TRADITIONAL

AFRICAN
CEREAL FOODS
AND BEVERAGES
HOW THEY CAN HELP US DEVELOP
BETTER GLUTEN-FREE PRODUCTS
John Taylor
Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well-being
and
Department of Food Science
University of Pretoria
John.taylor@up.ac.za
WHY GLUTEN-FREE FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTS?

Where are all these new apartment buildings – China?

No In fact
Addis Ababa – Ethiopia
 Until the “Age of Discovery”
starting in the 15th Century
Most People in the World
did not know Wheat and Barley

People in the Americas, Asia and Africa

Developed Sophisticated Technologies
to Optimise the Processing of their
Local Grains
 Phylogenetic relationship
between the cereal species

www.maizegenetics.net
 Phylogenetic relationship
` between the cereal species

www.maizegenetics.net
Beers and Non-alcoholic
Cereal Beverages
 Uji Motoho Mageu
Kenya Lesotho South Africa

African Soured Non-alcoholic Cereal Beverages

Bacteria from a traditional African Lactic acid bacteria on
soured beverage (strain of starch granules
Lactobacillus plantarum) in sorghum fermentation
Traditional Opaque-type Sorghum Beer – Southern Africa
Sorghum Lager Beer Brewery next to Lake Victoria - Uganda
 Sorghum Malt
or Thermostable
Alpha-amylase
110
Proteases
Temperature (oC)
COOKING
100 Cellulases
+
90 Raw Sorghum Fungal alpha-amylase
80 MASH IN
MASHING
70
60
50
0 50 100 150 200 250

Brewing time (min)

Simplified General Process
for Brewing Sorghum Lager/Stout
using Raw Sorghum, Sorghum Malt and
Commercial Enzymes
Traditional Cloudy-type
Pito (Dolo) Beer
- Ghana
(Burkina Faso)
Dolo/Pito Beer Making in Burkina Faso and Ghana

Sorghum floor
malting for Pito
Beer- Ghana
Mashing
 Mashing

Adding Grewia bark

(contains a hydrocolloid)
to sorghum malt mash
 Starchy adjunct cooking

Adding the starchy adjunct to the mash cooker

 Starchy adjunct Cooking and Mashing processes

After cooking –
The adjunct it is returned back to the mash vessel (foreground)
Mashing is then carried out overnight
Flocculation of wort insoluble solids
Wort clarification
 Sorghum
malt

What Were The Ladies Doing

In the Mashing Process?

Step 1: Add sorghum malt to warm

Warm
Water water with stirring
Step 2: Add Hydrocolloid
Allow starchy solids to settle out
 Step 3: Remove starchy solids

Enzyme extract Starchy

`
Solids
 Step 4: Cook starchy solids to gelatinise
the starch

Enzyme extract Starchy

`
Solids

COOK
 Cooked
Starchy
Solids
Step 5: Allow to cool somewhat
Add cooked starchy solids
back to enzyme extract

Enzyme
Extract
Step 6: Mash

Malt amylases hydrolyse cooked starch into sugars

 From: G.H. Palmer et al. 1989.
MIRCEN J Appl. Micro. Biotech 5: 265
“Recently, a decantation mashing procedure was
devised to convert sorghum malt more efficiently”

1. The mash is carried out at 45oC for 30 min

2. The active enzymic wort (amylase enzyme rich solution) is

decanted

3. The starchy-grist residue is heated to 80oC or 100oC to gelatinize

the starch

4. The mash is then cooled and the decanted enzymic wort is re-
added to achieve a conversion (starch hydrolysis) temperature of
65oC”
 Decoction
(from β-amylase) (from α-amylase)

Effect of Different Mashing Conditions with Sorghum Malt

Taylor, JRN.1992. J. Amer. Soc. Brew. Chem. 50:13
Breads and Baked Goods
OLD? DOUGH-MAKING TECHNOLOGY

LACTIC ACID
FERMENTATION

Sourdough Technology
Traditional in Africa

For Making Breads with

Non-wheat Cereals

- Sorghum, Maize, Millets,

Rice, Teff

Traditional KISRA
flatbread from Sorghum
- Sudan
INJERA flatbread - Ethiopia
 INJERA FLOWCHART

KEY INJERA TECHNOLOGIES

• Mixed yeast LAB sourdough

fermentation
• Pre-gelatinise part of the dough

Yetneberk S. et al. Cereal Chem. 2004.

 Sourdough Fermentation
Increases Maize Bread Loaf Volume

- Much larger gas cells and open crumb structure

Falade A T et al. J. Cereal Sci. 2014.

 Effect of Sourdough
Sorghum ferm
Wheat-(standard)
fermentation on
Sorghum unferm Mixolab dough
profile
B Fonio 2 ferm Sorghum and Fonio
B Fonio 1 ferm Compared to Wheat
B Fonio 2 unferm
B Fonio 1 unferm

W Fonio 1 ferm Edema, M.O. et al. 2013.

W Fonio 2 ferm Starch/Stärke
W Fonio 1 unferm
W Fonio 2 unferm
 Sourdough fermentation produces a more cohesive
maize dough - Larger more uniform gas bubbles/cells
in the dough and bread

Dough

Bread

Straight Chemically Sourdough L. plantarum Sourdough

dough acidified L. plantarum fermented fermented fermented
With yeast dough fermented dough dough dough
With yeast dough With yeast No yeast No yeast
With yeast

Falade A T et al. J. Cereal Sci. 2014.

 Elastic modulus Loss modulus Shear stress
CSD CSD
CSD
6 1 5 1
10 10 4
10 10

A 10

Pa

d b Pa
a b
10
5

a a 10
3

spontaneously fermented maize dough without yeast 1c 1

spontaneously fermented maize dough without yeast 1c 1 spontaneously fermented maize dough without yeast 1
4

b
10 PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm] PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
G'' Loss Modulus

c
G' Storage Modulus Shear Stress
4
10 l.plantarum fermented maize dough without yeast1b 1

PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

G' Storage Modulus

c 2
l.plantarum fermented maize dough without yeast1b 1

PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

myny2b 1
G'' Loss Modulus
l.plantarum fermented maize dough without yeast1b 1

PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

Shear Stress

myny2b 1 10 myny2b 1
G''

d
G'
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm] PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

G' Storage Modulus G'' Loss Modulus

3 Shear Stress

c
10 chny3a 1
chny3a 1 chny3a 1

d
3 PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm] PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
10
G' Storage Modulus G'' Loss Modulus
Shear Stress

1
10
2
10

1 0 2 0
10 10 10 10 100
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 % 10 10 10 10 10 10 % 10 10 10 10 10 10 % 10
Strain Strain Strain

Elastic modulus Complex viscosity

Anton Paar GmbH

Tan delta
Anton Paar GmbH Anton Paar GmbH

G', G'' G', G'' G', G''

6 5
10 10 0.8

B
d d a
0.75

c b c
Pa
b Pa·s

b
0.7

0.65 d a
10
5
a b a msscny4a 1

10
4
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
0.6 msscny4a 1
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
msscny4a 1

b d
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

b
G' Storage Modulus 0.55 | *| Complex Viscosity
tan( ) Damping Factor
lpny1 1

a
lpny1 1
lpny1 1

a
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
0.5 PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

a
G' Storage Modulus | *| Complex Viscosity
tan( ) Damping Factor

bc
myny2b 1
0.45 myny2b 1

a
G' | *| myny2b 1
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm] tan( ) PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
G' Storage Modulus | *| Complex Viscosity
0.4 tan( ) Damping Factor

b
chny3b 1 chny3b 1

c c
chny3b 1
PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
4 3 0.35 PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]

a
10 PP25-SN25508; [d=2 mm]
10 G' Storage Modulus | *| Complex Viscosity

c d
tan( ) Damping Factor

0.3

d b c d 0.25

d
c d c 0.2

0.15
3 2
10 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 °C 160 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 °C 1600.1
Temperature T 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 °C 160
Temperature T
Anton Paar GmbH
Temperature T
Anton Paar GmbH

Anton Paar GmbH

a: Maize dough. b: Chemically acidified maize dough.

c: L. plantarum fermented maize dough.
d: Multiple strains starter culture fermented maize dough
Effects of L. plantarum fermentation or multiple
1 strains starter culture
fermentation - Rrheological properties of maize dough
A: strain sweep analysis parameters B. Temperature sweep analysis parameters

Falade AT et al. J Cereal Sci. 2014

 b

c d

10µm 10µm

e f

10µm 10µm

Effect of Sourdough Unfermented Fermented

Fermentation on
Fonio Starch Granules
Edema
10µm MO et al. 2013 10µm

Starch/Staerke
10µm 10µm
MODIFY MAIZE ZEIN WITH LACTIC/ACETIC ACID

A = Unmodified Zein + Starch flour after mixing

B = Modified Zein + Starch flour after mixing; C = Dough properties
D = Alveograph dough bubble of Modified Zein + Starch dough

Sly AC et al. 2014. J Cereal Sci

 Wheat
flour

Maize flour

Maize flour
+Zein - only
 FUTURE OF GLUTEN–FREE
PRODUCTS IN AFRICA
Combine Traditional and Modern Technologies

Beers and non-alcoholic cereal beverages

• Reduce gelatinization temperature of tropical cereal starches
• Optimise tropical cereal malt beta-amylase activity
• Improve tropical cereal protein and cell wall digestibility
• Lactic acid fermentation

Breads and Baked Goods

• Application of flour improvers – Enzymes etc
• Use of Hydrocolloids and Gums
• Develop novel dough-making technologies – To handle batters
• Co-proteins – Legume proteins + Cereal proteins
• Sourdough fermentation

See – Forthcoming Special Issue of the Journal of Cereal Science

“Functionality of Cereal Based Non-gluten Dough Systems”
Edited by John Taylor and Cristina Rossell
 DEDICATION

Dr Mojisola Edema
Federal University of Technology, Nigeria