Journal of Cereal Science 54 (2011) 374e379

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Journal of Cereal Science

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Rheology and texture of starch gels containing iodine

Simarata Dhillon, Koushik Seetharaman*
Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The objective of this study was to investigate the textural and rheological properties of starch gels
Received 3 October 2010 containing different levels of iodine. The research goal is to understand the architectural organization of
Received in revised form granules by utilizing iodine as a marker. Corn (CS), wheat (WS), potato (PS) and tapioca (TS) starch gels
11 February 2011
containing varying concentrations of iodine were prepared in a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA). The gels
Accepted 8 July 2011
were analysed by using a rheometer for small-deformation properties and also by using a texture ana-
lyser for large deformation properties following storage for 1 or 7 days. With increasing concentration of
Keywords:
iodine, the firmness of gels decreased and the extent of decrease varied for the different starches. The
Starch
Iodine
extent of change in complex modulus (G*) of the gels was highest in the A-type starch, CS, but was
Rheology different from WS, which is also an A-type starch. The G* for PS gels (B-type) decreased with the addition
Texture analysis of 0.1% iodine but there was no significant difference upon increasing the iodine concentration. The G*
for the C-type TS gels was lower than 15 Pa. These observations suggest a difference in the micro-
structure of the starch gels formed, likely resulting from differential leaching of polymers.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction oscillatory strain is increased, the samples maintain their resistance

Starch plays an important role in providing texture to various
food products. Based on the type of starch and processing condi-
tions, different interactions occur between the polymers and/or
added food ingredients, such as lipids or salts. During the process of
gelatinization, the starch granules absorb water and change in
shape and size due to swelling and crystal melting (Atwell et al.,
1998; Jenkins and Donald, 1997). There is concomitant leaching of
glucan polymers (amylose and amylopectin) from the swollen
granules, which form a gel network upon cooling (Eliasson, 1986).
Depending on their structural origins (Rao et al., 1997) chemical
nature of the polymers and the dispersed granule remnants (Atkin
et al., 1998; Glenn et al., 2008; Rockland et al., 1977; Stark and Lynn,
1992), starch gels from different botanical origins exhibit a wide
variety of textural properties (Thebaudin et al., 1998).
The textural properties of starch are usually studied by either
measuring the flow behaviour of the starch dispersions or the
structural deformation of the gelatinized samples. In a low
frequency set, the rheological parameters, such as storage and loss
moduli (G0 /G00 ) depend only on the dimensionless strain; as the
* Corresponding author. Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, 116
Food Science Bldg, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada. Tel.: þ1 519 824 4120x52204;
fax: þ1 519 824 6631.
E-mail address: kseethar@uoguelph.ca (K. Seetharaman).
to deformation until they reach a critical range of strain values,
whereupon they yield to undergo a rapid transition from a high to
low modulus. The plateau or the linear viscoelastic region reveals
significant differences in the at-rest resistance to deformation i.e.,
the strength of the products. The network formed by the leached
polymers determines the strength of the gel and a strong interac-
tion between the polymers, resulting in the formation of a matrix, is
required to obtain gels with higher strength (Liu and Lelievre, 1992;
Lu et al., 2008).
The glucan polymers in starch are capable of forming a complex
with iodine in both solution and vapour form (Rendleman, 2003;
Saibene and Seetharaman, 2006, 2008). It is known that pure
amylose has higher iodine binding capacity (IBC) as it adsorbs
nearly 20 g iodine per 100 g, and amylopectin adsorbs 1 g iodine
per 100 g (Amari and Nakamura, 1976; Davis et al., 1994). Iodine
ions bind the linear polysaccharide polymer chains and form
a helical inclusion complex in which the iodine occupies the central
cavity of the helical polysaccharide (Rundle and French, 1943). The
gel obtained after cooking the starches in excess water is a mixture
of starch granules and the leached polymers; the ratio of which is
thought to impact the rheological characteristics, e.g. pasting
properties of the starches (Inaba et al., 1995). In the previous
studies, the effect of iodine on granular swelling (Dhillon et al., in
press; Patel et al., 2006) and pasting properties of starch were
studied (Dhillon, 2009; Saibene and Seetharaman, 2008). It was
shown that apart from restricting the granular swelling, iodine

0733-5210/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2011.07.005
 S. Dhillon, K. Seetharaman / Journal of Cereal Science 54 (2011) 374e379 375

complexes with, and inhibits the leaching of polymers. The objec-
tive of this study was to investigate the effect of iodine on the
textural and rheological properties of starch gels.
2. Materials
determine the linear viscoelastic region of the samples along with
various rheological parameters such as storage modulus, loss
modulus, phase angle and critical strain at fracture (strain at which
the gel is disrupted and there is a dramatic decrease in the value of
G0 ).

Commercial starches from common corn endosperm (Melojel)
[CS], common tapioca endosperm (Tapioca Starch, TS) were
obtained from National Starch and Chemical Company (Bridge-
water, NJ, USA). A commercial starch from potato (Pencook 10) [PS]
was obtained from Penford Food Ingredients Co., Colorado, and
wheat starch [WS] was from MGP Ingredients Inc., Kansas. Potas-
sium iodide (ACS reagent) was purchased from Fisher Scientific,
Nepean, Ontario and iodine crystals were supplied by Sigma
Aldrich, St. Louis. The percentage of amylose in CS, WS, PS and TS
was 21.2  0.7, 20.5  0.1, 16.7  0.2 and 17  0.5, respectively. The
moisture contents (percentage) of CS, WS, PS and TS were
11.9  0.2, 8.97  0.2, 11.44  0.3 and 9.43  0.5, respectively, as
measured using a Megazyme Amylose/Amylopectin assay kit
(Megazyme International Ireland Ltd., Wicklow, Ireland).
3. Methods
3.3. Texture analysis (large deformation)
The starch pastes/gels obtained from the RVA were poured into
petri dishes (35 mm  10 mm); aluminium foil was used to raise
the walls of the dishes and cover the top. The samples were then
stored at room temperature for 1 day and at 4  C for 7 days. After
removing the aluminium foil, the excess sample above the rim of
each petri dish was removed with dental floss and the freshly cut
surface of the gel was analysed for the textural changes. The stored
samples were analysed using a TAXTplus texture analyser (Texture
Technologies, Inc.); the gels were measured for their compress-
ibility using a spherical compression probe (TA-23, 0.25 inch
diameter). The pre-test, test and post-test speeds were set at 1, 0.2
and 0.2 mm/s, respectively. A force of 5 g was used to compress the
10 mm gels through a depth of 4 mm. The maximum force at 4 mm
depth exerted by the sample against the probe was recorded.

3.1. Sample preparation 3.4. Statistical analysis

In the first set of pasting experiments, iodine solution (0.1%e The experimental analyses were conducted at least in duplicate
1.1% dry starch basis) was added to the starches (8% dry basis) at and average values are reported. All statistical analyses were per-
room temperature, with a sample containing distilled water instead formed using StatGraphics Centurion Data Analysis and Statistical
of iodine solution used as control. At the lowest level (0.1%) of I2eKI Software (StatPoint Technologies, Inc., Warrenton, VA).
solution (1:10), there was 4.30  106 mol I2/g starch and 6.59 
105 mol KI/g starch; corresponding to 0.07 mM total ionic
4. Results
concentration of iodine in solution. Whereas at the highest level of
iodine addition (1.1%), there was 4.75  105 mol I2/g starch and
4.1. Rheology
7.27  104 mol KI/g starch; corresponding to 0.77 mM total ionic
concentration of iodine in solution. The starcheiodine solution
Figs. 1e4 show the behaviour of complex moduli of different
mixture (28 g) was heated in a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA-4,
starch gels prepared with varying concentrations of iodine as
Newport Scientific, Warriewood, Australia) equipped with Ther-
a function of strain. Complex modulus (G*), which is a combination
mocline for Windows (TCW3) software, from 25  C to 95  C at a rate
of the storage (G0 ) and loss (G00 ) moduli, is a measure of the resis-
of 10  C/min with 160 rpm shear. The system was held at 95  C for
tance to deformation by the gels.
3 min before cooling to 25  C at the same rate. The temperature was
When gels containing increasing levels of iodine were subjected
held constant at 25  C before withdrawing the sample.
to small-deformation strains, a decrease in the G* and linear
In the second set of experiments, starch (8% db) and water were
viscoelastic range (LVR) was observed for CS. The addition of 0.1%
mixed in an RVA canister to make up a total of 28 g. The mixture
iodine to CS did not result in any significant difference as compared
was heated in the RVA from 25  C to 95  C at a rate of 10  C/min.
to the control sample. CS gels containing 0.2% and 0.5% iodine
Upon reaching 95  C an additional 5.5 ml of distilled water or iodine
solution (0.1%e4%) was added to the starch slurry, adjusting the
final percentage of solids in the system to 6.7%. The starch slurry
was then held at 95  C for 3 min before cooling to 25  C at the same
rate and holding stable for 3 min. The pH of the samples (7.0  0.1)
before and after the experiment was not controlled. During sample
preparation, the moisture content was taken into account while
calculating the amount of starch to be added on a dry basis.

3.2. Rheology (small deformation)

The small-deformation rheological measurements of the starch

systems were performed by controlled stress dynamic oscillatory
rheometer (AR-2000 Rheometer, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE,
USA) equipped with a parallel plate system (20 mm diameter). The
material obtained at the end of the pasting experiment in the RVA
was poured into moulds (20 mm  3 mm) and stored overnight at
room temperature. The samples, in the form of discs, were sub-
jected to a strainesweep test with the strain varying from 0.1 to Fig. 1. Complex moduli (G*) of control corn starch (CS), wheat starch (WS), potato
500%, at an angular frequency of 1 rad/s (0.16 Hz) and a set starch (PS), tapioca starch (TS), waxy corn starch (WCS) and waxy potato starch (WPS)
temperature of 25  C. The strainesweep tests were conducted to gels (8% dry basis).
376 S. Dhillon, K. Seetharaman / Journal of Cereal Science 54 (2011) 374e379
Fig. 2. Complex moduli of corn starch gels containing varying levels of iodine.
underwent a reduction in G* by 23% and 46%, respectively. The LVR
was also observed to shorten with increasing iodine concentration
(Fig. 2).
There was no significant difference between the WS control and
0.1% iodine containing WS gels. With addition of 0.2% iodine, a 10%
decrease in the G* was observed (Fig. 3). With PS, the addition of
lowest concentration of iodine (0.1%) led to gels with reduced G*,
but no further reductions were observed in gels with increasing
levels of iodine (Fig. 4). The G* for TS and waxy starches were below
15 Pa for control and at all levels of iodine in both sets of experi-
ments (results not shown), and no significant differences were
observed with further increases in iodine concentration.
4.2. Texture analysis
Table 1 shows the firmness of the starch gels treated with iodine
at room temperature. The firmness of all starch gels treated with
iodine decreased as a function of increasing iodine concentration,
irrespective of the temperature at which it was introduced into the
system (RT vs. 95  C) or the age of gel (1 day vs. 7 day).
Firmness of 1 day old CS gel did not show a significant difference
from that of control following addition of 0.1% iodine; however,
further addition of iodine resulted in softer gels. WS, PS and TS gels
treated with increasing levels of iodine exhibited a gradual
decrease in firmness.
Fig. 3. Complex moduli of wheat starch gels containing varying levels of iodine.
Fig. 4. Complex moduli of potato starch gels containing varying levels of iodine.
The firmness of the 7 day old starch gels as compared to 1 day
old gels, both in control gels and in the presence of iodine, was not
significantly different for WS and TS. On the other hand, the control
for CS and 0.1% iodine-treated samples of CS and PS were observed
to harden upon retrogradation. The firmness of TS control gel, waxy
corn starch (WCS) and waxy potato starch (WPS) gels at all levels
could not be determined as the gels were too soft, and therefore
results are not shown.
Moreover, after a day of storage at room temperature, the 0.5%
iodine-treated samples were 86% less firm compared to the control
for CS; the same treatment made PS gels only 43% less firm after 1
day of storage. On the other hand, 0.5% iodine-treated CS gels were
68% less firm than the control after 7 days of refrigerated storage,
while PS gels treated similarly were 46% less firm than the control.
The firmness of starch gels treated with iodine at 95  C is
reported in Table 2. Upon addition of iodine at 95  C, the gels
formed were softer compared to the ones in which iodine was
added at room temperature. It should be noted that in the gels
where iodine was added at 95  C, an additional 5.5 ml of water was
involved, and this was likely largely responsible for the softness of
the starch gels when compared to the ones in which iodine was
added at room temperature. Firmness of the gels treated with
iodine at 95  C decreased as a function of increasing concentration
for all starches. Only PS still formed a gel at 4% iodine concentration.
However, the gels did not show any significant retrogradation upon
storage after 7 days, except at 0.5 and 1.1% iodine level. A concen-
tration of 1.1% iodine was enough to inhibit gel formation in the rest
of the starches.
5. Discussion
Iodine is well known for its property of forming complexes with
starch polymers (Banks et al., 1971). In previous studies, we
investigated the nuances of granular structure and architecture of
different starch types as classified by their crystallinity (A, B or C-
type) by examining the effect of iodine on their granular swelling,
polymer leaching and pasting properties (Dhillon, 2009; Dhillon
et al., in press). It was observed that addition of iodine to the
starches at room temperature immediately led to the formation of
iodineeglucan polymer complexes, thereby preventing polymers
from leaching out of the granules. When iodine was added at 95  C,
the polymers had already leached out of the starch granules, thus
leading to an extragranular interaction between iodine and glucan
polymers. This prevented the leached polymers from interacting
with each other, thus affecting the nature of the network which
 S. Dhillon, K. Seetharaman / Journal of Cereal Science 54 (2011) 374e379 377

Table 1
Firmness (in Newton, N) of starches treated with iodine at room temperature.

Iod CS 1d CS 7d WS 1d WS 7d PS 1d PS 7d TS 1d TS 7d
0 0.64c, AB, X 1.03c, Y 0.69d, C, X 0.70c, X 0.56c, A, X 0.71c, X nd 0.35bc
0.1 0.63c, C, X 0.83bc, Y 0.53c, B, X 0.62c, X 0.37b, A, X 0.48b, Y 0.37d, A, X 0.38c, X
0.2 0.35b, B, X 0.50ab, X 0.16a, A, X 0.30a, X 0.44ab, C, X 0.52b, X 0.28c, B, X 0.30b, X
0.5 0.09a, A, X 0.33a, X 0.37b, B, X 0.42b, X 0.32a, B, X 0.38a, X 0.08b, A, X 0.13a, X
1.1 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd

CS ¼ Corn starch, WS ¼ Wheat starch, PS ¼ Potato starch, TS ¼ Tapioca starch, 1d ¼ 1 day, 7d ¼ 7 day; nd e not determined.
*Values with the same letter (abcd) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same starch but different levels of iodine.
*Values with the same letter (ABCD) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same iodine level in different starches.
*Values with the same letter (XY) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same iodine level and same starch for 1 and 7 days.

leads to the formation of a gel. This study further investigated the
gel structure and rheological properties of the iodine-treated gels.
5.1. Rheology
The rheological behaviour of starch pastes and gels is a result of
the combination of various parameters such as volume fraction of
swollen granules (swelling capacity), their deformability, and
concentration of solids in the system. This behaviour is not gov-
erned by the same rules in all starches; the pasting procedure, and
differences in the types and concentrations of the constitutive
polymers play an important role (Doublier et al., 1987). In this
study, a paste/gel may be considered as a composite material with
the swollen/collapsed starch granules entrapped in a polymer
solution/matrix.
The technique used for rheological measurement involved
dynamic oscillations as a function of varying strain, keeping the
frequency constant. The gradual disruption of the three-
dimensional gel network can be detected only under very small-
deformation conditions (Lapasin and Pricl, 1995); therefore,
extremely low frequency was used to determine the transition
strain between gel and sol state. The angular frequency was chosen
to be 1 rad/s (0.16 Hz) as it was important to observe a net differ-
entiation between the gel and the second state following the phase
transition. The “second” state in this set up of experiments is ach-
ieved when recoverable strain, the critical strain at which an elastic
solid-like material phase transforms into a viscous state due to
shear deformity response, is exceeded. Overall, the complex
modulus (G*) of the composite gels is a resultant of a combination
of parameters involving elasticity of the continuous phase, the
volume fraction of the dispersed phase and the shape and
deformability of the swollen particles. A difference in yield stresses
(the applied stress, which must be exceeded in order to make
a structured fluid flow) was observed for the samples containing
different levels of iodine; with increasing concentration having an
inverse effect on the relative yield stress. This suggests that the
adhesion between the granule remnants and the extragranular
matrix is weakened by the addition of iodine and the application of
stress led to a premature failure of the gel phase. The slope of the G*
curve upon disruption of the gel also increased, suggesting
a reduced elastic behaviour of gels containing higher levels of
iodine. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that a gel with lower G*
will be relatively much weaker.
CS and WS have higher G* in comparison with the other
starches, but give way to deforming strains much earlier, thereby
suggesting a weaker network (Fig. 1). Since the granules of PS, TS,
WCS and WPS were considerably more solubilised during the
pasting experiment (Dhillon, 2009), the elasticity of the gels was
much less pronounced. PS, TS and the waxy starches had low G*,
which would suggest that the network formed by the polymers is
loose, but well-knit (entangled) since it required a relatively higher
strain to disrupt the gels as compared to CS and WS gels. Therefore,
the lower values of elasticity in these starches could likely be due to
the lack of rigid, swollen granules, possibly with the polymers
inside as in case of CS and WS. Klucinec and Thompson (2002)
suggested that formation of physical junction zones (PJZ)
between amylose and external chains of amylopectin molecules
could possibly occur, hence providing further stability to the gel.
Formation of complexes with iodine would lead to formation of
fewer such PJZ and also decreased interactions between the
internal elements, hence lowering the rate and extent of retrogra-
dation, apart from having a significant impact on the gel strength.
Since WS contains shorter chains (Shibanuma et al., 2003), and PS
contains longer chains (Bertoft et al., 2008), one would expect
complexation with iodine to have a higher impact on the PJZ
formation in PS. This is reflected in the lowering of the G* for PS,
while the same quantity of iodine did not produce a significant
effect on WS. In a previous study (Dhillon, 2009), the effect of
iodine was observed only above a critical concentration charac-
teristic for the individual starches, and below this concentration
there was no appreciable variation in the G* values of the starch
gels. In some cases, this was the highest level of iodine at which
a gel was formed. This hypothesis is based on the postulation that
the polymereiodine complex alters the behaviour of gels from

Table 2
Firmness (in Newton, N) of starches treated with iodine at 95  C.

Iod CS 1d CS 7d WS 1d WS 7d PS 1d PS 7d TS 1d TS 7d
0 0.33c*, B**, X***
0.38c, X 0.26b, A, X 0.28b, X 0.39e, B, X 0.43d, X 0.19c, A, X 0.22c, X
0.1 0.29c, B, X 0.39c, Y 0.24b, B, X 0.28b, X 0.25cd, B, X 0.30c, X 0.11a, A, X 0.14a, X
0.2 0.19b, B, X 0.27b, Y 0.12a, A, X 0.17a, X 0.26d, C, X 0.30c, X 0.16bc, AB, X 0.20bc, X
0.5 0.11a, B, X 0.12a, X 0.07a, A, X 0.14a, Y 0.21bc, C, X 0.30c, Y 0.13ab, B, X 0.17ab, X
1.1 nd nd nd nd 0.17b, X 0.27c, Y nd nd
2 nd nd nd nd 0.12a, X 0.17b, X nd nd
4 nd nd nd nd 0.08a, X 0.11a, X nd nd

CS ¼ Corn starch, WS ¼ Wheat starch, PS ¼ Potato starch, TS ¼ Tapioca starch, 1d ¼ 1 day, 7d ¼ 7 day; nd e not determined.
*Values with the same letter (abcd) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same starch but different levels of iodine.
**Values with the same letter (ABCD) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same iodine level in different starches.
***Values with the same letter (XY) are not significantly different (p ¼ 0.05) for the same level, same starch but different days, 1 and 7 day.
378 S. Dhillon, K. Seetharaman / Journal of Cereal Science 54 (2011) 374e379
normal control gels, and may influence the elasticity (solid-like
response) of the gel.
5.2. Texture analysis
The ratio between intact granules and granule remnants has
been related to the textural properties of the starch pastes
(Blennow et al., 2003). The granules of waxy starches and potato
starches are known to form sticky gels upon disruption and sol-
ubilisation. The texture analysis of the opaque gels of CS and WS
was performed after 1 day to allow the retrogradation of amylose
(Miles et al., 1985; Sievert and Wursch, 1993) and after 7 days to
allow the recrystallization (retrogradation) of amylopectin chains
(Eliasson, 1985). CS seemed to form the firmest gels compared to
the other starches, which was contrary to the results of Takahashi
and Seib (1988), who stated that at concentrations higher than 1
day old, WS gels (6% dry starch basis) were harder than CS. The
starches behave differently on cooling; while the cereal starch
pastes exhibit a sharp transition upon cooling due to the formation
of strong gels, PS gels are less affected by cooling. The presence of
distinguishable granular remnants and portions of polymer clusters
made the CS and WS gels heterogeneous based on microscopic
inspection, whereas in PS, TS, WCS and WPS gels, the resulting
network was more homogenous (Dhillon et al., in press). This was
true in the control gels and those containing low concentrations of
iodine where long range ordered sections of polymer chains were
present. Gel firmness had an inverse relationship with iodine
concentration for all starches, with a few exceptions [because of
destabilization of starch granules during gelatinization due to
increased charge density of iodide ions (Takahashi and Seib, 1988)].
It is known that for all polysaccharide polyelectrolytes, the pres-
ence of low ionic strength leads to stabilization of the system and in
some cases promotes the formation of ordered helical conforma-
tion by screening the repulsion between the charges of the polyion
(Jane, 1993). It can be observed that the retrogradation patterns (gel
firmness after 1 day vs. 7 days) were different for the starches in the
presence of increasing iodine concentrations.
The presence of large numbers of swollen granules with
minimal amount of polymer leachate in the extragranular matrix
was observed in cases where no gel formation took place (Dhillon
et al., in press). In WS, the formation of a paste instead of a phys-
ical gel at 0.5% iodine level occurred, in spite of the presence of
polymer leachate in the extragranular material. The retrogradation
of the composite mixture of starch granules, embedded in
a comparatively lower volume of polymers in the paste, possibly
lead to an increased firmness compared to the gel formed at the
0.2% iodine level (Section 4.2). This suggests that the presence of
the large number of granule remnants inhibited the polymer
association. In other words, gel formation was inhibited in such
a disperse system. However, the physical gels can be categorized
into strong and weak gels on the basis of their rheological prop-
erties (Lapasin and Pricl, 1995). The results reaffirm that the chain
lengths of the polymers in WS are shorter compared to the other
starches that were studied. On the other hand, PS, TS and waxy
starches contain longer chain length polymers with a greater
number of long range ordered sections, possibly containing
entanglements.
The results from the rheological measurements do not allow
much speculation on the microscopic or molecular scale within the
same starch treated with different levels of iodine. However, the
gels from the different starches show a magnitude of difference in
their elasticity. The critical concentration of iodine required for
saturating the polymers depends on the nature of the polymers
involved, i.e. their length, branching patterns and entanglements
with guest molecules.
6. Conclusion
While in CS and PS gels, the presence of iodine had an apparent
effect on G*, the differences could not be detected in WS. Addition
of 0.5% iodine level inhibited gel formation in all starches, except for
WS, which did not form a gel above 0.2% iodine level. It is therefore
likely that, at a critical concentration, the iodine molecules saturate
the polymer chains by complex formation, thereby preventing
them from forming associations in the form of a gel. Below this
critical concentration of iodine, the differences among the gels are
very well defined by large deformation studies, i.e. measuring
firmness using large force compression of gels in a texture analyser
but not through small-deformation experiments of varying strain
to measure elasticity using a rheometer. The data presented here
set the stage for further experimentation to pursue the exploration
of the architectural differences among starches and consequent
impact on starch functionality.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by an endowment from Ontario Cereal
Industry Research Council (OCIRC).
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