presents a driving connection
for transmittal of forces, created by operator rotation of the first and second members, to
the brake assembly. The brake assembly responds to such forces to retard rotation of the
first and second members linked thereto, such retardation presented as a resistance to the
user. A speed selector assembly provides for a selectable change in the location and
attitude of the driving connection so as to control the efficacy of the driving connection
which changes the degree of forces transmitted to the brake assembly. The brake assembly
is functionally responsive to such changes so as to vary the retardation offered to the
rotatable members and thus the resistance presented to the user. The speed selector
accordingly provides selectable speeds of operation to the exercise device.

Electromyography (EMG)
Electromyography (EMG) is a technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity
produced by skeletal muscles.[1] EMG is performed using an instrument called an
electromyograph, to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph
detects the electrical potential generated by muscle cells[2] when these cells are electrically
or neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities,
activation level, recruitment order or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal
movement.
 • The electrical source is the muscle membrane potential of about -90 mV.[3]
Measured EMG potentials range between less than 50 μV and up to 20 to 30
mV, depending on the muscle under observation.

• Typical repetition rate of muscle motor unit firing is about 7–20 Hz, depending
on the size of the muscle (eye muscles versus seat (gluteal) muscles),
previous axonal damage and other factors. Damage to motor units can be
expected at ranges between 450 and 780 mV.[

Procedure
There are two kinds of EMG in widespread use: surface EMG and intramuscular (needle and
fine-wire) EMG. To perform intramuscular EMG, a needle electrode or a needle containing
two fine-wire electrodes is inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue. A trained
professional (such as a neurologist, physiatrist, or physical therapist observes the electrical
activity while inserting the electrode. The insertional activity provides valuable information
about the state of the muscle and its innervating nerve. Normal muscles at rest make
certain, normal electrical sounds when the needle is inserted into them. Then the electrical
activity when the muscle is at rest is studied. Abnormal spontaneous activity might indicate
some nerve and/or muscle damage. Then the patient is asked to contract the muscle
smoothly. The shape, size, and frequency of the resulting motor unit potentials are judged.
Then the electrode is retracted a few millimeters, and again the activity is analyzed until at
least 10–20 units have been collected. Each electrode track gives only a very local picture of
the activity of the whole muscle. Because skeletal muscles differ in the inner structure, the
electrode has to be placed at various locations to obtain an accurate study. Intramuscular
EMG may be considered too invasive or unnecessary in some cases. Instead, a surface
electrode may be used to monitor the general picture of muscle activation, as opposed to
the activity of only a few fibres as observed using a intramuscular EMG. This technique is
used in a number of settings; for example, in the physiotherapy clinic, muscle activation is
monitored using surface EMG and patients have an auditory or visual stimulus to help them
know when they are activating the muscle (biofeedback). A motor unit is defined as one
motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. When a motor unit fires, the impulse
(called an action potential) is carried down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where
the nerve contacts the muscle is called the neuromuscular junction, or the motor end plate.
After the action potential is transmitted across the neuromuscular junction, an action
potential is elicited in all of the innervated muscle fibers of that particular motor unit. The
sum of all this electrical activity is known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP). This
electrophysiologic activity from multiple motor units is the signal typically evaluated during
an EMG. The composition of the motor unit, the number of muscle fibres per motor unit, the
metabolic type of muscle fibres and many other factors affect the shape of the motor unit
potentials in the myogram. Nerve conduction testing is also often done at the same time as
an EMG to diagnose neurological diseases. Some patients can find the procedure somewhat
painful, whereas others experience only a small amount of discomfort when the needle is
inserted. The muscle or muscles being tested may be slightly sore for a day or two after the
procedure.
Normal results Muscle tissue at rest is normally electrically inactive. After the electrical
activity caused by the irritation of needle insertion subsides, the electromyograph should
detect no abnormal spontaneous activity (i.e., a muscle at rest should be electrically silent,
with the exception of the area of the neuromuscular junction, which is, under normal
circumstances, very spontaneously active). When the muscle is voluntarily contracted,
action potentials begin to appear. As the strength of the muscle contraction is increased,
more and more muscle fibers produce action potentials. When the muscle is fully
contracted, there should appear a disorderly group of action potentials of varying rates and
amplitudes (a complete recruitment and interference pattern).

Abnormal results

EMG is used to diagnose two general categories of disease: neuropathies and myopathies.

Neuropathic disease has the following defining EMG characteristics:

• An action potential amplitude that is twice normal due to the increased number of
fibres per motor unit because of reinnervation of denervated fibres.

• An increase in duration of the action potential

• A decrease in the number of motor units in the muscle (as found using motor unit
number estimation techniques)

Myopathic disease has these defining EMG characteristics:

• A decrease in duration of the action potential

• A reduction in the area to amplitude ratio of the action potential

• A decrease in the number of motor units in the muscle (in extremely severe cases
only)

Because of the individuality of each patient and disease, some of these characteristics may
not appear in every case.

Abnormal results may be caused by the following medical conditions (please note this is
nowhere near an exhaustive list of conditions that can result in abnormal EMG studies):

• Alcoholic neuropathy

• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

• Anterior compartment syndrome

• Axillary nerve dysfunction

• Becker's muscular dystrophy

• Brachial plexopathy
• Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Centronuclear myopathy

• Cervical spondylosis

• Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

• Chronic Immune Demyelinating Poly[radiculo]neuropathy (CIDP)

• Common peroneal nerve dysfunction

• Denervation (reduced nervous stimulation)

• Dermatomyositis

• Distal median nerve dysfunction

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy

• Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (Landouzy-Dejerine)

• Familial periodic paralysis

• Femoral nerve dysfunction

• Fields condition [3]

• Friedreich's ataxia

• Guillain-Barre

• Lambert-Eaton Syndrome

• Mononeuritis multiplex

• Mononeuropathy

• Motor neurone disease

• Multiple system atrophy

• Myasthenia gravis

• Myopathy (muscle degeneration, which may be caused by a number of disorders,

including muscular dystrophy)

• Myotubular myopathy

• Neuromyotonia
 • Peripheral neuropathy

• Poliomyelitis

• Polymyositis

• Radial nerve dysfunction

• Sciatic nerve dysfunction

• Sensorimotor polyneuropathy

• Sleep bruxism

• Spinal stenosis

• Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis

• Tibial nerve dysfunction

• Ulnar nerve dysfunction

Applications of EMG

EMG signals are used in many clinical and biomedical applications. EMG is used as a
diagnostics tool for identifying neuromuscular diseases, assessing low-back pain,
kinesiology, and disorders of motor control. EMG signals are also used as a control signal for
prosthetic devices such as prosthetic hands, arms, and lower limbs.

EMG can be used to sense isometric muscular activity where no movement is produced. This
enables definition of a class of subtle motionless gestures to control interfaces without being
noticed and without disrupting the surrounding environment. These signals can be used to
control a prosthesis or as a control signal for an electronic device such as a mobile phone or
PDA.

Gait analysis
Gait analysis is the systematic study of animal locomotion, more specific as a study of
human motion, using the eye and the brain of observers, augmented by instrumentation for
measuring body movements, body mechanics, and the activity of the muscles.[1] Gait
analysis is used to assess, plan, and treat individuals with conditions affecting their ability to
walk. It is also commonly used in sports to help athletes run more efficiently and to identify
posture-related or movement-related problems in people with injuries. The study
encompasses quantification, i.e. introduction and analysis of measurable parameters of
gaits, as well as interpretation, i.e. drawing various conclusions about the animal (health,
age, size, weight, speed, etc.) from its gait.

Equipment and techniques

Gait analysis commonly involves the measurement of the movement of the body in space
(kinematics) and the forces involved in producing these movements (kinetics).

Kinematics can be recorded using a variety of systems and methodologies:

• Chronophotography is the most basic method for the recording of movement. Strobe
lighting at known frequency has been used in the past to aid in the analysis of gait on
single photographic images.[5][6]

• Cine film or video recordings using footage from single or multiple cameras can be
used to measure joint angles and velocities. This method has been aided by the
development of analysis software that greatly simplifies the analysis process and
allows for analysis in three dimensions rather than two dimensions only.

• Passive marker systems, using reflective markers (typically reflective balls), allow for
very accurate measurement of movements using multiple cameras (typically five to
ten cameras), simultaneously. The cameras send out infra-red light signals and
detect the reflection from the markers placed on the body. Based on the angle and
time delay between the original and reflected signal triangulation of the marker in
space is possible. These are also used for motion capture in the motion picture
industry.[7]

• Active marker systems are similar to the passive marker system but use "active"
markers. These markers are triggered by the incoming infra red signal and respond
by sending out a corresponding signal of their own. This signal is then used to
triangulate the location of the marker. The advantage of this system over the passive
one is that individual markers work at predefined frequencies and therefore, have
their own "identity". This means that no post-processing of marker locations is
required, however, the systems tend to be less forgiving for out-of-view markers than
the passive systems.

• Inertial (camera-less) systems based on MEMS inertial sensors, biomechanical models

and sensor fusion algorithms. These full-body or partly systems can be used indoors
and outdoors regardless of lighting conditions.

A typical modern gait lab has several to many cameras (video and/or infra-red) placed
around a walkway or treadmill, which are linked to a computer. The patient has single
markers applied to anatomical landmarks, such as palpable bony landmarks (e.g., the iliac
spines of the pelvis, the malleoli of the ankle, and the condyles of the knee), or clusters of
markers applied to the middle of body segments. The patient walks down the walkway or
the treadmill and the computer calculates the trajectory of each marker in three dimensions.
A model is applied to compute the underlying motion of the bones. This gives a full
breakdown of the motion at each joint. In addition, to calculate movement kinetics, most
laboratories have floor-mounted load transducers, also known as force platforms, which
measure the ground reaction forces, including magnitude, direction, and location (called
centre of pressure). Adding this to the known dynamics of each body segment, enables the
solution of equations based on Newton's laws of motion and enables the computer to
calculate the net forces and the net moments of force about each joint at every stage of the
gait cycle. The computational method for this is known as inverse dynamics. This use of
kinetics, however, does not result in information for individual muscles but muscle groups,
such as the extensor or flexors of the limb. To detect the activity and contribution of
individual muscles to movement, it is necessary to investigate the electrical activity of
muscles. Many labs also use surface electrodes attached to the skin to detect the electrical
activity or electromyogram (EMG) of, for example, a muscles of the leg. In this way it is
possible to investigate the activation times of muscles and, to some degree, the magnitude
of their activation—thereby assessing their contribution to gait. Deviations from normal
kinematic, kinetic, or EMG patterns are used to diagnose specific conditions, predict the
outcome of treatments, or determine the effectiveness of training programs.

Biometric identification and forensics

Gait analysis techniques allow for the assessment of gait disorders and the effects of
corrective Orthopedic surgery. Options for treatment of cerebral palsy include the paralysis
of spastic muscles using Botox or the lengthening, re-attachment or detachment of
particular tendons. Corrections of distorted bony anatomy are also undertaken.

It is heavily used in the assessment of sports and investigations into the movement of a
large variety of other animals.

Minor variations in gait style can be used as a biometric identifier to identify individual
people. The parameters are grouped to spatial-temporal (step length, step width, walking
speed, cycle time) and kinematic (joint rotation of the hip, knee and ankle, mean joint
angles of the hip/knee/ankle, and thigh/trunk/foot angles) classes. There is a high correlation
between step length and height of a person.

Gait analysis was proposed as authentication for portable electronic devices.

For slip and fall investigations, the incident walking surface slip resistance can be measured.
The surface can be tested to identify if it is above or below accepted levels or slip
thresholds.

The English XL slip meter, also known as a VIT (Variable Incidence Tribometer) is a leading
edge portable "slip tester", which is designed to test the coefficient of friction or "slip index"
on various walking surfaces, level or incline (even steps), under dry and wet (or otherwise
contaminated) conditions by mimicking certain pedestrian biomechanical parameters. The
objective measurements that can be analyzed and compared with "normal" walking forces
and industry standards regarding flooring slip resistance

Patho mechanics of shoulder and hip joint