Cory Finch

Professor Lamer

Theories of Mass Communication

11/9/2016

Paper #3 – Cognitive-Affective Process Model of the Hostile Media Effect

The hostile media effect is an observed phenomenon where audiences tend to perceive

neutral news coverage as biased, or even hostile, against their own views. The term was coined

in 1985 by researchers Vallone, Ross, and Lepper; however, a recent theory and abundant

research continues to expand on this idea (Matthes, 2011). Until recently, much of the follow-up

research has focused on only the cognitive aspect even though the original 1985 study noted the

importance of both cognitive and affective processes affecting perception. In 2015, Jorg Matthes

and Auden Beyer proposed a cognitive-affective process model for the HME and conducted

research to test the model’s relevance (Matthes, Beyer, 2015). The studies conducted

surrounding the cognitive-affective model, as well as recent corollary studies examining other

aspects of the HME, have furthered the understanding of this effect and what roles the media and

audience play in influencing public opinion.

Prior to developing the cognitive-affective model, Matthes conducted preliminary

research in order to determine the relationship between cognitive and affective involvement in

predicting hostile media perception (HMP). He hypothesized that affective involvement could

influence HMP both independently and in addition to cognitive involvement. A content analysis

of news media and numerous surveys pertaining to controversial topics such as asylum policy

and corporate taxation reform were conducted. Throughout three studies, the relationship

between demographics, media use, cognitive factors such as attitude certainty and importance,

and affective involvement was examined.

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The results showed that affective involvement was a strong predictor of the HME, even

when various types of cognitive involvement were controlled (Matthes, 2011). Furthermore, they

imply that audience emotions and dispositions are important factors in perception of media

content its effects and that previously held attitudes and beliefs, developed by various sources of

influence not limited to media exposure, are not easily challenged by the media.

Matthes and Beyer followed up these studies by conducting further research in order to

construct a cognitive-affective process model. A survey was administered to a sample of French,

Norwegian, and American populations regarding illegal immigration, a shared controversial

topic, with questions measuring perceived news bias, trust in news media, positive/negative

affective involvement, and cognitive involvement. From the results of this study, the cognitive-

affective model was formed around the understanding that cognitive involvement drives

affective involvement. It states that media bias perception is increased when cognitive

involvement leads to negative affectivity, and actually decreased when it leads to positive

affectivity (Matthes, Beyer, 2015).

The implications of Matthes and Beyer’s model in the understanding of media effects are

complex. It recognizes that audiences are not simply passive, and that cognitive and affective

involvement influences how information is perceived. The effects of media can be, to varying

degrees, diminished by previously-held biases because when information is perceived as biased

against an audience, they aren’t likely to adopt it.

Findings of an experimental study examining news bias perception in Singapore support

the cognitive-affective model’s assertion that cognitive involvement with negative affectivity

increases perceived media bias. A sample of students aware of the issue of repealing or retaining

a bill were given a constructed news article to read appearing to either be from a local or foreign
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news source and then surveyed on factors such as perception of government’s position, personal

attitudes, and involvement. Results pertaining to the HME showed that participants with positive

affective involvement (in favor of retaining bill) perceived both stories as congruent with their

view, but those with negative affective involvement (in favor of repealing the bill) viewed the

local story as biased against their view, and the foreign story as relatively neutral (Chia, Cenite,

2012).

Research into political identity and media selection’s influence on HMP was conducted

by Lin, Haridakis, and Hanson (2016). Group status, intergroup bias, political ideology, political

cynicism, media motives, and media exposure were measure groups in the survey alongside

items measuring HMP. Results of the study showed that feelings of a participant’s political party

being viewed as inferior, intergroup bias, conservatism, and political cynicism were all

predictors of HMP. Radio and video-sharing site use were also predictors, while TV and social

media use were not (Lin, Haridakis, Hanson, 2016). These findings reinforce the cognitive-

affective model by outlining more cognitive and affective influences on HMP. For example,

cynicism can be rooted in factual information as well as personal feelings. Also, intergroup

influence and the influence of certain types of media on HMP adds yet another dynamic to

understanding the role of the HME.

When media elicits the HME, it can also affect people’s willingness to participate in

discursive activities. The role media indignation, or negative emotional reactions to media

coverage perceived to have partisan bias, (Hyunseo, Zhongdang, Ye, 2008) was explored in a

2008 study by Hyunseo and Zhongdang and Ye. A survey was administered to university

students in order to measure and examine the links between their HMP and media indignation

regarding three controversial topics (stem cell research, social security reform, and Bush’s
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surveillance program). Self-majority opinion incongruity, willingness to engage in discursive

activities, news media use and distrust, ideological and issue position extremity, and value-

involvement were measured. Results showed that those with strong HMP reported stronger

media indignation and that those emotional reactions were related to an increased willingness to

participate in discursive activities. This shows that the HME isn’t simply a perceptual

phenomenon, but that it also indicates emotional and behavioral reactions (Hyunseo, Zhongdang,

Ye, 2008).

Research has investigated ways that the HME can be reduced or even eliminated. Tsfati

and Huino (2014) conducted an experiment with politically involved Israelis, ideologically left

and right, to determine whether exposure to information about the HME would reduce its effect.

All participants were given stimulus materials relating to Jewish housing expansion in East

Jerusalem while only some were given an educational article on the HME. Findings indicated

that exposure to information about the HME research significantly reduced its effect upon

reading the stimulus article. A quote from the discussion section of this study outlines the

relationship between the strength of the HME and degree of media influence on an audience.

“When people perceive the press as hostile and mistrust the news media, the press loses some of

its influence on the audience, with important implications for media circulation and

profitability.” (Tsfati, Huino, 2014). With that being said, it appears to be in media creators’ best

interest to educate audiences on the HME in order to break down their bias barriers and exert

influence.

The research into various aspects of the hostile media effect is vast and the resulting

discoveries paint a complex picture of the role the media and audience play in influence and

perception, respectively. Matthes and Beyer’s cognitive-affective process model accounts for
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both types of involvement and displays the importance of affective involvement specifically,

unlike most prior research. Recent corollary studies have further expanded knowledge on the

HME, much of which supports the cognitive-affective model.

In terms of the effects of media, HME research examines the important role of audience

perception and bias as barriers to media persuasion, thus weakening its effect. However, even if

HMP block intended media effects from occurring, emotional and behavioral effects caused by

media indignation are also possible, which can include actions taken to correct perceived

injustice and unfairness (Hyunseo, Zhongdang, Ye, 2008). Finally, Tsfati and Huino’s (2014)

findings that the HME can be reduced by increasing public awareness of it are critical in

analyzing the extent of media effects. Within the context the cognitive-affective model, the

effects of the media can be considered somewhere in the middle of the road due to the

intertwining variables of issue involvement, and hence HMP (only with issue-negative

affectivity), knowledge of the HME, and possible emotional and behavioral effects resulting

from media indignation. This is displayed graphically on the following page.

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References

Chia, S. C., & Cenite, M. (2012). BIASED NEWS OR BIASED PUBLIC?. Journalism

Studies, 13(1), 124-140. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2011.601957

Hyunseo, H., Zhongdang, P., & Ye, S. (2008). Influence of Hostile Media Perception on

Willingness to Engage in Discursive Activities: An Examination of Mediating Role of

Media Indignation. Media Psychology, 11(1), 76-97. doi:10.1080/15213260701813454

Lin, M., Haridakis, P. M., & Hanson, G. (2016). The Role of Political Identity and Media

Selection on Perceptions of Hostile Media Bias During the 2012 Presidential

Campaign. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 60(3), 425-447.

doi:10.1080/08838151.2016.1203316

Matthes, J. (2011). The Affective Underpinnings of Hostile Media Perceptions: Exploring the

Distinct Effects of Affective and Cognitive Involvement. Communication

Research, 40(3), 360-387. doi:10.1177/0093650211420255

Matthes, J., & Beyer, A. (2015). Toward a Cognitive-Affective Process Model of Hostile Media

Perceptions: A Multi-Country Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Communication

Research, 1-24. doi: 10.1177/0093650215594234

Tsfati, Y., & Huino, H. (2014). Research Findings Weaken Perceptions of Media

Bias. Newspaper Research Journal, 35(1), 82-95. doi: 10.1177/073953291403500107