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ISBN: 81-85102-01-5
Nagarjuna's Letter
Commentary
by
Venerable Rendawa, Zho-nu Lo-dro
Translated
by
Geshe Lobsang Tharchin
- and
•
Artemus B. Engle
..
vu
Publisher's Note
.
IX
Preface
Xl
.
About the Translation
A Biography of Venerable Rendawa 1
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A Biography of Acarya Nagarjuna s
No part of th.is publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval The Elucidated Meaning (Sphutartha), a commentary
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, on .Acarya Nagarjuna's The Letter ton Friend (Suhrllekha)
composed by the Sakya Lama Venerable Rendawa 13
mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior permission of tlle publisher. Prefacing Verses 15
PUBLISHER'S Non::
Gyatsho Tshering
Director
LTWA, Dharamsala
Sept. 1995
PREFACE
Lobsang Yeshe,
the Yongzin Trijang Trulku,
Junior Tutor to His Holiness
the Dalai Lama
Aoour TiiE TRANSLATION
to free himself quickly from that prison of great misery and templation of their meaning, as well as intense prayers to the
torment, and to carry out a pure practice of the Dharma. Three Ratnas for divine inspiration, he was able to gain true
'fhus, with a motivation of intense renunciation, he took the insight into the views of Niigatjuna and his major disciples.
vows of a novice monk (sramanera, dge-tsul) from Sa-bzang Venerable Rendawa composed commentaries on these
panchen at the age of 18 and received the name gZhon-nu blo- Madhyamika texts and taught them extensively to his own stu-
gros. Subsequent to this, he met the two great teachers Nya-dpon dents.
kun-dga' dpal and mKhan-chen sangs-rgyas dpal, from whom he From such holy lamas as bSod-nams rgyal-mtsan, he heard
studied the Pramanavarttika and learned- unerringly-the eight teachings on tantric texts such as the Guhya Samiija Pradipa
topics of logic (rt~-ge'i tsig-don brgyad) according to the system Uddyotana, thus learning all the profound aspects of the
of the renowned Acarya Dharmakirti. He also composed his own Mantrayana. Having gained a complete understanding qf the
commentaries, both extensive and abbreviated, on the treatise. scriptures, along with their commentaries, Venerable Rendawa
From the great lama bSod-nams rgyal-mtsan and others, composed works on Tantra including a commentary on the Guhya
Venerable Rendawa heard teachings on the Prajna paramita, and Samaja root text. Moreover, he wrote commentaries on the
studied carefully Arya Vimuktasena's Pancavirpsati Sahasrika Uttaratantra, Suhrllekha, Sutrasamuccaya, etc. Finally, Venerable
Aloka (Nyi-khri snang-ba)-through which he acquired an un- Rendawa studied with rGyal-sras thogs-med bzang-po, concern-
derstanding of the exact meaning of these pundits' views. After- ing himself with both the motivation and activities {for generat-
wards he composed commentaries on the Praji\a paramita and ing the Sodhi Mind) and listening many times to various topics of
the "70 topics" (contained in the Abhisamayalarpkara). the Dharma, including the "trainings for the mind" (blo-sbyong).
Then, wanting to hear teachings of the Abhidharmapi!aka, Having mastered all the significant points of Sutra and Tantra
Venerable Rendawa went to the great lotzawa (translator) Byang- texts, Venerable Rendawa then turned the Great Wheel of the
chub rtze-mo and listened many times to the tenets of the higher Dharma for many fortunate students, thus continuing the propa-
and lower Abhidharma systems, as well as to the Yogacara Bhumi gation of the Buddha's precious teaching.
along with the eight Prakarana treatises and their commentaries. In particular, he taught the Abhidharmakosa, both word-by-
He thus learned the writings of the brother acaryas Asanga and word and with logical analysis, to the great master Tzong-kha-
Vasubandhu. Once again he composed his own commentaries: pa. Because Venerable Rendawa had given such an explanation
here, on the various systems of Abhidhanna philosophy. of the full meaning of the treatise as a whole, and not simply of
Next, Venerable Rendawa went to mKhan-chen kun-dga' the text's wording, the Venerable Tzong-kha-pa felt great rever-
bzang-po and in the company of the prescribed number of addi- ence for Rendawa's teaching abilities. This was the first meeting
tional monks took the vows of complete ordination as a bhiJ<.?u. between these two great figures.
From this teacher he listened to a teaching on the Vinaya Sutra Later Venerable Rendawa, the holy lama Tzong-kha-pa, and
('Dul-ba mdo rtza-ba), con1posed by Gurya Prabha. Afterwards a large gathering of learned sar;igha assembled at Rva-sgreng
mI<han-chen said, "You are more kno1'vledgeable than f concern- Monastery, where Venerable Ren,dawa gave instruction on the
ing the Vinaya p ractices; now this teaching has been entrusted to Yukti $a~~i ka (Rigs-pa drug-cu-pa), Guhya Samaja, and other
its righ tful Dharma master." At this same teacher's urging, Ven- scriptures. Venerable Tzong-kha-pa taught the overall stages of
erable Rendawa also composed comn1entaries on the Vinaya the Mahayana Path as contained in the Mahayana Sutralamkara,
Sastra, maintaining the Vinaya practices as well by thereafter Madhyiinta Vibhaga, and Samuccaya. In particular, he gave a
keeping-unfailingly-the three observances of po~adha (gso- complete and detailed explanation of the method of practising
sbyong), pravarita (dgag-dbye), and var~a (dbyar-gnas). samatha meditation: the nature of the state itself, the objects to be
The bhiksu next studied Nagarjuna's six Madhyamika trea- meditated upon, and the order of practice. Then the assembly of
tises, as well ·as the Catut:sataka, Madhyamakavatara, etc., from monks set themselves to meditation, after which a large number
the teacher Chos-rje byang-sang-pa. By repeated and careful con-
4 Niigarjuna's Letter
have no opportunity now to stay. I shall perhaps be able to return celestial realms," he said to her. "I have invoked you in order to
in the future." provide support for the Mahayana sar:igha, for as long as the
When he had acquired the expanded version of the Mother of Buddha's teaching remains." They returned, and the goddess
the Jinas, several shorter texts_of the Prajfia paramita, and great established herself to the near west of Nalanda, manifesting
quantities of naga clay, the Acarya prepared to return to our herself in the form of a noblewoman of the royal caste. Nagarjuna
~orld of the Jambiidvipa. It is said that in order to ensure the instructed her, saying: "A great stake of khadira wood, so large
Acarya's return to their land, the nagas kept from him a small that a man can barely lift it, has been driven into the wall of a
portion at the end of the 100,000 verses. The missing portion-·the stone temple dedicated to Manjusri. Until that stake turns to
last two chapters11 of the unabridged Sutra on the Prajfia ashes, you must provide subsistence for the temple's sar:igha."
paramita-was therefore replaced by the corresponding chapters With articles of every sort, the noblewoman made offerings
of the Prajfia paramita Siitra in 8,000 verses. This is why the final to the sar:igha for 12 years. During this time the steward of the
two chapters of each Siitra are identical. monastery, a sramai:iera of evil nature, made continual promiscu-
After securing the Prajfia paramita siitras, the Acarya greatly ous advances to her. The noblewoman made no replies, until one
advanced the influence of the Mahayana tradition. When he day she finally said: "If the khadira-wood stake ever turns to
preached the Dharma in the m onastery park, 12 the nagas per- ashes, we could be united." The wicked sramanera •
therefore set
formed acts of reverence such as six of the serpents forming a the stake afire. When it had become ashes, the goddess herself
parasol to shade him from the sun. Having thus become the Lord vanished.
of the Nagas, the Acarya was named "The Naga". Because his There was another time when a number of elephants were
skill at spreading the Mahayana Dharma resembled the shooting threatening to damage the Bodhi tree at Vajrasana (present-day
speed and mastery of the famed archer Arjuna, he became known Bodhgaya). Nagarjuna erected two stone columns behind the
as well as "The Arjuna". It is otherwise explained that he was sacred tree which provided protection for many years. When the
called "Nagarjuna" because, by practising the sadhanas of the elephants later returned, the Acarya erected two images of
goddess Kurukulla, he gained -~uthority over such nagas as King Mahakala astride a lion, wielding a club. This was also effective
Taksaka
•
and others. but the danger nonetheless reappeared and a stone fence was
Nagarjuna later travelled to the area of Pundravardhana built around the tree. Outside the enclosure, the Acarya con-
where, utilizing the practice of alchemy, he perfo~~d many acts structed 108 stu1:>as. The stupas were huge and each one was
of great generosity. In particular, he bestowed great quantities of crowned by a smaller stupa containing sacred bone-relics1• of the
gold upon an elderly Brahman couple and thu~ instilled them with Buddha.
great faith. The Brahman elder served Nagarjuna and listened to The Acarya further constructed many temples and stupas in
the Dharma from him, and after his death he was reborn as the the six major cities of Magadha- Sriivasta, Saketa, Campaka,
Master Bodhinaga. Varai:iasi, Rajagrha and Vaisali-and provided preachers of the
Nagiirjuna also constructed many temples. Once, when he Dharma with adequate subsistence.
was preparing to transform a large, bell-shaped boulder into Above all, Nagarjuna knew that virtually no one understood
gold, an emanation of Tara with the form of an old woman the true 1neaning of the Prajna paramita basket of Sutra. He also
appeared and said to him: "Instead of doing this, you should go knew that without having realized this unerringly there was no
to the Mountain of Splendour13 and practise the Dharma." Later means for achieving liberation. He thus widely proclaimed the
he did go there to practice the siidhanas of Tara. Middle Path, which asserts that sunyata (the essential meaning of
On another occasion, when he had accomplished the siidhanas Dependent Origination,15 that all things are totally void of a self-
for ~voking the goddess Cat:l<;iika, the goddess herself carried existent nature) is totally consistent with principles expressing an
the Acarya into the sky and attempted to take him to the celestial infallible relation between "black" and "white" karma and its
realms. "I have not exerted myself in order to travel to the consequences. By means of his five-part collection of works on
10 Nagiirju11n's Letter A Biogrr1phy of Aciirya Nagarju11a 11
logic the Acarya clearly expounded the ultimate meaning of the who bestowed upon the Acarya many jewels. In return he com-
Buddha's wisdom. This collection consists of the major treatise, posed for the king a jewel of the Dharma: namely, the Ratnavali.
the Mulamadhyamika Karika and its four limbs: the Yukti $a~tika, It was then that he travelled south, as he had been advised by
Sunyata Saptati, Vaidalya Sutra, and Vigraha Vyavarttani. the emanation of Tara, to practise meditation at the Mountain of
After this period, Acarya Nagarjuna stayed for six months on Splendour. Here Nagarjuna also turned the Wheel of the Dharma,
Mount Usira, to the north. He was accompanied by 1,000 dis- that of both sutras and tantras, extensively-and it was at this
ciples and sustained each one with a daily tablet of a quicksilver time that he composed, in particular, the scripture Dharmadha~
rasayana he had prepared. One day a disciple, Siddha Singkhi, Stava.
respectfully touched the pill to his head but did not eat it. 1'he In general,. the Acarya's compositions are divided into three
Acarya asked why, and his follower answered: "I have no need of collections:
the pill. If it pleases you, Acarya, please prepare a number of
1. the Collection of Discourses16-including such works as
vessels by filling them with water." Thus 1,000 large containers
the Ratnavali, Suhrllekha, Prajfia Sataka, Prajfia Dar:H;ia,
were filled with water and placed there, in the forest. The siddha
then added a drop of urine to each of the vessels, which trans- and Janapo~ar:ia Bindu;
2. the Collection of Tributes 17-the Dharmadhatu Stava,
formed all the liquid into "elixir for gold". The Acarya took all
Lokatita Stava, Acintya Stava, and Paramartha Stava;
the vessels and concealed them in a secluded, inaccessible cave,
and ·
uttering a prayer that they might serve to benefit beings of the
3. the Collection of Logic Writings'H-the aforementioned
future.
Mulamadhyamika Karika, etc.
This Siddha Singkhi had not always been so adept. When he
first met the Acarya, he was so dull-witted that he could not learn In addition to these, he wrote other important treatises ex-
even a single verse over a period of many days. The Acarya then plaining the meanings of both sutras and tantras and, indeed,
told him, in a jesting tone, to meditate that a horn had grown on performed activities as though the Buddha had returned again.
top of his head. The disciple did so, maintaining his object of It is said that Nagarjuna made three "great proclamatio11s of
meditation so sharply that he achieved the tangible and visible the Dharma". The first was his upholding the Vina ya discipline in
sign of having grown a horn. He was therefore unable to leave the Nalanda, as previously explained. This was like the first turning
cave in which he was meditating, for the horn got caught on the of the Wheel of the Dharma by the Bhagavan. The second was his
walls. The siddha was then instructed to meditate that the horn clear exposition of the Pure Middle View, through the composi-
was no longer present, and it subsequently disappeared. tion of the collection of logic treatises and others. This was similar
Realizing that his disciple's mental faculties had now become to the Bhagavan's second turning of the Wheel. 1ne third great
sharply developed, the Acarya taught him several profound mean- proclamation constituted the Acarya's activities upon the Mount
ings of the secret mantras. Nagarjuna then instructed him to of Splendour in the south, where he composed such works as the.
meditate once more, and the follower ultimately attained the Dharmadhatu Stava. This was akin to the final turning of the
siddhi of the Mahamudra. Wheel of the Dharrna by the Bhagavan.
Later the Acarya travelled to the northern continent of Kurava·. Such extensive works on behalf of the Dharma and living
Along the way, in a city named Salamana, he encountered several beings aroused great displeasure in ~ara and the forces of evil. A
children playing in the road. Nagarjuna read the palm of one of boy, Kumara Saktiman, had earlier been born to the queen of
them, a boy named Jetaka, and prophesied that he would become King Udayibhadra. Years later, the mother was presenting her
king. On the return journey, following the accomplishment of his son with a rare, fin.e garment when the boy told her: "Put this
goal in Kui:ava, the Acarya met the former youth, who had since away for me. I shall wear it when it is time for me to rule th\•
become king. For three years Nagarjuna remained with the king, kingdom." "You shall never rule," replied his mother, "for tht•
Acarya Nagarjuna ·h as brought it about that your father and ht•
12 Niigiirjuna's Letter
will not die unless the Acarya does." The boy was so overcome
with grief that his mother continued: "Don't cry so! The Acarya is
a Bodhisattva, and if you ask him for his head he will not refuse.
With that, your father will also die-and you shall acquire the
kingdom."
The child followed his mother's suggestion and Nagarjuna
did indeed agree to give his head. Yet however much effort the
b oy used, his sword could not cut Nagarjuna's neck. The Acarya
told the boy: " Long ago, while cutting some grass, I happened to
kill an insect. The force of that misdeed remains with me still, and
you can thus sever my head by using a blade of ku§a grass." This
the boy did, and so was able to cut off Nagarjuna's head. The
blood which flowed from the wound turned to milk, and the
following words issued from the dismembereq head: "From here
THE ELUCIDATED MEANING
I depart to Sukhavati heaven. In the future, I shall enter this body (SPHUTARTHA)
again."
The wicked prince cast the head away at several leagues'
distance, fearing that it would once more join the body. Since the
Acarya had attained the practice of rasayana, however, his head A
and body became stone-hard. The two are said to be coming commentary on
nearer and nearer, one to the other, every year-in the end to be ACARYA NAGARJUNA'S
joined once more. Nagarjuna will then again perform great works
for the benefit of the teaching and all living beings.
LE'I"I'ER TO A FRIEND (SUHRLLEKHA)
•
As is written in the Mafiju§rimulakalpa, the Acarya Nagarjuna composed by the Sakya Lama
lived for a total of 600 years: VENERABLE RENDAWA
After I, the Tathagata, have passed away
And 400 years have elapsed,
A bhiJ<l?u, "The Naga", shall appear, of
Great faith and benefit to the teaching.
He shall achieve the stage of Great Joy
And for 600 years remain living.'
PREFACING VERSES
I
In the Lankavatara
•
Sutra, the Buddha states that
The one who is to maintain the way·s
After the sugata's nirviirya
Shall appear when some time has passed.
Know he shall be of great wisdom.
In the southern region, in the Land of Palms,
Is to appear Bhik~u Sriman, of great renown.
He'll be called "The Naga" and wiJl destroy
The extremes of existence and non-existence.
After expounding in the world my vehicle Part I
As the unexcelled Mahayana and A Recommendation to Heed
Achieving the stage of g reat joy he will
Depart to Sukhavati Paradise.
He whose appearance was foretold in many sutras-the great
Arya Nagatjuna-sent this letter, the Suhrllekha, to his friend
King Udayibhadra. In it are disclosed the unerring means for
attaining the higher states5 and Supreme Beatitude.6 The text is to
be understood as consisting, essentially, of two portions: a rec-
ommendation to heed the instruction (the first three verses) and
the instruction itself (the remainder of the poem).
(1)
Virtuous One, worthy by nature of the good,
I've composed these "noble rhymes" to instill
Aspiration for merit derived from sugatas' teachings.
It is a short piece, which you should heed.
The king is addressed .as "Virtuous One, worthy by nature of the
good," so that he might heed the instruction. His relying upon
the instruction, and making it an habitual practice, would be a
virtue, a worthy deed. The nature of such virtues is that of being
a cause. By having formerly accumulated virtue-roots, the king
has now become a vessel fit for heari11g Holy Dhanna. Therefore,
he is "worthy of the good". The verse thus states, in essence: "By
having previously accumulated virtue-roots, 0 King, you have
become a fit vessel for the Holy Dharma-and hence should give
heed."
To what should the king give heed? He should heed these
verses con1posed in the metre called arya-giti ("noble rhythm").
What is the poem's length? To avoid the detriment of excessive
length, only a short piece has been composed; for the affairs of a
king are many, and he is unable to study a great nun1ber of
scriptures. Who has composed the work? "I," the Bhik~u
Nagarjuna. To what end has it been composed? "So that you, 0
Sovereign, and others 1night aspire for the merit which derives
from the teachings of the Holy Speech of the sugatas; 1 as that is
the means of attaining birth i.11 the higher states and of reaching,
ultimately, Supreme Beatitude."
The unerring means for attaining the higher states and Su-
preme Beatitude can be found nowhere but in the Buddha's
teaching. For instance, some outsiders (i.e., followers of a non-
Buddhist faith) mistakenly believe that the higher states and
liberation 2 can be attained by sacrificia l offerings of animals,
extreme practices such as tearing out one' s hair, or meditation
upon a "soul". This is the reason for tJ1e phrase: " .. .to instill
aspiration for merit derived from sugatas' Holy Speech," for the
author's underlying thought is that an individual will not achieve
his desired goal by aspiring for what, in other religious tradi··
tions, is taught as meritorious.
By means of a simile, the next verse iliustrates that one
sho'l.t!d not think: "I shall not listen to this poetry of yours, for d!>
form i.s inelegant." Because of the excellence of meaning, di:-;p,11·
agi.ng the poem for Jack of style would be improper.
20 Nng'iirj1111n's Letter
(2)
Buddha
Of these six remembrances, the following are the virtues of the
Buddha: "The Buddha is the Bhagavan, TaU1agata,l Arhat,2 and
the Fully-Enlightened One.3 He is the one endowed with knowl-
edge and its foundation, sugata, knower of the world, unsur-
passed leader of the ones who are disciplined, and the teacher of
gods and men."
The Buddha is called Bhagavan (literally, "Blessed Lord")
because He has conquered the four demons and because He is
endowed with the highest of fortunes . He is called Tathagata
(literally, the "One Gone Thus") because He has attained realiza-
tio11 of "thusness,"4 or because everything is just as He has snid ii
24 Niigr11ju11a's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virf11011s Pract ices 25
to be, and not otherwise. And He is called Arhat ("Defeater of the Hence You are the unsurpassed
Enemy") because He has defeated the enemy of the mental afflic- Guide for those to be trained. [102,103]
tions, or because He is worthy of being worshipped through
The main body of disciples are gods and men, as they are
offerings and veneration.
suitable vessels for the path of liberation; and because the Bud-
"fhe Buddha is called "Fully Enlightened One" because He
dha teaches them the Dharma in accord with their wishes, He is
has comprehended all things truly and unerringly. He is said to
the "teacher of gods and men". To indicate that the one possessed
be "endowed with knowledge" because He possesses wisdom,
of the foregoing qualities is the Lord Buddha, two more epithets
which is "with its foundation" in that He possesses the morality
are mentioned. The Buddha is both the "awakened one," because
and mental concentration upon which knowledge is based. He is
He has awakened from the sleep of ignorance, and the "hilly
called the sugata (the "One who has Fared Well") because He has
developed one"-because His mind has expanded to where it
reached the sublime sta te, or else because He will not fall back
encompasses all objects of knowledge.
from it.
He is called "kno"ver of the \vorld" because, in realizing the
Dlzanna
nature of the 12 limbs of Dependent Origination, He knows
exactly the world of living beings. And in understanding the The following are the virtues of the Dharma: "The Dharma of the
origin of the earth, n1ountains, and such-in kno\.ving all regions, Bhagavan is well-proclaimed, rightly seen, free of malady, ever-
their dimensions, and so on-He knows exactly the external lasting, rightly conveying, worthy to behold, and to be realized
physical world. by the wise through personal experience." In brief, these qualities
The driver of a cart will attach to his vehicle oxen which have indicate the twofold Dharma of doctrine5 and attainment.6 The
not been trained before, if they are fit for the task of drawing it. quality of being "well-proclaimed " refers to the Dharma of doc-
Once the oxen arc yoked, he restrains those which draw the trine, which is virtuous at the beginning, the middle and the end
wagon improperly and places those who have gone astray on the because it generates-successively-the three wisdoms of listen-
right path. Those who travel too slowly the d river strikes with an ing, contemplation and meditation.
iron prod. The unruly ones, those which cannot be yoked to the The remaining qualities refer to the Dharma of attainment,
vehicle, he leaves undisturbed. with the first five indicating the truth of the path. Furthermore,
Likevvise, the Lord Buddha joins to the path of the Aryas they represent this truth in terms of its (1) essential nature and (2)
those disciples who are worthy of being joined to it. He restrains attributes. The expression "rightly conveying" indicates the
those few who, once joined, act contrary to the holy doctrine. The former, in the sense that the Dharma constitutes a path because it
Buddha returns to the true path those who stray to a wrong one, conveys to the devotee the result of nirvai:ia.
and encourages with the iron prod of strenuousness those who Three attributes of the path are that it (1) is pure by nature, (2)
are idle. l'hose unrt1ly ones who are unfit to be joined to the path illuminates the true nature of all objects of knowledge, and (3)
He leaves undisturbed. For these reasons He is called the "unsur- overcomes all adverse things. The first of these is referred to in
passed leader of the ones \vho can be disciplined." the expression "worthy to behold" because, like a lamp, the path
radiates light by its very nature. The expression " rightly seen"
As stated in the Satapancasatika:
refers to the second attribute, for the path allows unerring sight
You admonish t11e stubborn and into the true nature of reality. The third is referred to in the
Bring under control those who go \vrong, expression "free of malady" because (with the path's attainment)
Restore the dishonest to rightful •vays all the latent potential of the mental afflictions (klesas) is elimi-
And stir on those who move too slowly. nated . Further, since the potential is eliminated for all time and
not a limited period the Dharma is said to be "everlasting" .
You join the subdued to the path
The phrase "to be realized by the wise through person.ii
And leave alone the unruly-
26 Nagarjuna' s Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 27
experience" refers to the truth of cessation, which can neither be the impurity of greed performing acts of offering and
determined by logical speculation nor explained through verbal liberality wholeheartedly, to take delight in extending
expression because it is the object of transcending awareness7 the hand and giving, as well as to induce others to
that is realized by each meditator for himself. generosity, are qualities well acquired indeed.
The followiI1g quotation from the scripture Uttaratantra (Ch.
1, v . 9) serves as a definition of the Dhanna: This statement illustrates the following qualities of liberality to be
adopted in one's person: abandoning the impurity of greed,
Obeisance to that which cannot be examined with being of a generous nature, initiating bodily effort, bestowing
regard to either its non-existing, existing, both exist- objects, and doing so joyfully.
ing and non-existing, or something other than existing
and non-existing; which has no verbal explanation, is Morality
to be realized for oneself, and constitutes peace: the
Holy Dharma, that sun endowed with the radiance of The virtues of morality are expressed as follows: "M y morality is
immaculate \visdom which overcomes attachment, unbroken, unflawed, undefiled, unsoiled, self-controlled, praised
hatred and ignorance towards all objects. by sages, and leads to the atlainn1ents of samadhi." This state-
ment also illustrates qualities-here, of morality- to be adopted
SaJJgha into one's person. They will be further explained upon the occa-
sion of the lines: "You should practise a morality unJ?roken, not
The following are the virtues of the sai:igha: "the sal)gha-those debased, undefiled, untainted, uncorrupted."A
who listen to the Bhagavan-are virtuous in conduct, upright in
conduct, proper in conduct, and decorous in conduct." These Deities
expressions indicate the virtues of the sai:i.gha's practice. Because
they abide properly in the three trainings of superior morality, The virtues of the deities are expressed as follows: "There are
superior meditative concentration and superior wisdom, the deities ranging from the class of the four divine monarchs (catur
sal)gha are said to be, respectively, "virtuous in conduct" and the manaraja kayika) and the thirty-three (trayastrimsa) to those
rest. Further, because every one of them conducts himself in a deities called 'those who control the emanations of others'
like manner with regard to material things, morality, vie\vs and (paranirmita-vasa-vartin).9 The remembrance of deities consists
rites, the sai:igha are said to be "decorous in conduct". of bei11g mindful of the qualities which have caused them to be
The following are the virtues which make the sal)gha worthy born into these celestial states, and of emulating them in one's
of reverence: "The sal)gha-who listen to the Buddha-are al- moral and meditative practices, e tc.
ways worthy of offerings, worthy of great offerings, worthy of
circumambulation and worthy of being addressed with joined 2. The Ten Paths
palms-and unsurpassed field of merit for all the world." The
Because the six remembrances make the mind :pure and are a
sal)gha are described with lhe first two, middle two, and final
source of great merit,1° they are presented first. 'fhe following
expressions bec.ause they are endowed with the virtues of each of
verse in'dicates that one who possesses an attitude of sincere faith
the Three Trainings, respectively.
towards these six objects of the Buddha, etc., should next exert
himself or herself in the performance of virtue.
Generosity
The following are the virtues of generosity: (Sa)
Verily, the abilities I have acquired to dwell (with a Practise constantly the 10 paths of virtuous karma-
mind free of avarice) amongst beings corrupted by In body, speech, and mind. ,
28 Nlig'iirjunn' s Letter Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 29
The virtuous paths of karma 11 are called "virtuous" because karma are understood as having five parts: object, intent, prepa-
they yield many desirable results, "karma" because their essence ration, mental affliction and finalization.
consists of action, and "paths" in that they lead to the favourable Of these, the "object" 17 is that entity upon which a given act,
states of existence. 12 such as the taking of life, is carried out: the thing, either animate
They are, further, of 10 forms-ranging from the avoidance or inanimate, through which any of the 10 non-virtuous paths of
of taking lives to the right view. Three of them (the avoidance of karma comes about,
taking lives, etc.) pertain to the body, four (the avoidance of "Intent" is twofold: conception18 and motivation. Concep-
stating falsehoods, etc.) to speech, and three (the absence of tion, fur.ther, is itself of four types: (1) conceiving of the object
covetousness, etc.) to the mind. These lines of verse thus state correctly-as being what it is, (2) conceiving. of what. is not the
that one should constantly practise the 10-in body, speech, and object as being such, (3) conceiving of what 1s the ob!ect as not
mind respectively. being such, and (4) conceiving of what is not _the obie~t as not
The 10 paths of virtuous karma are practised by means of being such. Only the first of these can comprise the hmb of a
eschewing the 10 paths of non-virtuous karma (taking lives, etc.). karmic path, for no act will be complete through any of the other
One may, then, ask how these non-virtuous acts are defined. In three.
general, they are defined as the undertaking and consummation "Motivation" is the desire to carry out a particular act upon a
of the particular act (of taking a life etc.) upon an appropriate given object. "Preparation" is every effort of the three gateways
object and with an afflicted state of mind. (whether one's own or another person's) initiated fo_r t~e f,~rpose
An "afflicted state of mind" is one in which an individual is of accomplishing the particular deed. "Mental affliction is any
overcome by any of the three poisons-desire, hatred or igno- one of the three poisons of desire etc.
rance. Even given the afflicted state of mind, however, an act not "Finalization" is the completion of the desired act through
undertaken with an intent that accurately recognizes the charac- the efforts associated with it, and may occur either at the same
ter of the object constitutes no complete karmic path 13-notwith- moment that those efforts are made or at some subsequent time.
stand ing even its consummation-since the two limbs of intentH Thus it should be understood that the non-virtuous karmic paths
and preparation 15 have not occurred. are defined in terms of these five aspects.
If both an afflicted mind and intent occur but, through an
erring mind, it is carried out upon some other object, the act does The Taking of Lives
not constitute a complete karmic path, even should it become The object for the act of taking lives19 is a living being. It is c~l~ed
consummated, because the intent and preparation are mistaken. an "unerring conception" when the person who does the kilhng
If both an afflicted mind and intent are present but the act is conceives of the being as a living thing and possesses, as well, an
neither undertaken nor consummated, it does not constitute a urunistaken conception of it as the one (s)he desires to kill.
complete karmic path because it has only been conceived of in the The arising of the thought, " I shall kill this creature"-on the
mind-while the limbs of preparation and of the main stage (ie. basis of the above conception-is the intent to kill the creature.
the actual perpetration of the act) 16 have not occurred. This person's being overcome by any of the 1!1ree_ root pois~ns of
lf an afflicted mind and intent are present and an attempt is desire, etc., and formulating his or her mind in this manner is the
made to carry out the act but it does not reach finalization, the act "mental affliction".
does not constitute a complete karmic path because the main- If with such intent and afflicted n1ind, either this person or
stage limb has not occurred. (thro~gh his or her inducement) ar:o~er. att~mpts to kill the
When both an afflicted mind and intent are present and the particular being by such means as str1k1ng it with a ':'eapon a.nd
attempt and finalization of a given act are perpetrated with the creature should die immediately as a result of this effort (1.c.
respect to a given object, a complete path of non-virtuous karma upon being struck), the karmic path is completed at th,\t very
exists. To be more specific, the definitions of the 10 paths of
30 Niigiirj1111n's Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 31
moment. [f the being should die at some later period through the Harsh Speeclz
effect of the effort, the karmic path is completed at the lin1e of
The object for harsh speech 2~ is sentient beings who have engen-
death.
dered hostile feelings. The conception is to recognize them as
Taking What is Not Given · such. The intent is a desire to utter harsh words, and the mental
affliction is as before. The finalization is the utterance of harsh
The object for the act of taking what is not given20 is property
speech to those individuals.
retained by another person. The conception is to .recognize the
object as being such. The intent is the desire to appropriate it, the
Idle Speeclt
mental affliction is any of the three poisons, and the finalization is
the removal of that property to another location. The object for idle speech~5 is a topic devoid of purpose. The
conception is to conceive of it, and the intent is the desire to talk
Sexual Misconduct of it. The mental affliction is as before, and the finalization is to
utter such speech.
The object for the act of sexual misconduct2 1 can be any of the
following: (1) a woman with whom it is improper to engage in Covetousness
sexual activity; (2) a woman with whom sexual activity might
1'he object for covetousness26 is the wealth or property of another
otherwise be permissible but where the part of the body, the
person. The conception is to recognize it as such, and the intent is
place, or the time is improper; and (3) another male or sexually
to desire the same for oneself. The mental affliction is as before,
deficient person.
and the finalization is the resolve to appropriate the wealth or
The conception is to recognize, unerringly, any of the men-
property for oneself.
tioned objects as being such. The intent is the desire to have
sexual intercourse. The mental affliction is as before, and the Malice
finalization is for two such individuals to make physical contact.
The object and conception for malice27 are the same as in the case
of harsh speech. The intent is to strike or otherwise inflict harm
Speaking Fnlselioods
upon the individuals, and the mental affliction is as before. The
The object for the act of speaking falsehoods~ 2 is something which finalization is to resolve to strike or otherwise injure them.
has been seen, heard, discerned or cognized and its opposite. The
conception is to conceive the opposite of what was seen, etc. The False View
intent is lo state such a fabricated conception. The mental afflic-
1ne object for false view 2A is the Jaw of cause and effect, the Four
tion is as before, and the finalization is when another person has
Truths, and other significations which are, in fact, true. The
received a false understanding in response to his or her question.
conception is to conceive of them as untn.te. The intent is to
adhere to that belief. The mental affliction is as before, and the
Slander
fi nalization is resolving to blaspheme such truths.
The object for slander23 can be either persons in a state of mutual For a more comprehensive explanation of the classification of
harmony or persons who are not. The. conceptior1 is to recognize these 10 karmic paths one should refer to such scriptures as the
them as such. The intent is a desire that they become alienated, or Nir~znyn Sa1/lgrnhn. I have not written more here for fear the
that they not be reconciled. "fhe mental affliction is as before. The discussion would become too lengthy. Thus, it should be under-
finalization is the utterance of speech designed to cause alien- stood that the 10 virtuous paths of karma, ie. the eschewal of the
ation, followed by its having been understood. taking of lives, etc., are nothing but the very avoidat1ce and
renunciil tion of the 10 paths of non-virtuous karma just explain(·d,
even when their objects are near at hand.
32 Niigiirju11a's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prnctices 33
Intoxicants are a cause for every sort of wrongdoing and are liberality for future lives. As the scripture Mndhyn111nkiivatiira
thus of great detriment. Their consumption, being a misdemeanour states:
by decree,29 is not included in the karmic paths. For these reasons,
A p~r~n who breaks the leg of morality, though
the eschewal of intoxicants is expressed in the context of pursu-
ing a right livelihood. ga1rung
Wealth from some generosity, will fall into the infe-
(Sb) rior states.34
And since the root generating the wealth becomes
Abstain from intoxicants and likewise Exhausted, he shall henceforth acquire no more.
Take delight in a virtuous livelihood. [Ch. 2, v. 4]
Because they bring about heedlessness,30 one should abstain Since the fruit of generosity detached from morality is en-
from all forms of intoxicants, whether they are made from grain joyed as a being of an inferior state, no further liberality is devel-
or from a mixture of different substances. I~ is also added that one oped for the benefit of future lives, and the condition of wealth
should, further, take delight is a virtuous livelihood; that is, itself will therefore come to an end.
partake of food, drink, and so forth in a way which neither harms In the same scripture it is further stated:
nor brings about heedlessness in others.
1'he next verse is stated in order to illustrate that one who When virtues are developed in the field of morality,
maintains the paths of virtuous karma sl1ould practise the giving The enjoyment of their fruit will not be interrupted.
[Ch. 2, v. 6]
of gifts according to his or her means.
Generosity combined with morality will result in great wealth
(6) enjoyed in a life as a deity or human. And since in that state one
practises still more liberality supported by morality, the enjoy-
Recognizing wealth to be ephemeral and insubstan- ment of ample fruits in subsequent lives will be unending.
tial, Therefore, so that such merit as liberality will not go to waste,
Exert yourself properly in liberal acts the following verse is stated as an injunction to observe morality.
Towards bhi~us, Brahmans, the poor, and friends.
For the future there's no better friend than liberality. (7)
Material wealth, such as food and clothing, is called "ephem- You should practise a morality unbroken, not de-
eral" because it is unstable. It is called "insubstantial" because it based-
provides no real or lasting satisfaction. Realizing this to be the Undefiled, untainted, uncorrupted.
nature of material wealth, one should perform acts of generosity Morality •vas declared the foundation for all virtue
properly-that is, respectfully-so as to derive genuine value Just as the earth is for all things moving and unmov-
from such wealth. .
1ng.
With a desire either to honour or assist them, one should
n1ake gifts to bhik~us and Brahmans, who constitute the "field of In essence, the verse simply states that one should practise
virtue" ,31 to the destitute and sick, who constitute the "field of morality. What qualities should one's moral practice possess? It
misery",32 and to such friends as preachers of the Dharma and should be "unbroken" in that one docs not transgress even a
parents, who constitute the "field of assistance" .33 single one of the precepts which have been accepted. The moral-
Since, in the future, great results will come about from such ity should "not be debased" in that one does not transgress thc1n
g<'l'ICrosity, it is stated that there is no more helpful friend than in large number; "undefiled" in that it is not polluted by non·
34 Niigiirju11a's Letter
Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 35
virtuous thoughts. It should be "untainted" in that its practice is
(8)
not dedicated towards the purpose of continued existence or
material \.vealth. Fit1ally, the morality should be "uncorrupted" in
that just such a moral practice does not change into any other Liberality, morality, patience, effort, meditation and
form. Likewise wisdom: develop these immeasurable
Because a moral practice having such qualiti~s brings libera- Paramitas and-having crossed the sea of
tion from the slavery of sa~saric existence, it constitute~ free- Existence become the Lord of Victors.39
dom. Such a moral practice is thus praised by the wise, the Aryas.
It also leads to the attainment of samadhi, because the mind Giving away of all one's possessions-personal wealth ar1d
becomes composed when one is endowed with morality. even one's body---constitutes liberality.4° Morality 1 consists of
An explanation can also be given through a statement from abandoning non-virtuous deeds, together with their basis. The
the Abhidhar11zako5a (Ch. 4, v. 123): " ...untainted by immorality or ability to endure hardship is patience.42 Effort43 consists of the
its cause-based upon its antidote and peace."35 It is indicated by willingness to perform virtuous deeds, and meditation44 is the
this that one's moral practice should be endowed with four one-poillted fixing of the mind upon a virtuous object. True and
qualities. The practice should be "unbroken" through not being exact knowledge constitutes wisdom.45 Further, all these six prac-
tainted by immoral conduct; viz., the mental afflictions. It should tices are to be supported by the Bodhi Mind•6 and the wisdom
be "und'efiled" through reliance upon such practices as medita- which does not conceptualize the Three Spheres.47 Being sup-
tion upon the impurity)(> of the body, which constitute antidotes ported by the Bodhi Mind, they do not fall withill the purview of
to the mental afflictions. Finally, it should be "untainted" through the Sravakas and Pratyekas and are thus "immeasurable". So too
being maintained by the aspiration for the peace of nirvai:ia. because the Three Spheres are not conceptualized, wisdom is
One may ask what value adhering to such morality has. The extended to its furthest limit; hence they are also called paramitas
Buddha has declared that, just as the earth is the foundation for ("those which have reached the far side").
all things moving and unmovillg, morality is the foundation for To "develop" these paramitas means that they should be
meditative concentration, wisdom and so forth: ie. for everything practised in such a manner that they become ever more highly
of merit both worldly and transcendental. Since one endowed perfected. And once the other side of the ocean of existence has
with morality will be free from such hindrances as regret, etc., been reached, one should attaill the Lordship of the Victors, ie.
one can gradually attain samadhi. With the attainment of mental Buddhahood, which conveys others there as well.
composure, there can arise the true and exact vision of transcend- Of these six, the paramitas of liberality, morality and patience
ing awareness, and it is by means of this transcending awareness constitute the merit-accumulation.48 This accumulatio11 of merit
that one ultimately attains deliverance37-the elimination of the provides Bodhisattvas with abundant well-beillg ill higher states
mental afflictions. of existence while they remain ill sa~sara and, upon the achieve-
ment of perfect Buddhahood, serves as the cause for the Buddha's
3. The Six Para1nitas "form body". This latter constitutes the perfection of others'
concem.s.'9 As the Madhyanu1kiivatiira states:
This is the instruction to abide in the ~v1ahayana Path of the Six
Paramitas.38 The following verse is stated to illustrate that after These three dharmas-liberality and so forth-were
having illitially purified oneself through practising the 10 virtu- recommended ·
ous deeds, liberality and morality as explained above, one should Especially for householders by the sugatas.
train oneself properly in the six paramitas of the Mahayana Path. These very same are called the merit-accumulation,
Cause of the Buddha's body of form.
[Ch. 3, v. 12]
36 Niigiirju11a's Letter
All that is of virtue follows effort and is The family which respectfully honours its father and mother
The cause of both the merit and knowledge will be free of both human and non-human harm. That they will
Accumulations. The level where effort comes be "attended by Brahma" means they will receive the blessings of
Ablaze is the fourth, called "radiant light". the gods; and "attended by spiritual teachers" means they will
[Ch. 4, v. 1) also receive the blessings acquired through the special virtues of
holy men.
Thus the six paramitas encompass the two accumulations; An immediate benefit of such reverence is that, in this very
and, since these two produce all the well-being of Bodhisattvas life, it will give rise to a good reputation. As for the future, it will
both during their presence in sa111sara and in their attainment of enable the attainment of birth in the higher states. Hence, those
nirvarya, it is determined that the entire Mahayana Path is con- who live as householders sh ould take great care to honour father
tained in these six paramitas. and mother.
2. Observirig Upnviisa 1
Since it is difficult for those who dwell as householders to follow
a religious way of life at all times, the following two verses
present the rite of po~adha,2 which consists of eight precepts, so
that such persons might do so-if only for the period of one full
day.
(10, 11)
When one eschews harm, thievery,
Sexual intercourse, falsehood, liquor,
The desire for untimely food, delight in a high seat,
Song, dance, various forms of jewellery-
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 39
38 Niigiirjuna's Letter
recollection, reflecting that they are nurturing themselves by the
And takes on these eight precepts,
observance 'Of po~dha.
In emulation of the arhats' moral practice,
The fifth limb is the eschewal of intoxicants, for the reckless-
That is po~adha-which bestows on both men and
ness and confusion brought about by alcoholic spirits will induce
women
one to violate the precepts unwittingly, despite any intention to
The appealing body of a desire-realm deity.
remain mindful and aware.
The observance of eight precepts, emulating the moral prac- You may ask why the eschewal of accepting gold and silver,
tice of former arhats for the period of one full day, is called though included among the precepts of the sramanera 5, is not
"po~adha". These eight precepts are the eschewal of: (1) harm- made part of the upavasa precepts. The reason is that a sramanera
meaning the taking of lives; (2) thievery-meaning the act of takes up the state of a homeless ascetic, for whom two activities
taking what is not given; (3) sexual intercourse; (4) stating false- are extremely improper and unbefitting: (1) over-indulgence in
hoods; (5) alcoholic spirits and all intoxicants-which are the sensory pleasures-such as delighting in games and behaving
source of heedlessness; (6) untimely food; (7) a high seat-one wantonly-and (2) hoarding wealth. In this regard, the renuncia-
which is more than a cubit in height; (8) singing, dancing, all tions ranging from the eschewing of dance, song, music and so
unguents (except those used for treating disease), and any form forth up to the eschewing of untimely food are accepted in order
of jewellery. The fruit of observing these is that, in a future life, to avoid the first impropriety (over-indulging in sensory plea-
one is provided with the appealing body of one of the six classes sures). Renouncing the practice of accepting gold and silver is
of desire-realm 3 deities. accepted in order to avoid the second impropriety, insofar as
One may ask for whom this will occur. It will come about for gold and silver are both the root and substance of hoarding. This
any man or woman of the three continents who has maintained latter, however, is neither a grave offence nor an impropriety for
the above-mentioned practice. It will not occur for others because householders, so that renouncing the acceptance of gold and
they are unable to acquire the pratimo~ vows.4 silver is not included among the upavasa precepts.
The upavasa vow is subsumed within five limbs; (1) under- One may ask why indulging in dance, song, music, perfumes,
taking the eschewal of harm towards other, (2) undertaking the jewellery, and ointments forms the basis of a single precept of the
eschewal of harm towards oneself and others, (3) preserving upavasa vows, whereas in the case of a sramanera they are made
one's precepts from corruption, (4) remaining mindful and aware into two precepts. This is so that, if a householder should indulge
so as to eschew harming others' lives and property, and to pre- in all of them, he would need to make absolution for but a single
vent one's precepts from becoming corrupted, and (5) preventing offence rather than two. Thus they ~re included within a single
the memory from becoming clouded. precept in order to be more lenient. These activi ties, however, are
The first of these limbs consists of eschewing harm to the life most unbefitting for those who have left the home life. For greater
and property of others. The second is comprised of eschewing strictness, they are made into two precepts so that two offences-
sexual intercourse, for by abstaining from sexual relations with not just one-would have to be absolved in the event of their
one's own spouse a person avoids harm to himself and by ab- violation.
staining from sexual relations with the wife of another he avoids
harm to others. 3. Escher.ving Wrong Attitudes
The third limb consists of eschewing the staement of false-
hoods. The fourth consists of the remaining three precepts-with Through their attachment to base activities, householders give
the exception of eschewing intoxicants-for when individuals rise to a large number of wrong attitudes such as greed and so
who constantly indulge in dance, song, music, o intments, forth. Since these attitudes cause one to take birth in the lower
jewellery, high seats and untimely food temporarily refrain from sta tes of existence, the following verse is stated so that they might
i>UCh practices they will at all times remain in a state of attentive be rejected.
40 Niigiirju11a's Letter Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 41
revealed the dreadful condition of the hells to him, and Nanda In this case, patience means not to become angered if injured
became terrified. Directed to meditate upon the path, he attained and, should anger arise, not to continue to harbour the feeling .
the stage of an arhat and w~s declared the mos t restrained of the Because there is no austerity at all to equal that of patience, it
Buddha's disciples. represents the highest form of aus terity. Casting oneself into fire
Angulimala was the son of a Brahman. Being rather dull- or water, eating roots and fruit, wearing leaves and bark as
witted, he was d eceived by a teacher who directed him upon a clothing and such are nothing m ore than acts of bodily torture.
wicked path, telling him that by killing 1,000 human beings and Since they do not lead even to the higher states of existence, what
making a garland of their fingers he would be carrying out a true mention need there be of nirvana? •
Hence they are not true aus-
p ractice of the Dharma. When Angulimala had killed all but one terities. •
of the 1,000, he met and was ordained by the Tathagata. Later, he Because patience is of such great benefit, one should not
attained the stage of a n arhat. allow oneself the slightest opportunity of becoming angered; for
"Through his association with the evil Devad.~ tta, Ajata§atru 1 ~ anger is the direct opponent of this highest austerity. The Buddha
committed numerous sins including the murder of his own fa- acknowledged that by eliminating anger through the practice of
ther, the pious King Bimbisara. Later, having acquire~ faith in the patience one attains the state of not returning to the desire realm.
Buddha, he was able to escape the consequences of qis s ins and A Sutra states: "Abandon anger, 0 monks. I am your witness to
was declared by the Bhagavan to be the most faithful of the the stage of non-returning."
upasakas. 19 Udayana murdered his own mother because sh e had Anger and the desire for sense objects are both causes for
prevented him from s leeping with another man's wife. Though having to take birth in the desire realm. Yet since one cannot
ordained as a bhik~u, he was banished by the sal)gha when it was abandon anger without also overcoming the desire for sense
learned he had committed one of the "immediate" sins.20 Settling objects, it is declared that one can transcend the desire realm by
in a remote area, he constructed a temple where a large number abandoning anger.
of devout monks eventually took up residence-with Udayana With this instruction that one should not yield to anger at the
serving as the elder. After his death Udayana was born in hell as outset, the following verse states that-in the event it does arise--
a consequence of his immediate sin; however, because of his one should quell anger immediately and not harbour resentment.
exemplary supp ort of the sal)gha, he remained there only a very
short time and quickly escaped, in the manner of a rebounding (16)
ball. After leaving hell he was born as a deity and attained the
"This person insulted me, this one struck or
fruit of stream-enterer' at the side of the Bhagavan.
Overwhelmed me, that one stole my wealth."
Such resentment generates conflict; he
5. Practising Patience Who abandons resentment sleeps easily.
When many undesirable things befall them, householders are For the same reason that one sh ould allow oneself no occa-
often angered; to deter them from such a reaction, the following sion to be angered, one should also avoid resentment. Resent-
verse presents the merits of patience. ment22 is the deep adhering to a notion that one has been harmed,
such as when one reflects to oneself; "This person insulted me
(15) with offensive words," "This person s truck me with a stick (or
There is no austerity like patience- the like)," "This person overwhelmed me by force," or "This
So do not g ive way to anger. person stole my wealth." Such resentment not only gives rise to
By overcoming anger, the Buddha acknowledged, s trife, consisting of verbal misconduct, but also makes one feel
One attains the stage of non-returning. miserable. By abandoning the resentment, one is able to sleep
comfortably, or one's n\ind becomes free of misery. Thus ont'
44 Nagarjuna' s Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 45
should exert oneself, with great diligence, in abandoning resent- The Jina ("Victor"), the one who has conquered all evil,
ment. The Bodhicaryavatara states: declared a person's speech to be of three types. What are these
In short, no one of an angry nature can enjoy well- three? They are (1) speech which is pleasing and agreeable, (2) the
being. truth, and (3) improper speech.
(Ch.6, v .5) The first of these is like honey because it causes delight, while
and: the second is like a flower in its beauty and praiseworthiness. The
He who with perseverance overcomes anger third, due to its baseness, is like filth. Abandon, therefore, the last
Will be happy in this life, and in others. type and practise the first two.
(Ch. 6, v. 6) The conduct of sentient beings who abide in saf!lsara is of
four types. The following verse is stated to illustrate that one
6. Eschewing Indecent Conduct should maintain the highest of them .
Since the ordinary person usually gives rise to the above virtuous (19)
and non-virtuous attitudes promiscuously, the following verse is
Persons are of four types-those who go
stated with the aim of strengthening virtuous states of mind and
From light and reach an end of light, from darkhess
weakening non-virtuous 011es.
To an end of darkness, from light to darkness and
Darkness to light. Be like the first of them.
(17)
It is stated in a Siitra that there are four types of persons,
Understand thoughts as being like figures
beir1g t11ose who go from light to light and so forth. This is
Drawn in water, earth and stone.
explained in the following manner.
For an afflicted state of mind the first is best;
Persons who have taken birth among deities or humans of
With an aspiration for the Dharma, the last.
great fortune and then are reborn again in the very same circum-
A person's mental activity can be of varying degrees of firm- stances are the kind who go from light and reach an end of light.
ness, to be understood in three basic types: (1) like a figure drawn Those who have taken birth in the lower states of existence or as
upon water, (2) like a figure drawn in the dirt, and (3) like a figure humans of little fortune and then are reborn in the same circum-
etched in stone. stances are the kind who go from darkness and reach an end of
In the case of an afflicted mind, it is best for one's thoughts to darkness.
be unfirm, that is, like a figure drawn upon water. But \Yith People who have taken birth among deities or humans of
virtuous states of mind, such as aspiration for the Dharma, it is great fortune and are then reborn in one of the thr~e lower states
best for them to be firm like a figure etched in stone. Therefore, or as humans of little fortune are the kind who go from hght and
one .should exert oneself in accordance with these examples. reach an end of darkness. Those who have been born in one of the
Just as one's thoughts are of three types, so also is one's three lower states or as humans of little fortune and the11 are born
speech. The following verse is stated to illustrate how one should among deities or humans of great fortune are the kind who go
conduct oneself verbally. from darkness and reach an end of light. Of these one should be
like the first type, who go from light to light.
(18)
The Jina declared a person's speech as being 7. Findirig Proper Associates
Of three types-pleasing, truthful,
And improper: like honey, a flower, and Next is learning the proper qualities that one's associates should
Filth. The last should be abandoned. possess. A householder must associate with many persons, anJ
46 Nagarjuna's Letter
Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 47
the following verse is stated in order to illustrate the appropriate
manner of doing so. Notice, formulate a conception of mother, daughter or
Sister according to her age. If lust should arise
(20) Contemplate the impure state of her body.
One become desirous of one thing rarily; they do not eradicate it. The next verse thus states that,
Because of another's fragrance? since one wishes to remove desire-along with its seeds en-
[Ch. 8, v. 65] tirely, one should meditate upon the path as presented below.
The faults of the object having been presented, the following
(27)
verse is stated in order to illustrate the fault of a lustful or
desiring mind, to s how that however much one partakes of In order to see the highest
sensory objects, one can never gain complete satisfaction. Meaning, exercise proper
Attention towards all entities. There is
(26) No other dharma so virtuous.
Understand the desire for sense objects as being This meaning is the "highest" because it is what the highest
Like a leper's craving for comfort when, wisdom perceives. To see this unerring nature of all things with
Tormented by maggots, he exposes his the eye of transcendent wisdom, one must exercise proper atten-
Body to fire but is not soothed. tion towards all inner and outer entities24-such as form25 and the
•
rest. "Proper attention" means an examination of these ,objects
A leper who is tormented by maggots eating at his wounds with correct wisdom (prajna), followed by the practice of habitu-
might expose his body to fire so as to gain comfort; yet his ating oneself to the understanding so gained; that is, repeatedly
anguish, instead of becoming soothed, is but further increased. bringing it to the conscious mind. The value of doing so is that no
Just so, one must realize, the foolish person who craves after other dharma in the entire world has such a quality of being able
sense objects might also give hi1nself up to their enjoyment in to destroy the n1ental afflictions and give rise to their antidote.
order to relieve the torment of his desire. Yet this desire, rather One may ask: "What is this highest meaning like? How does
than being relieved by such action, is but further increased. The one meditate upon it with proper mental attention?" It is the
Ratniivali states: "suchness" (tattva)26 constituting the true nature of all dharmas
There may be pleasure in scratching an irritation- which is called the "highest meaning".
yet more It may further be asked what this "suchness" is like. The
Pleasurable is its absence. Just so the Mltln11tiidhyn11wka Kari/ca states:
World of d esire gives pleasure, yet absence of Not ascertainable from others, quiescent,
Desire is a greater pleasure still Beyond description through verbal expression,
[Ch. 2, v. 69] A conceptual and undifferentiated
Is the definition of tattva.
THE ESCHEWAL OF 1HE SEEDS OF DESIRE [Ch. 18, v.9]
·~ . "... Tattva cannot be directly cognized by means of language and
There are six divisions to the second part, which deals with the concepts, nor can one be made aware of it through the disclosures
method involving the total elimination of desire, together with its of another person. Rather, it is realized by the yogi, in an ineffable
seeds. The first division addresses itself to the actual method. manner, by means of a transcendent awareness intelligible only
to the individual himself or herself.
-The Actual Method- Moreover, one need not search for tattva anywhere other
than in the true nature of the dharmas of form and so forth, which
The practices of meditating upon the body's impurity and so
are subject to the law of Dependent Origination.27 This is because
forth, as described above, serve only to suppress desire tempo-
there is no higher object than Dependent Origination since-as is
52 Nngnrju11a's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 53
not the case with the "atman"2A or "parkrti" 29 postulated in non- Further, the process for realizing this sunyata involves gain-
C3uddhist schools-its realization provides deliverance, while lack ing the understanding that the nature of form etc.,-those dharmas
of its realization causes continued bondage to existence. The "in- which constitute the illusory world-is such that their utter exist-
fantile" person30 is fettered because (s)he has not accurately real-
ence is totally dependent upon appropriate conditioning factors;
ized the true nature of form, etc.-those entities whose existence
for any other view would constitute falling into either the ex-
is dependent. Clinging to the belief that all outer and inner forms,
treme of etemalism (sasvatanta) or that of nihilism (ucchedanta).
etc., are real entities, (s)he adheres to the notion of a personal soul
This is expressed in a Sutra in the following manner:
(pudgala atmag raha) and the idea that all dharmas possess an
inherent essence (dharma atmagraha).31 From these, in tum, (s)he That which arises from conditioning factors has not
.
gives rise to all the mental afflictions and conceptualizations that arisen;
are his or her fetters. The Ratnnvali states: It does not possess a nature of arising.
So long as there's clinging to (the real existence of) That ':Vhich depends upon conditioning factors is
called "void";
the aggregates
Will there also remain the belief in a self. He who knows voidness has acquired mindfulness.
With the belief in a self there occurs Moreover, Dependent Origination can be understood through
Karma and from that, in tum, rebirth. the reasoning known as "negation of the four extremes in respect
[Ch. 1, v. 35) to arising". The Acarya himself has stated, in the Lokiititastava:
With the ineffable realization of the above-mentioned sunyata Dialecticians have variously claimed that misery is
encompassing the dependent entities of form etc., all the mental produced
afflictions and conceptualizations are eliminated and deliverance By (a cause of) the same nature or one which is
attained. This same scripture states again: different;
When one's determined that it (samsara) does not That it is produced by both or does not have a cause.
arise from You,~ however, have declared it to be Dependent
Itself, something different, both of these, Origination.
Or the three times, the belief in a self [v. 19)
Ceases-and thereby both karma and birth as well. And, further,
[Ch. 1, v. 37}
A sprout does not come into being from
The same "suchness" of dharmas described earlier is also Either a seed which has perished or not perished.
called "no-self" (anatman).33 There is no way of achieving libera- You have stated that all origination
tion other than through realizing its meaning; and since this Is like the arising of an illusion.
realization destroys all extreme ':iews it is the Middle Path. No
one but the Buddha-not even Isvara or Yil?1:lu-is capable of [v. 16)
revealing the true meaning of anatman. Thus Catuhsataka ex- As for the proof of this doctrine, entities are determined not
presses this in the following words: to arise from a cause of the same nature (1) because it would be
The sole gateway to peace, inconsistent for an object already existing to produce itself, (2)
The destroyer of all wrong views, because the arising of the object would then be without any
The apprehension of all the purpose, and (3) because the process of arising would result in an
Buddhas is called anatman. infinite regress.
[Ch. 12, v. 13) These same entities are determined not to arise from a cause
54 Niigiirjtt11n's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 55
of an essentially different nature for, if they did, it would follow Thus, meditation which consists of merely obstructing the
that (1.) everything could arise from everything and (2) incompat- conceptual processes or adhering to an extreme view concerning
ible entities could possess· a relationship of cause and effect. existence or non-existence, meditation lacking in the wisdom that
Entities are determined not to arise from a cause which is seeks to determine the nature of Dependent Origination, is not
both of the same and different nature (1) because the fallacies true meditation. One the other hand, meditation that is sus tained
pertain ing to each separate hypothesis would again obtain and by a wisdom which seeks out the meaning of Dependent Origina-
(2) because the two hypotheses are contrary. tion as described above is "proper attention of the mind" and
It is further determined that entities do not arise without a constitutes practising Prajna paramita.35
cau se (1) because they would either be eternally existent or eter- Next is a verse which parenthetically praises wisdom and
nally non-existent and (2) because it would be useless to s trive for morality.
a particular result or goal by means of applying oneself to those
things which cause it to come about. -Praise of Wisdo111 a11d MoralihJ-
Since entities d o not arise through any of these four extremes,
it is established that their occurrence is totally dependent upon The following verse of praise is expressed in order to generate
appropriate conditioning factors. This is the meaning of Depen- respect for the mind which has the just-explained correct view as
dent Origil1ation, which is the antidote for all extreme views and its object.
is called the Middle Path. (28)
The scripture Miiln111adhya11uikn Kiirikii states:
Though of high family, handsome features and much
What arises in dependence we term "Emptiness". Leaming, a person is not worthy of honour if he
"Emptiness" means that conventionally lacks
Designated things (prajnap ti) are contingen t Wisdom and morality. Thus one who possesses these
(upadaya), two
And is itself the Middle Path. Qualities-though lacking in others should be ven -
[Ch. 24, v . 18) erated .
There is no mental outlook whatsoever higher than the real- Persons from eminent families, handsome in physique, and
ization of Dependent Origination. Because it is so difficult to who possess learning gained from scriptures covering a wide
understand, one must study the Madhyamika texts over a long range of subjects but who are, however, lacking in the two quali-
period of time before its full meaning can be grasped. ties of wisdom (which realizes the true nature of reality) and
The procedure for meditating with proper mental attention is morality (which refrains from wrongdoing) are unworthy of
first to make a thorough analysis of entities by means of the honour and respect because they do not p ossess the qualities of a
wisdom acquired from listening and contemplation, so as to noble person.36
determine that their nature is one of Dependent Origination- On the other hand, anyone possessing the two qualities of
free from all extremes of conceptual over-elaboration. One should wisdom and morality should be honoured and venerated- though
thereupon meditate upon this understanding through giving it perhaps lacking in other qualities of high birth, handsome fea-
repeated consideration. tures and such-because (s)he possesses the true qualities of a
The scripture Yukti~a~fikii states that: noble person. A moral person d oes not engage in non-virtue, and
Those whose minds transcend and remain not a wise one does u.n dertake virtue; and it is the avoidance of
Jn the extremes of existence and non-existence ignoble or non-virtuous actions, along with the undertaking of
Are meditating upon the profound meaning noble or virtuous ones, which allows one to enter the ranks of the
Of conditionality and non-conception. noble.
56 Niigarjuna's Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 57
-Turning Back fro1n Worldly Dhar1nas- Son, queen, or retinue. They w ill not share
Any part of its infernal fruition.
The Arya 37 path will not arise for one who pursues the eight
worldly dharmas;38 thus, the following verse states that one should One should commit no evil, not for the sake of any person
be indifferent to the eight worldly dharmas in order to dispose whether he be a Brahman or any of the other persons mentioned.
oneself to the arising of the Arya path. This is because the result of that evil reaches fruition in the hells,
which one alone must experience; no portion whatsoever of the
(29) misery is shared by the Brahman, etc.
One may wonder why the maturation result-19 of evil action
Knower of the World! Gain and
which is supposed to be something of a most unpleasant nature
Loss, well-being and misery, fame and disrepute,
doesn't come about right after the act has been committed. The
Praise and censure; be indifferent to these eight
reply is that karma•0 is of three types: that which is experienced in
worldly
the present lifetime (d r~~adha rmavedaniya)/ 1 that which is expe-
Dharmas and let them not enter your mind.
rienced in the next birth (upapadyavedaniya),•2 and that which is
The king is addressed as "knower of the world" because of experienced in some other lifetime (aparaparyayavedaniya).•3
his familiarity with the ways of the world. The first of the three is karma with a resu lt which comes to
To become, alternately, pleased and displeased with regard maturation in the very same birth as the one in which it was
to (1) gaining and losing material wealth, (2) well-being charac- performed. This is illustrated by the jataka storiesH of the bear
terized by pleasurable experiences and misery characterized by and the ru-ru deer. The second type is karma coming to matura-
painful ones, (3) hearing of one's fame and disrepute, and (4) tion in the next life, and is exemplified by the karma of the five
praise expressed to one's face and scorn spoken in secret are "immediate" sins!5 The third is karma which reaches maturation
attitudes typifying the ways of worldly-minded persons; hence some time after the birth immediately following the one in which
they are termed the "eight worldly dharmas". the karma was performed. Of these three, .karma to be experi-
So as to transcend such a worldly nature, one should adopt enced in the next birth provides the context for the next verse.
an attitude of indifference to\.vards these objects and not allow
oneself to feel displeasure over loss, etc., and pleasure at gain and (31)
the rest.
Though no performance of evil karn1a
It is the attitudes of pleasure towards gain, etc., which consti-
Will cut instantly like a sword,
tute the worldly dharmas, not n1erely the gains and such them-
The result of evil deeds will become
selves, since these conditions are experienced by the Aryas as
Apparent when the time of death arrives.
well. The eight worldly dharmas are, thus, formulated in the
sense of the attitude one adopts towards them. The performance of evil deeds does not cut-t}lat is, produce
It is a widely-held belief among the worldly-minded that evil suffering-immediately, as something like a sharp sword does
committed for the sake of a guru or a Brahman, etc., is not when touched. Nevertheless, one will at the time of death experi-
wrongful; thus the following verse is stated-to reverse an opin- ence varied signs, such as great regret and harassment by Yama's• 6
ion so contrary to the true meaning of the Dharma. dreadful messengers, which a re indications of the result one's
evil actions will take. As the Bodhicarynvatiirn states:
(30)
Gazing at close ones whose hope is gone, v1hose
Do not commit evil, not even for the sake of a Eyes are red and swollen from grief as tears streak
Brahman, Down their faces; and peering as well at the
A bhi~u, deity or guest, father or mother, Countenances of Yama's heralds,
58 Niigiirjuna's Letter l(dvice Concerning Virtuous Practices .59
"
Tormented by recollecting your sins and hearing the neither so rare nor functional as causes for quelling the mental
Sounds of the hells, with the body sullied in afflictions; thus, one should realize that they are meaningless-
Its own filth from fear, in total like chaff, hollow and empty.
Dismay, what will you do then? ·
[Ch. 7, vs. 9-10] -Eschewing Hindrances to the Riches of the Aryas-
It having been stated that one should accumulate the riches of the
-The Seven Riches- Aryas, the following verse is expressed to illustrate the means for
Having thus abandoned the worldly dharmas, one is directed by preventing their waste.
the following verse to acquire the qualities possessed by the (33)
Aryas.
Gambling, joining in crowds, idleness and
(32) Evil company, liquor and going about at
f"he Muni declared as the seven riches faith, morality, Night lead to the lower states and loss of
Generosity, and untainted learning-as well as Reputation. Abandon these six activities.
shamefulness, · · Gambling (such as playing dice, etc.), joining in large crowds
Modesty and wisdom. Recognize other of people (as for entertainment), idleness (consisting of an aver-
Riches as common and devoid of meaning. sion to virtue) and evil company (whose association brings an
Fa.ith (sraddha) consists of belief in and purity of mind to- increase in non-virtue), drinking liquor, and going about at night-
wards the law of karma and its results, the Truths,'8 and the to another person's home or from one town to another-are six
Three l{atnas.49 Morality (sila) 50 consists of the proper undertak.- activities which will cause one to take birth in the lower states of
ing to abandon what is reproachful. The giving of one's posses::.. existence in future lives and harm one's reputation in this life.
sions, either as an act of veneration or through a desire to be of Thus they should be abandoned, as detrimental to wealth, health
assistanc·e , constitutes generosity (tyaga).51 Leaming (sruta) 52 is and virtue.
listening to the Holy Dharma, which brings one closer to libera-
tion, with the aim of acquiring knowledge, and should be un-· -Abiding in a State of Satisfaction-
tainted by a desire for such things as wealth, honour or fame.
Next is instr>.iction in a favourable quality-that of maintaining
Shamefulness (hri) 53 is the avoiding of anything reproachful,
an attitude of satisfaction.
for reasons relating to oneself; such as in 'the thought: "It is
improper for one such as myself, possessed of learning, morality, (34)
and so forth, to commit evil acts." Modesty (apatrapya)54 is the
The teacher of gods and men declared that being
avoiding of anything reproachful for reasons relating to others-
satisfied
as in thinking to oneself: "The performance of evil is disdained by
Was the greatest of all riches. Remain
-._t he worldly as well as the religious, so if people should hear that
Satisfied always. One knowing satisfaction is
I have done such, I will be scorned." '
Truly wealthy, even without material possessions.
Wisdom (prajfla)55 is the discernment of the gen'eral and
specific attributes of dharmas. · The teacher of gods and men, the Buddha Bhagavan, de-
Because of their rarity, and the fact that they produce,tran- clared that of all the various riches of gold and the like, the very
scendent bliss, the Muni declared these virtues to be the seven best .was an attitude of satisfaction56 whose nature consists of not
"riches of the Aryas". Gold and other such ordinary riches are savouring past experiences of wealth, not longing for suclt wealth
in the future, and not being attached to it in the present.
.-
60 Nlignrju11a's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 61
A Si:itra states that: 9. Taki11g a Proper Wife
He who remains willing to give while (36)
Lacking even a morsel of food is
Called a man of great wealth Shun the three kinds of wives who are like a murderess,
By those with right vision. By nature associating w ith your enemies; a
Tyrant, scornful of her husband; and a
Therefore always maintain an attitude of satisfaction; for if Thief, who steals even small articles.
one does, one will be truly wealthy, though lacking any material
riches such as gold and the like. The reason one is "wealthy" is One should avoid the following three kinds of wives: (1) one
that one is able to remain satisfied. who by nature becomes involved with her husband's enemies
The merits of satisfaction having been thus described, the and thus is like a murderess in that-through associating with
following verse is stated to indicate the detriments of being other men-she wishes to kill her spouse; (2) one who is like a
dissatisfied. tyrant in that she does not honour her husband and acts disdain-
fully towards him; and (3) one who is like a thief in that she steals
(35) even small articles, not to mention things of great value.
The following verse indicates what sort of woman one should
Gentle Sir! 1nose having few desires
espouse.
Lack the misery of those with many possessions.
However many the heads of the foremost nagas, (37)
Just so is the misery obtained from them.
One who is compliant as a sister,
The king is addressed as "gentle sir" because he is a person Dear to the heart like a friend, wishing to help
with whom it is pleasant to associate.
Like a mother and obedient as a servant
The misery of many possessions, such as gold and so forth, is Should be honoured as the family deity.
stated in the Bodllicarynvntara in the following way:
Adopt a wife compliant as a sister who accords with her
From the misery of accumulating, guarding and brother and is not contemptuous of his word. Take a wife who is
losing dear to the heart, like a beloved and courteous friend who is ever
It, wealth should be known as endless misfortune. pleasing. Marry a woman as desirous of helping her husband as a
[Ch. 8, v. 79] mother wishing to help her son by freeing him from all physical
Thus the person having many possessions is tormented first and mental suffering. Adopt a wife who is obedient, like a ser-
while trying to accumulate wealth, then in having to guard it, and vant in the sense of doing what one bids. As such women will
lastly through losing it. Persons of few desires, however, are not preserve one's family lineage, they should be treated with honour,
troubled in this way. in the same manner as the family goddess.
It is like, for example, the foremost of the nagas-the naga
kings-who experience a degree of misery equal to the number of
their heads. It can be otherwise explained that the naga kings
possess as many crown jewels as they do heads; hence, the
greater the number of crow11 jewels, the greater is the misery in
having to safeguard them.
The next two verses indicate the manner of choosing a proper
spouse after learning various pertinent faults and qualities.
Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 63
CHAPl'ER3 with the intention of breeding an afflicted state of mind such as
that characterized by a hedonistic delight which produces unre-
strained behavior in body and speech.
INSTRUCTION, TO BoTH HOUSEHOLDERS AND THOSE DEPARTED One should not take food because of arrogance. This means
FROM A HOME LIFE, CONCERNING THE.PURSUANCE OF lfIGHER eating without such thoughts as, "When I have developed bodily
STATES AND SUPREME BEATTITUDE strength, I will inflict harm upon my enemies." Neither should
one eat for the purpose of becoming robust in body, an intention
In this chapter there are three sections, dealing with the following reflected in thoughts like, "Through eating, I shall increase the
subjects: (1) the practice of the Dharma common to both goals, (2) size of my body and limbs," and so forth.
the practice of the Dhanna devoted to Supreme Beatitude in One should, rather, eat with the sole purpose of maintaining
particular, and (3) the advisability of making full use of the the human body as the basis for striving after virtue. Eating with
human body. conceit or the wish to become robust is done through desire,
whereas taking food through arrogance is done in hatred.
1. The Dhar1na Co1n1non to Both Goals The next verse enjoins one not to sleep during the first and
the last periods of the night.
The first of the six points in this section is regulating the quantity
of one's food properly. Sleeping Only in the Middle Period of tlte Nigltt
Regulating the Quantity of One's Food (39)
In order to further one towards the attainment of samiidhi (medi- Righteous One! Occupy yourself during the entire
tative composure),1 the following preparatory exercises are pre- Day, and the first and last periods of the night.
sented . Then, so that even your time of repose is not fruit-
Two things are of critical importance for the practice of less,
meclitation: (1) regulating the amount of food one eats and (2) Recline attentively between those two periods.
avoiding excessive sleep.2 This next verse is stated in regard to
the former. Spend, O Righteous One, the entire day and the first and last
of the night's three periods in activities of a virtuous nature; then,
(38) recline during the night's middle period.
And so that even the period of sleep might not be fruitless-
Food should be taken properly, as though it were that is, may not be empty of value one should recline with a
Medicine, without desire or hatred; state of mind imbued with recollection3 and vigilance,• as re-
Not for conceit, arrogance or flected in the thought: "I shall sleep for a short time. Once my
Robustness, but only to maintain the body. body and mind have become refreshed, I will quickly arise to go
Medicine taken as a cure for illness will benefit when taken in and accomplish virtue." In doing this, even sleep-through the
the proper amount (that is, neither in excessive nor insufficient strength of one's motivation-becomes virtue and thereby mean-
quantities). Just so should food be eaten as a remedy for the ingful.
affliclion of hunger; with good judgement so as to avoid taking 1ne Bhagaviin declared:
too much or too little. During the first period of the night, while engaged in
Food should, in addition, be eaten without motivations of walking or sitting, you should practise ridding the
desire or hatred. One should not, for example, partake of food mind of those dharmas which are obscurations. In the
through a feeling of vain conceit: meaning that one should not eat middle period of the night, having finished this prac-
64 Niigiirju11a's Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 65
tice, wash your feet outside the temple building. Re- With the realization of th~'no-self nature of the individual"
turning to the temple, lie down on your right side, (pudgala nairatmya), 13bei ngs-in~the second case-are viewed as
p lacing one leg upon the other, and recline with recol- entities merely ascribed to the dharmas which comprise the heaps.
lection and vigilance in the sleeping-lion pose. In the One then develops the desire that they be freed from suffering. In
final period of the night, rise promptly and practise, the third case, beings are viewed as illusory in nature through the
while you walk or sit, ridding the mind of dharmas realization of the "no-self nature o f dharmas" (dharma
which are obscurations. nairatmya), 14 and one develops the desire thnt they be freed from
Meditating upon the Four I111measurables suffering and so on. The first meditation is the one practised by
"common persons" (prthagjana). 15 According to one school1 6 of
When versatility (karmanya) of body and mind has been d evel- Buddhist thought, the second type is practised by the Sravaka
oped through these practices, one should then practise medita- and Pratyeka 11 Aryas and the third by Mahayana Aryas alone;
tion upon the Four lmmeasurables5- as further preparation for whereas another schooJIR holds that the Sravakas and Pratyekas
the attainment of the composed states (dhyana).6 This is illus- also attain realization of the no-self nature of dharmas and that
trated in the following verse. both the latter two types of meditation are therefore practised by
all the Aryas of the 'Three Vehicles.
(40) Concerning the actual method of practice, in developing the
Practise constant meditation upon loving-kindness, first three attitudes one dis tinguishes three types of persons: a
friend, a neutral person and an enemy. First one directs the
Compassion, joyfulness, equanimity.
attention towards such individuals as one's mother or father, etc.
· Even though you may not attain the highest goal,
You will acquire the bliss of the Brahma Realm. (who constitute the category of "friends") and meditates upon
the desire that they meet with happiness, etc.
Loving-kindness (maitri)7 is the desire that all sentient beings Then, the attention is directed toward individuals of the
should come to acquire happiness. Compassion (karui:ta)8 is the "neutral" category and, finally, towards an enemy. When the
desire that they should come to be freed from suffering. Joyful- desires that one's friends meet with happiness and that one's
ness (mudita) is the gladness felt at the happiness they have enemies meet with happiness are of equal intensity, the medita-
acquired, and equanimity (upe~a) 10 an even-mindedness con- tion is completed.
sisting of absence of either desire or hatred, also directed towards In the case of equanimity, one first meditates upon the cat-
all beings. egory of neutral persons. One subsequently meditates upon an
These fow attitudes are called "immeasurable" (apramar;ta), attitude of equanimity towards all: both those dear to one and
both because their object is an immeasurable number of sentient those towards whom one feels animosity.
beings and because the person who meditates upon them ac- In answer to the question of what the fruits of this practice
quires immeasurable merit. One is thus advised to meditate, in a are, the outcome of meditation upon loving-kindness, etc., s u s-
right 1nanner, upon the Four Immeasurables. tained by the wisdom apprehending the two types of no-self
This meditation can, further, be of three types-dep ending nature is the attainment of nirvana •
. Yet even if one does not
upon the manner in which one directs the mind's attention. It can acquire this highest goal, one will acquire a happiness which lies
have sentient beings as its object, have dharmas as its object; or be beyond the sensory realm-that is, the happiness of the Brahma
without an object.11 realm set in the first dhyana of the form realm. The reason for this
In the first of these, beings are apprehended as being substan- is that the above meditations wilJ bring one an experience of the
tially real and existing independently of the aggregates. 12 Ac- peace of flawless dhyana, free from the tqrment of anger . Iience,
cordingly, one develops the desire that they be freed from suffering the text-here indicates that loving-kindness and so forth are prepa-
and the rest. ratory exercises leading to the attainment of the dhyana states.
66 Nagarjuna' s Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 67
The Four Dhyanas The Relative Gravity of Kanna
Granting that meditation upon loving-kindness and so forth en-
ables one to attain the Four Dhyanas, a person might well ask (42)
what sort of results follow from that. The five types of great virtuous and non-virtuous
karma are
(41) Those which are done constantly, with a strong
The Fur Dhayanas-total abandonment of sensory inclination,
Experience, joy, ease, and discomfort- Lacking a remedy or towards (the basis of assis-
Enable one to attain t.h e same fortune as tance or) the basis of foremost virtue.
Brahma, Abhasvara, Subha-kftsna and Vrhat-phala. Exert yourself hence in the performance of virtue.
The First Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind characterized Karma-be it virtuous or non-virtuous-having any of the
by the joy (priti)19 and ease (saukhya) 20 arisi~g through . the es- five conditions explained here is said to be of great n1agnitude
chewal of and withdrawal from sensory experience (particularly because it is certain to yield results, and to do so in great number.
the desire for sense objects and malice). This is accomplished by The five conditions are included within the factors of prepara-
means of the two antidotes of reflection (vitarka) 21 and delibera- tion, intention, remedy and basis.2R
tion (vicara). 22 The factor of preparation is that a particular act is performed
The Second Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind character- constantly.
ized by the joy and ease arising from samadhi and the eschewal The factor of intention refers to an act performed with a great
of the above-mentioned deliberation. The latter is accomplished willingness, \·v hether prompted by mental afflictions o r pure
through the antidote referred to as "inner clarity" (adhyat- thoughts. The remedy factor refers to karma which one is unable
masamprasada).23 . . to counteract.
The Third Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind charactenzed The factor of basis is twofold. The "basis of assistance" 29
by ease and the eschewal of joy; the la.tter being ~cco~~lished includes one's mother and father, preachers of the Dharma, and
through the antidotes of recollection (smrt1), v1g1lance individuals providing assistance in specific instances such as
(samprajanya) and equanimity (upek~a). 24 • • those found in the jataka stories about the bear and the monkey,
The Fourth Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind characterized etc.
by the sensation of equanimity an~ the total eschewal of both ease The "basis of foremost virtue" 30 includes the Three Ratnas,
and discomfort. This eschewal is brought about through the one who has just arisen from the cessation state of composu re, 31
antidotes of pure recollection (smrti-parisuddhi) and equanimity and the like. The effects of any aid or injury to such persons
(upeksaparisuddhi). _ constitutes karma of great magnitude due to the basis fa ctor,
The verse states that by meditating upon the Four Dhyanas hence, one should avoid non-virtuous acts of great magnitude
(also referred to as the "causal states of composure"25), one at- and exert oneself in performing virtuous ones.
tains the same birth as, respectively, ti)e deities Mahabrahma, The following verse is stated to illustrate that one should not
Abhasvara, Subha-krtsna and Vrhat-phala. This is, however, meant remain undaunted if one has performed many acts of non-virtue
in a broad sense. More precisely, it should be understood that, and only few of virtue; whereas if the opposite is true, one need
through meditations upon the lesser, medium and gre~ter stages not have great fear.
of the Third Dhyana one takes birth among the Par1tta-subha, (43)
~
Apramana-subha and ;:iubha- kr. tsna d e1hes,
. . etc.27
Next is. the manner of adopting virtue and rejecting evil A few grains of salt can change the taste of a small
through understanding several types of heavy karma. Quantity of water, though not that of the Ganges;
68 Nagiirjuna's Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 69
Understand that even small evil karma Alternately, as stated in the Abltidltnr11U1ko5n:
Will do the same for light rudiments of virtue.
Even as little as a few grains of salt will change the taste of a The obstacles occur in the desire realm.
small quantity of water, causing it to become salty. It ·cannot, Because their opposition, sustenance
And action are the same, two
however, change the taste of a vei:y large body of water like the
Are combined into one.
Ganges River. One should understand that, similarly, even minor
[Ch. 5, v. 59)
evil karma can yield results if one's rudiments oJ virtue are light '
-'
(i.e. small and few in number). If these rudiments are large and The first pair (excitement and regret) are thus grouped as a
numerous, however, it is unable to do so. There~ore, strive con- single obstacle because (1) they are both derived from similar
tinuously for virtue of great force. causes, such as reflecting upon family relatives (jfiati vitarka); (2)
they both cause the mind to become distracted; and (3) they are
The Five Obstacles both overcome by 5amatha.'0
The second pair (sleep and languor) are, as well, grouped as a
The following verse is stated to indicate that one should endeavour
single obstacle because (1) they are both derived from similar
to eschew the five dharmas of "excitement" etc., because they are
causes-such as an excessive amount of food; (2) they both cause
obstacles to the attain.m ent of dhyana, and lib'e ration.
the mind to become enervated; and (3) they are both overcome by
(44) the id~ation of luminosity.
Why are they called the "Five Obstacles"? It is because they
Excitement and regret, malice, languor and
are detrimental to the Three Trainings. The attitudes of sense-
Sleep, sense-desires, and doubt:
desires and malice are detrimental to superior morality (adhisila)'1
Recognize these five obstacles as
in that the craving for sense objects prevents one from adopting
Thieves who steal the riches of \firtue.
the practice of morality in the first place and, where morality has
Excitement (auddhatya)32 is the state in which the mind is been adopted, animosity prevents one from putting into practice
diverted to attractive objects, and regret (kaukrtya)33 the remorse those instructions which are given by another person.
which arises at having done something wrong. Malice (vyapada)3 ' Languor and sleep are detrimental to superior concentration
is the deep feeling of animosity towards objects which one views (adhicitta)'2 for they cause the mind to become enervated while
with a hostile disposition, while languor (styana)35 produces un- one is meditating to achieve samatha. Excitement and regret are a
fitness of body and mind through enervating the mind . detriment to superior wisdom (adhiprajfia),'3 because they cause
Sleep causes the uncontrollable drawing-in of the mind's the mind to become diverted outward when one is engaged in
attention, and sense-desires (kamacchanda)36 are the desire for meditation that involves deep reasoning.
sense objects-particularly food and sexual intercourse. Doubt Doubt is detrimental to both the last two trainings mentioned
(vicikitsa)37 is the state of mind divided in its attitude towards for, without resolving any uncertainty that may arise while medi-
liberation and the path which leads to it. tating, one cannot remain fixed in the state of equipoise which is
These five are called "obstacles" (nivaral)a) 3~ because they the union of samatha and vipasyana.''
obstruct one's attaining the dhyanas, liberation, and so forth, or
because they obstruct one's practice of the Three Trainings.39 One 2. The Pursita1ice of Suprenie Beatitude
should think of them as the thieves which steal the riches of
virtue, and which must therefore be abandoned. The first of the three points in this division concerns meditation
Excitement and regret are similar in that they both constitute upon the Five Powers and the Five Strengths which occur in the
an instability of mind. Languor and sleep are alike in that they are Path of Preparation.
both a dullness of mind. Each pair is therefore classified as a
single obstacle.
70 Nagarju11a's Letter '
Advice Co11cerning Virtuous Practices 71
The Five Poivers and t11e Five Strengths
One should, quite properly, reflect: "I am not exempt from
Those entities which are hindrances and to be abandoned having the conditions of sickness, aging, death and separation from the
been presented , the next verse presents dharmas to be adopted- desirable. Likewise, I am not exempt from being subject to karma,
those which are favourable for the attainment of liberation. which is to say that my personal well-being depends upon the
karma I have performed in the past and is therefore not under my
(45) control." Pondering over this again and again prevents one from
One should strive in earnest after faith, becoming conceited, by virtue of the fact that it functions as the
Vigour, recollection, samadhi and wisdom- antidote for that attitude.
The five supreme dharmas also Next is the beneficial factor of meditation upon the right
.
Known as the strengths, the po.wers, and the sum- view.
mits. The Right View
Faith is a sincere belief in the Truths, while vigour (virya) 45 is There are two parts to this topic: a brief presentation and an
the delight in bringing them forth. The state of mind which dos expanded explanation of right view.
not forget the Truths and their aspects is recollection (smrti).
Sami'idhi is the one-pointedness. of mind directed towards the Brief Prese11tation
various aspects of the Truths, and wisdom (praj:fia) the true Right view (sarpyak d~~i)51 produces the arising of the five
discernment of those aspects. One should exert oneself earnestly spiritual faculties52 of faith and so forth; hence, the following
in developing these five qualities, and should practise them con- verse is stated in order to illustrate the proper method of meditat-
tinually. ing upon this view.
When they serve as·the immediate cause for the attainment of
the Arya Path, the five are called the supreme dharmas (47)
(agradharma).46 During the patience (~anti) stage of the Path of If you desire the higher realms and liberation,
Preparation (prayoga marga)47 they are referred to as the strengths Meditate upon the right view.
(bala),4A for they can no longer be overcome by their negative Even good deeds by a person with wrong view
counterparts. At the time of the warn1th (u~ma) stage of the same All have dreadful fruition.
path, they are called the powers (indriya),49 because they exert a
great influence towards bringing about the realization of the Here, reference is made to two right views: one having the
Truths. And when these five have been developed to a point ordinary world53 as its object and one having the ultimateS4 as its
where the rudiments of virtue are no longer subject to retrogres- object. The first is the belief in the relationship between karma
sion, they are as well called the summits (murdhana).50 and its future results, and the second is the wisdom which real-
Next is the eschewal of conceit, a detrimental factor. izes the true nature (tattva) of all dharmas.
The first view is the cause which enables one to take birth in
Conceit the higher states of existence, while the second view enables one
to attain liberation. Thus, if one is desirous of either the tempo-
(46) rary well-being of the higher states or of the ultimate bliss of
Conceit's arising is prevented by its antidote, liberation one should meditate, continually, upon the two right
Which is the repeated contemplation of one's own views just stated: the one with the ordinary world as its object
Non-exemption from sickness, aging, death, and the other having the ultimate as its object.
Separation from the desirable and subjection to one's One might wonder what consequences would result from not
karma. practising these views. If a person performs even good deeds-
72 Nagarjuna's Letter Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 73
acts of generosity and such-with the wrong view (mithyadrl?!i)55 Since they are a cause for sarpsara and the inferior states of
which discredits the cause and effect of karma (this is, if deeds existence, they should be considered the source of all ruin. Hence,
are performed in absence of the right view having the ordinary one should make one's recollection "well-established".
world as its object), all his or her karma will yield dreadful Next is meditation, in particular, upon the well-established
maturations. The maturations are dreadful in that they are harsh, recollection of dharmas (dharmasmrtyupasthana).
'
for the wrong view eradicates the rudiments of virtue.
Further, if a person performs even good deeds-such as b. Rccollccti1fg Selflessness
giving and so forth-with the wrong view which apprehends
One may well assent to the statemcitt about the conditions of
entities as having a real and independent nature (that is, if the
being miserable, etc., yet still wonder how the condition of hav-
deeds are performed in the absence of the right view having the
ing no self is to be understood. If there is no self, then who is it
ultimate as its object), the maturation of all such karma is said to
that experiences the results of virtuous and non-virtuous karma?
be dreadful, for it casts that person into sarpsara.
The following verse replies.
The Expanded Explanation
(49)
The first of this part's five subdivisions is the meditation upon the
It was declared that "form is not the self, the self
four well-established recollections (smrtyupasthana).5 ~
does not
n. Meditnti11g 11po11 the Four Well-Estnb/ished Recollcctio11s Possess form, the self is not seated in form and
Form is not seated in the self." Understand the
(48) rema1n1ng
Four aggregates as similarly empty.
Understand humans as being, in actuality, miser-
able,
If there is a self, it must either be of the same nature of the
Impermanent, having no self and impure. Those
aggregates-form, etc.-or something distinct from them.
In whom recollection has not been well established
The first of these possibilities is refuted by the statement in
give heed to the
the sutras ranging from, "form is not the self..." up to " ...con-
Four delusions-the source of ruination.
sciousness is not the self." This constitutes scriptural evidence.
The human being is to be understood as being, "in actuality" One may ask what reasoning there is to establish this point.
(ie. when examined with wisdom), "miserable" in that he pos- The self is not of the same essence as form, etc., because these
sesses the three forms of suffering. He is "impermanent" in that fallacies would follow: (1) as with form, etc., the self would also
he exists for no more than an instant, and "without a self nature" have to be impermanent and multiple in number; (2) since form
since there is no absolute person who is the controller of his own etc., has substance, the self would also have to possess sub-
being. And, because his nature is one of being a mass of bone, stance;5~ and (3) since the perception of a self5 9 would then appre-
flesh, blood and so forth, understand that the human being is hend an object possessing substance, the seeds of such a view, by
"impure". virtue of its correctness, could never be eliminated by the appro-
Those who have not "established" their recollection "well" in priate antidote.
this manner-that is, who have not examined themselves with The scripture Mndhya111akiivatara expresses this reasoning in
wisdom-regard the impure body as being pure, sensations that the following words:
are miserable in nature as being pleasurable, the impermanent
If the aggregates were the self-theyj:>eing many-it
mind as permanent and dharmas lacking a self as possessing
Too would become multiple; the self would
such. These four beliefs are called the four delusions (viparyasa).57
74 Nagarjuna's Letter Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 75
Possess substance; and since its perception would of a self which is either of the same essence as, or a separate entity
Be of a substance, it would not be erroneous. from, the aggregates themselves.
[Ch. 6, v. 127] The views opposing this explanation which regard each of
Secondly, if the self were of a nature different from that of the five aggregates in four different aspects (such as the view that
form and so forth it would take on the attributes of (1) possessing form is the self, etc.,) are called "20 extremes of the 'view of the
form and so forth in the way that Devadatta possesses an ox; (2) perishable assemblage' (satkayadf!?ti)."61 TI1e remedies for these
being grounded in form and the rest as Devadatta is seated upon views are the declarations, "Form is not the self..." and so forth.
a mat; or (3) having form, etc., grounded in it, like a vine is The following verse is stated in order to illustrate that the
grounded in the earth. aggregates arise from compatibl~ c~uses and con_d_itioning fac-
The first thesis is incorrect because of statements in the siitras tors. This is done through the rejection of the positions that the
ranging from, "the self does not possess form ..." up to, "the self aggregates have no causes or that they arise from incompatible
does not possess consciousness." This constitutes scriptural evi- causes.
dence. The reasoning is as follows. Devadatta is said to "possess" (50)
an ox in the sense that the ox is an object controlled by him. The
self possesses no such control over form, etc., for form and the The aggregates do not arise at random, not frorn
rest are seen to undergo both change from one condition to time, ,
another and, ultimately, destruction-even though that is un- A primordial substance, their own essence, isvara,
wanted. Nor without a cause. One should understand that
The second thesis is incorrect because of statements in the They arise through ignorance, karma and desire.
sutras ranging from, "The self is not seated upon form .." up to, The aggregates of form and the rest do not fall from the sky at
" ...the self is not seated upon consciousness." This is the scrip- random, without dependence on anything else, for it can b_e
tural evidence. The reasoning is as follows. Devadatta is said to observed that they are contingent upon the presence of appropri-
be "seated" upon a mat in the sense that it serves as his support. ate causes62 and conditioning factors.63
The self is not so seated upon form, etc., because the form and so One erroneous view is this position:
forth acting as its support are impermanent-all this would ne-
cessitate the self's being impermanent as well. Time matures the elements,
The third thesis is also incorrect, because of statements from Time encompasses the individual,
the si:itras ranging from, "Form is not seated upon the self..." up Time brings on sleep and awakens;
to, " .. .form is not seated upon consciousness." This is the scrip- Time is difficult to transcend.
tural evidence. As for the reasoning, the aggregates of form, etc., Yet t11e belief that the aggregates arise from a " time" which is
are not grounded in the self in the manner that a vine is grounded a permanent substance is incorrect because (1) time cannot be
in the earth {l) because form and the rest based upon a perma- observed apart from the entities of form and the rest and. (2) all
nent self would never undergo destruction; (2) in such a case, too, entities arising from a permanent "time" would have to arise and
the processes of arising and undergoirtg destruction pertaining to perish at the same instant. .
the aggregates would depend upon the self, yet this would be The Saf!1.khya64 claim that the aggregates evolve from a pri-
incorrect; for the processes of arising and undergoing destruction mordial substance (prakfti) 65 which is per1nanent, and are c?m-
pertaining to external forms can be seen to occur in the absence of prised of an equilibrium of the t~ree at.tributes of force (raias),
any self. n1 ass (tamas) and purity (sattva)fi6 1s also incorrect, because (1) for
It should be understood, through the same scriptural evi- the primordial substance and its manifestations.to be of the sa~e
dences and reasonings used in exan1ining the aggregate of form, essential nature would require that the primordial substance, like
that the other four-sensation60 and so forth-are likewise void
76 Niigarjuna's Letter
Advice Co11ccnzi11g Virtuous Practices 77
its manifestations, be impermanent and (2) for them to be of a
Thus the verse states, "one should understand that they (the
different nature would contradict the basic premise that every-
aggregates) arise through ignorance, karma and desire."
thing possessed the same essence as the primordial substance.
Neither do the aggregates arise from their own essential
c. Eschewing the Three Bonds
nature,67 because {l) it would follow that they do not depend
upon causes and conditioning factors and (2) it is incorrect for the One who is desirous of deliverance from future existences must
essential nature of things to depend upon something else. abandon the causes of birth just mentioned. The followiryg verse
The Nyaya school~ claims that entities originate from an answers the question of how this is done.
eternal, divine creator called fsvara,~9 who is endowed with vari-
ous other qualities expressed in the following quotation. (51)
Subtly and inconceivably pervasive, the omniscient Misunderstanding of ascetic practices,
creator of all, A perverted view of one's being, and doubt;
The wisdom achievea ~y yoga, the object of one's Know these as three bonds which block
dhyana meditation; The gate to the city of liberation.
He who embodies the sun, moon, earth, air, water,
"Misu.n derstanding of ascetic practices" (silavrataparamarsa)71
fire, direction and space;
refers to the belief that moral and ascetic practices which have
Those desiring blissftl-1 peace should ever meditate
developed from erroneous philosophical conceptions will pro-
upon fsvara.
vide purification and deliverance. The "perverted view of one's
This doctrine is, however, in~rrect: (1) because creation of being", more commonly known as the "view of the perishable
entities by a permanent substance would not depend on anything assemblage" (satkayadn;~i),72 is the false belief that the five" closely
else and hence those entities would arise all at once and (2) if grasping" (upadana)73 aggregates either constitute a self or per-
things arose in sequential order by the will 70 of isvara then they tain to a self. "Doubt" is the state of mind in which one is divided
would depend on a cause which was different from fsvara, thereby in one's attitude toward liberation and the path leading to it.
contradicting the basic premise that everything was produced by The three bonds (saJ:!lyojana)74 are, by analogy, like obstacles
Him. to one's travelling to a desired region in that they correspond to
If, in rebuttal, it is claimed that the various wills of fsvara the conditions of (1) not wanting to go, (2) resorting to a wrong
originate in Him, then it follows that all of the different wills arise path and (3) having doubt with respect to what is in fact the right
at the same instant; whereas, if the initial wills are said to have a path.
sequential order, that condition must depend upon another will Because of the false belief in a self due to- the view of the
{different from fsvara). Hence the doctrine incurs the fallacy of an perishing assemblage, one does not wish to attain a liberation
infinite regress. where no self is present. Believing in the supremacy of erroneous
Thus it is determined that the aggregates arise neither from moral and ascetic practices, one relies upon a false path-one
an imcompatible cause nor without cause; the latter case because which does not lead to liberation. Doubt, in tum, causes one to
the aggregates would then either exist eternally or never exist at give rise to skepticism concerning that which is the true path.
all. These three attitudes should hence be understood as obstacles
If one asks from what the aggregates do originate, the reply is that block the gate of the city of liberation and must be aban-
as follows: an undamaged seed, covered with earth and fertilizer doned.
and subsequently moistened with water, produces a sprout. Jn
d. Practising the Three Trai11i11gs
the same way, potent karma-enveloped with ignorance and
moistened by desire-produces the sprout of a future existence. One might feel that a person can be led to freedom from these
obstacles through relying on others. The following verse, how-
78 Nagiirju11n's Letter Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 79
ever, illustrates that in this endeavour there is no need whatso- '' dedicated to the attainment of nirvai:ia . The essence of superior
ever for associating with others; that it rather depends solely contemplation7~ is the four d hyanas as they relate to the arising of
upon one's O\vn mind. the Arya Path . Superior wisdom79 is the realization of the two-
fold no-self nature.
(52)
One should train oneself in their practice continually because
Liberation depends upon the individual himself. these Three Trainings are the complete and unerring means for
In this endeavour there's no need whatsoever the attainment of liberation. Moral discipline ripens the imma-
To associate with others. Thus exert yourself ture being, samadhi suppresses the mental afflictions, and wis-
In pursuit of the Four Truths through listening, mo- dom-in completely eradicating the mental afflictions-brings
rality and dhyana. liberation to the mature being.
Liberation is nothing other than the deliverance of the mind Furthermore, the Three Trainings include every form .of dis-
from the bonds of the mental afflictions, a pursuit which depends cipline. This is because the 253 precepts stated in the pratimok!?a
scriptures (the four parajika, 13 avase!?a, 30 naiJ:isargika payattika,
u~on one's own practice of the method for attaining it. And since
this does not require being accompanied by others, "exert your- 90 suddha prayascittika, four pratidesaniya and 112 du!?krta)~O
self alone". constitute superior morality and morality, in tum, includes the
What is the method for attaining liberation? The scriptures Three Trainings. One should therefore train oneself assiduously
state: in their practice.
the loss of this recollection destroys every other dhanna, what (56)
need is there to speak of the attainment of nirvar:ia? The body's end is to become dust, to dry up, rot, or
Finally become filth. Understand it as Jacking
3. Utilizing the Hu1nan Fonn Fully Essence and -by nature-as having to undergo
There are three points to this division. The first is the removal of Destruction, desiccation, putrefaction or dissection.
attachment for the body through contemplating its imperma- The Bhagavan declared:
nence and lack of substance.
Monks, the body of one whose time has passed and
Removal of Attachment for the Body who has died is burned, cast in the water, or buried
beneath the earth by relatives. The sun and wind may
(55) dry it up, or it may be eaten by various creatures of
Life, being susceptible to many harms, is more im- the animal birth-state.
permanent The body may become ashes through burning, or may in the
Than a wind-blown bubble of water. Most won- end be dried up by the sun and wind. It may finally rot, having
drous been cast into water, or-if eaten by other creatures-eventually
Is the leisure of inhaling one breath, having become filth. Thus this body is lacking in essence, and one should
Exhaled another, and awakening from sleep. realize that it possesses the nature of having to undergo destruc-
As the scriptures state: tion by fire, .desiccation by sand and wind, putrefaction, or dis-
section through being tom into many bits by other creatures. •
The three states of existence are impermanent, like The following verse is stated to illustrate that, if the ultimate
an autumn cloud, destruction of extremely stable things is certain, it will obviously
The birth and death of beings like watching a drama be so for the human body.
performance.
The passing of a person's life is like lightning in the (57)
sky: The earth, Meru, and the oceans even these physical
It goes by ever so quickly, like a waterfall down a Bodies are to be consumed by seven blazing
steep mountain. Suns, leaving not even dust. What need to
The life of a person is susceptible to many injurious condi- Speak of such a frail thing as the human body?
tions. Externally, one can be harmed by both human and non-
human beings, and internally by such things as an imbalance of When the world is destroyed by fire, even such firm and
the body elements and ~ forth. Thus life is even more imperma- solid physical bodies as the earth, Mt. Meru~2-together wit.h the
nent than a bubble of water that is blown in the wind. seven gold mountains and the inner and outer seas-will be
The opportunity of exhaling one's breath once it has been totally destroyed.
inhaled and awakening once more from sleep-that is, that we go A scripture states:
on living at .all-is indeed a great wonder and matter of sheer This very sun will bum all the forests a~d vegeta_ti?n.
chance. The smaller streams will be dried up with the arising
The following verse is also stated to show that life is imper- of a second sun, and a third sun will dry up Lake
manent, and there is no value in becoming attached to one's Anavatapta83 and its four great rivers. Every drop of
body. water in the oceans will be dried up by the fourth and
fifth suns.
, 82 Nngiirju11a's Letter Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prncticcs 83
'
With the arising of the sixth sun, no drop of water Life; thus, with the power of being human
will remain anywhere, and the great earth, along with Make such a life fruitful through practising the Holy
Mt. Meru, will begin to emit smoke. When the seventh Dharma.
sun arises, the flames of all the suns will converge into
Suppose the entire world were a great ocean, in which there lived
a single fire and not even dust will remain.
a blind turtle which rose to the surface only once every 100 years;
If even physical bodies of such solidity as these are to be and on the surface of that ocean were a yoke, with a single
completely annihilated by the force of seven suns blazing as a opening, driven about in every direction by the wind. Difficult
single flame, what need is there to say so for the ever-so-frail indeed would it be for the turtle's neck to meet with the opening
human body? Due to its impermanence, there is no time at which of that yoke and become secured there. However, even more
it could not be destroyed. difficult than that is it for an animal to acquire birth as a human
1'he following verse is stated to illustrate that, since life is so since animals, due to their stupidity, are unable to generate
impermanent and since one's body Jacks any substance, one powerful good karma.
should relinquish all interest in sa~sara. This point is stated in a Sutra as follows:
Monks, if there were a blind, long-lived turtle dwell-
(58)
ing in an ocean the size of the entire world who rose to
Thus all being is impermanent, lacking any self- the surface a single time with the passing of every 100
nature .• years; and if there were upon such a great ocean a
It is without a saviour, guardian or resting place. ', yoke with a single opening which, when driven by the
Hence, Great One, develop aversion for sa~sara eastern wind, moved to the west and so forth; monks,
Which like the plantain has no substance. there could come a time when, as he rose to the
surface, the blind turtle's neck would enter into the
Not only all physical things, but every one of the five "closely
grasping" heaps~• as well is impermanent and without any self- opening of that yoke. Yet I, monks, declare that attain-
ing birth as a human is of much greater difficulty.
nature-as previously explained. They are without any saviour
to protect them from suffering, without any guardian to aid Therefore, with the power that a human being possesses,
them, and are even without any opportunity of finding an ordi- practise the Holy Dharrna and bring fruitfulness ~o such a birth
nary place of rest. Therefore, "Oh, Great One," develop an aver- by making this pursuit the essence of the human hf~. . .
sion for- that is, become disgusted by-this sa~ra, which like The following verse is stated to illustrate that since a~ta.1rung
the plantain tree has no substance. a human life is so difficult, to waste it would be real stup1d1ty.
Next is advice to put this human life of opportunity and
fortune to full use after having contemplated the difficulty of (60)
finding it.
Even more stupid than one who fills a
Jewel-embellished, gold vessel with
Corite11·iplation 01i the Difficulty of Attaining a Life of Excrement is he who, having been born a
Opportunity and Fortune Human, performs evil deeds.
(65)
Gentle Sir! Become disgusted with sn1!1siirn,
Source of so much suffering: material privation,
Death, illness, aging and the like.
Hear now further a few of its faults.
The king is addressed as "Gentle Sir". Because it is the source
of so much suffering-the lack of material goods (food, clothing,
and so forth), an ultimate death, occasional occurrences of illness,
aging (the disappearance of youthful vigour) and such forms of
misery as grief and outcries of anguish-one must develop aver-
sion for sn111siira. If one does not turn away from this sa111siira, the
desire for liberation' will not arise. The author indicates that he
will mention a few of the defects of sa111snra-only a partial
explanation-to aid the arising of this attitude of renunciation;
therefore, one should give heed. The faults of sn1!1snrn could
never be stated in their entirety, yet the hearing of even a portion
of them is enough to cause the mind to renounce it. Thus a part of
the faults is next presented, in seven divisions.
(66)
One's father becomes a son, one's mother a wife.
Enemies become friends. The reverse of
This occurs as well. Thus, in sn111siirn
There is no certainty whatever.
As one takes birth again and again, sometimes he who was
011e's father may become one's son, a former mother one's wife,
or an enemy in one life a friend in another. The reverse n1ay
occur, where one's son becomes his father and son. Thus, since in
saf!1sara there is no certainty as regards who is one's enemy and
who is a friend, one should abandon the bias of attachment
towards friends and d islike of enemies.
90 Niigiirj1111n's Letter Aversion for Sa111sara 91
2. The Defect of Never Beco1ni1zg Satisfied3 making an earthen pellet the size of a juniper berry f9r each time,
all the soil of the earth would be exhausted without one reaching
{67) the end. One would, in fact, not even reach the number of times
that a single being had been one's mother. Moreover, if one does
Each has drunk more milk than the four not exert oneself in the path, this number will become even
Oceans, while in the succeeding greater.
Sn111siirn of the common person much more than This is expressed in a Sutra as follows:
That is still to be drunk.
Monks! Suppose that a person were to take pellets of
Each and every living being has, in the past, imbibed more soil-each the size of a juniper berry-from this great
milk than there is water in the four oceans of the four directions; earth and throw them to the side one by one, saying,
for the births in which one has drunk milk are without beginning. 'This is my mother, this is my mother's mother...' The
Nevertheless, much more milk than before still remains to be soil of this great earth, 0 monks, would very soon be
drunk in the succeeding sa111siira of the common person exhausted; yet I declare that it would not be so for the
(prthagjn11n.), i.e., in the time until he enters the Arya path. This is lineage of a human being's mothers.
because there is no end to sn111siira for these infantile beings• who
have failed to give rise to virtue that "coincides with liberation".5 5. The Defect of Continually Vacillating between
Eminent and Lowly States7
·3. The Defect of Discarding Orie' s Body
Again and Again .. (69)
(70) (72)
Having long experienced the pleasure of fondling Having frolicked while dwelling in lovely and pleas-
the ant gardens,
Breasts and hips of celestial maidens, one Regaled by celestial maidens, again one's
Then undergoes unbearable contact with crushing, Arms, legs, ears and nose are cut in the
Cutting and slashing processes in the hells. Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves.
Having been born as a deity, one may experience over a great One may dwell in beautiful pleasure groves, where one is
length of time the pleasures of fondling the breasts and hips of "regaled by celestial maidens", waited upon and surrounded by
celestial maidens. Then through the force of evil karma one takes a great number of these maidens. However, after frolicking there
birth in the hells, where one is crushed between the tremendous at great length enjoying sense pleasures, one goes to the hells o'f
iron mountains of the Sacrghata hell,1° cut to pieces by swords in the Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves (Asipattravana). These
Kala Siitra hell, and slashed by weapons or the beaks and claws leaves, shaped like many kinds of sharp swords, fall when stirred
of terrible creatures in the Tapana and Mahatapana hells. More- by the wind-cutting one's arms, legs, ears and nose. One thus
over, one must undergo the harsh suffering of these devastating incurs the misery of having the body and all its limbs cut and
processes for an even longer period than the former pleasures. pierced. Furthermore,
The following verse indicates that the pleasures derived from
(73)
one's habitat are unreliable.
After resting in the Gently Flowing Stream, with
(71) Golden lotuses and celestial maidens of beautiful
Contemplate that after the pleasant experience of countenance,
Again one falls into the unbearably caustic, boiling
the
Water of the infernal River of No Ford.
G round's depressing at the touch of your feet while
dwelling long on Encircled by lovely celestial maidens, one may bathe in the
Meru's peak, the terrible suffering of the Firepit and celestial stream called "Gently Flowing" (Manda Kini), which is
the filled with water of eight qualities12 and golden lotuses. But after
Swamp of Filth will strike you once again. enjoying such pleasures at great length, one will_fall. into _the
alkaline waters of the infernal River of No Ford (Nad1Va1tara1:u)-
Contemplate and bear in mind the following. One may dwell,
a river filled with unbearably caustic, boiling water.
for the period of a thousand celestial years, upon the peak of Mt.
It having been illustrated that the pleasures of the two lower
Meru-which is 1nade of the four types of precious materials11
classes of desire-gods are unreliable, the following verse is stated
and has tJ-1e wonderful quality of sofily sinking under the pres-
to indicate the unreliability of pleasures pertaining to the other
sure of one's step and rising again as the foot is raised. Yet after
desire-realm gods such as Yama,u etc., as well as those of the
even this pleasure one must again experience the miseries of
moving about up to one's knees in the burning embers of the upper two realms.
Fi rep it (Kukiila), and of travelling in the Swamp of Filth (Kur:apa), (74)
n putrid mire of excrement.
Having attained the extremely great pleasures of ce-
"fhe purpose of the following verse is to inspire one to re-
nounce the pleasures experienced in the pleasure groves. lestial
Realms, and even Brahma's bliss of non-attachment,
94 Niigarjuna' s Letter Avcrsio11 for Sa111sarn 95
Again one undergoes incessant suffering as which dispels the great darkness of the evil states of being. That
Kindling for the fires of A vici. light is the threefold merit, either of liberality, morality and
The sense pleasures of the Yama class of deities, and of the meditation or of body, speech and mind.
higher celestial beings, far excel those of the lower gods'; and in If one is without merit's light, one is companionless and must
Brahma's realm there is the bliss of having transcended attach- enter all alone into the infinite darkness of the three evil states
ment for sense objects. Yet even after attaining such states, through which are "unaffected"-that is, undispelled-by the light of s un
the force of non-virtuous karma of the type to be experienced in or moon. In such a darkness, only virtue can serve as companion,
another lifetime one is again forced to become kindling for the saviour or lamplight. The Lnlita Vistara expresses this in the
fires of Avici 14 hell: meaning that one is burned incessantly, and followit1g words:
without respite, by unbearably hot fires. Except for virtuous karma performed, which
Further: '
Comes followi ng after, there is no
(75) Companion for composed things. They lack
Saviour, family, friend or retinue.
When one has attained the state of sun and moon,
The ltght of one's body illumines the entire world. 7. The Specific Miseries Experienced by the
Yet returning again to the darkness, not even
One's outstretched hand is visible. · Five Types of Beirzgs
•
'
The statement about one's attaining a birth as the celestial This' section has five parts, the first of which is:
beings of the sun and moon and illuminating the world with ..
one's body follows popular speech without distinguishing be- Tlie Suffering of tlie Hells
tween habitat (sun and moon as physical bodies) and inhabitant The following verse is stated to indicate the number of hells
(sun and moon as celestial beings). More properly, it is the light in general.
from the base of the celestial mansions of the sun and moon
which illuminates the entire world. (77)
Having then taken rebirth in some dark region lying between For beings who perform evil deeds tQere will be
world systems, where the light of the sun and moon do not reach, Perpetual suffering in the hells of Saf!ljiva,
one cannot even see one's own hand stretched out before one. Kala Sutra, Mahatapana, SaJ!lghata,
Raurava, Avici and so forth .
6. The Defect of Being Co111paniotzless Beings who perform wrongful deeds of the tpree gateways
come to experience, perpetually, the misery of the hells of Saf!ljiva,
(76)
Kala Sutra, Saxrighata, Raurava, Maharaurava, Tapana,
As such are the ·defects (of sa111siira), take the Mahatapana, Avici, and "so forth": the remaining hells, the par-
lamplight tial hells (Pratyeka Naraka) 15 and the cold hells.
Of the "three types of merit; for alone one Those born in Saxrijiva become frightened at the si&ht of each
Enters the infinite darkness which is other . 1'hen, whatever they lay hold of becomes a sharp weapon
Unaffected by sun or moon. which they hurl at one another-severing limbs and other ap-
pendages. They fall unconscious to the ground, whereupon a
Realizing that life is impermanent, that it consists of such a
voice from the sky declares: "Be you revived." Rising again, they
variety of eminent and lowly states and is defective in that death
repeat their former actions. Because these beings experience suf-
ond its consequences are inevitable, one must grasp the lamplight
96 Niigiirju11a's Letter Avcrsio11 for Sa111snra 97
fering against this background for a long duration, they are called Masses of fire from all four directions converge upon the
sn111jiva: 1 ~ "those who are again revived". beings of Avici, turning to a single blaze within their bodies. But
The bodies of those born in Kala Sutra are marked by the for the cries of misery, one is unable to dis tinguish between the
guards of that hell with four, eight, or more black streaks, then beings and the flames. Because the suffering in this region is
sliced and cut to pieces with many varieties of sharp weapons. constant and without respite, it is ca lled avid:23 "unremitting
Because they experience suffering against this background for a torture". Because they experience suffering against this back-
long duration, these beings are called kiila sutra: 17 "those with ground for a long duration, these beings are called those "tor-
black streaks". tured unremittingly".
The guards of Sarrghata assemble the beings born there, The Circumjacent Regions24 are located on the four sides of
driving them between mountains shaped like the heads of goats, each of the eight great hells. Each of these sides has a gateway,
sheep and the like. Crushed by the mountains, they are then beyond which four additional types of suffering are situated. The
reassembled and placed in an iron mechanism which crushes first one, Kukulam-Firepit2 5-lies immediately outside the gate-
them like sugar cane, blood gushing forth from every body aper- ways and consists of knee-deep fiery embers. Here one's skin and
ture. Still again they are assembled, to suffer excruciating pain as flesh are consumed as one steps down and then grow back as one
they are pelted by a shower of iron boulders. Because they experi- raises one's legs.
ence suffering against this background for a long dur'!tion, these Next to that is Kul).apa-Swamp of Filth26-a mire of excre-
beings are called sa111ghiita: 1R "those who are crushed". ment extremely putrid in odour. Arriving there, one falls in and
Beings in Raurava, searching for a place of rest, enter an iron sinks up to one's head. Within. the mire are creatures that pjerce
dwelling. Once inside, a fire erupts-and burned by the tremen- the flesh with extremely sharp beaks. Adjacent to this is
dous blaze, they scream in desperation. Because they experience K~uramarga, the Razor-filled Path, 27 where the flesh is destroyed
suffering against this background for a long duration, these be- as one steps down and regenerated with the foot's being raised.
ings are named raizrava: 19 "those who cry out". Neighbouring this region is Asipattravana, the Forest of Trees
It is to be understood that, in the Maharaurava 20 hell, beings with sword-like leaves.28 One comes here to enjoy the refreshing
find themselves in a dwelling similar to that mentioned above but shade but instead falls to the ground as the leaves drop off,
having two compartments. cutting one's limbs and minor appendages. Wild dogs then seize
The guards of Tapana boil the beings there in iron cauldrons one's flesh and proceed to devour it. In the adjoining
filled with blazing molten metal and roast them in glowing iron Ayarysalmalivana, the Forest of Iron Salmali Trees,29 one is forced
pans. 'fhey pound them upon a blazing iron surface with metal to climb up and down the trees. While ascending, great thorns
hammers and pierce them with spears, which stick out from the point downwards, piercing and slashing the flesh; as one de-
top of the head and cause flames to issue from every pore of the scends, they tum and face upwards. Here also there are iron-
body. Because they experience suffering against this background beaked crows which pluck out one's eyes and eat them. Due to
for a long duration, the beings here are called "those who burn": the similarity of the types of harm located in the1n, the Razor-
tiipana. 21 filled Path is counted along with the other two areas as a single
In Mahatapana, beings experience the suffering just men- region.
tioned with the addition of being pierced by three-pronged spears Next to these is the Nadi Vaitarani,
•
the River with No Ford,30
which protrude from the top of the head and both shoulders, filled with boiling water. Having fallen into it, one is prevented
flames issuing from every pore of the body. They are, as well, from emerging by spear-wielding guards situated on both sides.
wrapped with flaming sheets of iron and pierced-on a blazing If one does manage to get out, one is forced on to one's back upon
steel surface-by a hundred spikes and so on. Because they a flaming iron surface. The mouth is prised open with an iron
experience suffering against this background for a long duration, instrument, and one is compelled to consume a flaming iron ball,
these beings are called 111nhiitiipa11n:22 "those who bum intensely".
98 Niigiirju11a's Letter Aversio11 for Sa111snrn 99
or molten copper. One experi~nces suffering against such a back- From those deeds I now experience
ground for a long duration. These good and evil fruits."
As there are four to each side, these regions total 16 in
Proceeding further he saw another man, who by day experi-
number. The Abhidhar11111ko5a states:
enced heavenly riches and at night was enwrapped by an im-
To all eight there are 16 additional (regions): mense ogress who would consume the man in stages-beginning
The Fiery Embers, Excrement Mire, with the head. He would thus suffer unbearable misery, then
Razor-filled Path, etc., and the River. enjoy by day the same experiences as before. Sroi:ia asked about
[Ch. 3, 58-9) this, as before, and received this reply:
Beings who are born in the cold hells experience the misery of "By night I lusted for immoral sex,
cold in the following manner. Those bon1 in Arbuda ("having By day observing morality's virtues.
great sores") 31 are stricken by a great cold wind. The entire body From those deeds I now experience
contracts as it becomes covered with sores. The sores burst open These good and evil fruits ."
in Nirarbuda ("where the sores burst open"),-) 2 and one's body
This is how the scriptures describe the suffering of the Partial
shrinks still further.
Huhuva 3
~ are
Hells.
The names of those in Atata, . . Hahava and
The next few verses are presented with the intention of illus-
ascribed on the basis of the sounds these beings emit while
trating several of the particular types of suffering in the Hot
tormented by the cold.
Heil·s.
A great wind strikes the beings in Utpala ("blue lotus"),
causing their skin to tum blue and split open into five or six (78)
sections. In Padma ("lotus"), the skin changes from blue to red in
Some are pressed like sesamum and others are
colour, splitting open into 10 or more sections. In Mahapadma
Likewise ground up like fine flour.
("great lotus"), one's skin becomes extremely red in colour and
Some are cut to pieces with saws-still others are
splits open into 100 or more sections.
Split with dreadful, sharp-bladed axes.
The suffering of the partial hells is described as follows. A
butcher of cows from Rajagrha took birth in the form of a horse Some of the beings in Saf!lghata are crushed, like sesame
whose cries of grief filled the air, while his apprentice took birth seeds, in an iron press-with streams of blood gushing forth.
in the form of a heap of foul-smelling bones picked at by crows. Similarly, others are ground by blazing iron millstones into a
Other, similar experiences can be found in the nvadii11a of powder resembling in fineness the flour of rice and other grains.
Sar:ighara~ita. One is that of a man named Sroi:ia/• who lost his In Kala Sutra, some beings are cut up with blazing saws while
way near the ocean. After wandering about in a desert for some others are split by flaming axes of very sharp blades.
time, he came across a person who by night experienced the joys
of a celestial mansion filled with heavenly riches. With the com- (79)
ing of day, the mansion would vanish and the man fall to the
Others are likewise poured full of a
ground, where he experienced the great suffering of being slashed
Flaming liquid of molten ii:on.
and eaten by frightful beasts. As night fell he would once again
Some are impaled on barbed
experience the heavenly riches. Sroi:ta inquired of the person
And flaming iron spears.
about this and received the following reply:
Likewise, the beings in Tapana and those on the banks of the
"By day I took the lives of others,
•
l{iver of No Ford constantly have their mouths forced open and
Observing by night morality's virtues.
are filled up completely with molten iron aglow with sparks and
100 Niigiirjuna's Letter Avcrsio11 for Sa111sara 101
boiling. Others in Tapana are impaled upon barbed iron spears Some are boiled, head first, in blazing cauldrons filled with
ablaze with fire. caustic water. Tossed up and down, they look like dumplings-
(80) balls of pressed rice in a pot of boiling water.
The suffering of the great hells having thus been described
Slashed by ferocious iron-fanged dogs, some roughly and in brief, the following verse is stated to instil fear in
Wave their arms to the sky while other those who live in a manner that will cause them to be born there.
Helpless beings are pecked by ravens with
Sharp iron beaks and terrible claws. (83)
These are several of the experiences of the regions circumjacent They have a diamond-hard nature, those evil doers
to the hells. In the Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves, fero- who-
cious dogs snarl loudly as they rip one's body apart with their Being kept from the hells only till the breath's
iron fangs. As they proceed to eat one's body, one raises o~e's Ceasing-are not frightened in a thousand ways
arms to the sky, uttering cries of anguish. Other helpless bemgs after
perched on salmali trees have their ey~s and. flesh .pecked at by a Hearing of the hells' immeasurable suffering.
flock of ravens and other birds-all with pointed iron beaks and
Those evildoers who have performed karma certain to bring
dreadfully sharp iron claws.
about the experience of th.e hells ate separated from that suffering
(81) by only the time it takes for the process of breathing to stop; since
immediately after the final breath one enters the next state of
Some cannot bear it when worms and insects
existence. Thus any person who, despite having heard about the
Of all kinds, thousands of blue-bottles and black
hells' immeasurable suffering as described above, does not be-
bees
come frightened in a thousand-ie., a great many-ways such
Touch them, and they writhe and wail
When those that inflict grave wounds devour·then1. that his mind. is not terrified and body seems ready to burst,
unquestionably has a body and mind of a diamond-like nature.
Some cannot bear the sensation of being touched by the Otherwise he would surely become terrified.
w~rms inside their bodies and, on the outside, by beetles o;f all The reason for this is stated in the next verse.
kinds, shape and colours and by ma11y thousands of blue-bottles
and black bees. They are devoured by those that inflict grave (84)
wounds and, unable to remain still, writhe and wail. This is the
If even seeing drawings of statues,
sufferings of Neighbouring Hell.
Recalling, reading or hearing of the hells.
Engender fear, what need to speak of
(82)
Experiencing this dreadful maturation?
Some in a heap of blazing slag are
If seeing drawings of the hells, recalling one's former experi-
Inces,santly burned, their mouths gaping open.
ences, or hearing of them from others; if reading about such
Some are boiled, head-first in great
experiences in the scriptures or viewing figures of them fash-
Cauldrons, like rice-dumplings.
' ioned from clay, and so forth, cause one to become frightened,
__ The guards of Tapana bum the creatures there incessantly, then there is no need to speak of the fear which comes with
for a great length of time, in a heap of blazing iron slag: These actually experiencing these dreadful maturations.
beings are burned so badly that their mot1ths gape open; indeed, The suffering in all the hells is not the same; hence, the
they have no strength but to open their mouths. following verse is stated to show that the lower hells contain
102 Niignrju11a's Letter Aversio11 for Sa111snrn 103
suffering of progressively greater intensity-and that the greatest (87)
of all is in A vici.
Though so very unbearable suffering be
(85) Experienced for even a billion years, one \'Jill
Jus t as the extinction of craving is the Never be freed from that life as long as
Lord of all pleasures, so too is the The non-virtue is not exhausted.
Suffering of Avici hell the most One may experience the mos t terrible suffering, in ways just
Terrible of all sufferings. described, for as long as a billion years. Yet until the cause, non-
Of all pleasures, there is none higher than the bliss of libera- virtue, is exhausted one will never be freed from tl1at life because
tion-which is the total extinction of desire of the Three Realms. karma to be experienced in hells is of g reat force.
Thus this bliss is the lord, which is to say it is supreme . In the The following verse states that, since suffering in the hells as
same way, the Avici hell is the g reates t and most dreadful of all d~scribed originates from non-virtue, this cause should be aban-
the sufferings that result from non-virtue. doned.
How great is this hell's suffering? The foJJ owing verse is (88)
stated to demonstrate that there is nothing among humans to
compare with it. The seeds of these, the fruits of non-virtue, are
Wrongdoing of body, speech, and mind. You must
(86) Exert your every strength to prevent, by any
The suffering here, of being jabbed for a single Means, even their slightest occurrence.
Day, by 300 spears at full force does not The seeds of the h ell's sufferings-results of non-virtue are
Approach or equal even a minute p ortion wrongful deeds of body (such as taking lives}, speech (like stating
Of the least suffering of the hells. falsehoods), and mind (as when coveting). You, 0 King, should
The suffering here, in the human realm, of lying naked and prevent yourself, through every possible means, from perform-
being jabbed, with the greatest of force, by 300 sp ears all at once ing in even the slightest degree these three types of wrongdoing.
and for the period of one full day does not even roughly approxi- To that end, exert yourself with all the strength you have.
mate the lightest of the hells' sufferings, such as that of the Partial
Hells; nor does it equal even a minute portion, such as a hun- The Suffering of Animals
dredth or thousandth part, of it. The following ver:se is stated in a general sense.
How long must such s ufferings be experienced? The
Abhidhnr111nkosn sets forth the lifespans of beings in each of the (89)
hells as follows:
An animal birth-state has suffering of many kinds:
Jn the six (hells) of SaJ'!ljiva, etc., a Those of being killed, bound, beaten and such.
Full day is equal to the lives of the desire The most dreadful lot of eating each other awaits
Gods, respectively; thus their lives are Those who've abandoned peace-bringing virtue.
Similar to t11ose of the desire gods. '
In Mahatapana it is a half; Since animals, unlike humans, do not travel upright but
Jn Avici, an intermediate kalpa. rather in a bent-over fashion, they are called "those who travel
[Ch. 3, v. 82-3] bent over" (tiryak). Beings in that birth state are killed by humans
and other creatures, bound w ith ropes and such, beaten with
This general statement having been made, whips are the like, and generally experience endless harm from
both human and non-human beings.
104 Niigiirju11n's Letter Aversion for Sn111snrn 105
Animals have eschewed. the virtue that brings peace (ie., Now, in demonstration of the specific types of suffering, the
nirvarya), such as that which "coincides with absolute discern- fallowing verse addresses those of hunger and thirst.
ment" (nirvedha bhagiya);3 ~ meaning that they are unfit to give
rise to such virtues. And because in their environment animals ' (92)
inevitably prey on one another, this lot is said to be "most dread-
Some, with needle-eye mouths and stomachs the
ful".
Size of mountains, are tortured by hunger but
The next verse is stated with regard to specific types of
Unable to eat even the smallest
animal suffering.
Quantity of discarded filth.
(90)
· It being so difficult to fill a stomach the size of a mountain
Some die for the sake of pearls or wool, when one has a mouth as small as the eye of a needle, these pretas
Bones, flesh, or s kin. Other helpless are tormented by hunger. Even should they find the slightest
Ones are exploited with the blows of kicking, <1mount of filth which someone has discarded-like urine or
Fists, whips, hooks, and prods. excren1ent- they are powerless to eat it because their n1ouths are
Some animals are killed for pearls, some for wool, and some- so sma ll.
The following verse describes the unattractiveness of pretas'
such as elephants-for their bones. Some-wild deer, for ex-
bodies and the fact that their mouths blaze with fire.
ample-are killed for their flesh and son1e, such as leopards, for
skins. Other animals-the helpless property of gods and n1en (93)
•
such as the horse, buffalo, donkey, elephant, and ox-suffer the
1nisery of exploitation, being struck with kicks, fists, whips, hooks Some are naked, mere skin and hones like the dried
and prods. top
Of a palm tree. Others have n1ouths which
The Suffering of Hungry Ghosts (pretas) Blaze at night-for food they eat
Sand which falls into their mouths.
In general,
(91) The bodies of some prctns have no flesh, and are thus merely
s kin and bones. They have no clothing, so are naked; and their
Among the prctns there is constant suffering caused
appearance is like that of the top of a palm tree, dried up and
by
s tripped of its bark.
Lack of material things. They undergo most Some emit fire from their mouths ench night, though not
Terrible misery created by fear, anguish,
during the day; and hot sand, which falls into their mouths,
Hunger, thirst, cold, and heat.
serves as food.
In short, one who is born a preta must undergo incessant The next verse illustrates the particular sufferings of the
misery caused by a total Jack of material things. The term "inces- lowlier classes of prctns.
sant" means, specifically, that since there is no opportunity of (94)
obta ining material things, such suffering cannot be alleviated.
One may ask what particular n1anner of suffering this is. It is Several Jowly classes cannot find even such
the extremely terrib le misery created by hunger, thirst, cold in Filth as pus, excrement, blood or the like. They
winter and heat in summer. It is the anguish brought on by Attack one another, eating pus from festered
rushing about in search of food and drink, and the fear inspired Goitres growing in the throat.
at the sight of persons wielding svvords and the like.
106 Niigiirjuna's Letter Aversion for Sn111snrn 107
Some pretas are of an inferior class, which is to say that they (97)
have extremely poor fortune. They are unable to find even pus,
excrement, blood, or other such kinds of filth, much less some- The case for the pretas' single taste of
thing appetizing. Yet when they catch sight of one another, each Such diverse suffering is a being's delight in
becomes angered and attacks the other, striking him with a club. Parsimony. Buddha declared
They contract goitres of the throat which become festered, and Miserliness to be ignoble.
then for sustenance eat the pus which oozes from them. All the various typ'es of misery which pretas experience, the
The following verse is stated to illustrate several additional above-mentioned hunger, thirst and so on, are identical in that
types of suffering these pretas experience. they constitute suffering. Thus they are said to be of a "sin gle
taste" (eka rasa). Their cause is a delight in parsimony-habitual
(95) stinginess. Moreover, the Buddha has declared this miserliness to
In summer even the moon feels hot for be ignoble, meaning that it is a powerful non-virtue. The Sn111caya
Them, while in winter the sun feels cold. Giithn states:
Under their mere gaze trees turn empty of
Fruit, and rivers become dry. A miser will be born in the preta state or,
,
/ If born a human, then as a pauper.
In the summer season, even the moon causes a feeling of
burning heat for this lowly class of pretas, while in the winter, The Suffering of Deities.
even the sun makes them feel cold. Such is their misery of heat
and cold. Further, even trees filled with ripe and luscious fruit- (98)
their branches drooping beneath the weight-appear to be dry Greater than the pleasures of celestial
and empty of fruit at their mere gaze. Rivers, though filled with Beings is the suffering of their passing away.
waters having the eight excellent qualities, appear dry or filled Having considered that, the rig hteous do not
instead with burning slag and great quantities of worm-infested Crav;e for the transitory celestial realms.
filth.
How long do they experience this suffering? Although there is great pleasure consisting of delights of
the senses-in the celestial realms of the desire gods, the suffer-
(96) ing which occurs on the occasion of their passing away surpasses
this pleasure by far. As a scripture explains:
Undergoing incessant suffering and
Tightly bound by the karmic fetters of "Alas! The Garden of Varied Chariots3~
Misdeeds, some do not die for 5,000 or Alas! The Gently Flowing l{iver-
Even 10,000 years. Alas! Deities so beautiful of mind!"
I
This division subsumes two chapters, the first being that which is
common to all vehicles.
CHAPTERS
The first of this chapter's two sections illustrates that nirvai:ta has
virtues that make it an object which ought to be attained.
Recollection, the discernment of dharmas, effort, Wisdom is the essence limb (svabhava) because that is the
. essential nature of the path of seeing. Wisdom is like the elephant
JOY,
Extreme agility, samadhi, and equanimity: these (hastiratna) who destroys his foe, in that it overcomes the
Seven are the Limbs of Enlightenment, the collection conceptualizations which falsely apprehend the existence of a
Of virtues bringing about nirvat~a's attainment. real self and real entities:
"Recollection" (smrti) means not forgetting the objects of By 't his discernment all signs of
attention: the truths. "Wisdom" (prajna) is a thorough discern- Conceptualization are destroyed.
ment of dharmas. "Effort" (virya) is delight in virtue, while "joy" [Ch. 18, v. 18)
(priti) is a state of mental satisfaction towards the same. "Ex- Effort
treme agility" (prasrabdhi) 3 is a fitness of body and mind. Sixth is
samadhi. "Equanimity" (upek~a) is a natural and relaxed state in Effort is the perseverance limb (niryai:ia) because it enables
which mental "dimness"4 and "excitation"5 are absent. Further- one to carry on until the goal is reached. It is· like the supreme
116 Niigarju11a s Letter
1
(quiescence) and vipasyana (insight), in u.nion, which brings the 1. the four based on the past: that the self and the worlq are
achievement of nirviit)a. Of these, vipasyana is more crucial than eternal (sasvata), not eternal, both or neither;
samatha, for the following is stated in a stotra (hymn of praise): 2. the four based on the future: that the self and the world have
an end (antavan), have no end, both or neither;
For the person disinclined to your teaching, 3. the four based upon nirvar:ia: that the Tathagata 1P continues
Blinded by ignorance, suffering will to exist after His death, that He does not, that He both does
Arise again and existence be prolonged and does not or neither does nor does not; and
Though he reach the peak of existence (bhavagra). 4. the two based upon the body and the soul ("soul" and "self"
being, in this case, synonymous): that the body and soul are
And further,
the same or that they are different.
Though a follower of your teaching has yet to
Achieve the actual stage of dhyana, One may ask why these views are called "unexpounded".
He still turns back future existences- Questioned by certain non-Buddhist ascetics on these matters,
Even as the devils look on. the Tathagata realized their basic premise to be the belief in a
permanent self. Understanding both that it would be incorrect to
Thus, those desirous of liberation should first strive to attain apply the attributes of being eternal or non-eternal, etc., to a non-
the mental fitness of S<;lmatha and then exert themselves, with existent substance and that it would serve n~ go()d purpose to
discriminating wisdom, in the yoga of ~editation upon the two reject the existence of a self, He gave no answer. For that reason
aspects of no-self nature; the latter beginning with the practice of these views are called "the unexpounded".
"well-established recollection" (smrtyupasthana). Meditation dis- An alternative explanation is that this "self" is the person-
a5sociated from discriminative wisdom is merely a stilling of the ness ascribed to the aggregates and that "world" is the five
mind, serving not even to free one from worldly attachments-- grasping aggregates themselves. Since , these two originate depen-
much less to bring orie to liberation. dently, they lack a self-existent natt1re and therefore cannot ob-
tain the status of being either eternal, non-eternal, or the rest. As
The Eschewal of the Topics not Worthy of Consideration, the scriptures state:
and the Pursuance ofan Understanding of That which originates dependently
Dependent Origi11ation Is, in its very essence, peace.
The following ver5e is stated to divert one from contemplat- The objects of these views are therefore not something to be
ing topics unworthy of consideration-which are obstacles to. the expounded as being either eternal, non-eternal, impermanent,_or
right view and the path leading to nirvar:ia. · so on. The Buddha did not declare them as not self-existent, ie. as
originating dependently, because he did not consider the non-
(108) Buddhists worthy vessels for the "most profound of meanings".
It is for all these reasons that the views are said to be unexpounded.
One should not contemplate what the
As written in the Rat11iivali:
Kinsman of the Sun declared to
Be the 14 Unexpounded (Views); for the When asked if the world had an end,
Mind will not be pacified through them. - The Jina remained silent because
He would not present the profound teaching
The 14 Unexpounded Views (avyakrtad~ti), 17 as stated in the
To beings who were not worthy vessels.
Dirghiiga1na by the Kinsman of the Sun-the Buddha Bhagavan-
are as follows:
120 Niigiirjt11u1's Letter Pursuance of the Path 121
The wise realized the Omniscient One The Buddha makes a similar statement that:
To be all-knowing.
[Ch. 1, v . 73-4) When ignorance has ceased, the compositional pro-
cesses will cease...when birth has ceased, aging and
One should not contemplate views such as those just pre- death, grief, cries of anguish, mental suffering and all
sented because only those things which can be contemplated anxiety come to cease. Thus does this huge mass of
properly and with beneficial results warrant consideration. As suffering come to an end.
they presuppose something non-existent, one cannot contem-
This is what is presented in the verses here.
plate these questions. In considering them, one becomes seized
by the "snake" of evil views which causes the poison of the In regard to these limbs of Dependent Origination, from
mental afflictions to spread; hence, the mind will find no peace ignorance (avidya, the view that the heaps constitute or pertain to
through their contemplation. a "self") arise three possible types of karma (here called sarpskara):
The following threee verses are stated to indicate that what merit (pul)ya), non-merit (apui:tya), and invariable karma
ought to be contemplated is Dependent Origination (pratitya- (anmjya).2° From this karma arises consciousness (vijfiana), the
samutpada), and that doing so has the benefit of providitlg the receptacle of karmic tendencies and the agent which takes birth.
attainment of peace. From consciousness arises name and form (na1na, rupa),
whose nature is that of the five aggregates during the early stages
(109, 110, 111)
of fetal development. "Name" is the four heaps of sensation, etc.,
The Muni declared that from ignorance arises while "form" is the accompanying four physical elements and
Karma, from that consciousness, and from that their products.21 From the development of name and form arise
Name and form; from that the six the six inner faculties (ayatana) of the eye, ear, nose, etc.
Faculties and from them contact. From these six faculties arise contact (spar5a), which results
from the convergence of object, sense faculty, and consciousness.
From contact arises sensation; based on
From contact come about the sensations (vedana) of pleasure and
Sensation comes about craving. From craving
pain; and based on sensatio11 there comes about craving (~i:ia)
Originates grasping, from that existence, and
the wish to acquire pleasure and rid oneself of pain.
From existence comes birth.
From craving arises grasping (upadana), an intensification of
When there is birth there arises grief, craving which causes one to initiate acts aimed at acquiring
Sickness, aging and destitution, the fear of pleasure and ridding oneself of pain. From this, existence (bhava)
Death and so on-a huge mass of suffering. comes into being. It is the stage in which the karmic propensities
By stopping birth, all this will cease. that cause rebirth become activated. From existence originates a
The Muni, the Bhagavan, declared in the Pratityasa111utpiida future birth Gati).
With the occurrence of birth arise sickness (an imbalance of
Sutra:
one's physiological constitution), aging Gara, the loss of one's
Monks! When this is present, this will come about. youthful vitality), and death (marai:ia, the termination of one's
Because this has arisen, this will arise. It is thus: through vital force). There also arises grief-tormenting both body and
the influence of ignorance, the compositional pro- mind; a total lack of such material things as food, clothi11g, etc., as
cesses (sarpskara)19 come into being...through birth's well as cries of anguish and mental suffering. These constitute the
influence, there come into being aging and death, huge mass of suffering which neither constitutes nor pertains to a
grief, cries of anguish, mental suffering and all anxi- self.
ety. Thus does this huge mass of suffering come into Likewise, in reverse, this huge mass of suffering will all come
being. to an end beginning from the cessation of the compositional
122 Niigiirjuna's Letter Pursuance of the Path 123
processes by the cessation of ignorance up to the cessation of cesses, and consciousness of this life are linked with a subsequent
aging and death by the cessation of birth. Dependent Origination since they are the projecting force for
If one should wonder in what length of time these 12 limbs future lives. Finally, the seven current limbs ranging from name
reach completion, the full process involves three separate life- and form up to existence pertain to the Dependent Origination of
times; though they may be interspersed among a great many this life.
other ones. The three limbs of ignorance, the compositional pro- Accordingly, the 12 limbs of Dependent Origination present
cesses, and consciousness reach completion in the prior life, be- in one's current life enable one to understand the nature of one's
cause they are the projecting force for a birth. past and future lives. Specifically, the limbs ranging from name
The limbs from name and form up to sensation reach comple- and form up to sensation are results projected from former lives;
tion in the intermediate life, for their nature is that of being a while birth, along with aging and death, is a result to be achieved
maturation. Since the three limbs of craving, grasping, and exist- in the next life. From these, one can infer the existence of former
ence come about through the influence of these maturations, they lives.
also reach completion in the intermediate life. The three limbs of ignorance etc. are the projecting (a~epaka)
Birth, along with aging and death, reach completion in the causes of a future life while the three limbs of desire etc. are its
later life, because the final stage of this life occurs with the limb of producing (abhinirvartaka) causes. Thus one can infer the exist-
existence-and birth is brought about through its influence. Ag- ence of future Jives.
ing and death, in tum, come about through birth. The 12 limbs of Dependent Origination that occur in past and
The first two births of the foregoing description need not future lives should be considered as having the same type of
occur in immediate succession, as it is possible for the name and cause cmd effect relationships as the ones decribed with reference
form of the present life to have been projected by the ignorance of to the 12 limbs of this life.22 Thus one should come to understand
a hundred kalpas past. However, if it is a case where the matura- how it is that the 12 limbs of existence revolve continuously,
tion is of "karma to be experienced in the next birth" (upapadya without beginning or end, like a whirling firebrand. As the Acarya
vedaniya), these two lives do occur in immediate succession. himself has stated (in the Pratityasa111utpiidahrdaya kiirikii):
The latter two births always come about in succession be-
cause the birth, as well as the aging and death, of a person's next Two originate from three,
life always originates through the influence of the existence state Seven from two, and from seven as
of the present one. Well come three-this wheel of existence
Thus this life's birth, along with aging and death, is not of the Revolving over and over again.
same cycle of Dependent Origination as the name and form, etc., [v. 3]
of this life, since they do not originate through the influence of The foJlowing verse is stated to illustrate that-through con-
this life's desire and grasping. Well then, what is·the case? templating Dependent Origination with the attributes explained
They are of the same Dependent-Origination cycle as the above one will see the true nature of dharmas (i.e. tattva).
name and form, etc., of one's previous life; for this life's birth and
aging and death arise through the influence of that preceding
life's desire, grasping, and existence. (112)
Thus, for all common persons (prthagjana) the full 12 limbs of This Dependent Origination is the most
Dependent Origination are present in the current life; however, Cherished and profound treasure of the Jina's speech.
they represent a combination of limbs pertaining to three differ- Whoever is able to see this sees Buddha-
ent cycles of Dependent Origination. That is, one's current birth, Supreme knower of reality.
as well as aging and death, are linked with the Dependent Origi-
nation of a former life. The ignorance, compositional processes, Thus, this Dependent Origination is the most cherished of all
the Jina's speech, because it is the essential meaning of all the holy
124 Niigiirjuna's Letter Pursun11cc of the Path 125
words. It is profound in the sense that it is difficult for others to 7. Right Recollection (sa:qiyak-smrti) is not forgetting aspects of
comprehend, being free of the four extremes.23 tlte path which are objects of one's attention.
Whoever comes to a correct realization of Dependent Origi- 8. Right Samadhi (sa'f!\yak-samadhi) is remaining fixed, orte-
nation sees the Buddha-the supreme knower of reality; for the pointedly, upon these objects.25
Buddha consists of the Dharmakaya,2• whose nature is not differ- These eight factors, which occur during the path of medita-
ent from that of Dependent Origination. As the Sa/istn111ba Sutra tion (bhiivana marga),26 are called the "Eight Limb~ of Llie Path"
states: because they are components and elements of the Arya path.
Whoever knows Dependent Origination knows the Of these eight, Right View is the lim.b of "ascer~ainment", f~r
Dharma; it ascertains the true nature of things, tattva, as 1t was experi-
He who knows the Dharma knows the Tathagata. enced during a state of composure. Because it gives rise to ~pe~ch
which is based on one's own realization, l{ight Conceptuahzat1on
The following verse is stated to demonstrate that one who is the limb which "provides understanding" for others.
has a thorough understanding of Dependent Origination wilJ The three of Right Speech etc., are the limbs wh~ch "instil
give rise to the path focused upon the four Arya Truths.
respect in others". Of these, Right Speech-thro~gh ~ dialogue ~f
•
questions and answers-brings others .to the reah_z~tion,that or~e s
11te Eightfold Arya Path morality is absolutely pure. Through the _prach_tio~er s see~1ng
clothing and so forth in an open manner, Right L1vehhood brings
(113) others to respect that livelihood as being absolutely pure. . .
Right View, Livelihood, Effort, Recollection, Right Exertion is the limb which purifies the mental-affhction
Samadhi, obstructions, for it is through generating effort that one esche:-vs
Speech, Activity and Right Conceptualization are any remaining bonds (sa:qiyojana). Recollection is the limb _w~1ch
The Eight Limbs of the Path. Meditate purifies the obscurations of the ~econdary menta_l ~ffhct1ons
Upon them in order to attain Peace. (upakle§a)27 because, by not forgettmg the characteristics ~f ~or- . .
rect samatha, etc., one prevents ~e secondary mental afflichons .
For the sake of meter, the path's limbs are enumerated out of of mental "dimness" (laya) and "excitation" (auddhatya) from
order. The proper order is as follows: arising. Samadhi is the limb which purifies ob~rations to the
1. Right View (sa:qiyag-dr~ti) is wisdom which makes a thor- extraordinary virtues, because it brings the achievement of s u-
pernormal wisdom(abhijna) and so forth. ~
2
ough examination of the object realized in the path of seeing. _
2. Right Conceptualization (sa:qiyak-sa:qtkalpa) is co11ceptual- 1nese eight limbs are described in the scripture Madhya11ta-
ization which gives rise to speech indicating to others what v ibhiiga:
one has realized. That which ascertains, that which provides under-
3. Right Speech {satpyag-vac) is true and exact verbal expres-
standing,
sion generated by Right Conceptualization. Three '"'hich instil respect in others, and the
4. Right Activity (sa:qiyak-karmanta) is the physical and verbal (three) antidotes to the adversities:
expression of one who has eschewed wrongdoing. These are the Eight l..imbs of the Path.
5. Right LiveHhood (sa:qiyak-ajiva) is a manner of subsistence- [Ch. 4, v. 10]
through food, clothing, and so forth-which is in accord with
the Dharma. The eight should therefore be meditated upon-in order to
6. Right Exertion {satpyak-vyayama) is effort in meditation on attain peace, or nirv~a. . . .
the path. The next verse illustrates that the obiects of meditation for the
truth of the path are the Four Arya Truths.
126 Nnt{iirju11n's Letter
Pursuance of the Path 127
The Four Arya Truths
kingdom, see the truth? Because seeing the truth depends upon
an individual's own effort, .one should not become discouraged.
(114)
All that arises is suffering; craving Sonre Words of Encouragement
Is its vast origination.
Its cessation is liberation-the rath for (115b)
Attaining this is the Eightfold Arya Path.
Even those householders in· whose laps rest great
The arising of the five grasping aggregates is suffering worldly riches
(dul:tkha). As stated in a Sutra: " .. .in short, the five grasping Can, through knowledge, cross the river of the men-
aggregates are suffering." Craving, attachment to the hnpure tal afflictions.
aggregates, is the origination (samudaya) of this suffering. A
Su tra states: Even such laymen as King Bimbisara, in whose lap rested the
riches of a kingdom (as well as the riches of a son and so forth),
What is the Arya Truth of the Origination of Suffer- saw the truth and crossed over the river of the mental afflictions
ing? It is recurrent craving, consisting of an attach- by means of right knowledge. You, 0 King, must do the same.
ment one delights in, as well as an attitude which The following verse is stated to demonstrate that the Arya
takes pleasure: now here, and now there. path is achieved through an individual's own efforts.
This craving is called "vast" because it is the cause for all (116)
births into existence.
Further, those who gained realization of Dharma
The total cessation of this suffering and its origination is, th.e
did not
truth of cessation (nirodha satya), which itself is liberation. The
Fall from the sky nor sprout from the ground like
path to its attainment is the eight-limbed Arya Path just de-
crops.
scribed; for these limbs join one to the path bringing nirvana's
attainment. · They· were, before, just ordinary
Persons subject to the mental afflictions.
(115a)
However many Arya&-those who have perceived the Four
That being so, strive-al~ys- Truths directly-have appeared, not one of them has been so
In order to see the Four Arya Truths. from the beginning. They neither fell from the sky nor rose up out
of the ground like crops but were, formerly, ordinary persons
These Four Arya Truths are what is to be "realized", "es-
dominated by the mental afflictions. Later, through a spiritual
chewed", "manifested", and "relied upon". Since the described
teacher, they were able to pursue the path and become Aryas.
Four Truths are such, one should ever exert oneself in meditation
Thus, you too must exert yourself, without becoming discour-
so as to see-through these Four Arya Truths- reality.
aged, in pursuit of the path.
Because-in a rela.tive sense these four exist as Arya(" noble")
truths, they are so named; just as an accurate term, for example,
(117)
might be referred to as a "noble" (Arya) term. It can be otherwise
explained that they are "Arya" truths because their correctness What need to preach much to the fearless?
has been seen by the Aryas. Subdue your mind-this is the most useful
How can one as a layman, engaged in the governing of a And essential of instructions. The Bhagavan
Said mind is the root of Dharma.
128 Nagarjuna's Letter
The king, free of worry that others might oppose him, is CHAl'l'ER 6
adressed as " fearless". What need is there to preach at great
length? Indeed, it is unnecessary. The primary and.most essenti~l
instruction, of benefit in both a temporary and ultimate sense, is P URSUING WHAT lS THE MAHAYANA P ATH,
this: "subdue the mind", by turning it away from non-virtue and T OGETH ER WITH ITS RESULT
engaging it in virtue. In this way, all acts of body, speech, and
mind will become virtuous. There are, as well, two sections to· this chapter. The first is
The Bhagavan has declared that, "The world is produced by that of the path's activities. The listener's mind having been
mind-it is brought into being by the mind . All things follow satisfied through the presentation of Dharma in the foregoing
from the influence of a single thing; mind." h1 addition, "Good is chapters, the following verses are stated with the intention of
the subdual of the mind. Subduing the mind brings happiness." introducing him or her to the Mahayana Path.
The following verse is stated to indicate that not only d~s
one abide properly in the teaching of the Buddha through practis-
1. Activities of the Path
ing all that has been explained here; accomplishing even part of
the instruction is meaningful. (119, 120, 121)
Rejoice at all the virtue of all beings and
(118)
Dedicate your own threefold good
To accomplish all this teaching given you would be Deeds to the attainment of Buddhahood.
Difficult even for a monk. Bring Then, with this mass of virtue,
Meaning to your life by developing the good quali-
Become a master of yoga in all the worlds of
ties of
Gods and humans, for an immeasurable number of
Whichever instructions you practice. births, and
"O King," to practise, in its entirety, all that has been in- Protect many helpless beings with activities
structed in these words would be difficult indeed even for a Like those of Arya Avalokitesvara.
monk, who engages exclusively in virtuous activities. Needless to
In a final birth, dispel sickness, aging, d esire and
say, a layman-diverted by many responsibilities would find it
Hatred . Then, in a Buddha field, become-
so.
As did Lord Amitabha-the guardian of the
Nevertheless, whichever of these instructions you make the
World, with a lifespan of infinite length.
essence of your practice, b ring meaning to your .life, habituating
yourself to the eschewal of non-virtue and the cultivation of Rejoice, saying the following words:
virtue. In doing so, you abide in the teaching of the Buddha and
Just as the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas rejoice at all
gradually come to acquire all other virtues as well.
virtue-both the impure of ordinary beings and the
pure of Aryas-so too do I rejoice." Dedicate as well
all your three types of good deeds- those of body,
speech, and mind-to the attainment of Buddhahood,
saying: "By this virtue may I become a guardian for
those beings who have no guardian-a saviour for
those who have no saviour.
The verse next advises that one should, with the mass of
•
Pursua11cc of tltc Pntlt 131
I
130 Migarjuna's Letter
virtue acquired from rejoicing and dedication, "generate a life- Throughout the celestial regions, space, and upon
time of infinite length through remaining the guardian of the the face of the earth.
world until sa~ra is emptied." Finally, attain the transcendent state: of name only,
What must one do before this comes about? It comes about Peace, fearlessness, unsullied, and perfect.
after one has brought the qualities of a Buddha to completion and Having achieved the stage of victory, attain the state of
sentient beings to maturity. The first of these two activities is nirvana. , which is transcendent in that the impure heaps are
done in the following manner. During the period in which one is terminated in their entirety. This nirvar:ia is "of name only" be-
pursuing the path, one takes birth in the worlds of deities and cause it is not real, "peace" because there is no harm, and "fear-
humans for an immeasurable number of liyes and proceeds to lessness" because there is no fear. It is "unsullied" because it is
master the yogas of dharai:ii/ samadhi, etc., which have incon- without impurity, and "perfect" because it is without change.
ceivably great qualities. . . . . What sort of victorious stage must be achieved before this is
Concerning the second practice of br1ng1ng sentient beings to attained? This nirvana is attained after one has achieved the
maturity, one should prEtect many helpless beings with activities victorious stage whi~h disheartens the heedless who delight i11
comparable to those of Arya Avalokite§vara, who h~s saved such the joys of sensory pleasures, be they humans living upon the
beings from the threat of lions, elephants, and the like. Through earth or exalted youths comprising the six classes of desire gods,
this the accumulations of virtue and wisdom are completed. and pacifies them by establishing them in the p:_eliminaries of the
Ne~t, having taken birth in one's final existence, one should rid Arya path-morality and so forth-and in the Arya path itself. It
oneself of illness and aging (subsumed within the truth of su_ffe.r- is as weJI the stage which extinguishes the fear (derived primarily
ing), as well as of desire, hatred, and so forth (subsumed w1th1n from the perishable view),5 birth (derived primarily from igno-
the truth of origination). rance, karma, and desire), and death (produced by the exhaus-
Where is this done? It is done in a Buddha field, which has tion of karma and one's lifespan, and by one's not having eschewed
been purified through one's own rudiments of virtue. How is .it anger) of the multitude of sentient beings tortured by the mental
done? One is to acquire a field, retinue,2 lifespan, and so forth 1n afflictions and tormented by suffering.
the same way as the Bhagavan Amitabha,3 who attained Buddha- One may ask what must be done before (entering nirvai:ta).
hood in the Buddha field of Sukhavati.4 (One should enter nirvai:ta) after hav~ng spread the fame of per-
The following two verses are stated to illustrate that, after fect wisdom-which discerns, absolutely, reality's true condi-
attaining Buddhahood and acting appropriately on behalf of tion; of perfect morality-which has the qualities of being
sentient beings, one should attain nirvai:ta. uncorrupted and such; and of perfect liberality-which is free
from attachment towards anything-throughout the worlds of
2. Result of the Path the celestial realms, of the intervening sky, and of humans upon I
I
the earth.
(122,123)
Having achieved the stage of victory-which paci-
......
fies human .
Earthlings and divine celestial youths delighting in
Sense pleasures and extinguishes fear, birth and This lotus of good sayings, from the water treasure of scrip-
tures kept by the nagas, is a source for the honey of virtue.
death for . .
•
Multitudes of helpless afflicted beings- It should be opened with the sunrays of intellect and
Spread the fame of immaCulate wisdom, morality, enjoyed by a swarm of fortunate, bee-like persons.
and generosity
132 Niignrjunn's Letter
Chapter 1. General Advice for Both Householders and Those De- · 39. Tib, rGyal-ba'i dbang-po: a synonym for "Buddha".
parted from the Home Life: 40. Tib, sbyin-pa.
41. Tib, tsul-khri11is.
1. Tib, De-lnhin gshegs-pa. 42. Tib, bzod-pa.
2. Tib, dGra-bc0111-pa. 43. Tib, brtzon-'grus.
3. Tib, Yang-dag-par rdzogs-pa'i sangs-rgyas; Skt, Sa11iyak Sa111buddh~. ,, 44. Tib, bsat11-gta11.
4. Tib, de-bzhin nyid; Skt, tathiitii: meaning "the true nature of reality · 45. Tib, shes-rab.
5. Tib, bstan-pa'i chos: refers to the word of the Buddha and commentar- 46. Tib, bya11g-dzub-kyi setns: the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for
ies to it. the benefit of all sentient beings.
6. Tib, rtogs-pa'i chos: refers to the Three Trainings, the Five Paths, and 47. Tib, 'khor-gsu111 111i-rtog-pa: in the case of liberality, they are the
the Truth of Cessation. recipient, the object given, and the act of giving.
7. Tib, ye-shes. 48. Tib, bsod-11a111s-kyi tsogs.
8. See verse 7. 49. Tib, gzha11-do11 phun-tsogs; refers to the Buddha's activity of extricat-
9. Tib, respectively, rgyal-chen ris bzhi su111-cu-rtza-gsut11 gzha11-'phrul ing beings from samsara.
dbang-byed. . " . deed" " ood k rma" 50. Tib, ye-shes-kyi tsogs.
10. Tib. bsod-na111s: synonymous w1th virtuous or g a · 51. Tib, chos-kyi sku.
11. Tib dge-ba' i las-la111. 52. Tib, rang-don phun-tsogs: refers to the condition of having eliminated
12. Tib: bde-'gro: synonymous with 11111go11-111tho (see "Prefacing Verses", all faults and having realized everything to be known.
no~e 5). . . .
13. Tib, las-la111 yongs-su rdwgs-pa: an act m which all the bmbs men- Chapter 2. Instruction Directed Primarily to Householders:
tioned occur in an unerring manner.
14. Tib, bsa111-pa. 1. Tib, bs11ye11-g11as.
15. Tib, sbyor-ba. 2. Tib, gso-sbyong.
16. Tib, dngos-gzhi. 3. Tib, 'dod-pa'i kha11zs.
17. Tib, gzhi. 4. Tib, so-sor thar-pa'i sdo111-pa.
18. Tib, 'du-shes. 5. Tib, dge-tsut.
19. Tib, srog gcod-pa. 6. Tib, ser-sna.
20. Tib, 11ia-byin-par len-pa. 7. Tib, g,yo.
21. Tib, log-par g,ye111-pa. 8. Tib, sgyu.
22. Tib, (b) rdzun-du s111ra-ba. 9. Tib, chags-pa.
23. Tib, phra-11ia. 10. Tib, s11yo111-las.
24. Tib, ngag-rtzub. 11. Tib, 111ngo11-pa'i 11ga-rgya.
25. Tib, tshig-'khyal. 12. Tib, 'dod-chags.
26. Tib, bn1ab-se111S. 13. Tib, zhe-sdang.
27. Tib, g11od-set11s. 14. Tib, rgyags-pa.
28. Tib, log-par lta-ba. 15. Tib, bag-yod.
29. Tib, bcas-pa'i kha-11a-11ia-tho-ba. 16. Tib, bag-11ied.
30. Tib, bag-t11ed. 17. Tib, dge-ba'i bshes-g11ye11: see verse 62 and the commentary to it.
31. Tib, yo11-ta11-gyi zhing. 18. The verse actually reads "111Thong-Ida11," for which the Sanskrit
32. Tib, sdug-bs11gal-gyi zhi11g. equivalent is uncertain. Probably chosen for metrical reasons, this
33. Tib, phan-'dogs-pa'i zhi11g. . less-familiar name is identified by all commentaries as an epithet of
34. Tib, 11ga11-'gro: birth as a hell being, hungry ghost, or animal. the well-known Ajatasatra (Tib, Ma-skyes dgra).
35. Tib, zhi-ba: a.n epithet of nirvana. 19. Tib, dge-bsnye11.
36. Tib, 11ii-sdug-pa. 20. Tib, 111tsa111s-111ed Inga: the five immediate sins-<:onsisting of (1)
37. Tib, r11a111-par grol-ba: another epithet of nirval)a. matricide, (2) killing an arhat, (3) patricide, (4) causing a schism in the
38. Tib, pha-rol-tu phyin-pa drug.
136 Nagarjuna's Letter Notes 137
sai:igha-wheel and (5) drawing blood, in malice, from a Tathagata. 3. Tib, dran-pa.
21. Tib, rgyu11-zhugs. 4. Tib, shes-bzhin.
22. Tib, 'khon-'dzin. S. Tib, bsa111-gta11: see verse 41 .
23. Tib, rGyal-ba'i dbang-po. 6. Tib, tsad-111ed bzhi.
24. Tib, dngos-po. 7. Tib, bt;a111s-pa.
25. Tib, gzugs. 8. Tib, s11yi11g-rje.
26. Tib, de kho-11a nyid. 9. Tib, dga'-ba.
27. Tib, rte11-ci11g 'brel-bar 'byung-ba; Skt, pratitya sa111utpiida: Dependent 10. Tib, bta11g-s11yo111s. . .
Origination-cf verses 109-112. 11 . Tib, respectively, sei11s-ca11-la d111igs-pa, chos-la d1111gs-11a, and d1111gs-11a
28. Tib, bdag. 111ed-pa. _ . .
29. Tib, gtzo-bo: unevolved natur-e. 12. Tib, phung-po: the five being form (Skt, rupa; T1b, g~~gs}, feeling
30. Tib, byis-pa. (vedanii, tsor-ba}, conception (sa111j1iii, 'du -shes}, compositional factors
31. Tib, respectively, gang-zag-gi bdag-111ed and chos-kyi bdag-111ed. (sa1!1skiira, 'du-byed), and consciousness (vij1iii11a, nm111-sltes).
32. Tib; stong-pa nyid. 13. Tib, ga11g-zag-gi bdag-111ed.
33. Tib, dbag-11zed: the absence of self-nature. 14. Tib, clzos-kyi bdag-11zed.
34. ie., the Buddha. 15. Tib, so-so skye-bo.
3S. Tib, shes-rab-kyi pha-rol-tu phyin-pa. 16. By the Madhyamika Svatantrika (dBu-111a ra11g-rgyud-pa) school.
36. Tib, skyes-bu da111-pa. 17. Tib, Nya11 -thos and Ra11g sa11gs-rgyas.
37. Tib, 'phags-pa. 18. Tib, Madhyamika Prasaitgika (dBu-111a thal-'gyur-ba} school.
38. Tib, 'jig-rten chos brgyad. 19. Tib, dga'-ba.
39. Tib, n1a111-par s111i11-pa'i 'bras-bu. 20. Tib, bde-ba.
40. Tib, las. 21. Tib, rtog-pa.
41 . Tib, 111tlto11g-ba'i chos-la 111yo11g-bar 'gyur-ba. 22. Tib, dpyod-pa.
42. Tib, skyes-11QS 111yo11g-bar 'gyu r-ba. 23. Tib, 1m11g rab-tu da11g-ba_. .
43. Tib, la11-gra11gs gzha11-la 111yo11g-bar 'gyur-ba. 24. Tib, bla11g-s11yo111s: a mental state differing from the sensation of the
44. Tib, skyes-rabs. same name and defined as a balanced state free from mental "dim-
4S. See note 20, this chapter. ness" (fib, byi11g-ba) and "excitement" (fib, rgod-pa).
46. Tib, gShin-rje: the Lord of Death. 2S. Tib, rgyu s11yo11ts-'jug. ·
47. Tib, dad-pa. 26. Tib, respectively, Tsa11gs-ris, Tsa11gs-pa' i 111d1111-11a 'do11, and Tsa11gs-pa
48. ie., the Fou r Arya Tru ths: see verse 114. che11-po.
49. Tib, dK011-111chog. 27. Tib, respectively, dGe-ch1111g, Tsad-111ed dge, and dGe-rgt;as.
SO. Tib, tsul-khri11ts. 28. Tib, respectively, sbyor-ba, bsa111-11a, g11ye11-po, and gzhi.
Sl . Tib, gto11g-ba. 29. Tib, pha11-' dogs-pa'i gzhi.
S2. Tib, thos-pa. 30. Tib, yo11-la11 gtzo-lda11-gyi gzhi.
53. Tib, ngo-tsa shes-pa. 31. Tib, 'gog-pa'i s11yo111s-'j11g.
54. Tib, khrel yod-pa. 32. Tib, rgod-pa.
SS. Tib, shes-rab. 33. Tib, 'gt;od-pa.
S6. Tib, d1og shes-pa. 34. Tib, g11od-se111s.
3S. Tib, r111ugs-pa.
C hap ter 3. Ins truction, to both Householders and those Dep arted 36. Tib, 'dod-pa-la 'd1111-pa. ''
from the Home Life, concerning the Pursuance of Higher 37. Tib, tlte-tso111.
States and Sup reme Be atitude: 38. Tib, sgrib-pa.
39. "fib, bslab-pa gsu111: see verses S2, 53.
1. Tib, ti11g-11ge-'dzi11.
40. Tib, zlzi-g11as: the "tranquil state".
2. Tib, 111i-11yal-bar brtzon-pa.
41 . Tib, /hag-pa' i ts11l-khrir11s.
I
138 Niigiirj1111n's Letter Notes 139
42. Tib, llrag-pa'i se111S.
43. Tib, ll111g-pa'i shes-rab. 84. Tib, 11ye-bar len-pa'i phu11g-po Inga: the five psycho-physical constitu-
44. Tib, Jl1ag-111tl1011g: "i11sigltt 111editatio11", see verse 107. ents of being; see note 12, this chapter.
4S. Tib, brtzo11-'gr11s. 8S. Tib, 'khor-lo cher1-po bzhi.
46. Tib, cl1os-111d1og. 86. Tib, tsa11gs-par spyod-pa.
47. Tib, s/Jyor-la111. 87. Tib, dge-ba'i bshes-gnyen.
48. Tib, slobs. 88. Tib, dge-ba'i grogs-po.
49. Tib, dlx111g-po. 89. See verses S2, S3.
SO. Tib, rtze-1110. 90. Tib, sde-snod gsu1n.
Sl. Tib, ya11g-dag-pa'i lta-ba. 91. Tib, yi-dvags: see verses 91-97.
S2. Tib, dba11g-po. 92. Tib, 'du-sht!S 111ed-pa.
S3. Tib, ku11-rdzob: literally, " that which veils, or obscures".
S4. Tib, do11 da111-pa: literally, "that of the highest meaning". Chapter 4. Presentation in Brief and Full:
SS. Tib, log-pa' i lta-ba.
S6. Tib, dra11-pa 11ye-lx1r bzlzag-pa. 1. Tib, thar-pa don-du g11yer-ba'i blo.
S7. Tib, pltyi11-ci-log bzlzi. 2. Tib, nges-pa 111ed-pa.
S8. Tib, rdzas-s11 yod-pa. 3. Tib, ngo111S 111i-shes-pa.
59. ·rib, bdag-t11 ltn-l1n. 4. Tib, bt;is-pa.
S. Tib, thar-pa'i cha-111thu11.
60. Tib, tsor-ba: see note 12, this chapter.
6. Tib, 11yi11g-111tsa11is sbyor-ba: "conception", referring to the moment
61. Tib, jig-tsogs-la lta-/1(1.
that the consciousness-continuum enters the womb. ·
62. Tib, rgy11.
63. Tib, rlo;mr. 7. Tib, 111tho-d111an-du 'gyur-ba.
64. Tib, Gra11gs-ca11. 8. Tib, 'khor-los sgyur-ba'i rgyal-po.
9. Tib, ri11-che11 sna-bdun: see commentary to verse 106.
65. Tib, ra11g-bzl1i11.
66. Tib, respectively, rdu/: explained as having a nature of motility and 10. Tib, bsDus-'j0111S.
11 . Tib, rin-po-che s1ia bzhi: crystal, sapphire, ruby, and gold.
initiative; 1111111-pa: as having a nature of heaviness and obscuration;
12. Tib, chu yan-lag brgyad-da11g ldan-pa: water having the qualities of
and s11yi11g-stobs: as having a nature of lightness and clarity.
being cool, delicious, light, smooth, clear, free of any foul odour, and
67. Tib, 11go-bo 11yid.
68. Tib, Rigs-pa ca11. harmful to neither throat nor stomach.
69. Tib, d8a11g-phy11g. 13. Tib, 'Thab-bral.
14. Tib, 111Nar-111ed: the "Hell of Unremitting Torture" see verse 77.
70. Tib, 'dod-pa.
71. Tib, fstfl-khri111s-da11g brtul-bzhugs 111chog-'dzi11. 15. Tib, Nyi-tse-uxti d111yal-ba.
72. Cf. verse 49. 16. Tib, Ya11g-sos.
73. Tib, 11ye-bar le11-pa: see verse S8. 17. Tib, Thig-1iag.
74. Tib, ki111-t11 sbyor-ba: a force which binds one to samsara. 18. Tib, bsDus-'jo111s.
7S. See verses 10, 11 . · 19. Tib, Ngu-'bod.
76. See note 41, this chapter. 20. Tib, Ngu-'bod che11-po: ie. the "Great Raurava Hell".
77. Tib, spo11g-ba bd1111: three pertaining to the body and four to speech. 21. Tib, Tsa-ba.
78. See note 42, this chapter. 22. "fib, Rab-tu tsa ba.
79. See note 43, this chapter. 23. See note 14, this chapter.
80. Tib, respectively, 71ha111-pa bzhi, lhag-111a bcu-gsu111, spa11g-ltu11g su111-cu, 24. Tib, Nye-'khor-ba.
'ba' -zhig-pa dgu-cu, sor-bshags bzhi and 11yes-bt;as brgya-rtza-bcu-g11yis. 25. Tib, Me-111ur.
81. Tib, lus-su gtogs-pa'i dra11-pa. 26. Tib, Ro-111yags 'da111.
82. Tib, Lhu11-po. 27. Tib, sPu-gri gta111s-pa' i la111.
83. Tib, 111Tso 111a-dros-11a. 28. Tib, Nags-tsal ral-gri lo-111a ca11.
29. Tib, lCags-kyi shi11g shal-111a-li'i tsa/.
30. Tib, Chu-bo rabs-111ed.
31. Tib, Chu-bur ca11 .
140 Nagarjuna's Letter Notes 141
32. Tib, 01u-bur rdol. compositional processes, desire, grasping, and existence) and seven
33. Tib, respectively, So tha111-tha111-pa, Kyi-hud, and Ah-ch11. resultant limbs (those ranging from consiousness to sensation, birth,
34 .Tib, Gro-bzhi1i skyes. and aging and death).
35. Tib, 11ges-'llyed cha-111thu11. 23. See commentary to verse 27.
36. Tib, Shi11g-rta sna-tsogs-kyi tsal. 24. Cf. the " Dharma Body", verse 8.
37. Tib, llta 111a-yi11: "demigods", super-human beings lacking the 25. Tib, respectively, (1) ya11g-dag-pa'i lta-ba, (2) ya11g-dag-pa'i rtog-pa, (3)
splendour of, and in constant conflict with, true deities. y1111g-dag-pa'i 11gag, (4) ya11g-dag-pa'i /as-kyi 111/ha', (5) ya11g-dag-11a'i
38. Tib, 'phe11-bt;ed-kyi las: "projecting" karma. 'tso-ba, (6) ya11g-dag-pa'i rtzol-ba, (7)ya11g-dag-pa'i dra11-pa, and (8)
39. Tib, rdzogs-bt;ed-kyi las: "consummating" karma. ya11g-dag-pa'i ti11g-11ge-'dzi11.
40. Tib, 11ye-du'i g11od-pa. 26. Tib, sgo111-la111.
27. Tib, 11ye-ba'i 11yo11-111011gs.
Chapter 5. That Which is Common to all Vehicles: 28. These first three are grouped together as the "antidotes".
1. Tib, (zag-bcas-kyi pltu11g-po) lltag-111a 111ed-pa. Chapter 6. Pursuing what is the Mahiyina Path, together with its
2. Tib, (zag-bcas-kyi phu11g-po) lhag-bcas. Result:
3. Tib, shi11-sbya11gs.
4. Tib, byi11g-ba. 1. Tib, gzu11gs. _
5. Tib, rgod-pa. 2. Comprised exclusively of Bodhisattva Aryas.
6. Tib, bya11g-chub ya11-lag. 3. Tib, 'Od dpag-tu 111ed-pa.
7. Tib, 'khor-lo ri11-po-che. 4. Tib, bDe-ba ca11.
8. Tib, rta-111chog ri11-po-che. 5. See ve,se 49.
9. Tib, 11111go11-par shes-pa. 6. Tib, Don gsal-ba.
10. Tib, 11or-bu rin-po-che.
11. Tib, btzu11-1110-ri11-po-d1e.
12. Tib, khyi111-bdag ri11-po-d1e.
13. Tib, b/011-po ri11-po-che.
14. Tib, zhi-g11as: literally, "tranquil or quiescent state".
15. Tib, lhag-111tho11g: literally, "insight".
16. Cf. verse 41. .
1
17. Tib, lt111g 111a-bsta11-pa i lta-ba bcu-bzhi.
18. See Chapter l, note 1.
19. The 12 limbs of Dependent Origination are (1) ignorance (Tib, 111a-rig-
pa); (2) the con1positional processes ('du-byed}-referring, in this
context, to karma; (3) consciousness (n1a111-par shes-pa);14) name and
form (11ii11g-da11g gzugs); (5) the six faculties (skt;e-111clied dr11g); (6)
contact (reg-pa); (7) sensation (tsor-ba); (8) craving (sred-pa); (9) grasp-
ing (le11-pa); (10) existence (srid-pa); (11) birth (skye-ba); and (12) aging
and death (rga-sh1).
20. Tib, bsod-11t1111s, bsod-11a111s 111a-yi11-pa, and 111i-g,yo-ba' i Ins: karma
projecting birth-respectively-into the pleasurable states of the
desire realm, into the evil s ta tes, and into a state of the two higher
realms.
21. Tib, 'bt;u11g-ba bzhi an d 'bt;u11g-ba-las gyur-ba: the "four elements" of
earth, water, fire, and air and their "products", the five sense objects.
22. The twelve limbs can be divided into five causal limbs (ignorance, the
AN OUTLINE OF THE TEXT
Prefacing Verses
I. A Recommendation to Heed (verses 1-3)
II. The Actual Instruction (v. 4-123)
A. General Advice concerning Virtuous Practices (v. 4-64)