A Complete Note of English For All Competitive Exams

A Complete Note of ENGLISH For All Competitive Exams Downloaded From www.examkadarrnahi.
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A Complete Note of
ENGLISH
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Lesson 1 : Usage of Articles
Articles
Articles are of TWO types. They are
1. Indefinite article ---- A / An
2. Definite article ---- The
What's the difference?
If you want to say about ANY item, you should use the articles A / An. If you want to say about a SPECIFIC
item, you should use the article THE.
Confused? Lets see an example. Assume that you've selected for a Bank Exam. You have a stupid friend like
me. So obviously She will ask you a party.
Suppose if She says
• Lets go to a Restaurant, that means She doesn't have any specific restaurant in Her mind. So you can
give her party in ANY cheap restaurant. But,
• If she says Lets go to THE restaurant, that means She has some SPECIFICATIONS. I mean she have a
specific restaurant in her mind. So you cant escape ;)
Well, this is the basic difference between A/An and The. There are so many differences and usages of these
articles. We shall discuss them later.
Ok, lets discuss about the Indefinite articles first.
Indefinite Articles :
A : The indefinite article 'a' is used before singular countable nouns that start with a Consonant sound.
An : The indefinite article 'an" is used before singular countable nouns that start with a Vowel sound.
Wow, Nice definitions. No?
Have a look at some examples,
A:
• A Bat
• A Cat
• A Rat
• A Jug
An :
• An Apple
• An Egg
• AN Ink-Bottle
• An Orange
• An Umbrella
Great,
Now tell me, what should I use before the words European, One-Eyed Beggar, University, Useful Website?
Can I say, Guide4BankExams is an Useful site to know about Banking Exams?
NO
why ?
Please Re-Read the definitions. Here we are talking about Vowel and Consonant SOUNDS. Not the Letters.
People often confuse with this. They blindly put A before a word, if it starts with a Vowel letter (A, E, I, O, U)
and put An before the word which starts with the consonant letter.
Consider the SOUND, not the LETTER.
Confusing? Lets see a short cut for this.

• If a word starts with a SWAR (Any of the Indian Language) sound, then we should use An before it.
• If a word starts with a Vyanjan (An of the Indian Language) sound, then we should use A before it.
Have a look at this picture,
so, now see these examples,
A:
• A European
• A One-Eyed beggar
• A University
• A Useful Website
An:
• An hour
• An Honest Man
• An honourable person
Thats it.
Now lets see some more TRICKY examples in English.
Suppose , if you want to say about the Member of Parliament, you can say a Member of Parliament, But if you
use shorter form as M.P, Then you should say, He is an M.P
Lets see another example, He is an NRI but He is a Non Resident Indian
Articles – The
Ok, now we shall discuss where we should use the article "The". Some of these statements are really
make you confuse and seems they are opposing each other. Please try to read this for two or three
times. so that you can understand THE concept easily.
• Before superlative forms

• Ex :
• The Tallest
• The Best
• The most beautiful
• Before double comparatives
• Ex:
• ✔ The higher you go, the colder you gets
• ✔ The harder you work, the better rank you get in Bank Exams
• ✔The more you earn, the more you want
• When the comparison is between the two and either of the subjects is Highlighted
• Ex:
• ✔ Sachin is the greater of the two cricketers
• ✔ Of the two cricketers sachin is the greater
• Note :
• ☓ Sachin is the greater than lara

• Now whats the difference between the first statement and the
third? why the first one is correct and third one is wrong? because
in the 3rd statement, we have mentioned the Person's name. But in
the first statement we didnt.
• Before positive form in apposition
• EX:
• Alexander, the great
• Manmohan Singh, the prime minister etc
• Before musical instruments
• The Guitar
• The Tabla
• The voilin etc
• Before a Proper noun when used as a Common noun
• Nelson mandela is The Gandhi of South Africa
• Kalidasa is The Shakespeare of India
• Before some adjectives to make them nouns
• Ex:
• The Blind
• The Dead
• The Rich
• The Poor
• Usage :
• The doctor restored sight to the blind (Here there is no need to mention
"The Blind Person" because, the term Blind itself represents the Blind
person, so its the adjective which is used as the noun.)
• The rich should not mock at the poor
• ✔ Jesus rose from the Dead
• ☓ Jesus rose from Dead
• Before some Languages, to make them PEOPLE.
• ☓ English ruled over India for many Years
• ✔ The English Ruled over India for Many Years
• ☓ French are good at heart
• ✔ The French are good at heart
• When a noun's quality is STRESSED
• ☓ We cannot remove warrior in him
• ✔ We cannot remove the warrior in him
• ☓ Mother in her aroused when she saw a Crying Baby
• ✔ The mother in her aroused when she saw a Crying Baby
• Before Ordinal numbers
• The First
• The Third
• The Tenth, etc
• Ex:
• The first and the second posts of this blog
• Note : Little clarification for those people who have no idea about
Ordinal numbers
• One, Two, Three, Four → Cardinal Numbers
• First, Second, Third → Ordinal Numbers
• Before the names of Oceans, Seas, Rivers, Canals, Deserts, Groups of Mountains and Groups
of Islands
• Note : Dont use "The" for single mountain or single Island (Thats the reason why
we've underlined these two statements)
• Ex :
• ✔ The Pacific
• ✔ The Red Sea
• ✔ The Sahara
• ✔ The Himalayas
• Usage :
• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of the Hoogli
• ☓ Kolkata is on the banks of the River Hoogli
• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of river Hoogli
• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of the Hoogli river
• Dont be confued, please read the above sentences
properly and understand them
• Before Holy Books
• The Ramayana
• The Quran
• The Bible
• Usage:
• My father reads the Bible everyday
• Before the names of the Things, which are unique in nature
• The Sun
• The moon
• The Sky
• The ________ (You can add your name here :P kidding)
• Before the names of Planets and Satellites

• The Mars
• The Earth
• Note : Little clarification for those people who confuses between the words Planet and
Satellites
• Planets rotates around the Sun
• Satellites rotates around Planets
• In apposition, when name precedes the position (Important)
• Manmohan singh, the prime minister is on a two day tour to srilanka
• In correction of sentences, they've given this model for a number of times. The above sentence
means, Manmohan singh, who is the prime minister is on a two day tour to srilanka.
• Some time they will give like this
• The X, the Y is on a two day tour to srilanka
• Whats wrong with this sentence? You can remove THE at the begining or, just
put ARE in the place of IS, so that the sentence tells about TWO different
persons one is X and the second one is Y
• Before the names of News Papers
• The Indian Express
• The Hindu etc
• Before the names of some countries
• The U.S.A
• The UAE
• The Netherlands
• The Congo etc
Omission of Articles
Till now we have learnt where should we use A , An and where should we use THE. Now we shall learn
where shouldn't we use these articles. Following are the conditions where we shouldn't use any article.
• Before the common nouns man, woman, god, heaven, hell, when used in general sence
• Man is mortal but God is immortal
• Man proposes but god disposes
• Everybody wants to go to heaven but nobody wants to die
• Note : But when particularized 'the' definite article is used.
• The man who is standing at the door is my uncle
• When it means one, the indefinite article is used.
• There is a man at the door
• Before abstract nouns, when generalized
• Honesty is the best policy
• Beauty should lie in one's heart
• Bravery is the sign of man
• Note : But when these are particularized, THE is used
• The honesty the auto-driver showed was finally rewarded
• Before material nouns when Generalized
• Water is essential for all
• Sugar is sweet
• Wood is used for making furniture
• Gold is a precious metal
• But when particularized, THE definite article is used
• The water in this pond is pure
• The gold used for making this chain was 22 carat
• Before places like Church, Temple, Mosque, School, College, University, Hostel, Library,
Class, Hospital, Jail (Prison) etc. When they are visited for their primary purpose
• ☓ He was an atheist, but now a days he is going to the church
• ✔ He was an atheist, but now a days he is going to church
• ☓ You should go to the school regularly in-order to get good marks
• ✔ You should go to school regularly in-order to get good marks
• ✔ I went to the church to meet my friend (here i dint go for the primary
purpose(prayer))
• ✔ The man was put in jail for killing a woman
• ✔ The injured were taken to hospital
• ☓ The injured were taken to the hospital
• But when these places are visited for their secondary purpose the definite article should be
used.
• He went to the temple to meet the priest
• My father came to the school to talk to my class teacher
• I went to the hospital to see and console a patient

• But when it means one, the indefinite article is used
• There is a school at the end of the street
• Before Breakfast, Brunch, Lunch, Dinner etc, when used in general sense
• we usually take lunch at 1
• Breakfast is served between 7 and 9
• But when these are particularized, by an adjective, the indefinite article is used.
• We had a delicious lunch yesterday (here the lunch is particularized, so we used an
indefinite article "a")
• We are going to have a healthy breakfast
• Before plural nouns, when generalized
• Tigers are ferocious animals
• Cows are domestic animals
• Children like chocolates
• Note : Here if we represent singular instead of plural, then we should use articles
• The tiger is a ferocious animal
• A tiger is a ferocious animal
• Tigers are ferocious animals
• In expressions like Go to bed, Take heart, Lose heart, Send word, Set fire
• Please switch off all the lights before going to bed (not going to the bed)
• Dont lose heart when you are on the verge of danger (not lose the heart)
• The house was set on fire (not on the fire)
Lesson 2 : Usage of Nouns
Noun and Number

All of us know what is noun and what is number. But there are some issues in Noun and Number which makes
us confused often. Lets discuss them
• Some nouns always singular in number, so they take the singular verb
• Scenery, Luggage, Information, Advice, Machinery, Stationary, Poetry, Issue
(Children), Rice, Soap, Bread, Brick etc
• (There are no plural forms for the above words)
• Two cakes of Soap (Not Two Soaps)
• Two Pieces of brick (Not Two Bricks)
• ☓ The sceneries of Kashmir are beautiful
• ✔ The scenery of Kashmir is beautiful
• Some nouns are always plural in number. So, they take a plural verb.
• Alms, Thanks, Goods, Regards, Wishes, Proceeds, Premises, Credentials, Riches, Pants,
Pantaloons, Jeans, Tights, Shorts, Pajamas, Scissors, Forceps, Spectacles, Binaculars
ets
• ☓ Convey my regard and wishes to your parents
• ✔ Convey my regards and wishes to your parents

• ☓ I have never used such a scissors in my life
• ✔ I have never used such scissors in my life
• ✔ I have never used such a pair of scissors in my life
• Some nouns appear plural. But they are singular in number. So we should take a singular verb
• Wages, Summons, Gallows, News, Politics, Electronics, Billboards, Measles,
Mathematics etc
• ☓ The court has issued two summons to the minister, but he hasn't turned up
yet
• ✔ The court has issued two summonses to the minister, but he hasn't turned
up yet
• ☓ I have a good news to tell you
• Here there is no plural for News. We shouldn't use articles for these
type of words.
• ✔ I have good news to tell you
• ✔ Measles is a disease (not are)
• Some nouns appear singular but they are plural in number. So, they take a plural verb.
• Cattle, Infantry, Police, Poultry, Swine, Artillery, Peasantry, Gentry etc
• ☓ This cattle is mine
• ✔ These cattle are mine
• Some nouns can be used either as singulars or as plurals without changing their form
• Sheep, Deer, Offspring, Species, Aircraft, Space Craft, Salmon, Yoke etc
• ☓ These are many sheeps in the fields
• ✔ There are many sheep in the fields
Formation of Plurals :
• Boy ------------- Boys
• Man ------------- Men
• Tooth ------------- Teeth
• Dog ------------- Dogs
• Ox ------------- Oxen
• Child ------------- Children
• Belief ------------- Beliefs
• Sheaf ------------- Sheaves
• Leaf ------------- Leaves
• Datum ------------- Data
• Stratum ------------- Strata
• Matrix ------------- Matrices
• Brother ------------- Brothers
• Brother - In - Law ------------- Brother - in - Laws ☓
• Brothers - in - Law ✔
• Man - Servant ------------- Men - Servants
Noun and Case

The Case is of 3 types,
1. Nominative Case (Subjective Case)
2. Accusative Case (Objective Case)
3. Possessive Case
Now have a look at an example for proper understanding,

1. Sachin is a Cricket player (Nominative)
2. We like Sachin (Accusative)
3. This is Sachin's Bat (Possesive)
Possessive Case :
• 'S (apostrophe) --- This is used for Human-beings / Living Things
• Of -------- Non Living / Living Things
Note : Usually we don't use 'S(apostrophe S) for Non Living Things.

• ✔ This is Ravi's Book
• ☓ The building's roof needs to be repaired
• ✔ The roof of the building needs to be repaired
Exceptions :
• There are some exceptions for the above mentioned case. We can use 'S(apostrophe S) for
Time, Distance, Weight etc
• An Hour's Time
• A Ton's weight
Note : When a singular noun, which doesn't end in S (Hissing sound), The possessive case takes "S"
• Kamal's Pen
• Karthik's Watch
• Ramu's Dress
Note : When a singular noun, ends in S(Hissing Sound), the possessive case takes only apostrophe
( ' ) at the end (no need to add S)
• Keats' Poetry
• Lotus' Petals
When a plural noun doesn't end in S, the possessive case takes apostrophe S ('S)
• Children's specialist
• Women's college
• Men's single
When a plural noun ends in 'S', the possessive case takes only apostrophe at the end.
• Boys' Hostel
• Girls' College
When two persons and one possession in the sentence, the possessive case should be added to the
latter
• ☓ I went to Raju's and Rani's house but i found the couple absent
• ✔ I went to Raju and Rani's house, but i found the couple absent (Whats the difference? here
Raju and Rani are couple. So obviously they live in the same house :) so two persons and one
possession, so we should use 'S to the latter (Rani)
When two different things are referred to, the possessive case should be added to both
• ☓ India and China's problems are different
• ✔ India's and China's problems are different (because, here india and china are different
countries and cant be same)
The comparison should be made between the same cases
• ☓ India's problems are the same as Pakistan
• ✔ India's problems are the same as Pakistan's
In apposition, the possessive case should be added to the latter
• ☓ This is Prime minister's manmohan singh's speech
• ✔ This is Prime minister manmohan singh's speech
Both of and apostrophe cannot usually be used i none sentence
• ☓ This is the house of Gandhi's
• ✔ This is the house of Gandhi
Note : But the following expression is an exception
• Its -----> Of It
• It's -----> It is, It Was, It Has
• Hers ---> Of Her
• ☓ Her's --> Her was, Her is (but these are wrong expressions)
• yours ---> Of Your
• ☓ Your's ----> Your Is, Your Was (How horrible it is... so thats the reason why, our teachers
tell us dont use apostrophe while writing yours faithfully at the end of letter. But we neglect
it ;)
Note : Dont use apostrophe for pronouns
• He is my friend
• He is a friend of mine
• He is her friend
• He is a friend of hers
• He is a friend of my brother ✔
• He is a friend of my brother's ☓
Care should be taken while using a relative pronoun
• I have seen many of amitabh's movies who is considered a great actor ☓

• I have seen many movies of amitabh, who is considered a great actor ✔
• I have read Shakespeare's four great tragedies who is the greatest writer in English ☓
• I have read four great tragedies of Shakespeare who is considered the greatest writer in
English ✔
• I have read the four great tragedies of Shakespeare which are worth reading ☓
• I have read Shakespeare's four great tragedies which are worth reading ✔
In compound nouns the possessive case should be added to the last word
• He is my brother's-in-law friend ☓
• He is my brother-in-lwas's friend ✔
In the sentences with "One of These" the possessive should be used carefully
• I met, the minister at one of my friends house (this means, I have number of friends, and i
met the minister in one of those friend's house)
• I met the minister at one of my friend's house (this means, my friend have number of houses
and i met the minister in one of those houses)
Noun and Verb / Pronoun Agreement

Noun and Verb Agreement :
Now we shall discuss about the Noun and Verb agreement of the sentences. Have a look at the
following points. These points will help you to use correct verbs while writing sentences.
• In the sentences, with " One of The" and a relative clause, the verb should be Plural.
Confused??? see the example.
• Aamir is one of the students who has paid the fee ☓
• Aamir is one of the students who have paid the fee ✔
• In the sentences with the "Only one of The" and a relative clause, the verb should be
Singular.
• Aamir is the only one of the students who have paid the fee. ☓ :P
• Aamir is the only one of the students who has paid the fee.
Got the difference???
• When two nouns joined by "and" have their own articles, it is plural in number.
• The lecturer and the Principal is on the leave. ☓
• The lecturer and the principal are on the leave. ✔
What is the difference? We are saying THE lecturer and THE principal. So they are TWO people. So
we should use ARE instead of IS. Have a look at another Rule. So that you can get the rule in detail.
• But, when two nouns joined by "and" with an article before the first are treated as Singular.
• The lecturer and principal are on leave. ☓
• The lecturer and principal is on leave. ✔

Here, we are joining TWO nouns with and and using a Sing article (THE) before them. Simply, we
are using one THE for two nouns. So, we are talking about a single person. So we should use IS
instead of ARE.
Check the following examples

• I have a black and a white dogs. (Two dogs)
• I have a black and white dog. (One dog)
• When two nouns are joined by "and" refers to one thing, singular verb can be used.
• Bread and butter is a healthy food.
• The horse & carriage is at the door.
Noun and Pronoun Agreement :
• When a collective noun is unanimous, it takes a singular verb.

• The committee has taken its decision unanimously.
• But when a collective noun is NOT unanimous, it usually takes a plural verb & plural pronoun
(adj)
• The committee are divided in their opinion.
• The expression "many a" takes everything in singular, but it express a plural meaning.
• Many students have passed their test ✔
• Many a students has passed this test ✔
Lesson 3 : Some Common Errors of English
Some Common Errors in English

All of us know English. We can chat with our friends in English, read English books
and ofcourse watch English movies and understands them. But we cant get more marks in English paper of
bank exams. Some times we feel disappointed by seeing our English marks lesser than our expectations. Whats
the problem ? Well the problem is "we Neglect some basic things!!! we know everything, but we don't mind
forgetting them. Lets have a look at some common errors in English. Just read these point twice or thrice so
that you can get 5 marks at least for sure :)
Wrong Correct
The Titanic drowned in the sea The Titanic sank in the sea
Higher we go, cooler we feel The higher we go, the cooler we feel
She quickly did the job. She did the job quickly.
He is my older Brother He is my elder Brother
Most unique opportunity Unique opportunity
It is much hot today It is very hot today
Rich should be kind to poor The rich should be kind to the poor
S/He is my Cousin brother/sister S/He is my Cousin
She quickly did the job She did the job quickly.
One must do his duty One must do one’s duty
Do you know to Dance? Do you know how to Dance?
Have you bought some apples? Have you bought any apples?
No less than 50 persons Killed No fewer than 50 persons Killed
The climate of Goa is better than Nagpur The climate of Goa is better than that of Nagpur
Many a man were here Many a man was here
My state of health The state of my health
I don’t know the English alphabets I don’t know the English alphabet
May I take your leave May I take leave of you
Excuse me being late Excuse my being late
He rarely goes out, doesn’t he? He rarely goes out, does he?
He admitted that he was in wrong He admitted that he was in the wrong
The number of people are small The number of people is small
My little sister goes to the school by bus My little sister goes to school by bus
The series of lectures were boring The series of lectures was boring
English teacher Teacher of English
He lives in a boarding He lives in a boarding house
You are wiser than old You are more wise than old
A good play of football A good game of football
He behaves as if he was a king He behaves as if he were a king
Chennai is further than Delhi Chennai is farther than Delhi
They were counting on me helping them They were counting on my helping them
This drawing is more perfect than the other one This drawing is perfect than the other one
Word by word translation is not necessary Word for word translation is not necessary
Two third of the book Two thirds of the book
No space in this compartment No room in this compartment
Lesson 4 : Important Shortcut rules of English for Competitive Exams
Nouns - Shortcut Rules

Here we shall discuss some important Shortcut Rules about Nouns which comes in handy for your
upcoming competitive exams.
Shortcut Rule 1 : The following words are uncountable and are normally
used in the singular form only. The indefinite article "A or An" Should not
be used with them. They have no plural forms. 'A/An' not used before
them.
Ex : Luggage / Baggage / Breakage / Advice / Furniture / Information / Scenery /
Poetry / Work / Soap / Food / Bread / Fish / Paper / Machinery etc.
• The Sceneries of Kashmir is very beautiful. ☓
• The Scenery of Kashmir is very beautiful. ✔
• I know that he has many informations. ☓
• I know that he has much information / a lot of information. ✔
• They gave me a good advice. ☓

• The gave me a piece of good advice. ✔
• I want a Soap/Bread. ☓
• I want a piece of Soap/Bread. ✔
Shortcut Rule 2 : The words such as "News / Maths / Ethics / Politics /

Phonetics / Economics / Statistics / Measles / Mumps / Rickets /
Billiards / Innings" look like plural nouns but give singular meaning. So,
they take singular form of verbs.
• Mathematics is a difficult subject. ✔
• But say "His Mathematics are very weak". ✔
• Rule : When Preceded by a possessive adjective, the noun takes a plural verb
• Billiards are an interesting game. ☓

• Billiards is an interesting game. ✔
• The news are not reliable. ☓
• The news is not reliable. ✔
Shortcut Rule 3 : Some Nouns have the same form whether singular or
plural.
Ex : Sheep / Deer / Service / Series / Series / Species /Fish / Apparatus
• He saw two sheeps in the zoo. ☓

• He saw two sheep in the zoo ✔
• A series of lectures are to be delivered tomorrow. ☓
• A series of lectures is to be delivered tomorrow. ✔
Shortcut Rule 4 : The following nouns are always used in the plural form
only
Cattle / People / Police / Electorate / Poultry / Trousers / Scissors / Spectacles /
Binoculars / Crackers / Swine / Gentry / Clergy. All these are used with plural form of
verbs.
• The police is coming towards us now. ☓
• The police are coming towards us now. ✔
• The scissor is very sharp. ☓
• The scissors are very sharp. ✔
Shortcut Rule 5 : Add 'S' to the main word in compound noun to make it
plural.
• Sister-in-Law, the plural form is Sisters-in-Law, not Sister-in-Laws
• Brother-in- Law, the plural form is Brothers-in-law, not Brothers-in- Laws
Shortcut Rule 6 : The possessive case of a compound noun is formed by

adding 'S' to the last word.
• Father-in-Law, Father-in-Law's property.
• Sister-in-Law, Sister-in-Law's property.
Shortcut Rule 7 : After the phrases One of / Some of/ Each of / Either of
/Neither of / Any of / None of, a plural form of a noun is used.
• One of my best friends (not One of my best friend)
• One of the biggest cities (not One of the biggest city)
• ach of the boys is (not Each of the boys are)

• Either of the teachers is (not Either of the teachers are) Shortcut Rule 8 : Nouns indicating
numerals should be used in singular form "A Dozen eggs / Two Dozen Oranges". But say
Hundreds of eggs / Houses / A hundred rupees / Two hundred rupees.
Shortcut Rule 9 : After collective nouns either a singular or plural form of

verb is used.
• The team is strong (here, we are treating the TEAM as an UNIT) ✔
• The team are fighting among themselves (Here, we are saying about the players of the team)
✔
Shortcut Rule 10 : An "Apostrophe" and 'S' should be used with living

beings only to show possesion.
• The table's legs were broken. ☓
• (This is wrong, because the table is a non living thing)
• We can say "The legs of the table were broken" ✔
Shortcut Rule 11 : Say, "A five rupee note", " A two mile walk"
Shortcut Rule 12 : Don't say "family members / cousin brother or cousin

sister" but say "The members of the family / he or she is my cousin".
Shortcut Rule 13 : When two nouns are connected by "and", and are
closely related, add an apostrophe and S to the last noun.
• Kareena's and Saif's house ☓ (if you think they are wife and husband then this sentence is
wrong)
• Kareena and Saif's house (as they live in a SINGLE house) ✔
• But you can say "India's and Pakistan's population" ✔
Pronouns - Shortcut Rules

Now we shall discuss some important shortcut rules about Pronouns which comes in handy while
solving Banking and other Competitive exam papers.
Shortcut Rule 1 : We should use the personal pronouns in the order of 231
for good results ( I mean, Second Person, Third Person, First Person).
Have a look at the following Examples.
• I, He and You are to finish it. ☓
• You, He and I are to finish it. ✔
• The order 123 (First Person, Second Person and Third Person) is also
possible when we admit guilt.
• I, You and He have committed the Sin. ✔
Shortcut Rule 2 : A Pronoun in the nominative form should be compared

with the same form of the pronoun.
• He is better than I (am) (Two Nominatives are compared) ✔
• I respect you more than him (Two objectives are compared) ✔
Shortcut Rule 3 : A Pronoun in the objective case is used after "Let /

Between / Any Preposition"
• Let you and me play (You and me are objects) ✔
• There is no dispute between you and me. ✔
Shortcut Rule 4 : When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, it should

be used in the singular form.
• The army has left its Head Quarters (As a Whole) ✔
• The committee were divided in their opinion (Separate Individuals) ✔
Shortcut Rule 5 : When two singular nouns are joined by "and", refer to to
the same person, the pronoun used in their place should be singular in
form.
• The Collector and Magistrate has done his best. ✔
• But the collector and the Magistrate have done their best. ✔
Shortcut Rule 6 : A singular pronoun should be used when two singular

nouns are joined by either or / neither nor
• Either Ravi or Gopal should do his duty ✔
Shortcut Rule 7 : A pronoun in the plural form should be used when two
nouns of different members are joined by "or" or "nor".
• Either the Principal or his teachers have attended their duty. ✔
Shortcut Rule 8 : The distributive pronouns "Either / Neither / None / Any

/ No one" are used with singular verbs.
• Either / Neigher ........................Used for two Person / Things
• None / No one / Any ................ Used for more than two person / things.
• Any ............................Used for more than two persons / things. Have a look at some
examples.
• Either of the two girls is diligent. ✔
• Neither of the brothers is quarrelsome. ✔
• None of the four sisters is intelligent. ✔
• Any of the four men can do it. ✔
Shortcut Rule 9 : The Reciprocal pronouns "Each other / One another"

• Each other - For two persons
• One another - For more than two persons.
• The two sister hate each other.
• The five brother love one another.
Shortcut Rule 10 : The indefinite pronoun "One" should be used as

"One's" for its possessive case.
• One should love one's country. ✔
Shortcut Rule 11 : The verbs such as "Hurt / Cheat / Prostrate /

Introduce / Present / Absent / Satisfy / Prepare / Enjoy / Avail of" are
followed by either "an" object or "a" reflexive pronoun. (Myself /
Ourselves / Yourself / Yourselves) (Himself / Herself / Itself /
Themselves)
• I introduced her to the Principal (Her.........object) ✔
• I introduced myself to the Principal (Myself.........Reflexive pronoun) ✔
• He enjoyed the party (Party............Object) ✔
• He enjoyed himself at the Party (Himself.................Reflexive Pronoun) ✔
Shortcut Rule 12 : The use of Relative Pronouns :

• Who................. for Persons
• This is the boy who is diligent.
• Which .................for Things.
• The book which is in the shelf is mine.
• That ................. is used both for persons and things.
• One boy who stole my purse was a student ✔
• The boy that stole my purse was a student. ✔
• As a relative pronoun "That" is used with superlative Adjective / Only / Any / Nothing /
Some / All / None"
• All that glitters is not gold
• This is the best thing that I can do.
Shortcut Rule 13 : The word "Who" as a relative pronoun is used in the

nominative case, takes a verb.
• The Principal who came here was Raju's Brother.
• The word "Whom"as a relative pronoun is used in the objective case

(takes no verb)
• The doctor whom I met yesterday was Krishna's Father
Shortcut Rule 14 : Agreement of the verb with its antecedent in number and person
• I who is your brother must trust you ☓
• I who am your brother must trust you. ✔
• You who is my friend ☓
• You who are my friend ✔
Shortcut Rule 15 : If a pronoun is to be placed after "to be", the pronoun in the
subjective case is used.
• It is Him ☓
• It is He ✔
Verbs - Shortcut Rules - Part 1

Now we shall discuss some important shortcuts Rules about Verbs which comes in handy while solving
Banking and Other Competitive Exams papers.
Shortcut Rule 1 : If the subject is of the third person, singular number (He, She, It) add
'S' or 'es / ies' to the first form of the verb to make it singular number.
• She plays the violin every day.
• He loves his parents
• The dog barks at the people.
• The bird flies in the Sky.
• He does his duty.
Shortcut Rule 2 : The following verbs are not usually used in the continuous form. See /
Smell / Feel / Hear / Notice / Recognize / See / Think / Agree / Believe / Consider /
Remember / Hope / Understand / Mind / Suppose / Hate / Love / Know / Have / Want /
Forgive / Keep / Prevent etc. But they may be used in continuous forms in a particular
cases.
• He is having a telephone connection. ☓
• He has a telephone connection ✔
• The flower is smelling sweet ☓
• The flower smells sweet (you can say I am smelling this flower) ✔
• The manager is seeing your application (Seeing - Examining) ✔ (in particular situation)
Shortcut Rule 3 : The present perfect tense should not be used with adverbs indicating
past time. Instead the simple past tense should be used.
• I have seen a film last night ☓
• I saw a film last night. ✔
• He has left for Hyderabad last week. ☓
• He left for Hyderabad last week. ✔
Shortcut Rule 4 : The present perfect tense with "For or Since" is used to express an
action began at some time in the past and is still continuing upto the time of speaking or
just finished.
• For ..............................period of time (for 2 days / for 10 days / for a long time)
• Since ..............................point of time. (Since 1996, Since morning, since yesterday, since last week)
• I know him since 1986 ☓

• I have know him since 1986 ✔
• Our teacher is sick for the last two days ☓
• Our teacher has been sick for the last two days. ✔
Shortcut Rule 5 : :The present perfect continuous Tense" is also used for actions began in
the past and are still continuing.
• I am reading this novel since morning. ☓
• I have been reading this novel since morning. ✔
• They are going to English classes for the last one month. ☓
• They have been going to English classes for the last one month. ✔
Shortcut Rule 6 : When the first action led to the second action immediately The simple
Past Tense + Simple Past Tense are used.
• When he opened the gate, they came in. ✔
Shortcut Rule 7 : When the first action completed before the second one started, the Past
Perfect Tense for the first finished action and the Simple Past Tense for the Second are
used.
• The patient had died before the doctor arrived. ✔
Shortcut Rule 8 : After negative sentences, the question tag used should be in an ordinary
interrogative form.
• She didn't like that book, didn't she? ☓
• She did not like that book, did she? ✔
• They have not told him the news, Haven't they? ☓
• They have not told him the news, Have they? ✔
Shortcut Rule 9 : After Positive Statements, we use the negative interrogative.

• I am a student, Am I? ☓
• I am a student, Aren't I? ✔
• Let's play for some Time, Shall We? ✔
• He works hard, Does He? ☓
Shortcut Rule 10 : When the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense, the verbs in
the subordinate clauses are normally in the Past Tense.
• He said that He will pass the examination. ☓
• He said that he would pass the examination. ✔
• They told me that they have paid the fees. ☓
• They told me that they had paid the fees. ✔
Adjectives - Shortcut Rules - Part 1

Friends, in our English Grammar Shortcut rules series now we shall discuss the Rules of Adjectives. Before
going into details lets start with the basic definition of Adjectives followed by some examples.
Basic Definition of Adjective : Simply we can say that Adjectives are describing words. Adjectives are words
that describe or modify nouns.
Examples :
• Sizes : big, small, large, thin, thick

• Shapes : triangular, round, square, circular
• Colors : black, blue, white, green, red
• Personality : happy, sad, angry, depressed
• Time : Yearly , monthly, annually
• Ages : new, young, old, brand-new, second-hand
• Sounds : Loud, noisy, quiet, silent
• Tastes : juicy, sweet
• Qualities : good, bad, mediocre
now lets have a look at the Rules on Adjectives :
Shortcut Rule 1 : In a comparision, the conjunction 'than' should be followed by 'any other' If a person /
thing is compared with any other person / thing among some / many.
• Mumbai is greater than any city in India. ☓
• Mumbai is greater than any other city in India. ✔
Shortcut Rule 2 : In comparisons, the monosyllable words like "hot / easy / tall / small" should not be used
with more / most.
• This question is more easier than that. ✔

• This question is easier than that. ✔
• He is more taller than Kumar. ☓
• He is taller than Kumar. ✔
Shortcut Rule 3 :
• Elder / Eldest should be used with the members of the same family.
• Older/ Oldest these comparative adjective denote the age of person / thing.
Ex :
• He is elder to me. (He and me belong to one family).
• Ronald Reagan was the oldest person elected to the Presidency in US history (Not specifying a family)
• This is the eldest tree in the garden ☓

• This is the oldest tree in the garden. ✔
Shortcut Rule 4 : While comparing the objects, we should see that a noun is compared with another but not
with some other word.
• The population of Hyderabad is greater than Nagpur ☓
• The population of Hyderabad is greater than that of Nagpur (OR) ✔
• The population of Hyderabad is greater than the population of Nagpur. ✔
• The climate of Ooty is better than Chennai. ☓
• The climate of Ooty is better than that of Chennai. ✔
Articles - Shortcut Rules

Rule 1 : The indefinite article 'A' should be used before the word 'Half' when it follows a whole number.
• I stayed in Madras for one and half years. ☓
• I stayed in Madras for one and a half years. ✔
• He spent one and half a half rupee. ☓
• He spent one and a half rupees. ✔
Rule 2 : The definite article 'THE' should be used with a comparative adjective if the phrase 'of the two' is
used.
• She is better of the two sisters. ☓

• She is the better of the two sisters. ✔

• This is the best of the two books. ☓
• This is the better of the two books. ✔
Rule 3 : With the names of meals such as Break fast / Lunch / Dinner / Supper, no article should be used in a
general way except in particular causes.
• I have the breakfast at 8 hrs in the morning ☓
• I have breakfast at 8 hrs in the morning ✔
Rule 4 : The + Positive Adjective represent the whole class, and take a plural verb.
• The rich is responsible for the lawlessness in the country.☓
• The rich are responsible for the lawlessness in the country. ✔
Say 'The poor are / The young are / The old are' etc....
Rule 5 : After Di- Transitive Verbs like Elect / Make / Appoint, articles should not be used except when they
are used as Mono transitive verbs.
• We appointed him a chairman.☓
• We appointed him chairman ✔
• We made him a leader ☓
• We made him leader. ✔
The Govt. has appointed a Committee (mono transitive)
(As a mono transitive verb)
Rule 6 : After type of / kind of / sort of / post of / title of / rank of / articles are not used.
• He is not that sort of a man. ☓
• He is not that soft of man. ✔
• He was promoted to the rank of a General manager. ☓
• He was promoted to the rank of General manager. ✔
Adverbs in English - Shortcut Rules

What are Adverbs?
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb. Lets try to understand
this with a small example.
Adverb Example:
Sunaina walks gracefully (The word 'gracefully' is an adverb. It modifies the verb 'to walk'.)
Now lets have a look at some important rules of Adverbs.
Rule 1 : The adverbs 'too much' is used with nouns and 'much too' is used with adjectives.
• Too much pain / Too much insincerity (Nouns)
• Much too painful / much too careless (Adjectives)
Examples :
• His failure is too much painful for me ☓
• His failure is much too painful for me ✔
• His wife's rude behavior gives him much too pain ☓
• His wife's rude behavior gives him too much pain ✔
Rule 2 : Before the word 'Enough' an adjective under positive form should be used.
• He is more intelligent enough to follow you. ☓
• He is intelligent enough to follow you. ✔
• She is enough lucky to get the job. ☓
• She lucky enough to get the job. ✔
Rule 3 : The adverb quite ('quite means perfectly/ completely) should not be used with the adjective
'Handsome'.
• He is quite handsome. ☓
• He is very handsome. ✔
Rule 4 : Late / Lately. The adverb 'late' indicates time and lately means recently.
• He was punished for coming lately. ☓
• He was punished for coming late. ✔
Rule 5 : When we begin a sentence with 'seldom / never / hardly / rarely / scarcely / barely / neither / never,
the rule of inversion should be applied (i.e.,) an auxiliary verb is used before the subject.
• Hardly he goes to school. ☓
• Hardly does he go to school. ✔
• Seldom I got to films. ☓
• Seldom do I got to films. ✔
• No sooner the school bell rings than all the boys go to their class rooms. ☓
• No sooner does the school bell ring, than all the boys go to their class rooms.
After Only + adverbial expression.

• Only by working hard, he got success. ☓
• Only by working hard, did he get success. ✔
Not only but also
• Not only she reads but also she writes. ☓
• Not only does she read but also writes. ✔
Rule 6 : The adverbial phrase 'No less than' should be used with uncountable nouns whereas 'No fewer than' is
used with countable nouns.
• There were no less than forty people who were killed in the accident. ☓
• No fewer than forty people were killed in accident. ✔
Rule 7 : The adverb (As) is not used after call and consider.
• He called me as a fool ☓
• He called me a fool. ✔
• I always consider him as my brother. ☓
• I always consider him my brother. ✔
Rule 8 : The derived adjectives such as interested / pleased / satisfied / delighted are used with 'much' but not
'very'.
• I am very interested to play cricket. ☓
• I am much interested to play cricket. ✔
Rule 9 : The adverb 'very' is used with positive adjectives and 'much' with comparative adjective forms.
• He is very clever to understand it. ✔
• He is much clever to understand it. ☓
Rule 10 : 'Very much' should be used with comparative forms.
• It is very much better to stay here tonight. ✔
Conjunctions in English - Shortcut Rules

Rule 1 : The co-relative conjunctions are used in pairs.
1. Not only - but also
2. Either - or
3. Neither - nor
4. Both - and
5. Though - yet
6. Whether - or
Please see that the pair is properly used.
• They will either do the work else return the money. ☓
• They will either do the work or return the money.✔
• Both kumar as well as Ravi must finish it. ☓
• Both kumar and Ravi must finish it.✔
• Not only does he read but also writes.✔
• Though he is rich but he is economical. ☓
• Though he is rich yet he is economical.✔
Rule 2 : After the adverbs "Hardly / Scarcely", the conjunction 'when or before' should be used.
• Hardly had he left the place than the Bomb exploded. ☓
• Hardly had he left the place when the Bomb exploded.✔
Rule 3 : After 'Rather / Other, the subordinating conjunction 'Than should be used.
• He has no other object but to get a handsome job. ☓
• He has no other object than to get a handsome job.✔

• I would rather buy a scooter but not a cycle. ☓
• I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle.✔
Rule 4 : After the subordinating conjunction 'lest' the auxiliary 'should' is used.
Lest - for fear that / If it is not so.
• Work hard lest you fail. ☓
• Work hard lest you should fail.✔
Rule 5 : The connecting word 'that' is used with the adjective phrase 'the same/the only/superlative
adjectives/all
• This is the same book which I wanted. ☓
• This is the same book that I wanted.✔
Rule 6 : The conjunction 'or' is used with not / never.
• I have never spoken to him nor written to him. ☓
• I have never spoken to him or written to him.✔
Rule 7 : With the word 'such' the connective 'that' may be used.
• There was such a noise what we could not hear ourselves. ☓
• There was such a noise that we could not hear ourselves.✔
Rule 8 :
>Until - Denotes Time
> Unless - Denotes Condition
• You will not succeed until you work hard. ☓
• You will not succeed unless you work hard.✔
• I want to stay here unless she speaks the truth. ☓
• I want to stay here until she speaks the truth.✔
• You cannot do well until you prepare yourself. ☓
• You cannot do well unless you prepare yourself.✔
Rule 9 : After the connective 'because' the words ' so / therefore / as' are not used.
• Because he came late so he failed to see her. ☓
• Because he came late, he fail to see her.✔
Rule 10 : The adverb 'Not' should not be used with the connective 'Till/unless/lest/until' in that clause.
• Until he does not solve this problem, I will stay with him. ☓
• Until he solves this problem, I will stay with him.✔
• Unless they do not work sincere, they will not succeed. ☓
• Unless they work sincerely, they will not succeed.✔
Rule 11 : When 'since' is used as a conjunction should be preceded by present perfect tense and followed by a
verb in the past tense to denote point of time.
• Many things have happened since I have left the school. ☓
• Many things have happened since I left the school.✔
Rule 12 : With the conjunction 'if' 'then' should not be used.

• If you work for 8 hours a day, then you will get through the examination. ☓
• If you work for 8 hours a day, you will get through the examination.✔
Rule 13 : When two objects are joined by 'as well/besides/along with /together with / in addition to / except /
including with, the verb agrees with the first subject in number.
• He as well as his students have gone there. ☓
• He as well as his students has gone there.✔
Prepositions in English
Rule 1 : Across
• Across - On the opposite side of
• My Cousin lives across the river.✔
• Across - From one side to another
• The boy swam across the river ✔
• Across - both sides
• He threw the luggage across his shoulders ✔
• Come Across - means meet accidentally / suddenly
• When I was going to market, I came across an old friend. ✔
• I suddenly came across him ☓
• I came across him. ✔
Rule 2 :
• Between
• Used for two persons / things.
• She is sitting between munni and sheela. ✔
• Among
• Used with more than two persons / things
• The principal distributed prizes among the winners ✔
• Amid or Amidst
• Used for more than two persons / things (groups)
• Amid his friends ✔
• It was hard to hear amid all the cheering. ✔
Rule 3 :
• During - denotes duration.
• During the war, many people suffered hardship. ✔
• We go to Darjeeling during summer every year. ✔
Rule 4 :
• From - is used with past / future tenses.
• I stayed there from Monday to Wednesday. ✔
• I will start my preparation from Monday next. ✔
Rule 5 :
• Of - denotes origin / cause
• She comes of a rich family (origin) ✔
• He died of Malaria (cause) but she died in an accident. ✔
• Off - denotes 'separation'
• A button has come off. ✔
• He is off duty today. ✔
Rule 6 : After a preposition, a pronoun under objective case should be used.
• He depends on I. ☓
• He depends on me. ✔
Rule 7 : When two words are connected by 'and / or' etc., the prepositions should be mentioned clearly to be
used with them.
• He was surprised at as well as pleased with her performance. ✔
• She is conscious and engaged in her work. ☓
• She is conscious of and engaged in her work ✔
Rule 8 : No preposition should be used with the noun 'Home' except when it is followed by an adjective in the
possessive case, say go to home / arrive home / reach home / get home.
• I went to his home / He went home. ✔
• He decided to go to Krishna's home. ✔
Rule 9 : After transitive verbs such as 'Discuss/Describe/reach/order/tell/demand/attach/resemble/ridicule etc.
no preposition is used. The verbs directly take an object.
• The poet describes about the beauty of nature.☓
• The poet describes the beauty of nature. ✔
• He ordered for two cups of tea. ☓
• He ordered two cups of tea. ✔
Rule 10 : After the verbs "Say / suggest / propose / speak / explain / reply / complain / talk / listen / write" the
proposition "to" should be used if any object is used.
• He did not reply me. ☓
• He did not reply to me. ✔
• You never wrote me. ☓
• You never wrote to me. ✔
• He suggested her that she should eat less. ☓
• He suggested to her that she should eat less. ✔
Rule 11 :
• Since - Denotes point of time
• For - denotes period of time.
• They should be used with present tense or the present perfect continuous tense / past perfect tense / past
perfect continuous tenses.
• I know her since 2011. ☓
• I have known her since 2011. ✔
• He is working in the bank for the past 3 years. ☓
• He has been working in the bank for the past 3 years. ✔
Rule 12 : After the verb "Enter" the preposition "into" should not be used except when it is used with
reference to agreement or conversation.
• He entered into the premises without any permission. ☓
• He entered the premises without any permission. ✔
• They entered a hot discussion. ☓
• They entered into a hot discussion. ✔
Rule 13 :
• Wait for - Await.
• He is awaiting for the reply. ☓
• He is awaiting the reply. ✔
• Despite - inspite of.
• Despite of his hard work, he failed in the examination. ☓
• Despite his hard work he fail3ed in the examination. ✔
• This book comprises of 5 chapters.
• This book comprises of 5 chapters. ✔
• This book consists of 5 chapters. ✔
Rule 14 :
• Dispose of - Sell away.
• He disposed off his scooter. ☓
• He disposed of his scooter. ✔
Parts of Speech - Identification

The words in English can be classified (according to their functions in a sentence) into Parts of Speech as
follows.
• Noun
• Pronoun
• Adjective
• Verb
• Adverb
• Preposition
• Conjunction
• Interjection
Noun :
Simply we can call it as the Naming Word. A name of a Person, Place, Animal, Thing, etc..
Examples : Shivani, Bangalore, Tiger, Table, etc..,
Pronoun :
A word used for or in the place of noun.
Examples : She, It, They etc.,
Adjective :
A word that qualifies or describes a noun or a pronoun.
Examples : Our team played a good game
adj. noun
Every sentence that he spoke was listened to with great attention.
adj. noun
All these proposals are good.
adj.
Note : Some words are used either as pronouns or as adjectives as in the following examples.
Verb :
A verb expresses what the subject of a sentence is or does, or has, or what is done to it.
Ex :
Shivani teaches Maths.
verb
She has taught the subject for twenty-five years.

verb
She is a capable teacher
verb
Adverb :
A word that modifies an adjective or a verb or another adverb.
Ex :
I am deeply grateful to you for your timely help.
adv adj
This horse runs very fast.
v adv adj
Preposition :
Look at the words underlined in these sentences.
Work in the college begins at 10 a.m.

He wrote the document with a pen.
The professor gave a lecture on Superconductivity.
The P.M. reaches Bangalore after the President does.
The words underlined are called Prepositions because they normally take position before (pre) a
noun. The preposition is said to 'govern' the noun that follows it. The noun is said to be the 'object' of
the preposition.
Besides single-word prepositions, there are also phrases which do the work of prepositions and are
called 'Phrase Prepositions'.
Types of Prepositions :
• Single - word Prepositions :
• In, On, After, At, With, Under, Above, etc. (These are Simple Prepositions)
• Phrase Prepositions (Complex Prepositions) :
• Some types of Complex Preposition structures with examples are given below.
• Adverb + Preposition :
• Along with, Apart From, As for, As to, Away from, Onto, Outof, Together
with, Upto, Such as.
• Verb / Adjective / Conjunction, etc. + Preposition :
• Except for, Owing to, Due to, But for, Because of....
• Preposition + Noun + Preposition :
• By means of, On account of, In comparison with, In accordance with, In
view of, In spite of, Instead of...
CONJUNCTION :
A Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases and sentences.
Ex :
Delhi and Calcutta are densely populated cities.
She must be either the President or the Secretary of Pakistan.
The professor read the essay and was impressed by it.
He is not only intelligent in his studies but also industrious in his life.
INTERJECTION :
Word which expresses a strong or sudden feeling.
Surprise, Joy, Fear, Sadness, etc. It is not grammatically connected with the rest of the
sentence. Usually, exclamation mark is put after it.
Example :
Ah1 Hurrah! Well! Dear! Oh!
Lesson 5 : Important topics of English Section for Competitive Exams
Tenses in English Grammar with Examples

Tense is a form of a verb which is used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation or completeness,
of an action in relation to the time of speaking. The origin of the word Tense is the latin word Tempus, which
means Time. In simple words we can say that the Tense is a method which is used to refer to time - past,
present and future. Tense tells you when the action happens.
There are three main tenses:

• Present Tense
• Past Tense and
• Future Tense
Each main tense is divided into sub tenses like

• Simple
• Continuous
• Perfect
• Perfect Continuous tenses.
lets have a look at the following table

Tenses Table :
Now lets discuss the usage of tenses. I mean when, where and how to use tenses.
Usage of Tenses :
Present Simple : A present simple tense is used,

• to show a regular or habitual actions or a universal truth
• Eg :
• The sun rises in the east
• He goes to school at 9.AM everyday
• in future clauses of time and condition
• Eg :
• If it rains, I shall not come
• I shall come as soon as I finish my homework.
Present Continuous : A Present continuous tense is used,

• to show an action which is now in progress
• Eg :
• The servant is watering the plants
• The children are playing outside
• to show a temporary action which is not actually in progress at that time.
• Eg
• Now I am reading Gr8AmbitionZ.
• He is staying with his uncle.
• to show as already decided future action.
• Eg :
• We are going for a movie today evening.
• The Prime minister is visiting the cities tomorrow.
Present Perfect : A present perfect tense is used,

• to show an action completed in the immediate past.
• Eg :
• He has just left the class.
• We have just decided to go for a movie.

• to show a past action where the time of action is unknown or indefinite.
• Eg:
• He has gone to Bombay.
• I have seen you some where.
• to talk of a past action extending up to the present.
• Eg :
• Forty years have passed since India became Independent.
• He has been in hospital since Monday.
Present Perfect Continuous :

• A Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to show an action already started and still going on.
• Eg
• He has been waiting for you for two hours.
• I have been staying here since 1985.
Past Simple : A Past simple tense is used,

• to show an action completed in the past
• Eg :
• I got your letter last week.
• He went to Bombay yesterday.
• to show a discontinued past habitual action.
• Eg :
• We met in my house on every Sunday last year.
• While in Bombay I went for a movie on every Sunday.
Past Continuous :
• A past continuous tense is used to show an action which was going on at a particular time in the past.
• Eg :
• When I saw him he was reading a novel.
• He jumped out of the train while it was moving.
Past Perfect :
• A Past Perfect tense is used to show an action which was over at a past time.
• Eg :
• The train had left before we reached the station.
• I had finished my work before the guests arrived.
Past Perfect Continuous :

• A past perfect continuous tense is used to show an action started earlier and was going on up-to a
particular time in the past.
• Eg :
• When I joined the college Mr. Sharma had been teaching there for three years.
• When I met him he had been painting a picture for three days.
Future Simple :
• A Future Simple tense is used to show an action which is yet to happen.
• Eg :
• The classes will commence on next Monday.
• I shall meet you next week.
Future Continuous :
• A Future Continuous tense is used to show an action which will be over at a particular time in the
future.
• Eg :
• When I reach home,. my friends will be waiting for me.
• When you come tomorrow I shall be writing the notes.
Future Perfect :
• A Future Perfect tense is used to show an action which will be over at a particular time in the future.
• Eg :
• By the time we reach there, the classes will have started.
• Your uncle will have left for office before you reach there.
Future Perfect Continuous :

• A Future Perfect Continuous is used to show an already started action which will be going on for a
particular time in the future.
• Eg:
• By the end of this year, we will have been studying here for five years.
Tips for Sentence Rearrangement / Reordering in English

Sentence Reordering / Rearrangement is one of the Important and easiest section of English Language.
Now a days in almost all competitive exams they are asking questions from this area. With basic knowledge of
English and little concentration you can easily get full marks in this section. In sentence Rearrangement /
Reordering problems they will give you four or five sentences which lack of coherence, connection and
development. There will be only one way of rearranging them to acquire coherence, connection and
development. You should choose the correct arrangement from the given answers. Before going into details,
lets have a look at some important tips.
Important tips for Sentence Rearrangement in English

• Sentences that have full names mentioned are either the starting or come in the first few sentences of
the paragraphs.
• Similarly, the sentences that have 'they', 'him' or 'her' or the short names would only come after the
proper introduction of the person.
• If there are pronouns like (it, this, that etc) in the sentence , then it simply means that they have already
discussed about the subject. So in maximum cases it won't be the first sentence (I and You are
exceptions for this rule).
• Sentences that begin with 'And', 'But' etc usually follow the central theme with an explanation to the
same or give additional information.
• A central Theme around which the passage is framed. Identify the central theme, which is usually the
first sentence.
• A logical sequence is present which usually describes the central theme.
• In maximum cases Last sentence ends with some conclusion / statement.
Now lets have a look at an example with detailed explanation :
A. Miss Sullivan arrived at the Keller home when Helen was seven.
B. The deaf and blind Helen learned to communicate verbally.
C. But, eventually, Miss Sullivan's effort was rewarded.
D. Before Helen Keller was two years old, she lost her sight and her hearing.
E. Miss Sullivan worked closely with Helen, her new student.
F. At times the teacher became frustrated.
1. DEFACB
2. DAEFCB
3. ACFDEB
4. CFDABE
5. FDACEB
Explanation:
• Upon reading the above paragraph, we come to see that in A, B, E, F, the names mentioned are short
while in D, the full name is mentioned. Hence D is the first sentence.
• Next we see that Ms. Sullivan comes into the picture when Helen is seven years old and hence A is the
second sentence.
• The paragraph revolves around Helen's learning and hence E states what joins Helen and Ms. Sullivan.
• Sentence F states that the teacher became frustrated at times which is followed by C (starts with 'But'
which indicates that in spite of something Ms. Sullivan's efforts were rewarded).
• Sentence B follows stating how the teacher's efforts were rewarded and is the conclusion to a set of
events.
Correction of Sentences in English

Now we shall discuss one of the very important topics of SBI PO and other competitive exams' English
Section Correction of Sentences or Correct usage of words in English. In this type of questions, each
sentence is divided into four parts and each part is marked below as A, B, C, and D. There is a mistake in any
one part of the sentence. The students are required to detect which part contains the mistake. If there is no
mistake in any part of the sentence, it should be marked as No Error (Option E).
As a number of our friends have been saying that they are unable to perform well in this area we have decided
to update detailed lessons on Correction of Sentences in English. This is the introductory lesson and this lesson
followed by exercises on Correction of Sentences with detailed explanations. We hope these lessons and
exercises will help you perform well in upcoming exams. All the best :)
Examples :
The mistake lies in part (A) 'not only' should be placed before 'educated' which it qualifies and not
after it. Hence students should mark cross (X) against A.
As there is no mistake in any part of the sentence, students should mark cross (X) against E.
The mistake may be of any one of the following types :

1. Mistake in the use of article -- a, an, the.
2. The subject in the sentence may not be agreeing with the verb in number.
3. Pronoun may not be agreeing with its antecedent in person, number of gender.
4. There may be a mistake in the use of preposition.
5. There may be a wrong use of a conjunction in the sentence.
6. There may be mistakes in the use of participles, gerunds, infinitives and verbal nouns.
7. Some word in a sentence may have been wrongly used.
8. There may be a mistake in the use of an adverb or adjective. Degree of adjective may have been
wrongly used.
9. Rules regarding verbs, their tenses, number, or moods may not have been correctly followed.
10.There may be miscellaneous mistakes which may not fit in the above categories.
English Correction of Sentences Excercises with Explanations

Friends, we've already duscussed short notes on Correction of Sentences which is very important topic of
English Section for Upcoming competitive exams. Here are some practice problems on Sentence Corrections
with Explanations. Just Read each sentence to find out whether there is any
grammatical/idiomatic/spelling mistake/error in it. The error, if any, will be in one part of the s.entence.
Mark the number of that part with error as your answer. If there is no error, mark (5). And you can
check the answer below the questions with explnations. You can read more english related stuff and
more practice papers for SBI POs Here. All The Best J
I have citicize (1)/ the remarkable book (2)/ because I benefited (3)/ from reading it. (4)/ No
error (5)
o The error lies in part (1) of the sentence. 'I have criticize' should be replaced with 'I did not
criticize'. It will make the sentence meaningful.
When he had been (1)/ walked along the road (2)/ a wild and ferocious dog (3)/ hit him hard and
knocked him down (4)/ No error (5).
o (2) The structure of Past Perfect Continuous is : Subject + had been + verb +ing
I am grateful to you (1)/ and all your friends (2)/ for showing sym-pathy (3)/ and kindness with
me (4)/ No error (5).
o (4) The preposition 'with' should be replaced by 'to'.
It was clear from the way (1)/ they were behaving (2)/ that they had been (3)/ lost their senses
(4)/ No er¬ror (5).
o (3) Past Perfect Tense will be used. The structure is : Subject + had + past participle
As Arundhati Roy (1)/ in her foreword write (2)/ John offers (3)/un-told stories of people. (4)
No error (5)
o (2) The word 'write' is in Present Indefinite Tense. It should be replaced with 'has
written' as Present Perfect is used to express past action whose time is not given and not
defi¬nite.
Responsibilities includes (1)/ working with the editors (2)/ on all. aspects (3)/ of the editorial
process. (4)/ No error (5)
o (1) The word Responsibilities is a Plural Subject. It will take plural verb.
While grouping the words (1)/ care have been taken (2)/ to in-clude th'e role (3)/ grammar plays
in a language. (4)/ No error (5)
o (2) The word Care is Singular and it will take Singular ~erb. Hence, 'care have been
taken' should be re¬placed with 'care has been taken'.
Distrust seems (1)/ to be a factor (2)/ borne out of (3)/ prevail¬ing circumstances. (4)/ No error
(5)
o (3) The phrase 'borne out of,' should be replaced with 'born of' which means coining
from the speci¬fied type of parents, background, ori¬gin etc. For example,
That boy possess (1)/ three beautiful pens (2)/ but he would not (3)/ show them to anyone (4)/
No error (5)
o (1) 'That boy possesses' is the correct usage, as the verb must agree with its subject in
number and person.
Though I had been (1)/ his friend for quite a long time, (2)/ I re¬fused to help him (3)/ because
his ill nature (4)/ No error (5).
o (4) 'Because of' is the correct idiomatic form.
English Sentence Correction Practice Problems for Bank PO and Clerk Exams
Here are some problems on English Sentence Correction / Error Correction of higher difficulty level for
IBPS PO and IBPS RRB PO Exams. What you have to do is, take a paper and write these sentences on it.
Every sentence has some grammatical error in it. So you have to underline the part which is having error and
you should correct form of the sentence below the given sentence. The allotted time for it is 15 minutes. After
15 minutes we will upload the key with detailed explanations so that you can check your answers. What are
you waiting for ? Just take a piece of paper and start answering these. All the Best.
1. The things I told you has been done.

2. I do not know why I felt so grief.
3. The old lady is poor stricken.
4. I will drink milk today morning.
5. He said he will unable to help me.
6. Not only is Javed handsome but also he is very friendly.
7. Thus I have been lived alone for the past two years.
8. This chapter comprises of seven sections.
9. The man was sweating proficiently.
10.I also have been sick too.
Key with Explanations for the Sentence Correction Problems of English

Here is the key with detailed explanations to our previous information on English Sentence Correction Practice
Problems for Bank PO Exams. So we request you to read that post here and try to solve on your own before
seeing the solutions below. We hope all of you are ready with your answers. Now lets have a look the the
answers with explanations. The underlined part is the error.
1. The things I told you has been done.

Here we are talking about things (plural). So we should use have been instead of has been. The correct
sentence is The things I told you about have been done.
2. I do not know why I felt so grief.

* Here grief means Deep Sorrow
There are two errors in this sentence,
You shouldn't use the word so.
Here is grief is noun. So you can't feel grief (grammatically incorrect).
So you can say I do not know why I feel so sad (instead of grief)
3. The old lady is poor stricken.

*here stricken means "affected by being poor (poverty)).
here poor is an adjective, stricken is also a noun. We can't put them together. Its grammatically incorrect. So
you can use the noun form of poor (poverty) so the sentence will be The old lady is poverty stricken.
4. I will drink milk today morning.

The above sentence is grammatically incorrect. You should say I will drink milk this morning.
Some important points to remember :

Today morning --> This morning
Yesterday morning --> Last morning
Tomorrow morning --> The coming morning.
5. He said he will unable to help me.

You should use the be form after will. So the correct sentence is He said he will be unable to help me.
6. Not only is Javed handsome but also he is very friendly.

The correct structure of the sentence will be Not only is Javed handsome, but he is also very friendly.
7. Thus I have been lived alone for the past two years.
Have been is there. So, there should be an ing form. So the correct sentence is,
Thus I have been living alone for the past two years.
Important Note : I've been observing that people often confuse about the usage of for and since.
for is used when you give the time duration.

ex : for the past two years. for the last two weeks etc.
since is used when you give the starting point of the time.
ex : since 1980, since 1st July 2013 etc
8. This chapter comprises of seven sections.

Comprises of is grammatically incorrect. You should say consists of or just comprises. So the correct form(s)
of the sentence will be,
This chapter comprises seven sections.
This chapter consists of seven sections.
9. The man was sweating proficiently.

We use the proficiently when somebody is really good at it.
Ex : proficient driver, proficient dancer, proficient in a foreign language etc. Sweating is not a skill :P So we
shouldn't use proficiently here.
You can use profusely here if you want to express Extravagant / Abundant.
One more important point to note : Now a days everybody using "sweating" while talking about humans.
But grammatically its a blunder. We use sweating only for animals. For humans you should use the word
perspire.
Animals ---> Sweats / Sweating
Humanbeings --> Perspire / Perspiring
So you can write, The man is perspiring profusely
10. I also have been sick too.

Here also and too, represent the same meaning. So you shouldn't use them both. Any one of them is enough.
So you can say,
I have been sick too.
Bank Exam English - Spotting Errors - Practice Excercises

Here are some Practice Exercises of Spotting Errors Section of the Bank Exams English Paper. Happy
Reading.
Read Each Sentence to find out whether there is any grammatical mistake / error / in it. The error if
any, will be in one part of the sentence. Mark the number of the part with error as your answer. If there
is No Error, Mark (5).
1. We are yet starting (1) / offering this facility to (2) / our customers as we are (3) / awaiting approval
from the Board. (4) / No error (5).
2. The Chairmen of all large (1) / public sector banks met with (2) / senior RBI officials to give its (3) /
suggestions about implementing the new policy. (4) / No error (5).
3. They have not fully considered (1) / the impact that relaxing (2) / these guidelines is likely (3)/ to have
with the economy (4) / No error (5)
4. Had this notification (1) / been amended earlier, (2) / we could have stopped (3) / the transfer of funds.
(4) / No error (5)
5. There are many insurance (1) / disputes nowadays because of (2) / most people do not fully (3) /
understand the terms and conditions of their policies (4) / No error (5)
6. demonstrates its supremacy (1) / in space when it successfully (2) / launched its third satellite (3) / into
orbit yesterday. (4) / No error (5)
7. needs a value education system (1) / who will inculcate values (2) / among the students and (3) / enrich
their personalities. (4) / No error (5)
8. Driven by the desire to save trees (1) / residents of locality (2) / has started using solar appliances (3) /
for their everyday needs. (4) / No error (5)
9. A large number of unmanned aircrafts (1) / being used by the military (2) / are suspected of having (3) /
unsafe radio links. (4) / no error (5)
10.Recent survey shows that (1) / 35 million children in the age group of (2) / 6 to 10 years have never (3)
/ attended no primary school. (4) / No error (5)
11. Coal mines constitute (1) / a major percentage of the (2) / sources which cause damage (3) / on the
environment. (4) / No error (5)
12.A man who has been (1) / accused of fraud in (2) / an earlier job he will never be (3)/ welcome in any
other organization. (4) / No error (5)
13.Worried about the continuing violence in the city (1)/ much students are set to migrate (2) / to other
cities (3) / for higher education (4)/ No error (5)
14.Many organizations have been offering (1) / attractive incentives to (2)/ their employees in an attempt
(3)/ to boosting employee retention. (4) / No error (5)
15.Some genuine issues exist (1) / with the newly adopted (2) / system and needs to (3) / be examined
seriously. (4) / No error (5)
ANSWERS:
1. Error is in (1). Replace we are yet starting by we are yet to start.

2. Error is in (3). Replace its by their.
3. Error is in (4). Replace to have with the economy by to have on the economy.
4. No error
5. Error is in (2). Replace disputes now a days because of by disputes now a days because. It is
superfluous to use preposition of as subordinate clause follows.
6. Error is in (1). The sentence shows past event. So simple past should be used. India
demonstrated its supremacy is correct.
7. Error is in (2). Replace relative pronoun who by which because non-living thing has been
used.
8. Error is in (1). Replace Driven by the desire to save trees by Being driven by the desire to
save trees.
9. No error
10. Error is in (4). Here never is in negative. So, attended any primary school is correct.
11. Error is in (4). Damage takes preposition to. So, replace on the environment by to
environment.
12. Error is in (3). Here he (pronoun) is superfluous. So remove he.
13. Error is in (2). The word students is a countable noun. So much students are set by many
students are set.
14. Error is in (4). Replace to boosting employee retention by to boost employee retention.
15. Error is in (3). Plural subject takes plural verb. So system and need to should be used.
Passive Voice for Competitive English

Here we shall discuss about Voice. There are two special forms for verbs called voice. Those are
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably
already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the
verb. The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. Have a
look at the following table of examples for better understand of the voices.
Now Lets see Where and When we should use Passive Voice :
1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or
what is performing the action.
• Example: "A letter was written." The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't
know, however, who wrote it.
2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice. Have a look at the following
example.ExampleA vase was broken.
Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone. Compare this to:
"You broke the vase."
Form of the passive voice:
Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle
Note : The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main verb.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following :
• The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
• The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main verb) + the past
participle.
• The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped.)
Example:
Examples of the passive voice:
Passive voice sentences with two Objects:
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the
subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to
put the focus on. Have a look at the following Examples.
Impersonal Passive:
Have a look at the following Examples :
• They say that the planet is in danger.
• It is said that the planet is in danger.
This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is only possible
with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)
Ex :
• It is said that...
• It is thought that...
• It is believed that...
• It is known that...
It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the thatclause:
Ex :
• They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.
• They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.
Irregular Verbs
Friends, in today's post we shall discuss about Irregular Verbs.
What are these Irregular Verbs ?
Before going into the details, first lets discuss What are the Regular Verbs ?
Well, we can call the verbs which contain the ed at the end of the Simple Past and Past Participle forms as
the Regular Verbs. So the format of the regular verbs is Base Verb + ed
Now lets have a look at some Examples of the regular verbs :
Ok, you can take plenty of examples like this for Regular verbs. Now lets have a look at the Irregular Verbs. In
contrast to the Regular verbs, irregular verbs are those verbs for which the above pattern of conjugation
don't apply.
So, you cant predict the forms of the Iregular verbs, so you should learn them by heart. Here are
some techniques to make them remember.
 Use them in appropriate contexts (in your writing or in your conversation)

 Just write down examples in your exercise book.
 Always keep a list of irregular verbs at your disposal. (Keep in mind, that most language
books include a section at the end for irregular verbs.)
Why to put this much stress on Irregular words? because these are very important in the
sentence correction part of the competitive exams (especially Bank Exams ofcourse).
Now Lets have a look at some Irregular Verbs :

Parallelism - English for Competitive Exams

Here we shall discuss about PARALLELISM. An important topic, which is helpful to you in solving English
Language section in Competitive Exams especially Bank Exams. Now have a look at the following Points.
• Item in a series must be parallel : I mean, they must have the

same Grammatical form.
• Nouns :
• He Likes music, art, and science.
• Gerunds :
• He likes dancing, Swimming, and painting. (Verb + Ing Form)
• Adjectives :
• He is tall, cool, and handsome. (Adj)
• They wanted to paint, the living room, to lay a new carpet, and to buy a new sofa. (Infin)
• Past Tense :
• The Romans conquered, colonized, and governed much of the world.
• Past Perfect Tense :

• He had finished the game, had taken a shower, and had eaten lunch by the time I went to
his house.
• Note : The auxiliary "had" may be omitted in the second and the third verb phrases.
• The structure joined by and, but, as, or then, or although must have the same
grammatical form.
• And :
• He enjoyed the music of spain and the sculpture of France (N PHRASE)
• But :
• That verb form is not active, but passive (Adj)
• As :
• Taking the bus can be as costly as taking a plane (V + Ing)
• Or :
• He wanted to borrow a car or to rent one while his car was being repaired. (Infin)
• Than :
• Eating in a restaurant is more fun than cooking at home
• Although :
• Although he liked to eat good food, he did not like to pay high prices for it. (Infin)
Now lets see some Examples :

• ☓ Her husband had bought a car, found a job, and choose a school for the children before she arrived.
• ✔ Her husband had bought a car, found a job, and chosen a school for the children before she arrived.
• ☓ That soup should not be served hot, but at a cold temperature.
• ✔ That soup should not be served hot, but cold.
• ☓ Renting and apartment can be as expensive as to buy a house.
• ✔ Renting an apartment can be as expensive as buying a house.
• ☓ He is young, intelligent, and has charm.
• ✔ He is young, intelligent, and charming.
• ☓ She likes to read, to travel and blogging.

• ✔ She likes to read, to travel, and to blog.
Conditionals - English for Competitive Exams

Now we shall discuss about Conditionals. Another important topic which is useful in
writing Competitive Exams. Especially Bank Exams.
There are two kinds of conditionals
• Real
• Unreal
Real conditions are used for possible situations. The present tense is used in the if - clause (or conditional
clause), and the future tense is used in the result clause.
If he comes to the library, I will give him these books.

Pres Fut
(it is possible that he will come)

* This is an Open Condition.
Unreal conditions are used for impossible or unreal situations.

• The past tense is used in the "If-clause" and would, could, or migh, + the simple verb is used in the
main clause.
If she practiced well, she could win the game
That means She doesn't practice well (check the difference between this example and the
above mentioned example)
If she came to my house, I would give her your message.

That means, She doesn't come to my house.
* This is an unlikely condition.

• When the past perfect is used in the "If-clause", and would, could, or might + have + the
past participle are used in the main clause.
If she had come to my house, I would have given her your message.
past perf. would + have + Past part
(she dint come to my house)
* This is a closed condition.
We can summarize the usage of the conditionals discussed above as given below :
If Clause
If + Present …………
If + Past …………
If + Past Perfect …………
Some points to Remember :

• In general, avoid using would in the if-clause
• In present time unreal if - clauses, the correct form of the verb to be for all persons is were
Have a look at some Examples :

• If he were rich, he would go the U.S.A for higher studies.
• If i were a bird, I would fly to England without VISA.
Conditionals in Sentence Correction in Competitive Exams :

The following examples will make clear some of the common mistakes committed in the usage of
conditionals.
☓ If I will win the contest, I will buy a new house.
✔ If I win the contest, I will buy a new house.
☓ If I had been there, I would make a speech

✔ If I were there, I would make a speech.
✔ If I had been there, I would have made a speech.
☓ If I would have a degree from that University, I would have a degree from that University, I would get a
good job.
✔ If I had a degree from that University, I would get a good Job.
Comparatives and Superlatives

In this article we shall discuss about Comparatives and Superlatives. First lets see what are these comparatives
and superlatives and how to use them.
Comparatives :
We use comparatives to compare two things or two people. (e.g He is shorter than his wife.).
Superlatives :
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things or more than two people. (e.g . Mumbai is the biggest
city in India).
Note : To form comparatives and superlatives you need to know the number of syllables in the
adjective.Syllables are like "sound beats".
Example :
"find" contains one syllable,
but "finding" contains two — find and ing.
Hope you have got the basic idea on Comparatives, Superlatives and Sillables. Now lets have a look at some
rules to form Comparatives and superlatives.
1. One syllable adjective ending in a silent 'e' — nice

Comparative — add 'r' — nicer
Superlative — add 'st' — nicest
2. One syllable adjective ending in one vowel and one consonnant — big
Comparative — the consonant is doubled and 'er' is added —bigger
Superlative — the consonant is doubled and 'est' is added—biggest
3. One syllable adjective ending in more than one consonant or more than a vowel —high, cheap
Comparative — 'er' is added — higher, cheaper
Superlative — 'est is added — highest, cheapest
4. A two syllable adjective ending in 'y' — happy

Comparative — 'y' becomes 'i' and 'er' is added — happier
Superlative — 'y' becomes 'i' and 'est' is added — happiest
5. Tow syllable or more adjectives without 'y' at the end — exciting

Comparative — more + the adjective + than — more exciting than
Superlative — more + the adjective + than — the most exciting
Examples:
The Nile River is longer and more famous than the Thames.
Egypt is much hotter than Sweden.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
This is one of the most exciting films I have ever seen.
Here is a table of Irregular comparatives and superlatives
How to use comparatives and superlatives ?
Similarities
To express
similarities
use the
following
structure:
Examples:
 Raghav is as intelligent as Prabhas.
 Aamir is as popular as Sharukh
Either / or - Neither / nor

Nowwe shall discuss about the Usage of Either / Or and Neither / Nor.
Usage of Either / or :
We can use either / or in a sentence in the affirmative sense when referring to a choice between two
possibilities
Ex : We can either study now or after the dinner - it's up to you.
Usage of Neither / Nor :
We can use Neither / Nor in a sentence in the negative sense when you want to say that two or more
things are not true.
Ex : Neither my mother nor my father went to university.
Rules you should keep in mind while using Either / Or (or) Neither / Nor :
• If both elements are singular, then the verb should also be singular. Have a look at an example,
• Either the father or the mother has to attend the meeting.
• ( Here father and mother are singular; so the verb has is also singular)
• Neither Kareena nor Saif is going to the function. (Kareena and Saif are singular; so the verb is
is also singular)
• However, if one of the elements is plural, then use a plural verb.
• Either Jasmine or the girls are going to prepare dinner tonight.
• (the girls is plural; so the verb are is plural too)
• Neither the lecturer nor the students were in the classroom this morning.
• (the students is plural; so the verb were is plural too)
A Little / A Few - Little / Few

Here we shall discuss about the differences and usage of A little, a few and very little, very few. A little, a
few, (very) little and (very) few are quantifiers.
A Little / A Few :
The expressions A Little / A Few mean some or enough.
Ex :
• "I have got a little money" = I have got some money. It's enough for me to do what I want.
• "I have got a few friends" = I have got some or enough friends. We meet every day.
(very) little and (very) few :
The expressions (very) little and (very) few mean hardly any or not enough.
Ex :
• I have got (very) little money = I have got hardly any. I haven't got enough. I'll borrow some from my
friend.
• I have got (very) few friends = I have got hardly any. I haven't got enough. I need to make new friends.
Have a look at the following example table for a clear understanding of a little / a few and very little and very
few.
Now we shall discuss some rules :
• Affirmative sentences :
• A little, a few, (very) little and (very) few are generally used in affirmative statements, not
negatives or questions.
• Countable and uncountable nouns :
• A little and (very) little are used with uncountable nouns (money, bread, water...)
• A few and (very) few are used with countable nouns (friends, tables, teachers..)
Too and Enough

Now we shall discuss about the usage of Too and enough.
• These two indicate degree.

• They are used with adjectives.
Too : The meaning of Too is “more than what is needed”.
Enough : The meaning of Enough is “sufficient”.
Have a look at some examples so that you can understand the usage of Too and Enough.
• He is too old to dance with those students.

• She is intelligent enough to get a good score in IBPS.
• You're not writing fast enough.
• I don't have enough money.
• He has too many girl friends.
• Uma has got too much patience
Now lets see some important points you should keep in mind while using Too
• Too comes before adjectives and adverbs :

• It's too hot to wear that coat.
• I was walking too fast.
• Too may also come before nouns when it is used with the expressions too much and too many.
• Too much is used before uncountable nouns.

• There is too much salt in this food.
• Too many is used before countable nouns
• There are too many students in this classroom.
Now lets see some important points you should keep in mind while using Enough.
• Enough precedes adjectives and adverbs :
• He isn't young enough to dance with those students.
• We're not walking quickly enough.
• Enough may also precedes nouns :
• We have enough money .
• I have not got enough money to pay the exam fees.
Much, Many and A Lot

In this article we shall discuss about the usage of Much, Many and A Lot. These three indicate a large
quantity of something, for example "I have a lot of friends " means I have a large quantity of friends. These
three are (much, many and a lot) are quantifiers. Now lets see some examples to demonstrate the usage of
Much, Many and A Lot.
• How much money have you got?
• I haven't got much money.
• I have got a lot.
• I have got a lot of money.
• How many students are in the classroom?
• There aren't many.
• There are a lot.
• There are a lot of/lots of students.
In the interrogative forms we use :
• Much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)
• Ex :
• How much money / bread / water...is there?
• Many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
• Ex :
• How many students / teachers / desks... are there?
In the negative forms we use :
• Much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)
• Ex :
• I haven't got much money/bread/water...
• Many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
• Ex :
• There aren't many students / teachers / desks...
In the affirmative forms we use :
• A lot, A lot of, lots of with countable and uncountable nouns.
• Ex :
• "How many students are there in the classroom?"
• "There are a lot."
• "How many students are there in the classroom?"
• "There are a lot of / lots of students"..
In formal written English :
• It is also possible (and preferable) to use many and much rather than a lot of, lots of and a lot in formal
written English.
• Ex :
• There are many students.
• Much time was spent on studying.
Remember friends, if you're speaking or writing to friends (informal), use a lot, a lot of, lots of. But if you
want to be more formal, perhaps it is preferable to use much and many.
Some more points to Remember :
• In affirmative sentences with so, as or too, we also use much / many.
• Ex :
• "Ramani has so many friends."
• "She has as many friends as Mohana."
• "Mohan has too much money."
Now lets see the detailed view of the points mentioned above :
I wish / if Only
Now we shall discuss about the usage of I wish / If Only in sentences. There are three types of I wish / if
only sentences:
1. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past.
2. Regret with the past perfect.
3. Complaints with would + verb.
To express a wish :
The form of the sentence :
If only / I wish + simple past
Ex :
If only I knew how to speak Spanish. (I don’t know how to speak Spanish and I would like to learn how to
speak)
Usage :
To express a wish in the present or in the future.
 The simple past here is an unreal past.
 When you use the verb to be the form is “were”.

Example:
I wish I were a millionaire!
To express regret :
If only / I wish + past perfect
Ex :
If only I had woken up early. (I didn’t wake up early and I missed the train.)
Usage :
 To express a regret.
 The action is past.
Complaining :
I wish / if only + would + verb
Ex :
I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always come late and I want you to
arrive on time)
Usage :
 To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.
 Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.
Used to, be Used to, get Used to

By using Used to you can express :
• A particular thing always happened or was true in the past.
• But it no longer happens or is no longer true now:
Have a look at some examples of the usage of Used to :
• Shivani used to live in Bangalore.
• She used to dance every evening, but since she had that terrible lung disorder she doesn't dance
anymore.
• Why don't you come and see me like you used to?
Now lets see the forms of used to :
There are three forms for Used to. They are
• Interrogative form :
• Did you use to dance regularly ?
• Affirmative form :
• Yes, I used to go jogging nearly every day.
• Negative form :
• No, I didn't use to exercise on a regular basis.
Used to, be used to, get used to :
• Used to tells us that a particular thing always happened or was true in the past (see the above
examples)
• Be used to is used to say that something is normal, not unusual.
• Examples :
• I'm used to living alone.
• Don't worry, Mohan is used to driving for long hours. He has worked as a professional
driver for 20 years.
• Get used tells us that something is in the process of becoming normal.
• Examples :
• He doesn't like that small town, but he'll get used to it.
• She found the heels too high, but she got used to them.
• Since the divorce, she has become very sad. But I think she'll get used to her new life.

• I got used to living in Canada in spite of the cold weather.
• Get used to and be used to are followed by either a noun or a gerund. Have a look at the following
table.
Idioms
A hot potato
Speak of an issue (mostly current) which many people are talking about and which is usually disputed
A penny for your thoughts

A way of asking what someone is thinking
Actions speak louder than words

People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say.
Add insult to injury

To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen an unfavorable situation.
An arm and a leg

Very expensive or costly. A large amount of money.
At the drop of a hat

Meaning: without any hesitation; instantly.
Back to the drawing board

When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.
Ball is in your court

It is up to you to make the next decision or step
Barking up the wrong tree

Looking in the wrong place. Accusing the wrong person
Be glad to see the back of

Be happy when a person leaves.
Beat around the bush

Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.
Best of both worlds

Meaning: All the advantages.
Best thing since sliced bread

A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan.
Bite off more than you can chew

To take on a task that is way to big.
Blessing in disguise
Something good that isn't recognized at first.
Burn the midnight oil

To work late into the night, alluding to the time before electric lighting.
Can't judge a book by its cover

Cannot judge something primarily on appearance.
Caught between two stools

When someone finds it difficult to choose between two alternatives.
Costs an arm and a leg

This idiom is used when something is very expensive.
Cross that bridge when you come to it

Deal with a problem if and when it becomes necessary, not before.
Cry over spilt milk

When you complain about a loss from the past.
Curiosity killed the cat

Being Inquisitive can lead you into an unpleasant situation.
Cut corners
When something is done badly to save money.
Cut the mustard [possibly derived from "cut the muster"]

To succeed; to come up to expectations; adequate enough to compete or participate
Devil's Advocate
To present a counter argument
Don't count your chickens before the eggs have hatched

This idiom is used to express "Don't make plans for something that might not happen".
Don't give up the day job

You are not very good at something. You could definitely not do it professionally.
Don't put all your eggs in one basket

Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
Drastic times call for drastic measures

When you are extremely desperate you need to take drastic actions.
Elvis has left the building

The show has come to an end. It's all over.
Every cloud has a silver lining

Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days.
Far cry from

Very different from.
Feel a bit under the weather

Meaning: Feeling slightly ill.
Give the benefit of the doubt

Believe someone's statement, without proof.
Hear it on the grapevine

This idiom means 'to hear rumors' about something or someone.
Hit the nail on the head

Do or say something exactly right
Hit the sack / sheets / hay

To go to bed.
In the heat of the moment

Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment.
It takes two to tango

Actions or communications need more than one person
Jump on the bandwagon

Join a popular trend or activity.
Keep something at bay

Keep something away.
Kill two birds with one stone

This idiom means, to accomplish two different things at the same time.
Last straw
The final problem in a series of problems.
Let sleeping dogs lie

Meaning - do not disturb a situation as it is - since it would result in trouble or complications.
Let the cat out of the bag

To share information that was previously concealed
Make a long story short

Come to the point - leave out details
Method to my madness
An assertion that, despite one's approach seeming random, there actually is structure to it.
Miss the boat

This idiom is used to say that someone missed his or her chance
Not a spark of decency

Meaning: No manners
Not playing with a full deck

Someone who lacks intelligence.
Off one's rocker

Crazy, demented, out of one's mind, in a confused or befuddled state of mind, senile.
On the ball
When someone understands the situation well.
Once in a blue moon

Meaning: Happens very rarely.
Picture paints a thousand words

A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words.
Piece of cake
A job, task or other activity that is easy or simple.
Put wool over other people's eyes

This means to deceive someone into thinking well of them.
See eye to eye

This idiom is used to say that two (or more people) agree on something.
Sit on the fence

This is used when someone does not want to choose or make a decision.
Speak of the devil!

This expression is used when the person you have just been talking about arrives.
Steal someone's thunder

To take the credit for something someone else did.
Take with a grain of salt

This means not to take what someone says too seriously.
Taste of your own medicine

Means that something happens to you, or is done to you, that you have done to someone else
To hear something straight from the horse's mouth

To hear something from the authoritative source.
Whole nine yards

Everything. All of it.
Wouldn't be caught dead

Would never like to do something
Your guess is as good as mine

To have no idea, do not know the answer to a question
List of one word substitutions

1. Audience – a number of people listening to a lecture
2. Altruist – one, who considers the happiness and well-being of others first
3. Atheist – a person who does not believe in God
4. Anthropologist – one, who studies the evolution of mankind
5. Autocracy – government by one person
6. Autobiography – the life history of a person written by himself
7. Amputate – to cut off a part of a person's body which is infected
8. Arsenal – a place for ammunition and weapons
9. Archives – a place where government or public records are kept
10. Amateur – a man who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession
11. Aristocracy – government by the nobles
12. Aquatic – animals/plants ere which live in water
13. Amphibian – animals which live both on land and sea
14. Ambidexter – one, who can use either hand with ease
15. Alimony – allowance paid to wife on legal separation
16. Anthology – a collection of poems
17. Abdication – voluntary giving up of throne in favour of someone
18. Arbitrator – a person, appointed by two parties to solve a dispute
19. Astronomer – a person, who studies stars, planets and other heavenly bodies
20. Astrologer – a person who studies the influence of heavenly bodies on human beings
21. Anthology – a collection of poems
22. Axiom – a statement which is accepted as true without proof
23. Agenda – a list of headings of the business to be transacted at a meeting
24. Anarchist – one, who is out to destroy all governance, law and order
25. Almanac – an annual calender with positions of stars
26. Bigamy – the practice of having two wives or husbands at a time
27. Bibliophile – a lover and collector of books
28. Bouquet – a collection of flowers
29. Bureaucracy – government by the officials
30. Belligerent – a person, nation that is involved in war
31. Biennial – an event which happens once in two years
32. Blasphemy – the act of speaking disrespectfully about sacred things
33. Creche – a nursery where children are cared for while their parents are at work
34. Cosmopolitan – a person who regards whole world as his country
35. Chauffeur – one, who is employed to drive a motor car
36. Curator – a person incharge of a museum
37. Carnivorous – one, who lives on flesh
38. Cannibal – one, who feeds on human flesh
39. Contemporaries – belonging to or living at the same time
40. Cloak room – a place for luggage at railway station

41. Cynosure – centre of attraction
42. Connoisseur – a critical judge of any art and craft
43. Crusade – a religious war
44. Choreographer – one, who teaches dancing
45. Cacographist – a person, who is bad in spellings
46. Calligraphist – a person, who writes beautiful handwriting
47. Cynic – one, who sneers at the aims and beliefs of his fellow men
48. Convalescent – one, who is recovering health
49. Cavalry – soldiers, who fight on horse back
50. Cardiologist – a person, who is specialist in heart diseases
51. Cartographer – one, who draws maps
52. Dormitory – the sleeping rooms with several beds especially in a college or institution
53. Drawn – a game that results neither in victory nor in defeat
54. Elegy – a poem of lamentation
55. Epitaph – words which are inscribed on the grave or the tomb in the memory of the buried
56. Ephemeral – lasting one day
57. Effeminate – a person who is womanish
58. Emigrant – a person who leaves his own country and goes to live in another
59. Edible – fit to be eaten
60. Egotism – practice of talking too much about oneself
61. Encyclopaedia – a book that contains information on various subjects
62. Epicure – one, who is devoted to the pleasure of eating and drinking
63. Florist – one, who deals-in flowers
64. Fastidious – one, who is very -selective in one's taste
65. Fanatic or Bigot – one, who is filled with excessive and mistaken enthusiasm in religious matters
66. Fatal – causing death
67. Fatalist – one, who believes in fate
68. Facsimile – an exact copy of handwriting, printing etc
69. Fauna – the animals of a certain region
70. Flora – the plants of a particular region
71. Fratricide – murder of brother
72. Fugitive – one, who runs away from justice or the law
73. Fragile – easily broken
74. Feminist – one, who works for the welfare of the women
75. Granary – a place for grains
76. Genocide – murder of race
77. Gregarious – animals which live in flocks
78. Hangar – a place for housing aeroplanes
79. Hive – a place for bees
80. Horticulture – the art of cultivating and managing gardens
81. Homicide – murder of man
82. Hearse – a vehicle which is used to carry a dead body
83. Hedonist – one, who believes that pleasure is the chief good (sensual)
84. Horizon – a line at which the earth and the sky seem to meet
85. Honorary – holding office without any remuneration
86. Heretic – one, who acts against religion
87. Herbivorous – one, who lives on herbs
88. Insolvent/Bankrupt – a person who is unable to pay his debts

89. Inaudible – a sound that cannot be heard
90. Inaccessible – that cannot be easily approached
91. Incorrigible – incapable of being corrected
92. Irreparable – incapable of being repaired
93. Illegible – incapable of being read
94. Inevitable – incapable of being avoided
95. Impracticable – incapable of being practised
96. Immigrant – a person who comes to one country from another in order to settle there
97. Invincible – one, too strong to be overcome
98. Indelible – that cannot be erased
99. Incognito – travelling under another name than one's own
100. Indefatigable – one, who does not tire easily
101. Infallible – one, who is free from all mistakes and failures
102. Invigilator – one, who supervises in the examination hall
103. Itinerant – one, who journeys from place to place
104. Infirmary – a home or room used for ill or injured people
105. Infanticide – murder of an infant
106. Infantry – soldiers, who fight on foot
107. Inflammable – liable to catch fire easily
108. Interregnum – a period of interval between two reigns or governments
109. Kennel – a place for dogs
110. Lunatic asylum – a home for lunatics
111. Lexicographer – one, who compiles a dictionary
112. Loquacious – one, who talks continuously
113. Linguist – one, who is skilled in foreign languages
114. Lapidist – one, who cuts precious stones
115. Misanthrope – a hater of mankind
116. Misogamist – one, who hates marriage
117. Mortuary – a place, where dead bodies are kept for post mortem
118. Mercenery – working only for the sake of money
119. Matricide – murder of mother
120. Martyr – one, who dies for a noble cause
121. Maiden speech – the first speech delivered by a person
122. Mint – a place where coins are made
123. Misogynist – a hater of womankind
124. Morgue – a place, where dead bodies are kept for identification
125. Mammals – animals which give milk
126. Monogamy – the practice of marrying one at a time
127. Missionary – a person, who is sent to propagate religion
128. Numismatics – the study of coins
129. Namesake – a person having same name as another
130. Nostalgia – a strong desire to return home, home sickness
131. Novice or Tyro – one, new to anything, inexperienced
132. Narcotic – a medicine for producing sleep
133. Optimist – a person who looks at the brighter side of things
134. Orphan – one, who has lost parents
135. Omnipresent – one, who is present everywhere
136. Omnipotent – one, who is all powerful

137. Omniscient – one, who knows everything
138. Opaque – that which cannot be seen through
139. Obituary – an account in the newspaper of the funeral of the one deceased
140. Orphanage – a home for orphans
141. Obstetrician – one, who is skilled in midwifery
142. Ostler – one, who looks after horses at an inn
143. Omnivorous – one, who eats everything
144. Pessimist – a person who looks at the darker side of things
145. Potable – fit to drink
146. Post mortem – an examination of dead body
147. Philanthropist – a lover of mankind
148. Patricide – murder of father
149. Philatelist – one, who collects stamps
150. Plagiarism – literary theft or passing off an author's original work as one's own
151. Polygamy – the practice of marrying more than one wife at a time
152. Polyandry – the practice of marrying more than one husband at a time
153. Philogynist – a lover of womankind
154. Plebiscite – (a decision made by) votes of all qualified citizens
155. Philanderer – one, who amuses himself by love making
156. Philistine – one who does not care for art and literature
157. Plutocracy – government by the rich
158. Pseudonym – an imaginary name assumed by an author for disguise
159. Posthumous – a child born after the death of his father or the book published after the death of the writer
160. Panacea – a remedy for all diseases
161. Paediatrician – a person, who is specialist in child diseases
162. Platitude – ordinary remarks often repeated
163. Pedant – one, who makes a vain display of his knowledge
164. Polyglot – one, who speaks many languages
165. Paleography – the study of ancient writing
166. Posse – a number of policemen called to quell a riot
167. Parole – pledge given by a prisoner for temporary release, not to escape
168. Pedestrian – one, who goes on foot
169. Portable – that can be carried easily
170. Quarantine – an act of separation from other persons to avoid infection
171. Rhetoric – the art of elegant speech or writing
172. Regicide – murder of King or Queen
173. Sacrilege – violating or profaning religious things/places
174. Sculptor – one, who cuts in stones
175. Suicide – murder of oneself
176. Stable – a place for horses
177. Somnambulist – a person, who walks in sleep
178. Somniloquist – a person, who talks in sleep
179. Souvenir – a thing kept as a reminder of a person, place or event
180. Swan song – the last work (literary) of a writer
181. Sot, Toper – one, who is a habitual drunkard
182. Sinecure – a job with high salary but little responsibility
183. Stoic – a person, who is indifferent to pleasure and pain and has control over his passions
184. Sanatorium – a place for the sick to recover health

185. Sororicide – murder of sister
186. Triennial – an event which happens once in three years
187. Truant – a person/student who absents himself from class or duty without permission
188. Teetotaller – one, who does not take any intoxicating drink
189. Transparent – that which can be seen through
190. Theocracy – government by religious principles
191. Uxorious – one extremely fond of one's wife
192. Utopia – an imaginary perfect social and political system
193. Uxoricide – murder of wife
194. Verbatim – repetition of speech or writing word for word
195. Volunteer – one, who offers one's services
196. Virgin – a woman who has no sexual experience
197. Versatile – interested in and clever at many different things
198. Veteran – one, who has a long experience of any occupation
199. Venial – a fault that may be forgiven
200. Wardrobe – a place for clothes
Most Important English Proverbs

A proverb is a short and pitty sentence expressing a truth ascertained by experience or observation. It is a
sentence which briefly and forcibly expresses some practical truth. In fact a proverb is a short popular saying
that expresses effectively some common place truth or useful thought.
● A honey tongue, a heart of gall.

● A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
● A wolf in sheep's clothing.
● All's well that ends well.
● An empty vessel sounds much.
● A nine day's wonder.
● A rotten apple injures its companions.
● As the king, so are the subjects.
● As you sow, so shall you reap.
● A bad man is better than a bad name.
● A bad workman quarrels with his tools.
● A bird in hand in worth two in the bush.
● A burnt child dreads the fire.
● A drop in the ocean.
● A drowning man catches at a straw.
● A figure among ciphers.
● A guilty conscience is always suspicious.
● A hard nut to crack.
● Avarice is the root of all evils.
● Barking dogs seldom bite.
● Beggars cannot be choosers.
● Beneath every rose lies the thorn.
● Better to wear out than to rust out.
● Between the two stools we come to the ground.
● Birds of the same feather flock together.
● Better be alone than in bad company.
● Casting pearls before swine.
● Diamond cuts diamond.

● Do good and cast it into the river.
● Even a good marksman may miss.
● Even death cannot be had for the asking.
● Every potter praises his pot.
● Everything looks yellow to a jaundiced eye.
● Evil got, evil spent.
● Familiarity breeds contempt.
● Fool to others, to himself a sage.
● Forced labour is better than idleness.
● Fortune favours the brave.
● Gather thistles and expect pickles.
● God's will be done.
● Good mind, good find.
● Great cry little wool.
● God helps those who help themselves.
● Health is wealth.
● Half a loaf is better than no bread.
● He jests at scars who never felt a wound.
● He that is warm, thinks all are so.
● He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet.
● He breaks his wife's head and then buys a plaster for it.
● High winds blow on high hills.
● His wits are gone a wool-gathering.
● Handsome is that handsome does.
● History repeats itself.
● Honesty is the best policy.
● Hope for the best and be prepared for the worst.
● If you want a thing well done, do it yourself.
● It is hard to live in Rome and fight with the Pope.
● It is no use crying over spilt milk.
● It takes two to make a quarrel.
● Killing two birds with one stone.
● Kill not the goose that lays the golden eggs.
● King can do no wrong.
● Know which way the wind blows.
● Knowledge is power.
● Let bygones be bygones.
● Let the past bury the dead.
● Like cures like.
● Like attracts like.
● Lend your money and lose your friend.
● Let sleeping dogs lie.
● Losers are always in the wrong.
● Love and cough cannot be hidden.
● Man proposes, God disposes.
● Many a little makes a mickle.
● Many men, many minds.
● Measure for measure.
● Misfortune never comes alone or singly.
● Money begets money.
● Man is as old as he feels, and a woman as old as she looks.
● The more the merrier.
● No one knows the weight of another's burden.

● No pains, no gains.
● Necessity is the mother of invention.
● No pleasure without pain.
● No rose without a thorn.
● No smoke without some fire.
● One flower makes no garland.
● One nail drives out another.
● One today is better than two tomorrow.
● Out of the frying pan into the fire.
● Penny-wise and pound foolish.
● Poverty breeds strife.
● Pure gold does not fear the flame.
● Practice makes a man perfect.
● Prevention is better than cure.
● Pride hath a fall.
● Quit not certainty for hope.
● Respect yourself and you will be respected.
● Self-praise is no recommendation.
● Something is better than nothing.
● Steal a goose and give giblets in alms.
● Strike the iron while it is hot.
● Speech is silver, silence is golden.
● A stich in time saves nine.
● Set a thief to catch a thief.
● The innocent have nothing to fear.
● The wearer knows where the shoe pinches.
● There is many a slip betwixt the cup and the lip.
● Time and tide wait for none.
● To make castles in the air.
● To make a mountain out of a mole hill.
● To rob Peter, to pay Paul.
● Too many cooks spoll the broth.
● Too much courtesy, too much craft.
● Tomorrow never comes.
● Truth is always bitter.
● Two heads are better than one.
● Union is strength.
● Vows made in storm are forgotten in calm.
● Whistling maid and crowing hen are neither fit for gods nor man.
One Ward Mania and Meanings
Word Definition
Ablutomania mania for washing oneself
Aboulomania pathological indecisiveness
Agromania intense desire to be in open spaces
Andromania nymphomania
Anglomania craze or obsession with England and the English
Anthomania obsession with flowers
Aphrodisiomania abnormal sexual interest

Arithmomania obsessive preoccupation with numbers
Balletomania abnormal fondness for ballet
Bibliomania craze for books or reading
Bruxomania compulsion for grinding teeth
Cacodemomania pathological belief that one is inhabited by an evil spirit
Catapedamania obsession with jumping from high places
Chinamania obsession with collecting china
Choreomania dancing mania or frenzy
Clinomania excessive desire to stay in bed
Copromania obsession with feces
Cytheromania nymphomania
Dacnomania obsession with killing
Demonomania pathological belief that one is possessed by demons
Dinomania mania for dancing
Dipsomania abnormal craving for alcohol
Discomania obsession for disco music
Doramania obsession with owning furs
dDromania obsession with giving gifts
Drapetomania intense desire to run away from home
Dromomania compulsive longing for travel
Ecdemomania abnormal compulsion for wandering
Egomania irrational self-centered attitude or self-worship
Eleutheromania manic desire for freedom
Empleomania mania for holding public office
Enosimania pathological belief that one has sinned
Entheomania abnormal belief that one is divinely inspired
Epomania craze for writing epics
Ergasiomania excessive desire to work; ergomania
Ergomania excessive desire to work; workaholism
Erotomania abnormally powerful sex drive
Etheromania craving for ether
Ethnomania obsessive devotion to one's own people
Eulogomania obsessive craze for eulogies
Flagellomania abnormal enthusiasm for flogging
Florimania craze for flowers
Francomania craze or obsession with France and the French
Gallomania craze or obsession with France and the French
Gamomania obsession with issuing odd marriage proposals
Graecomania obsession with Greece and the Greeks
Graphomania obsession with writing
Gynaecomania abnormal sexual obsession with women
Habromania insanity featuring cheerful delusions
Hagiomania mania for sainthood
Hellenomania obsession with Greece and the Greeks; Graecomania
Hexametromania mania for writing in hexameter

Hieromania pathological religious visions or delusions
Hippomania obsession with horses
Hydromania irrational craving for water
Hylomania excessive tendency towards materialism
Hypermania severe mania
Hypomania minor mania
Hysteromania nymphomania
Iconomania obsession with icons or portraits
Idolomania obsession or devotion to idols
Infomania excessive devotion to accumulating facts
Islomania craze or obsession for islands
Italomania obsession with Italy or Italians
Kleptomania irrational predilection for stealing
Klopemania kleptomania
Logomania pathological loquacity
Lypemania extreme pathological mournfulness
Macromania delusion that objects are larger than natural size
Megalomania abnormal tendency towards grand or grandiose behaviour
Melomania craze for music
Methomania morbid craving for alcohol
Metromania insatiable desire for writing verse
Micromania pathological self-deprecation or belief that one is very small
Monomania abnormal obsession with a single thought or idea
Morphinomania habitual craving or desire for morphine
Musomania obsession with music
Mythomania lying or exaggerating to an abnormal extent
Narcomania uncontrollable craving for narcotics
Necromania sexual obsession with dead bodies; necrophilia
Nosomania delusion of suffering from a disease
Nostomania abnormal desire to go back to familiar places
Nymphomania excessive or crazed sexual desire
Oenomania obsession or craze for wine
Oligomania obsession with a few thoughts or ideas
Oniomania mania for making purchases
Onomamania mania for names
Onomatomania irresistible desire to repeat certain words
Onychotillomania compulsive picking at the fingernails
Opiomania craving for opium
Opsomania abnormal love for one kind of food
Orchidomania abnormal obsession with orchids
Parousiamania obsession with the second coming of Christ
Pathomania moral insanity
Peotillomania abnormal compulsion for pulling on the penis
Phagomania excessive desire for food or eating
Phaneromania habit of biting one’s nails

Pharmacomania abnormal obsession with trying drugs
Phonomania pathological tendency to murder
Photomania pathological desire for light
Phyllomania excessive or abnormal production of leaves
Phytomania obsession with collecting plants
Planomania abnormal desire to wander and disobey social norms
Plutomania mania for money
Polemomania mania for war
Politicomania mania for politics
Polkamania craze for polka dancing
polymania mania affecting several different mental faculties
Poriomania abnormal compulsion to wander
Pornomania obsession with pornography
Potichomania craze for imitating Oriental porcelain
Potomania abnormal desire to drink alcohol
Pseudomania irrational predilection for lying
Pteridomania passion for ferns
Pyromania craze for starting fires
Rhinotillexomania compulsive nose picking
Rinkomania obsession with skating
Satyromania abnormally great male sexual desire; satyriasis
Scribbleomania obsession with scribbling
Sebastomania religious insanity
Sitiomania morbid aversion to food
Sophomania delusion that one is incredibly intelligent
Squandermania irrational propensity for spending money wastefully
Stampomania obsession with stamp-collecting
Syphilomania pathological belief that one is afflicted with syphilis
Technomania craze for technology
Teutomania obsession with Teutonic or German things
Thanatomania belief that one has been affected by death magic, and resulting
illness
Theatromania craze for going to plays
Theomania belief that one is a god
Timbromania craze for stamp collecting
Tomomania irrational predilection for performing surgery
Toxicomania morbid craving for poisons
Trichotillomania neurosis where patient pulls out own hair
Tulipomania obsession with tulips
Typhomania delirious state resulting from typhus fever
Typomania craze for printing one’s lucubrations
Uranomania obsession with the idea of divinity
Verbomania craze for words
Xenomania inordinate attachment to foreign things
Zoomania insane fondness for animals
LIST OF PHOBIA
Word Definition
Acarophobia fear of itching or of insects causing itching
Acrophobia fear of heights
Aerophobia fear of flying or draughts
Agoraphobia fear of open spaces
Agyiophobia fear of crossing busy streets
Aichmophobia fear of sharp or pointed objects
Ailurophobia fear of cats
Algophobia fear of pain
Amathophobia fear of dust
Amaxophobia fear of riding in a car
Ambulophobia fear of walking
Anglophobia fear of England or the English
Anthrophobia fear of humans
Anuptaphobia fear of staying single
Aquaphobia fear of water
Arachibutyrophobia fear of peanut butter sticking to roof of mouth
Arachnophobia fear of spiders
Astraphobia fear of being struck by lightning
Astrapophobia fear of thunder and lightning
Automysophobia fear of being dirty
Autophobia fear of solitude
Aallistophobia fear of missiles
Aathophobia fear of falling from a high place
Aatophobia fear of heights or being close to tall buildings
Aatrachophobia fear of frogs and toads
Belonephobia fear of pins and needles
Bibliophobia fear of books
Blennophobia fear of slime
Brontophobia fear of thunder and lightning
Cancerophobia fear of cancer
Cathisophobia fear of sitting
Cenophobia fear of empty spaces
Chrematophobia fear of money
Cibophobia fear of or distaste for food
Claustrophobia fear of closed spaces
Climacophobia fear of falling down stairs
Clinophobia fear of staying in bed
Cremnophobia fear of cliffs and precipices
Cyberphobia fear of computers
Cynophobia fear of dogs
Dromophobia fear of crossing streets

Dysmorphophobia fear of physical deformities
Ecophobia fear of home
Eleutherophobia fear of freedom
Eosophobia fear of dawn
Ergasiophobia fear of work
Ergophobia fear of work
Erotophobia fear of sex
Erythrophobia fear of red lights or of blushing
Euphobia fear of good news
Francophobia fear of France or the French
Gallophobia fear of France or the French
Gamophobia fear of marriage
Geniophobia fear of chins
Genophobia fear of sex
Gerascophobia fear of growing old
Graphophobia fear of writing
Gymnophobia fear of nudity
Heliophobia fear of sunlight
Herpetophobia fear of snakes
Hierophobia fear of sacred things
Homichlophobia fear of fog
Homophobia fear of homosexuals
Hydrophobia fear of water
Hypsophobia fear of high places
Iatrophobia fear of going to the doctor
Iconophobia fear or hatred of images
Kainotophobia fear of change
Kakorrhaphiophobia fear of failure
Kenophobia fear of empty spaces
Ligyrophobia fear of loud noises
Linonophobia fear of string
Lygophobia fear of darkness
Lyssophobia fear of hydrophobia
Macrophobia fear of prolonged waiting
Metrophobia fear of poetry
Monophobia fear of being alone
Muriphobia fear of mice
Myophobia fear of mice
Mysophobia fear of contamination or dirt
Nebulaphobia fear of fog
Necrophobia fear of corpses
Negrophobia fear of blacks
Neophobia fear of novelty
Nosophobia fear of disease
Novercaphobia fear of one's stepmother

Nyctophobia fear of the night or darkness
Ochlophobia fear of crowds
Oenophobia fear or hatred of wine
Ombrophobia fear of rain
Onomatophobia fear of hearing a certain word
Ophidiophobia fear of snakes
Ophthalmophobia fear of being stared at
Optophobia fear of opening one’s eyes
Ornithophobia fear of birds
Paedophobia fear of children; fear of dolls
Panophobia melancholia marked by groundless fears
Pantophobia fear of everything
Parthophobia fear of virgins
Pathophobia fear of disease
Pediculophobia fear of lice
Pentheraphobia fear or hatred of one’s mother-in-law
Phagophobia fear of eating
Phengophobia fear of daylight
Phonophobia fear of noise or of speaking aloud
Photophobia fear of light
Pogonophobia fear of beards
Psychrophobia fear of the cold
Pteronophobia fear of being tickled by feathers
Pyrophobia fear of fire
Pussophobia fear of Russia or Russians
Satanophobia fear of the devil
Sciaphobia fear of shadows
Scopophobia fear of being looked at
Scoptophobia fear of being looked at
Scotophobia fear of the dark
Sitiophobia fear of food
Sitophobia fear of food or eating
Spectrophobia fear of looking in a mirror
Symmetrophobia fear of symmetry
Syphilophobia fear of syphilis
Taphephobia fear of being buried alive
Technophobia fear of technology
Thalassophobia fear of the sea
Thanatophobia fear of death
Theophobia fear of God
Tocophobia fear of pregnancy or childbirth
Tonitrophobia fear of thunder
Topophobia fear of performing; fear of certain places
Toxicophobia fear of poisoning
Toxiphobia fear of poison or being poisoned

Triskaidekaphobia fear of the number thirteen
Uranophobia fear of heaven
Xenophobia fear of foreigners
Zelophobia fear of jealousy
Zoophobia fear of animals
Sciences and Studies

Word Definition
acarology study of mites
accidence grammar book; science of inflections in grammar
aceology therapeutics
acology study of medical remedies
acoustics science of sound
adenology study of glands
aedoeology science of generative organs
aerobiology study of airborne organisms
aerodonetics science or study of gliding
aerodynamics dynamics of gases; science of movement in a flow of air or gas
aerolithology study of aerolites; meteorites
aerology study of the atmosphere
aeronautics study of navigation through air or space
aerophilately collecting of air-mail stamps
aerostatics science of air pressure; art of ballooning
agonistics art and theory of prize-fighting
agriology the comparative study of primitive peoples
agrobiology study of plant nutrition; soil yields
agrology study of agricultural soils
agronomics study of productivity of land
agrostology science or study of grasses
alethiology study of truth
algedonics science of pleasure and pain
algology study of algae

anaesthesiology study of anaesthetics
anaglyptics art of carving in bas-relief
anagraphy art of constructing catalogues
anatomy study of the structure of the body
andragogy science of teaching adults
anemology study of winds
angelology study of angels
angiology study of blood flow and lymphatic system
anthropobiology study of human biology
anthropology study of human cultures
aphnology science of wealth
apiology study of bees
arachnology study of spiders
archaeology study of human material remains
archelogy the study of first principles
archology science of the origins of government
arctophily study of teddy bears
areology study of Mars
aretaics the science of virtue
aristology the science or art of dining
arthrology study of joints
astacology the science of crayfish
astheniology study of diseases of weakening and aging
astrogeology study of extraterrestrial geology
astrology study of influence of stars on people
astrometeorology study of effect of stars on climate
astronomy study of celestial bodies
astrophysics study of behaviour of interstellar matter
astroseismology study of star oscillations
atmology the science of aqueous vapour
audiology study of hearing

autecology study of ecology of one species
autology scientific study of oneself
auxology science of growth
avionics the science of electronic devices for aircraft
axiology the science of the ultimate nature of values
bacteriology study of bacteria
balneology the science of the therapeutic use of baths
barodynamics science of the support and mechanics of bridges
barology study of gravitation
batology the study of brambles
bibliology study of books
bibliotics study of documents to determine authenticity
bioecology study of interaction of life in the environment
biology study of life
biometrics study of biological measurement
bionomics study of organisms interacting in their environments
botany study of plants
bromatology study of food
brontology scientific study of thunder
bryology the study of mosses and liverworts
cacogenics study of racial degeneration
caliology study of bird's nests
calorifics study of heat
cambistry science of international exchange
campanology the art of bell ringing
carcinology study of crabs and other crustaceans
cardiology study of the heart
caricology study of sedges
carpology study of fruit
cartography the science of making maps and globes
cartophily the hobby of collecting cigarette cards

castrametation the art of designing a camp
catacoustics science of echoes or reflected sounds
catalactics science of commercial exchange
catechectics the art of teaching by question and answer
cetology study of whales and dolphins
chalcography the art of engraving on copper or brass
chalcotriptics art of taking rubbings from ornamental brasses
chaology the study of chaos or chaos theory
characterology study of development of character
chemistry study of properties of substances
chirocosmetics beautifying the hands; art of manicure
chirography study of handwriting or penmanship
chirology study of the hands
chiropody medical science of feet
chorology science of the geographic description of anything
chrematistics the study of wealth; political economy
chronobiology study of biological rhythms
chrysology study of precious metals
ciselure the art of chasing metal
climatology study of climate
clinology study of aging or individual decline after maturity
codicology study of manuscripts
coleopterology study of beetles and weevils
cometology study of comets
conchology study of shells
coprology study of pornography
cosmetology study of cosmetics
cosmology study of the universe
craniology study of the skull
criminology study of crime; criminals
cryobiology study of life under cold conditions

cryptology study of codes
cryptozoology study of animals for whose existence there is no conclusive proof
ctetology study of the inheritance of acquired characteristics
cynology scientific study of dogs
cytology study of living cells
dactyliology study of rings
dactylography the study of fingerprints
dactylology study of sign language
deltiology the collection and study of picture postcards
demology study of human behaviour
demonology study of demons
dendrochronology study of tree rings
dendrology study of trees
deontology the theory or study of moral obligation
dermatoglyphics the study of skin patterns and fingerprints
dermatology study of skin
desmology study of ligaments
diabology study of devils
diagraphics art of making diagrams or drawings
dialectology study of dialects
dioptrics study of light refraction
diplomatics science of deciphering ancient writings and texts
diplomatology study of diplomats
docimology the art of assaying
dosiology the study of doses
dramaturgy art of producing and staging dramatic works
dysgenics the study of racial degeneration
dysteleology study of purposeless organs
ecclesiology study of church affairs
eccrinology study of excretion
ecology study of environment

economics study of material wealth
edaphology study of soils
Egyptology study of ancient Egypt
ekistics study of human settlement
electrochemistry study of relations between electricity and chemicals
electrology study of electricity
electrostatics study of static electricity
embryology study of embryos
emetology study of vomiting
emmenology the study of menstruation
endemiology study of local diseases
endocrinology study of glands
enigmatology study of enigmas
entomology study of insects
entozoology study of parasites that live inside larger organisms
enzymology study of enzymes
ephebiatrics branch of medicine dealing with adolescence
epidemiology study of diseases; epidemics
epileptology study of epilepsy
epistemology study of grounds of knowledge
eremology study of deserts
ergology study of effects of work on humans
ergonomics study of people at work
escapology study of freeing oneself from constraints
eschatology study of death; final matters
ethnogeny study of origins of races or ethnic groups
ethnology study of cultures
ethnomethodology study of everyday communication
ethnomusicology study of comparative musical systems
ethology study of natural or biological character
ethonomics study of economic and ethical principles of a society

etiology the science of causes; especially of disease
etymology study of origins of words
euthenics science concerned with improving living conditions
exobiology study of extraterrestrial life
floristry the art of cultivating and selling flowers
fluviology study of watercourses
folkloristics study of folklore and fables
futurology study of future
garbology study of garbage
gastroenterology study of stomach; intestines
gastronomy study of fine dining
gemmology study of gems and jewels
genealogy study of descent of families
genesiology study of reproduction and heredity
genethlialogy the art of casting horoscopes
geochemistry study of chemistry of the earth's crust
geochronology study of measuring geological time
geogeny science of the formation of the earth's crust
geogony study of formation of the earth
geography study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants
geology study of earth's crust
geomorphogeny study of the origins of land forms
geoponics study of agriculture
geotechnics study of increasing habitability of the earth
geratology study of decadence and decay
gerocomy study of old age
gerontology study of the elderly; aging
gigantology study of giants
glaciology study of ice ages and glaciation
glossology study of language; study of the tongue
glyptography the art of engraving on gems

glyptology study of gem engravings
gnomonics the art of measuring time using sundials
gnosiology study of knowledge; philosophy of knowledge
gnotobiology study of life in germ-free conditions
graminology study of grasses
grammatology study of systems of writing
graphemics study of systems of representing speech in writing
graphology study of handwriting
gromatics science of surveying
gynaecology study of women’s physiology
gyrostatics the study of rotating bodies
haemataulics study of movement of blood through blood vessels
hagiology study of saints
halieutics study of fishing
hamartiology study of sin
harmonics study of musical acoustics
hedonics part of ethics or psychology dealing with pleasure
helcology study of ulcers
heliology science of the sun
helioseismology study of sun's interior by observing its surface oscillations
helminthology study of worms
hematology study of blood
heortology study of religious feasts
hepatology study of liver
heraldry study of coats of arms
heresiology study of heresies
herpetology study of reptiles and amphibians
hierology science of sacred matters
hippiatrics study of diseases of horses
hippology the study of horses
histology study of the tissues of organisms

histopathology study of changes in tissue due to disease
historiography study of writing history
historiology study of history
homiletics the art of preaching
hoplology the study of weapons
horography art of constructing sundials or clocks
horology science of time measurement
horticulture study of gardening
hydrobiology study of aquatic organisms
hydrodynamics study of movement in liquids
hydrogeology study of ground water
hydrography study of investigating bodies of water
hydrokinetics study of motion of fluids
hydrology study of water resources
hydrometeorology study of atmospheric moisture
hydropathy study of treating diseases with water
hyetology science of rainfall
hygiastics science of health and hygiene
hygienics study of sanitation; health
hygiology hygienics; study of cleanliness
hygrology study of humidity
hygrometry science of humidity
hymnography study of writing hymns
hymnology study of hymns
hypnology study of sleep; study of hypnosis
hypsography science of measuring heights
iamatology study of remedies
iatrology treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine
iatromathematics archaic practice of medicine in conjunction with astrology
ichnography art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan
ichnology science of fossilized footprints

ichthyology study of fish
iconography study of drawing symbols
iconology study of icons; symbols
ideogeny study of origins of ideas
ideology science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour
idiomology study of idiom, jargon or dialect
idiopsychology psychology of one's own mind
immunogenetics study of genetic characteristics of immunity
immunology study of immunity
immunopathology study of immunity to disease
insectology study of insects
irenology the study of peace
iridology study of the iris; diagnosis of disease based on the iris of the eye
kalology study of beauty
karyology study of cell nuclei
kidology study of kidding
kinematics study of motion
kinesics study of gestural communication
kinesiology study of human movement and posture
kinetics study of forces producing or changing motion
koniology study of atmospheric pollutants and dust
ktenology science of putting people to death
kymatology study of wave motion
labeorphily collection and study of beer bottle labels
larithmics study of population statistics
laryngology study of larynx
lepidopterology study of butterflies and moths
leprology study of leprosy
lexicology study of words and their meanings
lexigraphy art of definition of words
lichenology study of lichens

limacology study of slugs
limnobiology study of freshwater ecosystems
limnology study of bodies of fresh water
linguistics study of language
lithology study of rocks
liturgiology study of liturgical forms and church rituals
loimology study of plagues and epidemics
loxodromy study of sailing along rhumb-lines
magirics art of cookery
magnanerie art of raising silkworms
magnetics study of magnetism
malacology study of molluscs
malariology study of malaria
mammalogy study of mammals
manège the art of horsemanship
Mariology study of the Virgin Mary
martyrology study of martyrs
mastology study of mammals
mathematics study of magnitude, number, and forms
mazology mammalogy; study of mammals
mechanics study of action of force on bodies
meconology study of or treatise concerning opium
melittology study of bees
mereology study of part-whole relationships
mesology ecology
metallogeny study of the origin and distribution of metal deposits
metallograph y study of the structure and constitution of metals
metallurgy study of alloying and treating metals
metaphysics study of principles of nature and thought
metapolitics study of politics in theory or abstract
metapsychology study of nature of the mind

meteoritics the study of meteors
meteorology study of weather
metrics study of versification
metrology science of weights and measures
microanatomy study of microscopic tissues
microbiology study of microscopic organisms
microclimatology study of local climates
micrology study or discussion of trivialities
micropalaeontology study of microscopic fossils
microphytology study of very small plant life
microscopy study of minute objects
mineralogy study of minerals
molinology study of mills and milling
momilogy study of mummies
morphology study of forms and the development of structures
muscology the study of mosses
museology the study of museums
musicology study of music
mycology study of funguses
myology study of muscles
myrmecology study of ants
mythology study of myths; fables; tales
naology study of church or temple architecture
nasology study of the nose
nautics art of navigation
nematology the study of nematodes
neonatology study of newborn babies
neossology study of nestling birds
nephology study of clouds
nephrology study of the kidneys
neurobiology study of anatomy of the nervous system

neurology study of nervous system
neuropsychology study of relation between brain and behaviour
neurypnology study of hypnotism
neutrosophy study of the origin and nature of philosophical neutralities
nidology study of nests
nomology the science of the laws; especially of the mind
noology science of the intellect
nosology study of diseases
nostology study of senility
notaphily collecting of bank-notes and cheques
numerology study of numbers
numismatics study of coins
nymphology study of nymphs
obstetrics study of midwifery
oceanography study of oceans
oceanology study of oceans
odology science of the hypothetical mystical force of od
odontology study of teeth
oenology study of wines
oikology science of housekeeping
olfactology study of the sense of smell
ombrology study of rain
oncology study of tumours
oneirology study of dreams
onomasiology study of nomenclature
onomastics study of proper names
ontology science of pure being; the nature of things
oology study of eggs
ophiology study of snakes
ophthalmology study of eye diseases
optics study of light

optology study of sight
optometry science of examining the eyes
orchidology study of orchids
ornithology study of birds
orology study of mountains
orthoepy study of correct pronunciation
orthography study of spelling
orthopterology study of cockroaches
oryctology mineralogy or paleontology
osmics scientific study of smells
osmology study of smells and olfactory processes
osphresiology study of the sense of smell
osteology study of bones
otology study of the ear
otorhinolaryngology study of ear, nose and throat
paedology study of children
paedotrophy art of rearing children
paidonosology study of children's diseases; pediatrics
palaeoanthropology study of early humans
palaeobiology study of fossil plants and animals
palaeoclimatology study of ancient climates
palaeolimnology study of ancient fish
palaeolimnology study of ancient lakes
palaeontology study of fossils
palaeopedology study of early soils
paleobotany study of ancient plants
paleo-osteology study of ancient bones
palynology study of pollen
papyrology study of paper
parapsychology study of unexplained mental phenomena
parasitology study of parasites

paroemiology study of proverbs
parthenology study of virgins
pataphysics the science of imaginary solutions
pathology study of disease
patrology study of early Christianity
pedagogics study of teaching
pedology study of soils
pelology study of mud
penology study of crime and punishment
periodontics study of gums
peristerophily pigeon-collecting
pestology science of pests
petrology study of rocks
pharmacognosy study of drugs of animal and plant origin
pharmacology study of drugs
pharology study of lighthouses
pharyngology study of the throat
phenology study of organisms as affected by climate
phenomenology study of phenomena
philately study of postage stamps
philematology the act or study of kissing
phillumeny collecting of matchbox labels
philology study of ancient texts; historical linguistics
philosophy science of knowledge or wisdom
phoniatrics study and correction of speech defects
phonology study of speech sounds
photobiology study of effects of light on organisms
phraseology study of phrases
phrenology study of bumps on the head
phycology study of algae and seaweeds
physics study of properties of matter and energy

physiology study of processes of life
phytology study of plants; botany
piscatology study of fishes
pisteology science or study of faith
planetology study of planets
plutology political economy; study of wealth
pneumatics study of mechanics of gases
podiatry study and treatment of disorders of the foot; chiropody
podology study of the feet
polemology study of war
pomology study of fruit-growing
posology science of quantity or dosage
potamology study of rivers
praxeology study of practical or efficient activity; science of efficient action
primatology study of primates
proctology study of rectum
prosody study of versification
protistology study of protists
proxemics study of man’s need for personal space
psalligraphy the art of paper-cutting to make pictures
psephology study of election results and voting trends
pseudology art or science of lying
pseudoptics study of optical illusions
psychobiology study of biology of the mind
psychogenetics study of internal or mental states
psychognosy study of mentality, personality or character
psychology study of mind
psychopathology study of mental illness
psychophysics study of link between mental and physical processes
pteridology study of ferns
pterylology study of distribution of feathers on birds

pyretology study of fevers
pyrgology study of towers
pyroballogy study of artillery
pyrography study of woodburning
quinology study of quinine
raciology study of racial differences
radiology study of X-rays and their medical applications
reflexology study of reflexes
rhabdology knowledge or learning concerning divining rods
rhabdology art of calculating using numbering rods
rheology science of the deformation or flow of matter
rheumatology study of rheumatism
rhinology study of the nose
rhochrematics science of inventory management and the movement of products
runology study of runes
sarcology study of fleshy parts of the body
satanology study of the devil
scatology study of excrement or obscene literature
schematonics art of using gesture to express tones
sciagraphy art of shading
scripophily collection of bond and share certificates
sedimentology study of sediment
seismology study of earthquakes
selenodesy study of the shape and features of the moon
selenology study of the moon
semantics study of meaning
semantology science of meanings of words
semasiology study of meaning; semantics
semiology study of signs and signals
semiotics study of signs and symbols
serology study of serums

sexology study of sexual behaviour
siderography art of engraving on steel
sigillography study of seals
significs science of meaning
silvics study of tree's life
sindonology study of the shroud of Turin
Sinology study of China
sitology dietetics
sociobiology study of biological basis of human behaviour
sociology study of society
somatology science of the properties of matter
sophiology science of ideas
soteriology study of theological salvation
spectrology study of ghosts
spectroscopy study of spectra
speleology study and exploration of caves
spermology study of seeds
sphagnology study of peat moss
sphragistics study of seals and signets
sphygmology study of the pulse
splanchnology study of the entrails or viscera
spongology study of sponges
stasiology study of political parties
statics study o f bodies and forces in equilibrium
stemmatology study of relationships between texts
stoichiology science of elements of animal tissues
stomatology study of the mouth
storiology study of folk tales
stratigraphy study of geological layers or strata
stratography art of leading an army
stylometry studying literature by means of statistical analysis

suicidology study of suicide
symbology study of symbols
symptomatology study of symptoms of illness
synecology study of ecological communities
synectics study of processes of invention
syntax study of sentence structure
syphilology study of syphilis
systematology study of systems
taxidermy art of curing and stuffing animals
tectonics science of structure of objects, buildings and landforms
tegestology study and collecting of beer mats
teleology study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose
telmatology study of swamps
teratology study of monsters, freaks, abnormal growths or malformations
teuthology study of cephalopods
textology study of the production of texts
thalassography science of the sea
thanatology study of death and its customs
thaumatology study of miracles
theology study of religion; religious doctrine
theriatrics veterinary medicine
theriogenology study of animals' reproductive systems
thermodynamics study of relation of heat to motion
thermokinematics study of motion of heat
thermology study of heat
therology study of wild mammals
thremmatology science of breeding domestic animals and plants
threpsology science of nutrition
tidology study of tides
timbrology study of postage stamps
tocology obstetrics; midwifery

tonetics study of pronunciation
topology study of places and their natural features
toponymics study of place-names
toreutics study of artistic work in metal
toxicology study of poisons
toxophily love of archery; archery; study of archery
traumatology study of wounds and their effects
tribology study of friction and wear between surfaces
trichology study of hair and its disorders
trophology study of nutrition
tsiganology study of gypsies
turnery art of turning in a lathe
typhlology study of blindness and the blind
typography art of printing or using type
typology study of types of things
ufology study of alien spacecraft
uranography descriptive astronomy and mapping
uranology study of the heavens; astronomy
urbanology study of cities
urenology study of rust molds
urology study of urine; urinary tract
venereology study of venereal disease
vermeology study of worms
vexillology study of flags
victimology study of victims
vinology scientific study of vines and winemaking
virology study of viruses
vitrics glassy materials; glassware; study of glassware
volcanology study of volcanoes
vulcanology study of volcanoes
xylography art of engraving on wood

xylology study of wood
zenography study of the planet Jupiter
zoiatrics veterinary surgery
zooarchaeology study of animal remains of archaeological sites
zoochemistry chemistry of animals
zoogeography study of geographic distribution of animals
zoogeology study of fossil animal remains
zoology study of animals
zoonomy animal physiology
zoonosology study of animal diseases
zoopathology study of animal diseases
zoophysics physics of animal bodies
zoophysiology study of physiology of animals
zoophytology study of plant-like animals
zoosemiotics study of animal communication
zootaxy science of classifying animals
zootechnics science of breeding animals
zygology science of joining and fastening
zymology science of fermentation
zymurgy branch of chemistry dealing with brewing and distilling
Lesson 6 : Tips for Correct Spellings

Rules / Tips for Correct Spellings - Lesson 1
The one word which most students dread in any competitive exam is "English", and more so "grammar!".
Grammar is an integral and indispensable part of English (or any language, for that matter) and words /
vocabulary are an integral part of grammar. And, when we talk of words, can spellings be far behind ?
Identifying the wrong spellings is a part of the evaluation process, in the English section, in most competitive
exams - bank PO and clerical exams, SSC, IB and other exams.
The 'beauty' of English is that words are not spelled the same way they are pronounced and vice-versa. As
Ambrose Bierce, American editorialist, journalist, short story writer, and one of America's greatest satirist,
once said, "Orthography is the science of spelling by the eye instead of the ear." This implies that words that
are written are not necessarily pronounced the same way! Under such circumstances, mastering spellings
becomes critical to your success, not only in competitive examinations - where both your oral and written
communications is tested - but also in your career and life.
Here are some Tips / Rules for Correct Spellings

There are certain rules / tips for correct spellings, and it will do you a 'world of good' if you can remember
these rules / tips, and apply them accordingly while practicing the spellings of words.
1. 'ie' and 'ei' : When 'ie' is pronounced 'i:' as in 'bee', the 'i' comes before the 'e'.
Believe
Belief
Brief
Achieve
Aggrieved
Fierce
Field
Grieve
Relief
Relieve
Chief
Hygiene
when 'ei' is pronounced 'i:' as in 'bee', 'ei' comes after the 'c'.
Deceive
Deceit
Conceive
Conceit
Misconceive
Perceive
Preconceived
Receive
However, some exceptions to this rule are :
Counterfeit, Plebeian, Weird, Seize, where the 'ei' spelling doesn't follow a 'c'. YOu need to learn the spellings
for these.
2. The consonant 'l' is usually doubled, even when the stress does not fall on the last syllable. This rule is
applicable for UK English spellings. However, the US spellings have also been shown below for your benefit
and understanding.
Note : An Exception is 'paralleled'.
3. Doubling Consonants : When adding 'ed' and 'ing' endings to verbs that end with a single vowel plus a
consonant, do not double the final consonant if the stress doesn't fall at the end of the word.
when adding 'ed' and 'ing' endings to verbs that end with a single vowel plus a consonant, double the final
consonant if the stress falls at the end of the word.
4. Adding endings to words that end with a double "l" : Drop the final "l" from words that end with a
double "l" before adding endings which begin with a consonant. (Such as 'ment', 'ful' and 'li')
Note : The ending 'ness' is an exception to this rule :

• Small- Smallness;
• Ill - illness
5. You must have come across the expression" "When two vowels go walking, the first one does not talking".
This means that when there are two vowels in a row, the first one usually has a long sound, and the second is
silent. "That's why it's 'lean', not 'laen'; 'team', not 'taem'; 'coat', not 'caot', 'boat' not 'baot'; and 'wait' not 'wiat'
Spellings often Misspelled

Most spelling errors are unintentional. The main problem with the spellings is, people remember the sound of
the word in their mother tongue and try to write the spelling to that sound using their own English language
skills. But as English is a tricky language, this technique leads to some typing errors. Some common typos
are :
• Omitting letters from a word
• Adding extra letters
• Transposing two letters in a word
• Spacing words improperly
We can avoid these errors with some careful observation and practice. Here is the list of some misspelled /
confused words. Just observe the common errors carefully, and learn the correct spellings prudently. We hope
this observation helps you improving your spellings. All the Best :)
• Correct Spelling : Referred
• Common Spelling Errors : Reffered / refferred
• To be observed Carefully : Single 'f' and Double 'r'
• Correct Spelling : Occurred
• Common Spelling Errors : Ocurred / Occured
• To be observed Carefully : Double 'c' & Double 'r'
• Correct Spelling : Committed
• Common Spelling Errors : Commited / Comitted
• To be observed Carefully : Double 'm' & Double 'I'
• Correct Spelling : Compelled
• Common Spelling Errors : Compeled / Commpelled
• To be observed Carefully : Single 'm' & Double 'I'
• Correct Spelling : Occasion
• Common Spelling Errors : Occassion / Ocassion
• To be observed Carefully : Double 'c' & Single 's'
• Correct Spelling : Accommodation
• Common Spelling Errors : Accomodation / Acommodation
• To be observed Carefully :Double 'c' & Double 'm'
• Correct Spelling : Committee
• Common Spelling Errors : Commitee / Comittee
• To be observed Carefully : Double 'm', Double 't' & Double 'e'
• Correct Spelling : Unparalleled
• Common Spelling Errors : Unparallelled / Unparalelled

• To be observed Carefully :Double 'I' only once & Single 'l' latter
• Correct Spelling : Manoeuvre / Maneuver (US)
• Common Spelling Errors : Manuvre / Manoeuver
• To be observed Carefully : 'o' comes before 'e' & 'u' comes before 'v'
• Correct Spelling : Consummation
• Common Spelling Errors : Conssumation / Consumation
• To be observed Carefully : Single 's' & Double 'm'
• Correct Spelling : Languor
• Common Spelling Errors : Langour / Languour
• To be observed Carefully :'u' comes before 'o' & only single 'u' not double (after 'o').
• Correct Spelling : Bungalow
• Common Spelling Errors : Bangalow / Bunglow
• To be observed Carefully :'u' comes after 'b' & 'a' comes after 'g'
• Correct Spelling : Conscience
• Common Spelling Errors : Consience / Consience / Consceince
• To be observed Carefully :'i' comes before 'e'. So, it is 'ie' and not 'ei'
• Correct Spelling : Definitely
• Common Spelling Errors : Defenetly / Defnetly
• To be observed Carefully :'i' comes after 'f' not 'e' & 'u' comes after 'a' at the end.
• Correct Spelling : Bureau
• Common Spelling Errors : Bereau / Burow / Beauro
• To be observed Carefully :'e' comes before 'a' & 'u' comes after 'a' at the end.
• Correct Spelling : Reclamation
• Common Spelling Errors : Reclammation / Reclaimmation
• To be observed Carefully :Single 'c' & Single 'm' & no 'i' before 'm'
• Correct Spelling : Indispensable
• Common Spelling Errors : Indispensible / Indespincible
• To be observed Carefully :'i' comes after 'd' & 'e' comes after 'p' & 's' comes before 'able'
SPELLING EASILY CONFUSED WORDS
Homophones are words that are pronounced alike but that have different spellings and
meanings, such as course and coarse. The following list consists of homophones and other
pairs of words that are frequently misused.
n. = noun v. = verb adv. = adverb pro. = pronoun

adj. = adjective pl. = plural conj. = conjunction poss. = possessive
contr. = contraction prep. = preposition sing. = singular
accept : (v.) to receive

except : (prep.)not included
access : (n.) a way of approach or entrance

access : (v.) to gain entrance
assess : (v.) to estimate the value of
adapt : (v.) to adjust to a situation

adopt : (v.) to take in or take a course of action
advice : (n.) counsel, information, or suggestions given

advise : (v.) to give advice
affect : (v.) to influence or have an effect on (most common use)

affect : (n.) emotional status (a specialized use in psychology)
effect : (n.) the result of an action (most common use)
effect : (v.) to accomplish or execute
aisle : (n.) a corridor or passageway

I'll : (contr.) I will
isle : (n.) an island
all ready : (n. + adj.) everyone/everything is prepared

already : (adv.) at or before this time; previously
all right : (n + adj) everything is okay

alright : NOT AN ACCEPTED WORD
all together : (n. + adj.) all in one place

altogether : (adv.) completely, wholly
allude : (v.) to refer to

elude : (v.) to evade or escape
allusion : (n.) a reference

illusion : (n.) a false impression
altar : (n.) an elevated place for religious services

alter : (v.) to change
always : (adv.) constantly; all the time

all ways : (adj. + n.) in every way
aloud : (adv.) audibly or loudly

allowed : (v.) permitted
anecdote : (n.) a little story

antidote : (n.) something that counteracts poison
angel : (n.) a heavenly being

angle : (n.) a figure formed by the divergence of two straight lines from one
point
arc : (n.) a part of a circle

arch : (n.) a curved part of a building
ascend : (v.) to rise, climb, or go up

ascent : (n.) a movement upward
assent : (n.) agreement
assent : (v.) to agree
assistance : (n.) help given

assistants : (n. pl.) helpers
band : (n.) a group; a belt

band : (v.) to form into a group
banned : (v.) excluded or prohibited
bare : (adj) uncovered, naked

bare : (v.) to make naked, to expose
bear : (v.) to carry, endure, support
bear : (n.) large, furry mammal
beside : (prep.) by the side of

besides : (adv. and prep.) in addition to
boar : (n.) a male hog

bore : (v.) to drill into; to mentally tire someone
bore : (n.) someone who is mentally tiring
boarder : (n.) one who pays for room and meals

border : (n.) a boundary
born : (v.) given birth to (always in the passive voice)

borne : (v.) carried, supported (always in the passive voice)
brake : (n.) a mechanism to stop a vehicle

break : (n.) air inhaled and exhaled
breath : (v.) to inhale and exhale
canvas : (n.) a kind of coarse cloth

canvass : (v.) to search or survey
capital : (n.) wealth, assets for investment

capital : (n.) a city that is a seat of government; stock
capital : (adj.) excellent, top or foremost; punishable by death
capitol : (n.) a building occupied by a legislature
censer : (n.) a container for burning incense

censor : (v.) to prohibit publication
censor : (n.) one who prohibits publication
censure : (v.) to reprimand or disapprove of
censure : (n.) disapproval
choose : (v.) to select (present tense)

chose : (v.) selected (past tense)
chosen : (v.) selected (past participle)
cite : (v.) to quote; to charge with breaking a law

sight : (n.) something seen; the sense of seeing; a device for aiming a weapon
sight : (v.) to look at or aim at
site : (n.) a location
coarse : (adj.) rough; undefined

course : (n.) school subject; path or way
complement: (n.) items which complete

complement: (v.) to complete
compliment: (n.) a statement of praise
compliment: (v.) to praise
conscience : (n.) what tells you right from wrong

conscious : (adj.) awake or alert
council : (n.) a group that deliberates

counsel : (v.) to advise
counsel : (n.) advice given
councillor : (n.) one who is a member of a council

counselor : (n.) one who gives advice
descend : (v.) to move downward

descent : (n.) a going down
dissent : (v.) to disagree
dissent : (n.) disagreement
cavalry : (n.) a military company on horseback.

Calvary : (n.) the biblical hill on which Jesus of Nazareth was crucified.
Device : (n.) a contrivance

devise : (v.) to prepare a method or contrivance
do : (v.) to perform
due : (adj.) used with Ato@ to specify the cause of some thing; owing
dual : (adj.) twofold

duel : (n.) a fight between two people
desert : (n.) a geographical area

desert : (v.) to abandon
dessert : (n.) food, usually sweet
elicit : (v.) to bring out, usually a response

illicit : (n.) not allowed
eminent : (adj.) famous

imminent : (adj.) likely to occur soon
envelop : (v.) to cover or enclose

envelope : (n.) an enclosure used for mailing
extant : (adj.) still existing

extent : (n.) the degree of something
formally : (adv.) in a formal manner

formerly : (adv.) at an earlier time
forth : (adv., prep.) forward; onward; out

fourth : (n.; adj.) the one after the third
human : (adj.) pertaining to people

humane : (adj.) pertaining to compassion or kindness
its : (poss. pro.) belonging to it

it's : (contr.) it is; it has
later : (adj.) after a specified time

latter : (n.) the last one mentioned
lead : (v.; pronounced leed) to conduct

lead : (n.; pronounced led) the metal

led : (v.) past tense and past participle of lead
loose : (adj.) not tight

loose : (v.) to release
lose : (v.) to misplace; to be defeated
marital : (adj.) pertaining to marriage

martial : (adj) pertaining to war
maybe : (v.) possibly may occur

may be : (adv.) perhaps
meant : (v.) past tense and past participle of mean

ment : NOT A WORD
passed : (v.) past tense and past participle of pass

past : (n.) an earlier time
patience : (n. sing.) calm endurance

patients : (n. pl.) those under medical care
peace : (n.) not war

piece : (n.) a portion
personal : (adj) pertaining to oneself

personnel : (n.) the employees of a company or organization
principal : (n.) head of a school; money owned

principal : (adj.) chief; most important
principle : (n.) a rule or doctrine
prophecy : (n.) a prediction

prophesy : (v.) to make a prediction
quiet : (adj.) not noisy

quite : (adv.) completely
right : (adj.) correct, not left

write : (v.) to inscribe
sense : (n.) ability to think well; meaning; perception

sense : (v.) to perceive
since : (prep. and conj.) from that time until now; because
stationary : (adj.) in a fixed position

stationery : (n.) paper to write on
than : (conj.) used to compare things

then : (adv.) indicating time
their : (poss. pro.) belonging to them

there : (adv.) in that place; also used as an expletive to begin sentences
they're : (contr.) they are
to : (prep.) generally indicating direction

too : (adv.) excessively; also
two : (n. and adj.) the number
Lesson 7 : Reading Comprehension
How to Get Good Marks in Reading Comprehension ?

Now a days, almost every competitive exam asking reading comprehension questions. In these type of
questions, they will give you a passage / comprehension and will ask you to read that and answer the questions
followed by that passage. Actually this Reading Comprehension section is designed to test the ability of the
student to read a passage and understand its contents and his ability to draw inferences on the basis of what is
read. In simple words, the student's ability to grasp the contents of the passage in a relatively short span of
time is what is being tested.
The Student is expected to read the given passage, understand its contents well and answer the questions given
at the end of the passage. All this to be completed in the limited time that is given.
There are two important skills you should develop to do well in reading comprehension. Those are,
1. Reading Rate
2. Understanding of the Passage
Lets have a look at each of them individually to get a clear understanding, before we get into the techniques of
attempting Reading Comprehension.
The reading skill cant be evaluated on a number of words per minute scale, but reading rate can definitely be
measured. A person who can read faster can answer more number of questions in the given time than a
person with slower reading speed, Other things remaining the same. It is this reading rate or your speed of
reading that you have to aim at improving. There is no overnight solution to this. Constant and extensive
reading will improve your reading rate. Check your reading speed today (take any passage, count the number
of words, clock the time taken by you to read it and calculate the speed in words per minute) and keep a record
of it. Then, keep checking your speed regularly and tabulate the same. Check whether your speed has
increased over time with practice. However, do not become complacent if your speed has increased.
This brings us to the second point.. i.e., understanding of the passage. A person may be able to read the
passage much faster than others but if he is not able to answer the questions pertaining to the passage, then the
speed is of no use at all. it is very essential to grasp the meaning of the passage while reading. While you are
reading, you should constantly think, evaluate, reason out, judge and co relate with what has already been
read. A good vocabulary would enable you understand the nuances and grasp the meaning of various issues
discussed in the passage. While an attempt can be made at pointing out various categories of quesiotns that
may be asked and give a variety of tips, you will basically have to draw on the resources buitl by wide and
extensive reading and rely on your own vocabulary. No training will possible regarding understanding and
analysing the problem. However, we are going to take you through an extensive set of tests followed by this
article to ensure that you get thorough practice in Comprehension Reading.
In addition to good vocabulary, also needed is the ability to zero in on the central theme of the passage. This
can be developed with extensive reading practice as well as proper concentration at the time of reading the
passage. You should also consciously develop the habit of correlating each new sentence read with the part of
the passage already read and mentally form a linkage of all ideas expressed in the passage while
simultaneously weeding out redundant statements.
The passage given in competitive exams (especially for bank exams) do not conform to any standards as
regards the subject matter or the length of the passge. While the subjects covered can be as wide ranging as
Economy, Sciences (like Botony, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Astornomy), Social Sciences (like Pshycology,
History, Politics, Sociology), Humanities (like Literature, Art, Music) or Current Topics (Social, Political,
Economical), the student is not expected to have any prior knowledge of the topics given.
The passages will sometimes be very complex in nature while others will be simple in nature and easy to
understand.
The questions themselves can pertain either to parts directly contained in the passage or related to implications
and inferences. Sometimes you may be asked to comment on the tone of the passage or to choose a title for the
passage or to identify the main idea in the passage but you are hardly ever asked for your opinion on the
passage.
Lesson 8 : Descriptive Paper

Precis Writing Tips
Précis Writing Tips and Examples for SBI Bank PO & Others
Bank PO exam consists of two sections.
1. Objective Test and 2. Descriptive Test.
We've already discussed plenty of materials on Objective Section. With a good practice and observation,
people can easily do better in Objective Test. So not going to say anything about it now. Lets talk about the
Descriptive Section. This section is going to play a crucial role in your final selection of the exam. So,
We've planned to give you a complete set of materials on Descriptive Section. This set consists of the
topics Comprehension, Short Précis, Letter writing & Essay. As an initiative of this, today we are starting
with short notes on Precis writing. We hope that this surely will help you doing good in upcoming SBI PO
Exam's descriptive section .Feel free to use the comments box below if you have any questions / comments...
Origin of the word Precis :
The word “précis” (not Precis, but we actually got used to type it in this way.. so no issues....you should
pronounce it as pray-see) is cognate to the word “precise” coming from a Latin word meaning “to cut.” It has
been variously referred to as abbreviation’, ‘subtraction’, ‘abstract’, ‘summary’, and ‘condensation’. A precis,
then, is a cut version of the original, retaining the main ideas and omitting all or most of the examples and
secondary ideas.
How to Write Precis in Exams ?

We've already discussed about the basics of Precis writing for bank po exams . In this post we shall discuss
important points / rules which you should follow to write precis. Lets have a look...
In writing a precis just proceed as follows :
• Read Carefully, sentence by sentence, the passage to be summarized. Try to grasp the writer's main
point. Spotting the topic sentence will help. As you read, take brief notes to be used in your writing.
• When you have finally decided what the author's main point is, write it out in your own words. Do not
use the wording of the original except for certain key words which you may find indispensable. If you
cant translate the idea into your own language, you do not understand them very well. Be especially
careful not to rely too much on the topic sentence. Do not add add any ideas or opinions of your own.
• Revise your writing until you are sure that you have given an accurate summary.
• Usually you will find your precis is too long, if it is more than one-third the length of the original.
Continue your revision until you have reduced the precis to the proper length In this careful revision
lies the principal value of the precis as a composition exercise.
What is Précis Writing ?

A precis is a Short Summary. It is not a paraphrase, which merely says in different and simpler words exactly
what the passage being paraphrased has to say. A paraphrase may be as long as the passage itself whereas a
precis rarely is more than one-third the length of the original selection and may be only one-fourth as long
(for bank exams' descriptive section, its advisible to limit your precis to the 1/3rd of the given paragraph.
A precis gives only the "heart" of a passage. It omits repetition and such details as examples, illustrations
and adjectives unless they are of unusual importance.
A precis is written entirely in the words of the person writing it, not in the words of the original selection.
Avoid the temptation of lifting long phrases and whole sentences from the original. It wont help you. And in
fact it may lessen your good impression and may lead to less score in the exam.
As we've already mentioned above, a precis is written from the point of the author whose work is being
summarized. Don't begin with such expressions as "The paragraph means" or "The author says".. etc... Just
begin as though you were summarizing your own writing.
Approach to Precis Writing for Bank PO Exams
• A precis should reduce the lenght of the original passage by at least two - thirds.
• Every important idea must be retained, preferably in the order in which it appears in the original.
• Unimportant points, including details, illustrations and anecdotes, should be discarded.
• A first draft of the precis should be written, then checked to see that it contains the main ideas of the
passage.
• Although you should be as brief as possible, guard against being so condensed that you obscure the
point of passage.
• Try to capture the tone or feeling of the original, particularly if it is deliberately humorous ironic or
biased.
• Check the draft for expression errors, repetition or vague phrasing; then write a smoother final version.
Important Techniques to Compress the Given Data for Precis Writing

Good precis is without all superfluities. This is not quite easy to achieve and requires a lot of patience, hard
work and practice. Certain devices, like one word substitution, help to reduce words in a precis and assists in
compressing it.
Something a single word is sufficient fro many. Hence the more one-words you know, the better for you. This
requires vocabulary development which extensive reading and god dictionaries and other sources can provide.
For clear understanding, have a look at the following examples.
• One who is not professional - Amateur

• An assembly of hearers - Audience
• A battle or match in which neither party wins - Drawn
• Fit to be eaten - Edible
• That which cannot be conquered - Invincible
Sentences can be compressed in two ways

1. by removing redundancies and ornamental expressions, and

2. by combining a number of sentences into one sentence.
Examples :
• When sorrows come, they do not come alone but in battalions
• you can compress the above sentence and simplify it as Misfortunes never come alone
• The thunder-storm continued unabated and did not cease until after it was dawn
• you can compress the above sentence and simplify it as The thunder-storm continued till
dawn
• I was standing at the gate. it was the time of sunset. At that time a carriage drew up. The carriage
contained a gentleman. The gentleman was middle aged.
• you can compress the above sentence and simplify it as While I was standing at the gate at
sunset, a carriage containing a middle-aged gentleman drew up.
A paragraph consists of a number of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. It has thus a unity of
purpose and is quite easy to summarize. The first sentence generally states the theme. Each sentence develops
the subject in a logical manner. All sentences which elaborate or explain the main idea are omitted while
writing a precis. We deal only with the crux of the paragraph.
Precis Writing Examples for SBI Bank PO or Others

Precis Writing Example :
Trees give shade for the benefit of others, and while they themselves stand in the sun and endure the scorching
heat, they produce the fruit of which others profit. The character of good men is like that of trees. What is the
use of this perishable body if no use is made of it for the benefit of mankind ? Sandalwood, the more it is
rubbed, the more scent does it yield. Sugarcane, the more it is peeled and cut up into pieces, the more juice
does it produce. The men who are noble at heart do not lose their qualities even in losing their lives. What
matters whether men praise them or not? What difference does it make whether they die at this moment or
whether lives are prolonged? Happen what may, those who is unprofitable to a man who does not live for
others. To live for the mere sake of living one's life is to live the life or dog and crows. Those who lay down
their lives for the sake of others will assuredly dwell forever in a world of bliss.
Now they will ask you to make a precis out of the above paragraph and put a suitable title for it. Make it the
habit of reading twice before going to write precis. First read little slowly because you are new to this para.
Later read lil faster and try to pick important points mentioned in the paragraph.
What will be the suitable title for our precis ?

Life of trees? Smell of Sandal wood? Death of good men? or Juice of Sugar Cane? See, don't confuse with the
lines. Try to pick the soul of the paragraph. About what they are talking of. Now just think of a suitable name
for the above para .
And now you should write precis... Remember all the points we've discussed in our earlier precis writing tips.
Just pick important points from the given para and write them on your own. All the best.
Precis : The character of good men is like that of trees. They live for others and do not lose their qualities even
in losing their lives. They always follow the right path. Praise is immaterial to them. To live for one's own sake
is to lead the life of beasts. Only those who lay down their lives for others will live forever in a world of bliss.
Letter Writing Tips

Letter Writing for SBI PO Descriptive Paper - Introduction
The key to the success in the era of globalization is communication. And correspondence (letters) is perhaps
the most important component of communication. Even in the age of modern technological innovations like e-
mail, internet and long distance connectivity, letters still carry the maximum load of personal and business
communication.
Whatever be the medium of carrying the message, the message has to be properly written to convey the
required meaning and complete sense. One has liberty to write personal letters as one wants, but business or
formal letters have to follow some norms in order to make appropriate impact
It is said that letter writing is nothing but an art. Even though letters have transformed into e-mails and SMSs,
the art still remains, only the medium has changed. Letters can be broadly classified into formal letters and
informal letters.
Formal Letters : As the name suggests, formal letters include business letters, official letters, applications,
complaints, letter to editors, letters written to people whom we want to convey certain important information.
Informal Letters : Informal letters include personal letters, letters that are written to our friends and family.
While formal letters follow certain format, one can be flexible while writing informal letters. nonetheless,
letter writing is a skill that needs to be honed over time with practice. It is a pleasurable task once you know
the basic rules. Letter writing almost embarks you on a journey of words, be it handwritten or typed, this is
one activity that helps you communicate so beautifully.
There are several types of letters that are being asked for SBI PO Exam.
Those are :
• Application and Appreciation
• Enquirers and Requests
• Complaint and Recommendation
• Sales and Promotion
• Welcome or Invitation Letters
• Some times they will ask you to write a letter to your brother / friend by describing something
There are two elements to a letter. Format and Body. The format refers to the style in which the letter is
written, and the body refers to the content of the letter.
Letter Writing Techniques for All Exams Personal Letters / Informal Letters
Personal Letters (or) Informal Letters : These are letters that do not have many rules. Since you are writing
to your friends and family, you are free to choose your tone and content. Write your full name and address
even if it is an informal letter.
Divide your letter in small paragraphs. Keep your writing simple. Make a good choice of words especially if
you are writing an apology letter to express your condolences in case of a death.
Date : The Date is placed in the top right end of the page.
Salutation : On the extreme left side of the page, a few spaces below the date. It can be 'Dear Ram' or 'My
Dear Mummy/Ma' (but not mother). You always address your mother, father, brother by a name, not by
relationship.
Body : Start a space or two below the salutation. Indent all the paragraphs.
Closing : Most people close the letter with phrases like 'Yours affectionately / With love / All the best / Take
care' etc. These words should be a few spaces below the last line of the text, on the right side. (Now a days left
side closing has also become popular).
This is the basic structure of a letter. you can modify it according to the purpose for which it is written and the
person to whom it is addressed.
Note : If you are writing a letter for job application (formal letter), then you may need to attach your resume
along with the letter and also mention the same in it. Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as
possible, and not to make the letter longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal langaute like
contractions.
Personal / Informal Letter Writing Examples for SBI PO Exam
Friends, Here are some examples of formal letters. At the end of the letter we've included some important tips
to follow. Hope this post will be useful for you.. All the best :)
1.
2 December, 2013
Dear Dad,
Greetings. I am quite comfortable in my new hostel. My roommate is also a vegetarian and non-smoker. So no
problems. The place is very hot, so I am planning to buy a cooler. A good cooler costs about Rs. 4000. I know
you have spent quite a lot on my education, but this is also a necessary expenditure. I hope you will be able to
send me the money by the weekend. Sorry for the trouble. Say hi to mom and didi.
Love
.............
Note : Dont laugh at above letter. SBI asked this letter in one of its PO Exam's descriptive section :) And try to
avoid closings like your loving son, your caring brother etc.. because these may sound artificial...
Now lets have a look at another letter...
2 December, 2013
Hi Raj,
Long time no see and no talk, and no mails too. What's up man? Very busy in studies or movies? The news
is that I am coming to Bombay on the 11th, for three days and will be staying at the Taj. Keep your evenings
free and we will paint the town red. Hope you have saved enough money to take me for outings. Worried? Just
joking! At least keep yourself free.
Take Care
Krishna
Note : You can use the starting of the above letter (bold) for any informal letter which you are writing to your
friend. And you can start any thing (which was asked in the exam to convey) by using The News is that.
These simple points will help you getting good marks in the exam.. In our next post we shall discuss about
formal letter writing techniques. All the best.
Essay Writing Tips
Descriptive Paper Essay Writing - Introduction
In real life situations we express our feelings, ideas and thoughts largely through the spoken medium where as
in academic situations expressing and thinking is done mainly through writing. The ability to collect, select,
arrange and use information is developed through essay writing. While writing an essay aspirants are
constantly judging, analyzing, self examining and self correcting. Thus writing an essay can be looked at as an
exercise in thinking and self understanding. This is the main reason why they ask you to write essays in bank
exams' descriptive paper.
The word "essay: means to try, to attempt. When you write an essay, you attempt to explain the topic to the
best of your knowledge and ability. It is the similar to the exercise of expansion of the topic (simply we can
say that this is just the opposite of precis writing).
Essays can be classified as Narrative, Descriptive, Expository, Reflective and Imaginative.
Narrative Essay :
A narrative essay is a narration of some event or incident. The narrative can cover historical events (the 1857
mutiny); social events (a marriage or festival); incidents like an accident or earthquake; a journey or a story.
Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay deals with the description of a place or a thing. It can describe a historical building (Lal
Quila or Charminar); a city or town (Hyderabad or Delhi); a botanical garden or a Zoo etc
Expository Essay
An Expository essay consists of an explanation or exposition of a subject it can be an exposition of a scientific
process (how computers work)l a biological phenomena (how our respiratory system works); or a literary topic
(all that glitters is not gold).
Reflective Essay
A reflective essay, as the name suggests, is a reflection or thoughts on some subject. It can contain arguments,
debate and discussion which could also be abstract in nature. It may deal with philosophy or theology (science
and religion), social or political problem (is democracy suitable for india); abstractions (does God exist) or
general thought provoking subjects.
Imaginative Essay
In imaginative essay you have to imagine a position or situation such as 'if I were the prime minister; or if all
the motor cars are banned, autobiography of a washing machine etc.
How to Write Essays for Bank and Other Competitive Exams

To write a good essay, you must first plan it properly. In descriptive and narrative essays, you can describe or
narrate things in a chronological manner. If it is an exhibition you are describing, after a short introduction,
start with the entrance and proceed as you would go along; different stalls, decor and display, any eye catching
or exciting thing, people,k your feelings of happiness or boredom etc. If it is a train journey follow the
chronology, how it started, what you felt, how you enjoyed and how it ended.
While writing expository essay, you must link logically all the different aspects of the process or phenomena
that you choose to describe. In the reflective essay, adopt a balanced approach. If you are writing an essay on
"Should India make an atom bomb" take a stand for or against. Put your explanation in a logical manner, show
awareness of the opinion of the opposing side (as in a debate); counter the opposing arguments "to justify your
stand and come to conclusion that supports the stand you have taken.
In an imaginative essay, let your imagination take over, because you have no experience of the situation or
position you have taken. Be consistent in your explanation and logical in your arguments.
As we have already discussed, writing an essay is not merely adding one sentence to another. You may write
very good sentences, but the problem is how to arrange them logically. The best solution to this problem is to
look at sentences as parts of the overall plan of an essay. In other words, instead of beginning with sentences,
we should think of the entire essay and then break it down into paragraphs and then into sentences. Thus essay
writing is a systematic process involving the following steps.
Preparation ---------> Planning -------------> Drafting
Essay Writing Tips for Bank Exams Descriptive Paper - Preparation

Preparation :
Any piece of composition has a topic, a purpose, a point of view, and an intended reader. When we write an
essay we have a definite purpose like narrating, persuading, or writing an exposition. Our reading, experiences
and imagination help us develop an approach which decides the treatment given to a topic of the essay. By
keeping the reader in mind we decide the appropriate organization and style. The following are the major
activities performed at this stage of essay writing.
• Defining the Topic : Asking different questions about the topic helps define the topic and understand
its different aspects. Look at the following questions that we may ask ourselves about the topic
'Empowerment of Women'.
1. What is meant by 'empowerment?'
2. What are the weaknesses and strengths of the female sex ?
3. Do women need generous help from men?
Here Question 1 demands definition, question 2 expects a list of characteristics and question 3
introduces an argument.
• Generating Ideas : Answers to these questions provide us ideas. The more questions we ask ourselves
the more ideas are generated. List all these ideas as they occur to you. For jotting down, you can use
tree diagrams, tables or columns. Look at the following example relevant to the topic "Pollution".
Essay Writing Tips for Bank Exams Descriptive Paper - Planning

In our previous article we have discussed about Preparation of Essay. In this article we shall discuss about
Planning
Planning
The ideas thus generated need to be logically arranged. Main ideas and supporting (subordinate) ideas need to
be properly grouped together. Identify main ideas and group the relevant ideas around each of them. Develop
each main idea into an independent paragraph. This exercise will help you decide on how many paragraphs
your essay will have. While planning you can use tree diagrams, a table / column or note-form as follows.
• Topic : English in the 21st Century
• Introduction :
• English as the world language
• Spread of English - an overview
• Facts about English :
• Users of English
• English as a window to the world
• Literature
• Culture
• Ideas
• Use in business, trade and industry
• Information Technology :
• Dominance of Information Technology
• Role of English in IT
• Conclusion
Essay Writing Tips for Competitive Exams - Drafting

In the previous article, we have discussed about Preparation and Planning our Essay Writing.. In this article we
shall discuss about the final stage of letter writing.
Drafting :
Having outlined your ideas as mentioned in above posts, you are now well equipped for writing the essay. You
have to execute your plan through paragraphs. Each paragraph normally deals with one key point and the
supporting information or ideas as pointed out earlier. As long as you observe this principle, your sentences
will be automatically linked to each other. A few paragraphs and an appropriate introduction and conclusion
make a good essay.
a. Paragraph Writing : Each paragraph will have a beginning, a middle and an end. Generally you should
begin a paragraph with a topic sentence. Supporting information or ideas can be given in the succeeding
sentences either in a parallel manner or linked to each other in a chained manner.
Read the following Paragraphs

1. 'Road accidents are common in India. Recently, 50 people were killed in an accident on Pune -
Bangalore highway. Last year a bus collided into a truck taking the life of 30 passengers. In
1996 a bus carrying 60 passengers plunged into a river leaving nobody alive. Thus, road
accidents are fatal'. Look at the arrangement of sentences. The main idea or key point is stated
in the first sentence. The remaining sentences give an example each illustrating the topic.
Though the examples are not related to each other, they are linked in a parallel manner to the
topic sentence.
2. Road accidents are common in India. Indian Roads are mostly responsible for accidents.
Accidents take place due to bad roads and reckless driving. Drivers are normally less paid and
some have bad habits. Drinking is one of the major causes of accidents. Whatever the reasons,
road accidents are fatal.
Look at the last and the first words of each sentence in this paragraph. The repetition of words helps establish
a link between the sentences. It also indicates that the same idea is continued or extended in the succeeding
sentence. This kind of linkage is called chaining.
b. Introduction and Conclusion : Introduction is one of the most challenging sections to write. It has to catch
the attention of the reader, establish a relationship with him / her, introduce the topic, set the tone and, by
doing that, control the reader's expectations. Let us consider a few examples.
1. The essay entitled 'An Ascendancy of Man' written by Paul R. Ehrlich begins with the following
sentence : "The most starting terrestrial event in the two-billion year history of life on the earth has
been the rise of the species 'homo sapiens' to its present position of global pre-eminence...'
2. Jane Austen begins her books Pride and Prejudice with the following sentence : "It is a truth
universally acknowledged, that a single man in a possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a
wife".
Both the introductions not only catch the attention of readers, but also state the topic. Apart from being
statements of irrefutable facts, they are put in carefully selected words Each one of these beginnings very
effectively indicates what is going to follow.
Concluding an essay is equally challenging. It has to appropriately summarize the essay or highlight the main
points. At the same time it is advisable to make the conclusion interesting. An essay can also be concluded
with a moral or a striking contrast with something that has gone before in the essay. Look at some examples
given below.
1. The essay 'All About a Dog' by A. G. Gardiner portrays the character of an ill-mannered bus conductor,
Being a witness to his rude behavior, the author gives him a piece of advice, and the essay is concluded
as follows " "He took it very well, and when I got off the bus he said 'Good night' quite amiably".
2. Violet Markham in ' Women in Our Changing Society' writes about the emancipation of women and
mentions, in this connection, different milestones / landmarks in history. She sums up this essay as
follows : 'One after another the barriers about her had fallen. Today she is a free agent as never
before'.
Both these conclusions adequately summarize the essays. In almost a scientific manner, a cause and effect
relationship is established. We seen the conclusion as a natural outcome of whatever happened before.
100 golden rules of English Grammar

For error detection and sentence improvement
A. SUBJECT - VERB AGREEMENT

1 . Two or more Singular Subjects connected by and usually take a Verb in
the Plural.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Hari and Ram is here.
Correct- Hari and Ram are here.
2. If two Singular Nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Verb must be
Singular.
Incorrect- The Secretary and Principal are coming.
Correct- The Secretary and Principal is coming.
(Here the same person is .Secretary as well as Principal)
3. If the Singular Subjects are preceded by each or every, the Verb is usually
Singular.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Every boy and girl were ready.
Correct- Every boy and girl was ready.
4. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by or, nor, either ..... or, neither
.... nor take a Verb in the Singular.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Neither he nor I were there.
Correct- Neither he nor I was there.
5. When the Subjects joined by 'or/nor are of different numbers, the Verb must
be Plural, and the Plural Subject must be placed next to the Verb.
For example,
example
lncorrect- Neither the Assistant Masters nor the Headmaster was present.
Correct- Neither the Headmaster nor the Assistant Masters were
present. '
6. When the Subjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the Verb
agrees in person with the one nearest to it.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Either he or I is mistaken.
Correct- Either he or I, am mistaken.
7. A Collective Noun takes a Singular Verb when the collection is thought of

as a whole, a Plural Verb when the individuals of which it is composed are
thought of.
For example,
example
Correct- The Council has chosen the President.
Correct- The military were called out.
8. Some Nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning, take a Plural
Verb.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Mathematics are a branch of study in every school.
Correct- Mathematics is a branch of study in every school.
9. Words joined to a Singular Subject by with, together with, in addition to, or,
as well as, etc. are parenthetical, and therefore do not affect the number of
the Verb.
For example,
example
Incorrect- The Chief, with all his men, were massacred .•
Correct-The
Correct- chief,with all his men, was massacred.
10. When the Subject of the Verb is a Relative Pronoun care should be taken
to see that the Verb agrees in Number and Person with the Antecedent of the
relative.
For example,
example
Incorrect- I, who is your friend, . will guard you,r interests.
Correct- I, who am your friend will guard your interests.
B. USES OF PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES

11. Ask, advise, allow, command, force, forbid, invite, encourage, compel,
beg, order•, imagine, instruct, permit, persuade, tell, require, remind, teach,
etc. are followed by Object + To +V2
For example,
example
Incorrect- He advised to do it by me.
Correct- He advised me to do it. But if these are used in Passive Voice, then
they are followed by To +V,.
For example,
example
Correct- She was permitted to go with him.
12. Know is followed by how/ where/when/why and Infinitive.

For example,
example
Incorrect- I know to write a letter.

Correct- I know how to write a letter.
13. After let, bid, behold, watch, see, feel, make etc. we use Bare-Infinitive
and not To-infinitive.
For example,
example
Incorrect- I heard him to speak on several subjects.
Correct- I heard him speak on several subjects.
14. Bare Infinitive is used after Modal Auxiliaries (can, could, may, might,
shall, should, will, would, must, dare not, need not).
For example,
example
Incorrect- You need not to work hard.
Correct- You need not work hard.
15. Had better, had rather,had as soon ... as ... , had sooner etc. are fol-
lowed by Bare Infinitive.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He had better to go now.
Correct- He had better go now.
16. Conjunction than is also fol¬lowed by Bare

Infinitive.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He had better read than to write.
Correct- He had better read than write.
17. When but is used as a Preposition and preceded by any form of the Verb
do, then but is followed with Bare Infinitive.
Incorrect- He did nothing but to wander.
Correct- He did nothing but wander.
18. Every Participile must have a Subject of Reference.

For example,
example
Incorrect- Being a rainy day Vijay decided to stay at home.
Correct- It being a rainy day Vijay decided to stay at home.
19. For completed action Having + Va is used in Active Voice, whereas

Having + been + Va or Being + Va is used in Passive Voice. After should not
be used in such a sentence.
For example,
example
Incorrect- After the leader having been killed, the followers ran away.
Correct- The leader having been killed, the followers ran away.
20. Participles like considering, judging, referring, concerning, regarding,

viewing, broadly speaking etc. do not take any Subject of Reference.
For example,
example
Correct - Considering the case, I took the decision.
Here I is not a Subject of Reference of considering. So, there is no Subject of
Reference for 'considering, still the sentence is correct.
C. USES OF VERBS
21. When there are two Subjects in a sentence and they are not in the same
Number, then we must have to use separate Auxiliaries (is, are, am, was,
were, have, has) for both of them.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Three- killed and one were injured.
Correct- Three were killed and one was injured.
22. A single Verb should be made to serve two Subjects, only when the form
of Verb is same for both the subjects.
Incorrect- I am seventeen years old and my sister fourteen.
Correct- I am seventeen years old and my sister is fourteen.
23. Two auxiliaries can be used with one principal Verb, only when the form of
the principal Verb is appropriate to both the auxiliaries. '
Incorrect- He never has, and never will take such strong measures.
Correct- He never has taken, and never will take such strong measures.
24. When there is only one auxiliary to two principal Verbs it should be
correctly associated with the both.
Incorrect- Ten candidates have passed one failed.
Correct- Ten candidates have passed, one has failed.
25. A Past Tense in the main clause should be followed by a Past Tense in
the subordinate clause.
Incorrect- He succeeded because he works hard.
Correct- He succeeded because he worked hard.
26. A Past Tense in main clause may be followed by a Present Tense

in the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses a universal
truth.
Incorrect- Our teacher said that the earth moved round the sun.
Correct- Our teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.
27. When the subordinate clause comes after 'lest', the auxiliary Verb 'should'
must be used, whatever be the Tense of the Verb in the main clause.
Incorrect- We start early lest we shall miss the train.
Correct- We start early lest we should miss the train.
28. An Adverb or Adverbial phrase should not be placed between 'to' and
verbal part of,the infinitive. (This is called the split infinitive).
Incorrect- I hoped to immediately reply to your letter:
Correct- I hoped to reply immediately to your letter.
29. An infinitive should be in the present tense unless it represents' an action

prior to that of the governing Verb.
Incorrect- I should have liked to have gone-there.
Correct- I should have liked to go there.
30. Gerund if preceded by a Pr-o-noun, that Pronoun must be

in Possessive case.
Incorrect - He emphasised me going there.
Correct- He emphasised my go-ing there.
31. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action that began in
the past time and still. going at the time of speaking~ It is used with,
Adverbials of time introduced by 'since', 'for' and 'how long~.
Incorrect- How long are you working i~ this office?
. Correct- How long have you been working in this office?
32. A Verb when preceded by a Preposition must be the Gerund.

Incorrect- They were punished for come late.
Correct- They were punished for, coming late.
33. The Future Indefinite Tense is not used in the clauses of time, place and
condition. Here the Present In¬definite Tense is used.
Incorrect- I shall wait for you till you will finish your work.
Correct- I shall wait for you, till you finish your work.
34. The Present Perfect Tense is not used with the Adverbs of past time like
yesterday, in 1990 etc. Here Past Indefinite Tense is used.
Incorrect~ I have bought a cycle yesterday.
Correct-I
Correct- bought a cycle yesterday.
The Past Perfect Tense is used to represent the earlier of the two past
actions.
Incorrect- When I reached the station, the train already left.
Correct- When I reached the station, the train had already left.
35. Modal Auxiliaries are not used together. But two Auxiliaries can be
connected by a Conjunction.
For example,
example
Incorrect-He
Incorrect- should must do it. Correct- He should and must do
it.
36. When need or dare is fol-lowed by not, it turns into modal auxiliary. In
that situation it takes Bare Infinitive 'and we cannot use needs not or dares
not.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He needs not do it.
Correct- He need not do it.
D. USES OF ADJECTIVES
37. Adjectives of quantity show how much of a thing is meant. Adjectives of
quantity (some; much, little, enough, all, no, any, great, half, sufficient, whole)
are used for Uncountable Nuns only.
For example,
example
Incorrect-I
Incorrect- ate a few rice.
Correct- I ate some rice.
38. Numeral Adjectives are used for Countable Noun only and they show how
many persons or things are meant or in what order a person or thing stands,
For example,
example
Incorrect- I have taught you little things.
Correct- I have taught you a few things.
39. When cardinal and ordinal are used together ordinal preceds the cardinal.
For example,
example
Incorrect- The four first boys will be given the chance.
Correct- The first four boys will be given the chance.
40. Later, latest refer to time, latter and last refer to position.
For example,
example
Incorrect- I reached at 10 am.

But he was latter than I expected.
Correct- I reached at 10 am. But he was later than I expected.
41. Farther means more distant or advanced; further means additional.

For example,
example
Incorrect- He insisted on farther improvement.
Correct- He insisted on further improvement.
42. Each is used in speaking of two or more things, every is used only in
speaking of more than two.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Every of the two boys will get a prize.
Correct- Each of the two boys will get a prize.
43. To express quantity or degree some is used in affirmative sentences, any

in negative or interrogative sentences.
For example,.
example
Incorrect- Have you bought some mangoes?
Correct- Have you bought any mangoes?
44. In comparing two things, the Comparative should be used,

The Superlativ should not be used.
Incorrect- Which is the best of the two?
Correct- Which is the better of the two?
45. When two qualities of the same person or thing

are compared,the Comparative in-er is not used. 'More' is used for this
purpose.
Incorrect- He is wiser than brave.
Correct- He is more wise than brave.
46. When comparison is made by means of a comparative, the thing

compared should be excluded from the class of things with which it is
compared by using 'other' or some such word.
Incorrect- He is cleverer than any boy in the class.
Correct- He is cleverer than any other boy in the class.
47. When comparison is made by means of a superlative, the thing com-

pared should include the class of things with which it is compared.
Incorrect- He is the strongest of all other men.
Correct- He is the strongest of all men ..
48. When two persons or things are compared, it is important that the same
parts of things should be compared.
Incorrect- The population of Bombay is greater than Delhi.
Correct- The population of Bombay is greater than that of Delhi.
49. Double comparatives and superlatives should not be used.

1. Incorrect- He is the most cleverest boy in the class.
Correct- He is the cleverest boy in the class.
2. Incorrect- He is more wiser than his brother.

Correct- He 'is wiser than his brother.
50. The comparative Adjectives superior inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior,
posterior prefer, etc., should be followed by 'to' instead of 'than'.
Incorrect- He is senior than me.
Correct- He is senior to me.
51. Adjectives like 'unique', ideal,

perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief, full square and round,
which do not admit different degrees of comparison should not be compared.
Incorrect- It is the most unique thing.
Correct- It is a unique thing.
52. All the Adjectives which refer to the same Noun should be in the same
degree of comparison.
Incorrect- He is the wisest and honest worker in the office.
Correct- He is the wisest and most honest worker in the office.
53. 'Elder' and 'eldest' should be used for persons only, strictly speaking, they
are used for the members of the same family only. 'Older' and 'oldest' are
used for both persons and things.
Incorrect- He is my older brother.
Correct- He is my elder brother.
E. USES OF ADVERBS
54. To modify a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb, we use an Adverb.
Incorrect- She writes very careful.
Correct- She writes very carefully.
Carefully is an Adjective which cannot modify the Adverb very, therefore

carefully (Adverb) must be used in place of Adjective careful.
55. Too means more than required and it is used with Unpleasant Adjective.
So, we cannot use too glad, too happy, too pleasant, too healthy.
For example,
example
Incorrect- I am too glad to meet you.
Correct- I am very glad to meet you.
56. A sentence which is based on ''Too .... To" format, we cannot replace to
with so that. If we replace to with so that, too also must be replaced with
cannot.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He is too weak so that he cannot walk.
Correct- He is too weak to walk.
Correct- He is so weak that he cannot walk.
57. Much too is followed by Unpleasant Adjective, whereas too much is

followed by Noun.
Much too + Unpleasant Adjective.
Too much + Noun.
For example,
example
Incorrect- His failure is too much painful for me.
Correct- His failure is much too painful for me.
Incorrect- His wife's rude behavior gives him much too pain.
Correct- His wife's rude behavior gives him too much pain.
58. Quite and all are not used together.

For example,
example
Incorrect- He is quite all right.
Correct- He is quite right. or He
is all right-
59. A/An + Fairly + Adjective +

Noun or Rather + A + Adjective For example,
example
(i) a fairly good book
(ii) rather a difficult problem.
But we cannot use Pleasant Adjective with rather and Unpleasant Adjective
with fairly.
For example,
example
Incorrect- It was a rather good book.
Correct- It was a fairly good book.
60. Enough, when used as an Adverb, is preceded by a positive degree

Adjective or Adverb.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He is greater enough to pardon you.
Correct- He is great enough to
pardon you. '
61. Two negatives cancel each other. Hence two negatives should not be
used in the same sentence unless we make an affirmation.
Incorrect-I
Incorrect- have not got none.
Correct- I.have not got any.
62. 'At present' means 'at the present time', 'presently' means 'shortly'. These
should not be confused.
1. Incorrect- Nothing more can be done presently.
Correct- Nothing more can be done at present.
2. Incorrect- He will come back at present.

Correct- He will come back presently.
63. 'Hard' means 'diligently', strenuously', 'Hardly' means 'scarcely at all'.

These two Adverbial forms of 'hard' must not be confused.
1. Incorrect- He tried hardly to win the race.
Correct- He tried hard to win the race.
2. Incorrect- She has eaten hard anything today.

Correct- She has eaten hardly anything today.
64. 'Much' is used before past participles and Adjectives or Adverbs of

comparative degree. 'Very' is used before the present participles and
Adjectives and Adverbs of positive degree.
1. Incorrect- The news is much surprising.
Correct- The news is very surprising.
2. Incorrect-I
Incorrect- was very surprised at hearing the news.
Correct- I was much surprised at hearing the news.
65. Hardly is an Adverb which means rarely. Whereas hard is an Adjective

which means tough, rigid.
For example,
example
Incorrect- It is a hardly job.
Correct- It is a hard job.
66. Ago is always used with Past Indefinite Tense. So, if ago is used in a
sentence, that sentence must be in the Past Indefinite Tense.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He has come a month ago.
Correct- He came a month ago.
67. At present means at this moment and it is

used with •Present Tense, whereas presently and shortly are used for future'
action and generally' used with Future Indefinite Tense.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Presently he is in the room.
Correct- At present he is in the room.
68. Early means "just after the beginning of anything" and soon means just
after a point of time.
For example,
example
Correct- Roses blossomed early this spring.
69. The sentence which starts with seldom, never. hardly. rarely or scarcely
takes an inverse structure, Le., Verb + Subject - Structure. For example,
example
Incorrect- Seldom I had seen such a beautiful sight.
Correct- Seldom had I seen such a beautiful sight.
70. Inversion is also used in a sentence which starts with here/there/

away/out/up/indoor or outdoor and Main Verb, or Aux + Main Verb is used
before the Subject.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Away Sita went
Correct- Away went Sita.
F. USES OF CONJUNCTIONS
71. Two Conjunctions should not be used in the same sentence.
Incorrect- Although she was tired, but she still went on working.
Correct- Although she was tired, she still went on working.
72. 'Both' should be followed by 'and'. It should be used in the positive sense.
In the negative sense, 'neither' ..... .'nor• should be used in place of 'both'.
incorrect- Both Ravi as well as Raja were present there.
Correct- Both Ravi and Raja were present there.
73. 'Either ... or', 'neither .... nor:

'both and', 'not only but also'

should be followed by the same parts of speech.
Incorrect- He not only lost his ticket, but also his luggage.
Correct- He lost not only his ticket but also his luggage.
74. 'Neither' should be followed , by 'nor', 'either' should be followed by 'or'.

Both these should not be con¬fused.
Incorrect- He washed neither his hands or his face.
Correct- He washed neither his hands nor his face.
75. 'No sooner' should be fol¬lowed by 'than', not by 'but' or 'then'.

Incorrect- No sooner do I finish this book then I shall begin another.
Correct- No sooner do I finish the book, than I shall begin another.
76. 'Hardly' and 'scarcely' should be followed by 'when' or 'before', but not
by 'than' or 'that'.
Incorrect- Hardly did I reach the station, than the train left it.
Correct- Hardly did I reach the station when the train left it.
77. 'That' should not be used before a sentence in Direct Speech and before
Interrogative Adverbs and Pronouns in the Indirect Speech.
1. Incorrect- He said that, "I shall go there."
Correct- He said, "I shall go there".
2. Incorrect- He asked me that who I was.

Correct- He asked me who was.
G. USES OF PREPOSITION
78. Objective case (of Noun or• Pronoun) is used after Preposition.
For example,
example
Incorrect- I do not depend on he.
Correct- I do not depend on him.
79. The Prepositions used after two words must be made clear if these two
words are connected by and or or.
For example,
example
Incorrect- She is conscious and engaged in her work.
Correct- She is conscious of and engaged in her work.
80. If a Principal Verb is used after about, after, at, before. for, from, in, on. to,
that Verb must be in ing (V4) form.
For example,
example
Incorrect- You prevented me from do it.

Correct- You prevented me from doing it. .
81. On, in, at, are not used before today, tomorrow, yesterday, the following
day, the next day etc.
For example,
example
Incorrect- He will go there on to-morrow.
Correct- He will go there tomorrow.
82. No Preposition is used before the word home. At home is a phrase which
bears a different meaning.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Bring a T.V. set at home.
Correct- Bring a T.V. se$ home.
83. After Transitive Verbs, like dis¬cuss,

describe, reach, order, tell, demand, attack, resemble, ridicule, etc. we directly
use the object and no Preposition is used after the Verb.
For example:
Incorrect- The poet describes about the beauty of naturel in this poem.
Correct- The poet describes the beauty of nature in this poem.
84. Say/suggest/propose/speak/reply/explain/talk/listen/write is followed by to-

Preposition if there is a person in the form of object.
For example,
example
1. Incorrect- He did not reply me.
Correct- He did not reply to me.
2. Incorrect- He did not write to a letter.

Correct- He did not write a letter.
H. USES OF PRONOUNS
85. When a Pronoun is used as the complement of the Verb 'to be', it should
be in the nominative case.
Incorrect- If I were him, I would not do it.
Correct- If I were he, I would not do it.
86. When the Pronoun is used as the object of a Verb or of a Preposition, it

should be in the objective case.
1. Incorrect- Let you and I do it.
Correct- Let you and me do it.
2. Incorrect- These presents are for you and I.

Correct- These presents are for you and me.
87. Emphatic Pronouns can not

stand alone as Subjects~
Incorrect- Himself did it.
Correct- He himself did it.
88. The Indefinite Pronoun 'one' should be used throughout if used at all.
Incorrect- One must not boast of his own success.
Correct- One must not boast of one's own success.
89. 'Either' or 'neither' is used only in speaking of two persons or things; 'any',
'no one' and 'none' is used in speaking of more than two.
1. Incorrect- Anyone of these two roads leads to the railway station.
Correct- Either of these two roads leads to the railway station.
2. Incorrect- Neither of these three boys did his homework.

Correct- No one of these three boys did his homework.
90. 'Each other' is used in speaking of two persons or things; 'one an¬other' is
used in speaking of more than two.
Incorrect- The two brothers loved one another.
Correct- The two brothers loved each other.
91. A Noun or Pronoun governing a Gerund should be put in the possessive

case.
Incorrect- Please excuse me being late.
Correct- Please excuse my being late.
92. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender.
Incorrect- Each of these boys has done their homework.
Correct- Each of these boys has done his homework.
93. When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by 'and', the Pronoun used
for them must be in Plural.
Incorrect- Both Raju and Ravi have done his homework.
Correct- Both Raju and Ravi have done their homework.
94. When two or more Singular Nouns joined by 'and' refer to the same
person or thing, a Pronoun used for them must be in the singular.
Incorrect- The collector and District Magistrate is not negligent in their duty.
Correct- The collector and District Magistrate is not negligent in his duty.
95. When two or more singular nouns joined by 'or' or 'nor', 'either ... or',
'neither .. nor', the Pronoun used for them should be in the singular.
Incorrect- Neither Ravi nor Raju has done their homework.
Correct- Neither Ravi nor Raju has done his homework.
96. When two or more singular Pronouns of different persons come together,
the Pronoun of second per¬son singular (you) comes first, the pronoun of the
first person singular (I) comes last and the pronoun of the third person
singular (he) comes in between.
Incorrect- I, You and he must work together ..
Correct- You, he and I must work together.
97. When two or more plural Pro-nouns of different persons come together
first person plural (we) comes first, then second person plural (you) and last of
all third person plural (they).
Incorrect- You, they and we must work together ..
Correct- We, you and they must work together.
98. The Relative Pronoun who is in subjective case, whereas whom is

in objective case. Therefore, for who there must be a Finite Verb in the
sentence. Or otherwise, when whom (Object) is used in the sentence and
there is more Finite Verb's than the number of Subjects in the sentence, then
whom should be changed into who (Subject).
For example,
example
Incorrect- The doctor whom came here was Ram's brother.
Correct- The doctor who came here was Ram's brother.
99. With Superlative Degree Adjective, only, none, all etc., as Relative
Pronoun we use that and not which or who.
For example,
example
Incorrect- All which glitters is not gold.
Correct- All that glitters is not gold.
100. After let, if a Pronoun is used, that Pronoun must be in the Objective
Case.
For example,
example
Incorrect- Let he go there.
Correct- Let him go there.
All The Best
THE END

A Complete Note of English For All Competitive Exams

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Lesson 1 : Usage of Articles

Ok, lets discuss about the Indefinite articles first.

Wow, Nice definitions. No?

Have a look at some examples,

Can I say, Guide4BankExams is an Useful site to know about Banking Exams?

Consider the SOUND, not the LETTER.

Confusing? Lets see a short cut for this.

Have a look at this picture,

so, now see these examples,

Now lets see some more TRICKY examples in English.

Lets see another example, He is an NRI but He is a Non Resident Indian

• Before superlative forms

• ☓ Sachin is the greater than lara

• One, Two, Three, Four → Cardinal Numbers

• First, Second, Third → Ordinal Numbers

we've underlined these two statements)

• ✔ The Red Sea

• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of the Hoogli

• ☓ Kolkata is on the banks of the River Hoogli

• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of river Hoogli

• ✔ Kolkata is on the banks of the Hoogli river

• Dont be confued, please read the above sentences

properly and understand them

• Before Holy Books

• My father reads the Bible everyday

• Before the names of the Things, which are unique in nature

• The ________ (You can add your name here :P kidding)

• Before the names of Planets and Satellites

• I went to the hospital to see and console a patient

Lesson 2 : Usage of Nouns

Noun and Number

• ✔ Convey my regards and wishes to your parents

Noun and Case

Now have a look at an example for proper understanding,

Note : Usually we don't use 'S(apostrophe S) for Non Living Things.

• I have seen many of amitabh's movies who is considered a great actor ☓

Noun and Verb / Pronoun Agreement

• The lecturer and principal is on leave. ✔

Check the following examples

Noun and Pronoun Agreement :

• When a collective noun is unanimous, it takes a singular verb.

Lesson 3 : Some Common Errors of English

Some Common Errors in English

Lesson 4 : Important Shortcut rules of English for Competitive Exams

Nouns - Shortcut Rules

• They gave me a good advice. ☓

Shortcut Rule 2 : The words such as "News / Maths / Ethics / Politics /

• Billiards are an interesting game. ☓

• He saw two sheeps in the zoo. ☓

Shortcut Rule 6 : The possessive case of a compound noun is formed by

• ach of the boys is (not Each of the boys are)

Shortcut Rule 9 : After collective nouns either a singular or plural form of

Shortcut Rule 10 : An "Apostrophe" and 'S' should be used with living

Shortcut Rule 12 : Don't say "family members / cousin brother or cousin

Pronouns - Shortcut Rules

Shortcut Rule 2 : A Pronoun in the nominative form should be compared

Shortcut Rule 3 : A Pronoun in the objective case is used after "Let /

Shortcut Rule 4 : When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, it should

Shortcut Rule 6 : A singular pronoun should be used when two singular

Shortcut Rule 8 : The distributive pronouns "Either / Neither / None / Any