Introducing the CEFR

for English
Version 1.1
August 2011
EnglishProfile
IntroducingtheCEFRforEnglish

This booklet is aimed at ELT professionals, including curriculum planners, materials writers and teachers. It will
help you make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning, teaching or assessing at
eachleveloftheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference(CEFR;CouncilofEurope2001).

Section 1 explains what English Profile is whilst sections 2, 3 and 4 describe how Grammar, Functions and
Vocabulary are being researched in English Profile, together with a summary of the latest findings in all three
research strands. Section 5 suggests how you can use these resources and section 6 describes where the
information in English Profile comes from and how reliable it is. Section 7 explains where you can access more
information and resources and how you can get involved with the ongoing development of English Profile,
followed by the key references for English Profile research to date and a list of current English Profile Network
members.

Contents
                      Page
Section1 WhatisEnglishProfile?             2
          
Section2 TheEnglishGrammarProfile            9
        
Section3 TheEnglishFunctionsProfile            36
      
Section4 TheEnglishVocabulary Profile            53
 
Section5 HowtousetheEnglishProfile            57

Section6 WhatisEnglishProfilebasedon?           58

Section7 HowtogetinvolvedwithEnglishProfile         59

Section8 References                 60

Section9 TheEnglishProfileNetwork            63











Acknowledgements:ThispublicationhasbeencompiledfromexistingresourcesbyEnglishProfileteammembers
at Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, aided by contributions from academic consultants at other
institutions.TheproductionofthisbookletwassupportedbyagrantfromTheBritishCouncil.

© UCLES/CUP 2011 1
1WhatisEnglishProfile?

TheaimsofEnglishProfileare:
x To set up and manage a collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research to produce Reference Level
DescriptionsforEnglishlinkedtothegeneralprinciplesandapproachesofCEFR.
x ToprovideacoresetofreferencetoolsforpractitionersworkinginEnglishlanguageeducation.

EnglishProfileisalongͲterm,collaborativeprogrammeofinterdisciplinaryresearchwhosegoalistotransposethe
Common European Framework of Reference for the English language (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) and for
teachingandassessmentpurposeswhereEnglishisthelanguagebeinglearned.Theintendedoutputisa‘profile’
of English language learners in terms of the six proficiency bands of the CEFRͲ A1 to C2 (see Saville & Hawkey
2010). The English Profile Programme will do this by providing Reference Level Descriptions for English to
accompanytheCEFR.ThesedescriptionscoverwhatlearnersknowandcandoinEnglishateachofthesixCEFR
levels.EnglishProfileisregisteredwiththeCouncilofEuropeandismanagedbyacoregroupofcollaboratorsat
theUniversityofCambridge.

TheresearchbeingcarriedoutattheheartoftheEnglishProfileProgrammeisinnovative,providingmeasurable,
evidenceͲbasedanswerstoimportantquestionsabouthowpeopleacquireEnglishandhowtheycanimprovetheir
skills. As well as adding to our understanding of language learning, the English Profile Programme is producing
practical outcomes that can be used in the development of curricula, course materials, teaching guides and
assessment systems. This publication traces progress and outcomes in three main current areas of research for
English Profile: the grammatical, functional and lexical features of learner English. But English Profile will also
describelearnerEnglishateachCEFRlevelinotherlinguisticareas,includingaspectsofspokenlanguagesuchas
pronunciation.

AninnovativefeatureofEnglishProfile,distinguishingitfrompreviousworkinthisfield,isthatresearchisbased
on electronic corpora of learner data, including the largest annotated corpus of English language learner test
outputintheworld:theCambridgeLearnerCorpus.Thisapproachisproducingresultswhichcanbeempirically
measured and which are not predictable from current language learning theories alone. Researchers are also
startingtofocusontheimpactofdifferentfirstlanguages,learningcontextsandtheeffectsoflanguagetransfer
onlearningatthedifferentCEFRlevels(A1toC2).

A steadily growing number of academics, government advisors and educationalists make up the English Profile
Network.NetworkPartnerscontributedirectlytothedevelopmentofEnglishProfilebyprovidingaccesstodataor
contributingtoworkinprogressthroughparticipationinworkshopsandseminars.

Insummary,EnglishProfileprovidesessentialinformationforcurriculumplanners,teachers,materialswriters,test
developers and researchers. The English Profile Programme aims to provide these ELT professionals with
resources,informationandevents,including:

x EnglishVocabularyProfile(EVP)–arichonlinevocabularydatabasebyCEFRlevel
x EnglishGrammarProfile–adatabaseofgrammaticalstructuresbyCEFRlevel(underdevelopment)
x EnglishFunctionsProfile–adatabase ofrealEnglishexamplesforvariousfunctionsindifferent contextsby
CEFRlevel(underdevelopment)
x EnglishProfileGlossary–anonlineglossaryincludingconcisedefinitionsofkeyEPterminology
x EnglishProfileJournal–ononlinepeerͲreviewedjournalforEPͲrelatedresearch
x TheEnglishProfileStudiesseries–launchedin2011thisseriesisdedicatedtoreportingdifferentaspectsof
researchanddevelopmentrelatedtotheEPProgramme
x WordoftheWeekemailupdatesbasedontheEVP
x EnglishProfileNetworkcommunitywebsite,www.englishprofile.org
2 © UCLES/CUP 2011
x Presentations at international education, applied linguistics and  language testing conferences, e.g. IATEFL,
AILA,LTRC
x RegularEPResearchSeminars(annuallyinCambridge),EPNetworkSeminars(twiceayearoutsidetheUK)and
otherworkshops.

ForthelatestinformationaboutEnglishProfileandnewsoffutureevents,workshopsandpublications,see
www.englishprofile.org

WhohasdevelopedEnglishProfile?

Thefoundingpartnersare:










ResearchisledbyCambridgeESOLandCambridgeUniversityPress,withcontributionsfromtheResearchCentre
forEnglishandAppliedLinguisticsandtheCambridgeComputerLaboratory.1 
        
Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL are the main funding partners in English Profile. In addition,
English Profile has a growing number of Network Partners, including universities, schools, language training
centresandgovernmentdepartments,aswellasindividualresearchersandspecialists(seeSection9).

ThedevelopmentoftheCEFR

TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguagesisacommonframeworkoflanguageabilitydivided
intosixmainlevelsrangingfrombeginnertoadvanced.Itappearedinitspublishedformin2001,tenyearsafter
theRüschlikonConferenceof1991whichconcludedthata"commonframeworkofreference"ofthiskindwould
beusefulasaplanningtooltopromote"transparencyandcoherence"inlanguageeducation.Inthedecadesince
itspublicationthisambitionhasbeenachievedtoalargeextentandthedocumentitselfhasbeentranslatedinto
37 languages, widely disseminated in Europe and in parts of Asia and Latin America (see Little 2007 for an
overview). It is important to remember, however, that the CEFR in that format was intended to be "a work in
progress"ratherthanthefinishedarticle.

The CEFR was therefore envisaged as a planning tool which could provide a “common language” for describing
objectives, methods and assessment in language teaching, as put into practice in diverse contexts for many
different languages. It was to facilitate the development of syllabuses, examinations, textbooks and teacher
training programmes, and in particular, to stimulate reflection and discussion. As the CEFR authors themselves
emphasiseintheirNotesfortheuser:

WehaveNOTsetouttotellpractitionerswhattodoorhowtodoit.Weareraisingquestionsnotanswering
them.ItisnotthefunctionoftheCEFtolaydowntheobjectivesthatusersshouldpursueorthemethodsthey
shouldemploy.(CouncilofEurope2001:xi)
1
PartoftheDepartmentofTheoreticalandAppliedLinguisticsfromAugust2011.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 3
 
The six reference levels have been particularly influential and have generated a great deal of discussion in the
fieldsofcurriculumdevelopment,languageteaching,andespeciallyinassessment(seeCoste2007).Thelevelsare
describedthroughthesixͲlevelGlobalScale(A1toC2)andtheIllustrativeDescriptorsthatcanbeappliedtothe
learningandteachingofanylanguage.Table1presentstheGlobalScaledescriptorsforthesixmainCEFRlevels,
showinghowtheCEFRisageneraldocumentthatneedstobefurtherspecifiedandcontextualisedforeacharea
ofuse.

Table1:GlobalScaledescriptorsforCEFRlevels(CouncilofEurope2001:24)

C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments
and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously,
very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more
complexsituations.
ProficientUser

C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit
meaning.Canexpresshim/herselffluentlyandspontaneouslywithoutmuchobvious
searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social,
academicandprofessionalpurposes.Canproduceclear,wellͲstructured,detailedtext
on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors
andcohesivedevices.
B2 Canunderstandthemainideasofcomplextextonbothconcreteandabstracttopics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a
degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native
speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed
textonawiderangeofsubjectsandexplainaviewpointonatopicalissuegivingthe
advantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousoptions.
IndependentUser

B1 Canunderstandthemainpointsofclearstandardinputonfamiliarmattersregularly
encounteredinwork,school,leisure,etc.Candealwithmostsituationslikelytoarise
whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken.  Can produce simple
connected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describe
experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and
explanationsforopinionsandplans.
A2 Canunderstandsentencesandfrequentlyusedexpressionsrelatedtoareasofmost
immediaterelevance(e.g.verybasicpersonalandfamilyinformation,shopping,local
geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters.  Can
describeinsimpletermsaspectsofhis/herbackground,immediateenvironmentand
mattersinareasofimmediateneed.
A1 Canunderstandandusefamiliareverydayexpressionsandverybasicphrasesaimed
BasicUser

atthesatisfactionofneedsofaconcretetype.Canintroducehim/herselfandothers
andcanaskandanswerquestionsaboutpersonaldetailssuchaswherehe/shelives,
people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided
theotherpersontalksslowlyandclearlyandispreparedtohelp.

The CEFR reference levels and illustrative descriptors (exemplified in Table 1) were intended to be used for the
organisationoflearningandteachingwithineducationalsystems.Theselevelsanddescriptorsweretoprovidea
communication tool to assist ELT practitioners in practical ways, having been selected and synthesised from
existing scales which had been developed and operationalised in many diverse contexts. The CEFR itself,
representingfortyormoreyearsofworkbytheCouncilofEuropeModernLanguagesDivision,buildsonearlier
studiesoflevelsoflanguagecompetencessuchasThresholdLevel(vanEk1975;vanEk&Trim1998b),Waystage
andVantageLevels(vanEk&Trim1998a;2001).

4 © UCLES/CUP 2011
However, although the CEFR is an intuitively helpful descriptive scheme for researchers, curriculum designers,
teachers,teachertrainers,andlanguagetesters,inmanycasestheexistingscalesandrelateddescriptorshavenot
provedtobeoperationallyadequateastheystand.Thedetailsarenotspecificenoughtohelptheseprofessionals
make decisions about language teaching and testing. So, while the CEFR can act as a focal point for reference
purposes, it must remain open to further development. In other words, the CEFR is not the finished article but
needstobeadaptedordevelopedfurtherforeachspecificcontextinwhichitistobeused.JohnTrim,oneofthe
“fathers” of the CEFR, and now Council of Europe observer to the English Profile Programme and an active
memberofthegrowingEPteam,summarisesthissituationsuccinctly:

Overall,theapparatusofleveldescriptionintheCEFRisrichandwelldifferentiatedfordifferentpurposesand
users.Evenso,experienceoverthepastdecadehasshownthatforhighstakespurposes,particularlythevalid
and reliable calibration of qualifications and the tests and examinations leading to their award, the CEFR
cannotbeusedasa‘standalone’document.Indeed,itisprobablyimpossibleforanysuchdocumenttobeso
used.(prefacetoGreen2011:xi)

Importantly the CEFR is neutral with respect to the language being learned. This means that the users have to
decidewhatactuallygetstaughtorassessedintermsofthelinguisticfeaturesofaspecificlanguageateachofthe
common reference levels. To ensure that the framework is used appropriately and can be adapted to local
contexts and purposes, the Council of Europe has encouraged the production of instruments and support
materialstocomplementtheCEFR.Theseinstruments(sometimesknownastheCEFRtoolkit)includeReference
LevelDescriptions(RLDs)fornationalandregionallanguages.RLDsseektoprovidelanguageͲspecificguidancefor
usersoftheFramework;theaimisto“transpose”theFrameworkdescriptorsthatcharacterisethecompetences
ofusersorlearnersatagivenlevelintothelinguisticmaterialwhichisspecifictoagivenlanguage(i.e.grammar,
lexical items etc.) and considered necessary for the implementation of those competences. In providing a
description of the language across all six levels, the grammatical and lexical progression which is central to the
learningofthatlanguagecanbeaddressedmorepreciselywithintheFrameworkconcept.TheRLDsrepresenta
newgenerationofdescriptionswhichidentifythespecificformsofanygivenlanguage(words,grammar,etc.)at
eachofthesixreferencelevelswhichcanbesetasobjectivesforlearningorusedtoestablishwhetherauserhas
attainedthelevelofproficiencyinquestion.

To assist the teams in developing RLDs for their own languages, the Language Policy Division of the Council of
EuropeproducedageneralGuidefortheproductionofRLDswhichwasdiscussedataseminarheldinStrasbourg
in December 2005 (see Council of Europe website for details). Projects representing seventeen languages were
presented, including a proposal for English put forward by the University of Cambridge (represented at the
meetingbyCambridgeESOL).ThisproposalsubsequentlybecameknownastheEnglishProfileProject,which,in
turn,becametheEnglishProfileProgrammein2008.

© UCLES/CUP 2011 5
TheEnglishProfileProgramme–theCEFRforEnglish

AmajorobjectiveoftheEPProgrammeistoanalyselanguageproducedbylearnersofEnglishinordertothrow
lightonwhattheycanandcan'tdowiththelanguageateachoftheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference
levels,forexample,inusingthegrammarandlexisattheirdisposal.ThefoundermembersoftheEPPfirstmetin
Cambridge in midͲ2005 to discuss the possibility of setting up an RLD project for English. Participating in those
discussions were several departments of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge ESOL, Cambridge University
Press, the Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics and the Computer Laboratory), together with
representatives from the British Council, English UK, and the University of Bedfordshire (Centre for Research in
EnglishLanguageLearningandAssessment).

Asaresultofthosemeetings,theEnglishProfileProjectwasestablishedbyacoregroupofpartnerorganisations
in 2005 to with the aim of making the CEFR more specifically explicit with regards to English language learning,
teachingandassessment.ThecoregroupwasextendedtocreateanEnglishProfileNetworkfrom2008onwards
(seepages63Ͳ64foralistofEPNetworkPartners).CoordinationoftheProgrammeisbasedattheUniversityof
Cambridgeandinvolvesinterdisciplinarycollaborationbetweendifferentdepartments.

From an early stage the English RLDs were intended to be innovative with an emphasis on empirical research
rootedindata(suchaslearnercorpora),andthecollectionofrepresentativesamplesoflearnerlanguagewhich
couldbeusedtoexplorelanguagedevelopmentacrossthereferencelevels.Thishasinvolvedcollaboratorsfrom
the EP Network in different parts of the world who can supply samples of speaking and writing produced by
learners.ItisanaspectoftheprojectwhichhasreceivedexternalfundingbytheEuropeanCommissionandisnow
well underway (see the EUͲfunded English Profile Network project members on page 64).2 It has also required
technicalresourcesindevelopingnewelectroniccorporaandanalyticaltechniquessothatthesamplesoflearner
languagecanbestored,accessedandanalysedeffectively.

Giventheinterdisciplinarynatureoftheresearchbeingundertaken,researchteamsareengagedinparalleland
simultaneous investigations on a set of related research questions, observing them from different angles. This
English Profile publication brings together findings from three areas of investigation – grammar, language
functionsandvocabulary(seeSections2Ͳ4).

“Profile” is a suitable name for the intended outputs of this
programme of research. A profile is dictionaryͲdefined as ‘a vivid Definingcriteriality:

outline of the most outstanding characteristics of the subject’ “Criteriality”meansthatthelanguage
(Webster’s). English Profile does indeed seek to specify the featuresconcernedserveasabasisfor
“outstandingcharacteristics”or,inourterms,thecriterialfeatures distinguishingoneproficiencylevelfrom
validated by empirical research that distinguish each proficiency another.
level of learner English, from A1 to C2. Criterial features are 
linguistic properties that are distinctive and characteristic of each 'TheunitsofcurrencyforEnglishProfile
descriptionsofthelanguagelevelswillbe
ofthelevels.Theyarenotmeanttocapturealllanguagefeatures
grammatical,lexicalandfunctional
thatalearnerusesatacertainlevelbuttodistinguishalevelfrom
exponentsderivedempiricallyascriterial
adjacent higher and lower levels. Criterial features describe forthelevelsconcerned'.
changes from one level to the next, and hence are important for (Saville&Hawkey2010:4)
bothpractitionersandtheoreticianstoknowabout.Thisapproach 
isdealtwithcomprehensivelyinHawkinsandFilipoviđ(2011)and EnglishProfileGlossary
also in Hawkins and Buttery (2009, 2010) and Salamoura and
Saville(2009,2010).
2
TheEPProgrammeisendorsedbytheCouncilofEurope,andhasbeenfundedbytheEuropeanCommission.

6 © UCLES/CUP 2011

Theempiricalapproachmakesuseoflearnerdata,especiallysamplesofwritingandspeechproducedbylearners
atdifferentlevelsofproficiency.Theanalysisofthesedatahasproducedinformativeresultsaboutthelanguageof
learners and has added to our understanding of how the grammar and lexis of English is learned by different
groupsoflearners.Inadditiontoafocusontraditionalgrammaticalandlexicalfeatures,psycholinguisticfactors
have also been taken into account, including the effects of language transfer (i.e. the impact of different first
languages and learning contexts) on language learning. It is worth noting that some of the results would not
always be predicted from language acquisition theories or anticipated by researchers using experience and
intuitionalone,provingthevalidityandusefulnessofanempiricalapproachthathasrealdataatitscore.

TheCambridgeLearnerCorpus(CLC)hasbeencentraltothisworktodate.TheCLCconsistsoflearners'written
EnglishfromtheCambridgeESOLexaminationscoveringtheabilityrangefromA2toC2,togetherwithmetaͲdata
(includinggender,ageandfirstlanguage)andevidenceofoverallproficiencybasedontheirscoresfortheother
skillscomponents(typicallyreading,listeningandspeaking)whichcurrentlycontainsaround45millionwords.The
tablebelowshowsthesixCEFRlevelsA1ͲC2andtheirlinktotheCambridgeEnglishsuiteofexamstestingGeneral
EnglishwhichhavebeenattheheartofEPresearchtodate.3



The demographic information about the learners within the CLC allows researchers to compare different L1
learnerswithrespecttotheEnglishthattheyproduce.Whilelexicalanalysishasbeencarriedoutformanyyears
by researchers in Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, error coding and parsing of the corpus have
extended the kinds of analysis which can be carried out and have allowed the research teams to investigate a
wider range of English language features (see Nicholls 2003 on the errorͲcoding system which has informed EP
research).AcomputationalstrandofresearchwasintroducedintotheEPPattheoutsetandtheCLChasbeen
taggedandparsedusingtheRobustAccurateStatisticalParser(RASP)byresearchersintheComputerLaboratory
underthesupervisionofProfessorTedBriscoe(Briscoe,Carrol&Watson,2006).Theerrorcodingandtheparsing
means that sophisticated kinds of grammatical analysis are also possible and are an exciting current focus of
research.SeetheEnglishGrammarProfilesectionforafullerdescriptionoftheCLC.

Inadditiontodescribingthe"reallanguage"usedbylearners,EnglishProfilehassoughttoinvestigatethelearning
dimensionandtoconnecttheempiricalworkwithrelevantSLAandlinguisticresearch.InparticularEPresearchers
areinterestedin"howlearnerslearnEnglish"andhowdifferentlearningfactorsinteractundervariouscontextual
conditions.Theyhavebeguntoaddressquestionssuchas:

x Howdothedifferentkindsofcriterialfeatures(lexicalsemantic,morphoͲsyntactic,syntactic,discourse,
notional,functional,etc.)interrelateandclustertogethertodefinelearnerprofilesinEnglish?Whichlinguistic
featuresrealisewhichlanguagefunctionsacrosstheCEFRlevels?
3
Seewww.CambridgeESOL.org/examsforarangeofexamstomeetdifferentneeds,includingprofessionaland
academicpurposes.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 7
x HowdoestheprofileofthelearnervarydependingontheirL1?Whatarethepedagogicalimplicationsofsuch
L1effectsforthelearning,teachingandassessmentofEnglish?
x Whichcriterialfeaturescanbeusedasdiagnosticsofproficiencyattheindividuallearnerlevel?
x WhatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenadultandyounglearnersofEnglishdevelopmentallyandat
eachstageoflearning?
x Howdoeslearningtospeakdifferfromlearningtowrite/type?Whatdeterminescommunicativesuccessand
comprehensibilityinthesetwolanguagemodes?
x Whatistheroleoflearnerandlearningstrategies?
x Howdoallthepreviousfactorsinteractduringlanguagelearning?Howdotheypredictlikelyversuslesslikely
patterns of learner output? What type of learning model can accommodate these multiͲfactor interactions
thatunderpinlanguagelearning?

Theemergingperformancepatternsareinformativeforourunderstandingofsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA),
e.g. the order of acquisition of linguistic features and the interaction of factors such as frequency and transfer
fromthefirstlanguage.JustasEPfindingscancontributetonewaspectsoftheoryandprovideusefulinsightsfor
developingamodelofL2acquisition,SLAandotherlinguistictheoriesinformEPresearchinthisandotherareas.

Insummary,EnglishProfilehasbegun‘asystematicandempiricallyͲbasedapproachtospecifyingmorepreciselyhow
theCEFRcanbeoperationalisedforEnglish,andthisinturnwillleadtobetterandmorecomprehensiveillustrative
descriptors….InthiswaytheCEFRwillbecomethereallyusefultoolthatitwasintendedtobe’(Milanovic2009:5).
DescriptionorPrescription?

Can English Profile provide a definitive set of RLDs that should be learnt, taught or assessed at each level? The
answeris‘no’asthisisnottheintentionoftheProgramme,whichseekstodescriberatherthanprescribe.The
exactchoiceoflanguagepointsthatsuitaparticularcourseofstudyorotherpurposewilldependonarangeof
factors,suchas:

x thelevelandrangeoflevelsoflearnersontheprogramme
x theageandeducationalbackgroundofthelearners
x theirreasonsforlearningEnglish
x theirareasofinterest
x theirfirstlanguage
x theirexperienceoflearningEnglishsofar
x othersourcesofinputandopportunitiestopractiseEnglish.

TheELTprofessionalwillneedtoweighthesefactorsupinmakingdecisions aboutwhattoincludein acourse.
EnglishProfileaimstoprovideresourcestohelpthosedecisions,includingexamplesofcurriculathathavebeen
drawnupusingEPresources.

HowcanteachersandlearnersbenefitfromEnglishProfile?

ThereislikelytobeawidespreadimpactonEnglishlanguageteachingandlearningingeneralthroughthesupport
EnglishProfilewillgivetothosepeoplewhoplancurricula,producelearningmaterialsanddesignEnglishlanguage
tests.EnglishProfileaimstohelpthemtojudgebetterwhatlanguagetoincludeateachleveloflearning.These
improvements should increase the relevance and efficiency of language learning. Individual teachers can access
EnglishProfileresourcesdirectlyiftheywanttogetmoreinformationaboutwhatissuitablefortheirlearnersat
eachCEFRlevel,seeSection5forsomeideasandexamples.

WepresentbelowthemainfindingsfromresearchtodateintheareasofGrammar,FunctionsandVocabulary.
8 © UCLES/CUP 2011
2TheEnglishGrammarProfile

AsmentionedaboveinthesectiononthedevelopmentoftheCEFR,theCEFRdistinguishessixlevelsofproficiency
in terms of functions, that is the different uses to which language can be put and how learners learn to use
language in different ways as they master a second (or subsequent) language. The CEFR does this by providing
illustrativedescriptorsintheformofCanDostatements(giveninTable1above),forexample,A2levellearners
‘Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance’
whereas at the next level up, B1, learners ‘Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar
mattersregularlyencounteredinwork,school,leisure,etc’.

These illustrative descriptors do not provide any languageͲspecific details about the grammar and lexis that are
characteristicofeachproficiencylevelastheCEFR’sauthorsintendedittobeneutralwithrespecttotheL2being
acquired so as to be widely compatible across European languages, for example allowing a given level of
proficiency in L2 German to be comparable with a corresponding level in L2 French or English. The CEFR is
thereforedeliberately“underspecified”withrespecttokeylinguisticfeaturesthatteachersorassessorslookforin
alearner’sL2productionwhentheyseektoassignaparticularproficiencylevel(seeMilanovic2009).Learnerscan
perform any of the functions in the CEFR’s illustrative descriptors by using a wide variety of grammatical
constructionsandwords,andtheabilityto"do"thetaskdoesnotindicatepreciselyhowalearnerdoesitorwith
whatgrammaticalandlexicalpropertiesofEnglish(orofanothertargetlanguage).

With respect to grammar the EP Programme aims to provide reference level descriptions (RLDs) that include
grammaticalandlexicaldetailsofEnglishtoextendtheCEFR’sfunctionalcharacterisationofthedifferentlevels,
primarily using the Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC).  This is done via criterial features, defined on page 6 and
further exemplified below, which is central to the approach taken within the EP Programme to specify the
referencelevelsforEnglish.

The basic idea behind the criterial features concept is that there are certain linguistic properties that are
characteristic and indicative of L2 proficiency at each level, on the basis of which teachers and examiners make
theirpracticalassessments(alongsidetheextenttowhichalearnerfulfilsthecommunicativefunctionsrequired
bytheactivityundertaken).Intheareaofgrammar,EnglishProfileaimstoestablishwhichgrammaticalfeatures
distinguishlearnersateachleveloftheCEFR,inotherwordswhatstructuresareused,forexample,bystudentsat
B1levelbutarenotfullyacquiredbylearnersatA2leveland,similarly,whatstructuresdoB1learnersnotappear
tomasteruntiltheyhaveprogressedtoB2level.Theexplicitidentificationofthesedistinguishingpropertiesfor
grammarandlexiswilladdthenecessaryspecificationoflinguisticfeaturestotheCEFR'sfunctionaldescriptorsfor
each of the levels. For grammar this will have considerable practical benefits for the learning, teaching and
assessmentofEnglish,togetherwithassociatedmaterialsdevelopmentandcurriculumplanningactivities.

Inwhatfollows,weprovideadescriptionaboutwhatlearnersknowintermsofgrammaratA2,B1,B2,C1andC2
levelsonthebasisofalistoflinguisticfeatureswehaveidentifiedasbeing“criterial”,i.e.indicativeoftheselevels.
Weshouldnotethatcriterialfeaturesarelinguisticpropertiesthatarenotmeanttocapturealllanguagefeatures
thatalearnerusesatacertainlevelbutdistinguishalevelfromadjacenthigherandlowerlevels.Intheareaof
grammar,wefocusontwotypesofcriterialfeatures(Hawkins&Buttery2009,2010;Hawkins&Filipoviđ2011):

(i)correctlinguisticpropertiesofEnglishthathavebeenacquiredatacertainlevelandthatgenerallypersistat
higherlevels(seeTables2Ͳ7)

(ii)incorrectpropertiesorerrors,thatoccuratacertainlevelorlevelsandwithacharacteristicfrequency(see
Tables8Ͳ11).

Both the presence or absence of the errors, and especially their characteristic frequency, can be criterial for a
level.Itshouldalsobeemphasized,though,thatnosinglefeaturecanbecriterialordistinctiveforawholelevel;
onlyclustersoffeatureshavethepotentialtobecriterialforalevel.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 9
ThedetailsoftherelationshipsbetweenstructuresandCEFRlevelhavebeenidentifiedbycarefulanalysisofthe
Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC),which has, so far, been the most important data source for English Profile
Grammar researchers. The CLC is a large collection of exam scripts written by students taking Cambridge ESOL
English exams around the world and has been collected since the early 1990s in a collaborative project by
Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL.  It grows each year by around 3 million words, and currently
contains:

x over45millionwordsfrommorethan200,000learners
x over333,000examresponses
x allCEFRlevels
x 138firstlanguages
x Englishfromlearnersin203countries.

TheCLChassomeimportantfeatureswhicharenotfoundinotherL2learnercorpora,includingthenatureofits
rawdata,itssizeandstructure,andhowthematerialhasbeenerrorͲcoded,taggedandparsed.Theexamscripts
have been systematically categorised by their CEFR level according to reliable information captured during the
examinationprocesstogetherwithalargeamountofdemographicinformationaboutthelearners,includingtheir
L1, age and language learning motivation. This background information about the learners captured alongside
theirresponses(and the questionstheyresponded to)allowsresearcherstocomparedifferentL1learnerswith
respecttotheEnglishthattheyproduce.

HalfofthecorpushasbeenpainstakinglycodedforerrorsbyanexpertteamatCambridgeUniversityPressand
the corpus has been tagged and parsed by computational linguists at the University of Cambridge Computer
Laboratory.Uniquely,over21millionwordsoftheCLChavebeencodedforerrorsusingacodingsystemdevised
byCambridgeUniversityPress(seeNicholls2003).Theseerrorcodesareaddedtothecorpusmanuallybyateam
of language specialists who have been working with and refining the system for over 15 years. The CLC errorͲ
coding system is therefore one of the most comprehensive and precise systems available, which means that
researcherscanquicklyandaccuratelyanswerquestionslike:

x How often do students make a particular type of mistake? Frequency information tells us whether a
particulartypeofmistakeiscommonsothatwecantellwhicharethemostproblematicareasforstudents.

x Which students make which mistakes? We have a lot of information about the learners’ backgrounds in
Englishlanguagelearning,includinginformationabouttheirfirstlanguage.Thisallowsresearcherstoworkout
which areas of English are particularly problematic, for example, for speakers of Spanish, as opposed to
Chinese or Russian speakers, so that our profile of English can accurately reflect the particular needs of
learnerseverywhere.

In addition to being searchable lexically and by error type, the CLC is, to the best of our knowledge, the only
learner corpus of English that can also be searched syntactically, i.e. for specific grammatical relations and
patterns.ThisispossiblebecausetheCLChasbeensyntacticallyanalysedusingRASP(RobustAccurateStatistical
Parser),astateͲofͲtheͲartautomatictextparsingsystemdevelopedattheUniversityofCambridgeComputerLab
(Briscoe, Carroll & Watson 2006) and further advanced within the context of English Profile Programme (see
Hawkins & Buttery 2009). Combining grammatical information and statistical patterns, the RASP system assigns
partͲofͲspeech tags to individual words, groups words into phrases by creating parse trees and extracts the
grammatical relations between these phrases. The application of RASP to the CLC by a team of computational
linguistsenablesdetailedandhighlyaccuratesyntacticanalysesoflearnerEnglish,allowingamappingoflearner
syntaxanderrorpatternsacrosstheCEFRlevels.

The findings reported here are mostly from Hawkins & Filipoviđ (2011) but also from O’Keeffe & Mark (in
preparation),definedinpedagogictermsandenrichedwithCLClearnerexamplesbytheCambridgeEnglishProfile
10 © UCLES/CUP 2011
team. These findings reflect the CLC as it currently stands. Since English Profile is a longͲterm programme of
research, the list of criterial features presented here will be enhanced and amended as more examination and
nonͲexaminationlearnercorpusdatabecomeavailabletotheProgramme(seeSection6forfurtherdetails).

Grammaticalcriterialfeatures
Thissectionprovidesacomprehensiveinventoryofallgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesidentifiedthusfarandgives
fourtypesofinformation:

a) asummaryofgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesthatdistinguisheachlevel,withexampleutterancesfromlearner
English(Table2),followedbyamorecomprehensivedescriptionateachlevel

b) examplesofmoredetailedgrammaticalReferenceLevelDescriptors(Tables3Ͳ7)

c) examplesoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovebetweenadjacentlevels(Tables8Ͳ11)

d) an example of how a grammatical feature develops in learner language across the CEFR levels (O’Keeffe &
Markinpreparation)(Table12).

a.Grammaticalcriterialfeaturesthatdistinguisheachlevel

Table2:KeydistinguishingfeaturesoflearnerEnglishbyCEFRlevel
Level Somekeyfeatures ExamplesfromtheCLCattheappropriatelevel
A2 x Simplesentences x Wecamebackandwenttobed
x Sentenceswithclausesjoinedbythat x Iknowthatyouhaveanewhousetoo
x Descriptivephrasesintroducedbyapast x Therearebeautifulpaintingspaintedbyfamous
participle Iranianpainters
x SimpledirectwhͲquestions x Whatareyougoingtowear?
x Simplesentencesusinginfinitives x Iwanttobuyacoat
x Otherinfinitives x …somethingtoeat
x Somemodals x Wemustbethereat7o’clockinthemorning.
 
B1 x Ͳingclauses x Mariasawhimtakingataxi
x Whoserelativeclauses x …thisfamouspainterwhosepicturesIlikeso
x Indirectquestions much
x Clauseswithwhatassubject/object x Guesswhereitis?
x Verb+object+infinitive x ThisiswhatIthink
x easy+infinitive x Iorderedhimtogathermymen.
x Somecomplexauxiliaries x Thetrainstationiseasytofind.
x Additionalmodaluses x wouldrather,hadbetter
 x Ihaveinvitedallhisfriends,soweshouldbe28
people.

B2 x Ͳingclausebeforethemainclause x Talkingaboutsparetime,Ithinkwecouldgoto
x It+verb+infinitivephrase theArtMuseum
x WhͲclauseassubjectofmainclause x Itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyourgroupaswell.
x Reportedspeech x Whatcameafterwaswhatreallychangedmy
x LexicallyͲspecificverbs/adjectives+infinitive summer!
 x ItoldhimIlovedhissongs.
 x …provedtobewrong,turnedouttobe…,
 expectedto…

© UCLES/CUP 2011 11
C1 x LexicallyͲspecificverbs+object+infinitive x Ibelievehertobethiscountry’sbest
x Mightforpermission representative.
x Fewergrammaticalerrorswithagreement, x MightItellyouwhatwe[should/will]discuss?
countabilityorwordformation
C2 x SomenewlexicallyͲspecificverbs+object+ x Theydeclaresomeproductstobethehitsofthe
infinitive season
x Longerutteranceswithgreateraccuracy

So what language features could be said to criterial, i.e. distinguish a learner at each level?  The features listed
below are most – but not all – of the structural features that the corpusͲinformed research has shown to be
significantforeachlevel,fromA2ͲC2level(forafullerinventoryofgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesidentifiedthus
farseeTables3Ͳ7below).Thefocusisongrammarratherthanvocabularyalthoughtheuseofspecificlexicalitems
isalsomentioned.WedonotprovidecriterialfeaturesforA1level,asinvestigationofthislevelisunderway;our
initialresearchsuggeststhatsomebasicstructuresarealreadyattestedatthislevel.Currently,themostcomplete
descriptionoftheA1levelforEnglishisprovidedbyBreakthrough(Trim2009),availableontheEPwebsite.

Structuralfeaturesthataresignificantforeachlevel(fromA2ͲC2levels)

 A2
 
 By the time the learner reaches A2, certain language features are emerging as being criterial, distinct
 characteristics. The average length of utterance is 7.9 words (based on learner data from the Cambridge
 Learner Corpus). These consist usually of simple sentences such as We came back and went to bed (see
 examplesin A2.1inthetablebelow),Imetalotofinteresting people(A2.2), orIcangive youmyguitar
 (A2.3).MorecomplexsentencesproducedbyA2learnersareofthetypeIknewthatyouhaveanewhouse
 or I think the zoo is an interesting place. As these examples show, the that which may be used to join
 clausesinsentencesofthistypemaybeincludedoromittedbylearnersatthislevel(A2.4).Usersatthis
 level are also able to write sentences such as There are beautiful paintings painted by famous Iranian
 painters where there is a descriptive phrase introduced by a past participle (A2.8). However, similar
 descriptive phrases introduced by a present participle are a characteristic of a B1 rather than an A2 user
 (B1.3).
 
 A2 learners are able to produce simple direct whͲ questions as well as statements (A2.6). For example,
 Whatareyougoingtowear?HowdidyouknowIlikedskateboards?Theyarealsoabletoproducesimple
 sentencesusinginfinitives–IwanttobuyacoatorIwouldliketosellabook,forexample(A2.5).Infinitives
 arealsofoundtobeusedcorrectlybyA2usersinphraseslikesomethingtoeat(A2.7).
 
 A2 users also have gained the ability to use some modals in some of their basic senses. They can for
 instanceusemay,canandmightforpossibility(A2.10),mustforobligation(A2.11)andshouldforadvice
 (A2.12).
 
 InotherwordsanA2levelofEnglishischaracterisedbytheuseofbasicandrelativelysimplestructures.
 




12 © UCLES/CUP 2011

 B1
 
 AsfarasB1isconcerned,itcanfirstofallbenotedthatlearnerstypicallycontinuetowritesteadilylonger
 sentencesastheygoupthelevels.ThemeanlengthofaB1utteranceis10.8wordsincomparisonwith7.9
 atA2leveland14.2atB2level.Onereasonfortheincreasinglengthisthatlearnersareabletocopewith
 morecomplexsentences.Forexample,theyproducesentencescontainingͲingclauses,whichfollowand
 complement the direct object of a main clause: Maria saw him taking a taxi (B1.2) or which function as
 adverbs and follow the main clause they modify: He was sitting there, drinking a coffee and writing
 something(B1.11).Interestingly,placingthe–ingclausebeforethemainclauseasinTalkingaboutspare
 time,IthinkwecouldgototheArtMuseum,isafeaturethatcharacterisesB2usersofthelanguage(B2.1).
 
 There are a number of other types of complex sentence that appear to be criterial at B1 level. While
 learnersmaycopewellwithsimplerelativeclausesusingwhoandwhichatlowerlevels,theuseofwhose
 asarelativepronounistypicalofthislevele.g.Imetaveryniceboywhosename’sJohn(B1.6).Indirect
 questions similarly appear to be a marker of B1 language e.g. Guess where it is, I don’t know what to do
 (B1.8Ͳ9). Simple clauses beginning with what (…what I think, What I saw…) acting as either the object or
 subjectofamainsentencearealsosuccessfullyusedbylearnersatthislevel,forexample,ThisiswhatI
 think,WhatIsawwassoamazing(B1.7).
 
 B1 learners are getting more confident in using the infinitive in more complex structures. While A2 level
 students cope well with verb + infinitive (e.g. I would like to buy… or I want to sell… A2.5), at B1 level
 studentsmakeuseofstructuresconsistingofverb+object+infinitive,withorwithouttoe.g.Iwouldlike
 youtocome,Iwantyoutodoit,Ihelpedhimbakethecake(B1.1).Inaddition,thereareanumberofother
 usesofinfinitiveslinkedwithspecificvocabularyitemsthatseemtofeatureastypicalfeaturesofalearner
 havingreachedB1(B1.12Ͳ14).ThelevelͲsignificantwordineachcaseisboldedinthefollowingexamples:
 Monica seems to be good. I was supposed to go to the English class (B1.12). Your friends expect you to
 spendanamazingholidaywiththem.Iwouldlikeyoutospendaweekendatmyhouse.Iwantyoutosayhi
 [to]everybody(B1.13).Thetrainstationiseasytofind(B1.14).
 
 Differentauxiliaryandmodaluseshelptomapalearner’sprogressfromoneleveltoanother.AsfarasB1is
 concerned,thecomplexauxiliarieswouldratherandhadbetteraretypicalfeaturesofaB1learner(B1.10).
 Soalsoarecertainmodalusessuchasmayforpermission(MayIborrow….),mustforlogicalnecessity(He
 is having a great time and must be really happy there) and should for probability (I have invited all his
 friends,soweshouldbe28people)(B1.16Ͳ18).Thenumberoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovefrom
 A2toB1isfairlymodest,andimprovementsfocusontheuseofquantifiers(e.g.some,alotof,any,several,
 other,everyetc.).
 
 To sum up, the B1 language user has mastered the basic structures of the language and is beginning to
 attempttoproducemorecomplexlanguage.
 









© UCLES/CUP 2011 13

 B2
 
 The mean length of a B2 user's utterance is 14.2 words, an increase of 3.4 words on B1. This can be
 explained in part by the fact that increasingly complex sentences are used as the learner progresses
 throughthelevels.
 
 B2 language use typically, for example, may include sentences beginning with an adverbial clause
 introducedbyanͲingword(B2.1)e.g.Talkingaboutsparetime,IcouldgototheArtMuseum.
 
 AnotherexampleofamorecomplexstructurewhichcharacterisesaB2userisasentenceintroducedbyIt
 andfollowedbyaninfinitivephrasee.g.Itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyourgroupaswell(B2.2).Yetanother
 B2structureisasentencebeginningwithaWhͲwordintroducingaclauseactingasthesubjectofthemain
 clauseofthesentence(B2.3)e.g.Whatattractedmethemostwasthepossibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe
 sameinterests.AthirdexampleofastructurecharacterisingaB2leveluserisamainsentencewithadirect
 object followed by a subordinate complement clause with or without that (B2.4), for example, I told him
 (that)Ilovedhissongs.
 
 AsatB1level,therearecertainverbsandadjectiveswhich,whenassociatedwithinfinitivestructures,can
 be seen as characteristic of the level (B2.6Ͳ9); examples of some of these are given below with the
 significantwordshighlightedinbold:
 Myworriesprovedtobewrong.
 UnfortunatelyformethesituationturnedouttobeoppositetowhatIthoughtitwas.
 Andwhenevermoneyisinvolved,someproblemsarelikelytohappen.
 Youaresuretoarriveatworkontime.
 Iwouldprefermyaccommodationtobeinlogcabins.
 HowmanyhoursadayshouldIbeexpectedtowork?
 Yourtheatreisknowntopresentexcellentspectacles.
 Sozooscouldbetheonlyplacewherepeoplecouldspendtheirtimeavoidingthepollutionweareobligedto
 livewitheveryday.
 Woodsisthoughttostandforallofwhitepeopleandthisbookcouldhaveaninfluenceonthem.
 Thegrammarandvocabularyareabithardtolearn.
 
 TherearenoinstancesofmodalusewhichcanbeseenasbeingcriterialforaB2leveloflanguage.Likein
 B1,thenumberoferrortypesthatappeartoimprovesubstantiallyatthislevelremainssmall.
 







14 © UCLES/CUP 2011

 C1
 
 AtC1leveltheaveragelengthofutterancecontinuestoincrease,risingfromB2’s14.2to17.3words.


ItisnoticeableoncelearnersmoveintoClevelsthatthecriterial,distinguishingfeaturesoftheirlanguage

areacombinationoflexisandstructure.Learnersusestructuresmasteredatearlierlevelsbutwithamuch

widerrangeofvocabularyandinmoreaccurateways.Verbssuchaschance,believe,find,suppose,take,
 assume, discover, feel and prove used in complex structures which include an infinitival clause are
 characteristicofthelanguageofaC1levellearner(C1.1Ͳ3).Herearesomeexamples(seeTable6formore):
 x Ichancedtoknowaboutyourcompetitionfromaninternationalmagazine.
 x BeingbornandraisedinMexico,Ibelievehertobethecountry’sbestrepresentativeintheworld.
 x Icanassureyouthatthestrikeisn’tasworryingasyousupposeittobe.
 x Secondly,thelowcostofmembershipandentrywasassumedtobeanadvantageaswell.
 x Theinternetisavaluabletool,whichcanbeprovedtobethemostimportantaspectinthelearning
  process.
 
 The only strictly grammatical features which might be seen as criterial, new features of language as the
 learnermovesfromB2toC1,aretheuseofadouble‘sgenitivestructure(e.g.thebride’sfamily’shouse)
 (C1.4)andtheuseofmighttoconveytheideaofpermission(MightItellyouwhatwediscussed?)(C1.5).
 
 Ingeneral,however,itisnotmainlythecasethattheC1learnerismasteringnewgrammaticalfeatures,it
 ismorethatheorsheisusingthosethatwerealreadyavailableatB2levelinamuchmoreaccurateway.
 Farfewergrammaticalerrorswith,say,agreement,countabilityorwordformoccuratC1thanatB2level.


 C2
 
 ThetrendsnotedatC1continueintoC2inthatwhatmarksoutC2usersofthelanguageisthefactthat
theyhaveagreatergrammaticalaccuracyandawiderlexicalrangethanC1users;inotherwordsthereare

nospecificnewstructuresappearingatthislevel.C2 usersalsocontinuethetrendofproducingalonger

averageutterancethanatlowerlevels;themeanlengthofutteranceforC2is19wordsasopposedto17.3
 atC1.
 
 Lexical range in relation to specific structures continues to expand. For example declare, presume,
 rememberandtheadjectivetoughareusedwiththefollowingcomplexinfinitivecomplementsatC2level
 (C1.1Ͳ3):
 They declare some products to be the hits of the season, thus creating fashion and few of us want to be
 unfashionable.
 x Hepresumedworktobethewaytolive.
 x Notonlymeetingswithnewpeoplearepresumedtogivenewexperiences.
 Sherememberedherfathertobealively,tallandbroadshoulderedmanwithabeardthattickledwhenhe
 bentdowntokisshergoodnight.
 x Whatsheknewwouldbereallytoughtolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.
 
 Atthesametime,theC2levelseesthehighestnumberofsignificantgrammaticalerrorimprovementsofall
 CEFRlevels.LikeinC1,therearesignificantreductionsoferrorratesformostoftheerrortypesidentifiedin
 theCambridgeLearnerCorpus.Overall,itcanbesaidthatitisattheClevelswherelearnersappeartobe
 masteringandaccuratelyusingthemajorityofgrammaticalfeaturesinEnglish.

Tosumup,aslearnersprogressfromlevelA1throughtoB2,theygraduallyacquirenewstructureswhichcanbe
identifiedascharacteristicofeachlevel.OncetheyreachClevels,learners’progressischaracterisedbyincreased
structuralaccuracyandbygreaterlexicalaccuracyandrangeratherthanbytheadditionofnewstructurestotheir
repertoire.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 15
 b.GrammaticalReferenceLevelDescriptorsforEnglish

Table3:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforA2level
16


 Structure/feature ExamplesfromtheCLC(A2level)
A2.1 Simpleclauseswithoutobject 
[Intransitiveclauses,NPͲV] x Canyoucometomyhouseat2pmon
ThesearesimpleclausesconsistingofaNounPhraseandanintransitiveVerb,i.e.averbthattakesnoobject(e.g.go, Saturday?
arrive).TheNounPhraseisthesubjectoftheintransitiveVerb.TheintransitiveVerbcanbefollowedbyaparticle(e.g. x Youcangettherebytrain.
Wecameback),anadverb(e.g.Youcangetthere)oraprepositionalphrase(e.g.YoucangotoYiltePark). 
A2.2 Clauseswithadirectobject 
[Transitiveclauses,NPͲVͲNP] x Imetalotofinterestingpeople.
TheseareclausescontainingaNounPhrasefollowedbyaVerbandanotherNounPhrase(e.g.helovedher).TheNoun x NowIwriteapostcardforyou…
PhraseprecedingtheVerbisthesubjectandtheNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbisthedirectobject(i.e.heisthesubject 
andheristhedirectobjectoftheverbloved).TheNounPhraseservingastheobjectoftheVerbcanbefollowedbya
prepositionalphrase(e.g.NowIwriteapostcardforyou).
A2.3 Clauseswithadirectandindirectobject 
[Ditransitiveclauses(i)NPͲVͲNPͲNP&(ii)NPͲVͲNPͲPP(P=to)] x Icangiveyoumyguitar.
(i)TheseclausescompriseaNounPhrase,aVerbandtwoNounPhrasesaftertheVerb(e.g.Icangiveyoumyguitar).The x I’llgiveittoyou…
NounPhraseprecedingtheverbisitssubject(e.g.I).ThefirstNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbistheindirectobject(e.g.
you)andthesecondNounPhrasethedirectobject(e.g.myguitar).
(ii)Intheseclauses(I’llgiveittoyou)theVerbisfollowedbyaNounPhrasewhichisthedirectobject(e.g.it)anda
prepositionalphrasewithtowhichistheindirectobject(e.g.toyou).
A2.4 Verb+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat 
[VerbwithafinitecomplementclauseNPͲVͲS] x Iknewthatyouhaveanewhousetoo.
ThesestructurescompriseonemainclausecontainingaNounPhraseandaVerbandasubordinatecomplementclause x Ithinkthezooisaninterestingplace.
withafiniteVerb(i.e.averbinflectedforpersonandtense)(e.g.theythoughtthathewasalwayslate).thatatthe
beginningofthesubordinateclausecanbeovertorcanbeomitted(e.g.Ihope(that)youarewell).
A2.5 Verb+infinitive 
[VerbwithsubjectͲcontrolledinfinitivalcomplements,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Iwanttobuyacoat.
TheseareclausescomprisingaNounPhraseandamainVerb,whichisfollowedbyanotherVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb) x Iwouldliketosellabook.
(e.g.Iwantedtocome).TheinfinitivalVerbisthecomplementofthemainVerb.TheNounPhraseisthesubjectofboth
themainVerbandoftheinfinitivalVerb.
A2.6 DirectWHͲquestions 
© UCLES/CUP 2011

ThesearequestionsbeginningwithaWHͲword(e.g.what,who,where)followedbyanauxiliary(e.g.have,do)oracopula x Whatareyougoingtowear?
(e.g.be),aNounPhrase(e.g.you,thepark),andaVerb(e.g.Whatdoyoulike?). x Sowhenareyoucelebratingyour
birthday?

A2.7 Pronoun+infinitive 
ThesearephrasesbeginningwithaPronoun(e.g.something)followedbyaVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb)(e.g.something x Youcanbringsomethingtoeatifyou
 todrink). wantto.
x …I’mgoingtoafarmthisweekendand
there’snothingtodo.
© UCLES/CUP 2011


A2.8 Noun+descriptivephraseintroducedbypastparticiple 
[Postnominalmodificationwith–ed] x Therearebeautifulpaintingspainted
ThesearephrasescomprisingaNounPhrasefollowedbyaPastParticipleendingin–ed(e.g.theboydeprivedofhisice byfamousIranianpainters
cream).
A2.9 Doubleembeddedgenitivewith(of…(of…)) 
[An[of[of]]doubleembeddingofpostnominalgenitives] x Ilikethecoloursofthebackofthe
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.thebeginning)followedbyan–ofgenitivephrase(e.g.ofthe mobilephone…
end),whichcontainsanother–ofgenitivephrase(e.g.thebeginningoftheendofcivilization).
A2.10 ModalsMAY,CANandMIGHTinthePossibility(epistemic)sense 
Themodalverbsmay,canandmightareusedtodenotePossibility(e.g.Itmayrainthisafternoon). x Thenwemaygosightseeing.
x …thepaintmightmakeourtͲshirts
dirty.

A2.11 ModalMUSTintheObligation(deontic)sense 
ThemodalverbmustisusedtodenoteObligation(e.g.Youmustnotdrivesofast). x Wemustbethereat7o’clockinthe
morning.

A2.12 ModalSHOULDintheAdvice(deontic)sense 
ThemodalverbshouldisusedtodenoteAdvice(e.g.Youshouldseeadoctor). x Youshouldwearoldclothesbecausewe
willgetdirty.


17
 Table4:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB1level

 Structure/feature ExamplesfromtheCLC(B1level)
18

B1.1 Verb+object+infinitive 
[VerbswithobjectͲcontrolledinfinitivalcomplementsNPͲVͲNPͲVPinfin] x Icalledmyassistantandorderedhim
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingamainclausewithaVerbfollowedbyaNounPhraseandacomplementclause togathermymentothehall.
withaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)withorwithoutto(e.g.Ihelpedher(to)bakethecake).TheNounPhraseheristhe
directobjectofthemainverbandthelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerb.
B1.2 Verb+object+Verbendingin–ing 
[VerbswithobjectͲcontrolled–ingcomplementsNPͲVͲNPͲVPing] x Mariasawhimtakingataxi.
TheseareclausesbeginningwithaNounPhraseandaVerbfollowedbyanotherNounPhraseandaVerbendingin–ing
(e.g.Icaughthimstealing).TheNounPhrasehimisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbandthelogicalsubjectoftheVerb
endingin–ing.
B1.3 Noun+descriptivephraseintroducedbypresentparticiple x AsIwasdesperateIputan
[Postnominalmodificationwith–ing] advertisementinthenewspaperasking
ThesearephrasesconsistingofaNounPhrasefollowedbyaPresentParticipleendinginͲing(e.g.theboywalkingdown ifsomeonehadit,butnooneanswered
theroad). me.

B1.4 It+Verb+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat 
[ItExtrapositionwithfiniteclauses] x It’struethatIdon’tneedaringto
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingonemainclausebeginningwithItandaVerbPhrase,followedbyasubordinate makemerememberyou.
complementclausestartingwiththatandcontainingafiniteVerb(i.e.averbthatisinflectedforpersonortense)(e.g.It 
doesn’tmatterthatsheisnothere).Theuseofthatisoptional(e.g.Itisapity(that)theycannotcome).
B1.5 Verb+PrepositionalPhrase+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat 
[VerbswithaPPplusfinitecomplementclause,NPͲVͲPPͲS] x Hesaidtomehewouldliketocome
ThesearecomplexclausesbeginningwithaNounPhrasefollowedbyamainVerbthattakesascomplementsa backsoon.
PrepositionalPhraseandasubordinatecomplementclausestartingwiththatandcontainingafiniteVerb(i.e.averbthat
isinflectedforpersonortense)(e.g.Theyadmittedtotheauthoritiesthattheyhadenteredillegally).ThePrepositional
PhrasetomeistheindirectobjectofthemainVerbadmittedandthesubordinateclauseisthedirectobjectoftheVerb.
thatatthebeginningofthesubordinateclausecanbeovertorcanbeomitted(e.g.Theyadmittedtotheauthorities
(that)theyhadenteredillegally).
B1.6 Relativeclauseswithwhose 
[Relativeclausesformedonagenitiveposition] x …abiographyofthisfamouspainter
Thesearerelativeclausesbeginningwithwhose(i.e.WHͲwordinthegenitive)andarefollowedbyanotherNounPhrase whosepicturesIlikesomuch
(e.g.whosepictures).
© UCLES/CUP 2011


B1.7 WHͲword+NounPhrase+Verbclausesusedassubjectorobject 
[Pseudocleftstype(i)WHͲNPͲVP] x WhatIabsolutelydislikeisgo
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHͲword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandaVerb(e.g.whatI shopping,althoughIreallylikenew
like).TheWHͲwordisthedirectobjectoftheVerbinthisclause(i.e.whatistheobjectoflike).ThePseudoclefttype(i) clothes.
structuretypicallyappearswithinanothersentenceasasubject(WhatIlikeiswatchingfootball)orasanobject x IopenedthedoorandwhatIsawwas
(complement)aftertheVerbbe(ThisiswhatIlike) soamazing.
 B1.8 IndirectWHͲquestions 
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHͲword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandafiniteVerb,i.e.a x Guesswhereitis.
verbinflectedforpersonandtense(e.g.heaskedwhatheshoulddo). x Idon’tknowhowIcouldhavedoneit.
© UCLES/CUP 2011


B1.9 IndirectWHquestionswithinfinitive 
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHͲword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandaninfinitivalVerb x Ididnotknowwheretolookforit
(to+Verb)(e.g.heexplainedhowtodoit). anymore.
 x Idon’tknowwhattodo.

B1.10 ComplexauxiliariesWOULDRATHERandHADBETTER 
ThesearecomplexauxiliariesthatconsistofaSimpleAuxiliaryandanAdverb(e.g.wouldrather,hadbetter)andare x Theywon'tbeveryhappyifyougoon
followedbyaVerb(e.g.Ihadbetterimprovemygame). holidaywiththemandthenyouarebad
temperedallthetimebecauseyou
wouldratherbewithyourfriends.
x Ifyoudon'tliketogowiththemyou
hadbettertellthemwhyyoudon't
wanttocome.

B1.11 Adverbialsubordinateclauseswith–ingthatfollowtheclausetowhichtheyareattached 
Thesearesubordinateclauseswithverbsendingin–ing(e.g.walkingdowntheroad).Thesesubordinateclauseshavean x Hewassittingthere,drinkingacoffee
adverbialfunctionandcanfollowthemainclause(e.g.hepumpedintoalamppostwalkingdowntheroad). andwritingsomething.

B1.12 seem,supposed(adjective)+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Monikaseemstobegood,intelligent
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandfollowedbytheVerbseem(e.g. teacher,butIhaveabadfeelingabout
Johnseems)ortheVerbbeandtheAdjectivesupposed(e.g.Johnissupposed)andasubordinateclausewithaninfinitival Paula.
Verb(to+Verb)(e.g.Johnseems/issupposedtobegood).IntheSubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaisingconstructions,thesubjectof x ItlookslikeIhavearehearsalforthe
themainVerbisalsothelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitssubjectpositionwithinthe “YamahaͲConcert”atthesametimeI
subordinateclausetobecomethesubjectofthemainclause(hence‘SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising’). wassupposedtogototheEnglishclass.

B1.13 expect,like,want+object+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising,NPͲVͲNPͲVPinfin] x Saratoldmeshewouldcome,butI
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsexpect,likeorwant(e.g. didn'texpecthertocomesoearly.
Johnexpects),followedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Johnexpects x Iamdoingfine,Iexpectedittobemore
hertocometotheparty).TheNounPhraseheristhedirectobjectofthemainVerbandthelogicalsubjectofthe difficult,butitisnotsohard.
subordinateinfinitivalclause,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthesubjecttobecomethedirectobjectofthemain x FinallyIwantyoutosayhi[to]
clause(hence‘SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising’). everybodyandIamlookingforwardto
seeingyou.
  
19



 B1.14 easy+infinitive 
[ToughMovementwiththeadjectiveeasy] x Thetrainstationiseasytofind.
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhrase,theVerbbeandtheadjectiveeasy x Theproblemyouhaveisnotveryeasy
20

(e.g.thebookiseasy)followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thebookiseasytoread).In tosolve.
ToughMovementstructuresthesubjectofthemainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,which 
hasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.toreadthebook)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Thebookis
thelogicalobjectofreadingandthiswholeevent(readingthebook)isclaimedtobeeasy,notnecessarilythebookitself
(e.g.thebookcouldbeeasytoreadbuthardtocarry).TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovementconstructionscan
occupyothernonͲsubjectpositionsinthesubordinateclausee.g.Thestudentiseasytostudywith
B1.15 Doubleembeddedgenitivewith(of…(–’s)) 
(An[of[Ͳs]]doubleembeddingofan–sgenitivewithinanofgenitive) x Iamabigfanoftheworld’smost
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.thebeginning)followedbyan–ofgenitivephrasewhich famousBritishsecretserviceagent.
containsanͲsgenitive(possessive)phrase(e.g.thebeginningoftheprofessor’sbook).

B1.16 ModalMAYinthePermission(deontic)sense 
ThemodalverbMAYisusedtodenotePermission. x MayIborrowyourbicycleforthis
weekend?

B1.17 ModalMUSTintheNecessity(epistemic)sense 
ThemodalverbmustisusedtodenotelogicalorphysicalNecessity. x Thismoviemustbegreat.Mysistertold
methatshewasamazed[when]she
[saw]thefilmsoIthinkit'sreallygood.
x Heishavingagreattimeandmustbe
reallyhappythere.

B1.18 ModalSHOULDintheProbability(epistemic)sense 
ThemodalverbshouldisusedtodenoteProbability. x Ihaveinvite[d]allhisfriends,[so]we
shouldbe28people.


© UCLES/CUP 2011
 Table5:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB2level

 Structure/feature ExamplesfromtheCLC(B2level)
© UCLES/CUP 2011

B2.1 Adverbialsubordinateclauseswith–ingthatprecedetheclausetowhichtheyareattached 
Thesearesubordinateclauseswithverbsendingin–ing(e.g.walkingdowntheroad).Thesesubordinateclauses x Talkingaboutsparetime,Ithinkwe
precedethemainclauseandactlikeadverbsmodifyingthemainclause(e.g.Walkingdowntheroad,hepumpedinto couldgototheArtMuseum
alamppost).
B2.2 It+Verb+infinitive 
[ItExtrapositionwithinfinitivalphrases] x …itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyour
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingonemainclausebeginningwithItandaVerb,followedbyasubordinate groupaswell.
complementclausewithaVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb)(e.g.Itislikelytoraintomorrow).
B2.3 WHͲword+VerbPhraseclausesusedassubjectorobject 
[PseudoͲclefttype(ii)WHͲVP] x Whatattractedmethemostwasthe
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHͲword(e.g.what)followedbyaVerbandoftenaNounPhrase(e.g. possibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe
whatinterestsme).TheWHͲwordisthesubjectoftheVerbinthisclause(i.e.whatisthesubjectofinterest).The sameinterests.
Pseudoclefttype(ii)structuretypicallyappearswithinanothersentenceasasubject(Whatinterestsmeispolitics)or x Butwhatcameafterwaswhatreally
asanobject(complement)(Iknowwhatinterestsme). changedmysummer!
 
B2.4 Verb+object+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat 
[VerbswithanNPplusfinitecomplementclause,NPͲVͲNPͲS] x ItoldhimIlovedhissongs
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingonemainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandaVerbfollowedbyaNoun x Shetoldmethatshehadworkedfor
Phraseandasubordinatecomplementclause(e.g.hetoldmethattheaudiencewasleaving).Thesubordinate summercampforchildren
complementclausecanbeoptionallyintroducedbythat.
B2.5 Verb+object+adjective 
[Secondarypredications,NPͲVͲNPͲAdjP] x Butifyoudon’twanttotakeanyrisks,
TheseareclausescomprisingaNounandaVerb,whichisfollowedbyaNounPhraseandanAdjective(e.g.hepainted justgoandpaintthehousesyellow
thecarred).TheNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbisthedirectobject(thecar)andtheadjective(red)complements andblue
thatobject.InSecondaryPredicationconstructions,thedirectobjectoftheverb(thecar)alsocontractsasecondary
relationwiththefollowingpredicate(isorbecomesred).
B2.6 theverbsappear,cease,fail,happen,prove,turnout,andtheadjectivescertain,likely,sure,unlikely+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Tomyregret,theeveningtotally
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandfollowedbytheVerbsappear, failedtoliveuptomyexpectations.
cease,fail,happen,prove,turnout(e.g.Thenoiseceased)ortheVerbbeandtheAdjectivescertain,likely,sure, 
unlikely(e.g.Johnislikely)andasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalverb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thenoiseceasedtogeton
hisnerves).IntheSubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaisingconstructions,thesubjectofthemainVerbisalsothelogicalsubjectof
theinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitssubjectpositionwithinthesubordinateclausetobecomethesubjectof
themainclause(‘SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising’).
  

21



 B2.7 imagine,prefer+object+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising,NPͲVͲNPͲVPinfin] x YouweresokindandfriendlythatI
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsimagineorprefer hadneverimaginedmyselftohave
22

(e.g.Iwouldprefer),followedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.I visitedfarforeigncountry,Alaska.
wouldprefermyaccommodationtobeinlogcabins).TheNounPhrasemyaccommodationisthedirectobjectofthe x Iwouldprefermyaccommodationto
mainVerbandthelogicalsubjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthe beinlogcabins,becauseIamallergic
subjectofthesubordinateclausetobecomethedirectobjectofthemainclause(‘SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising’). tosomeinsectsthatmightgointhe
tent.

B2.8 theverbsexpected,known,obliged,thought(inPassivevoice)+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaisingplusPassive,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Yourtheatreisknowntopresentexcelle
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsexpect,know,oblige spectacles.
orthinkinthepassiveform(e.g.Smokingisknown),followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb x Sozooscouldbetheonlyplacewhere
(to+Verb)(e.g.Smokingisknowntocausecancer).TheNounPhraseSmokingisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause peoplecouldspendtheirtime
thathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.smokingasinWeknowsmokingtocausecancer)(hence x avoidingthepollutionweareobligedto
‘SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising’).Itisthenfurtherpromotedtosubjectpositioninthemainclausebytheoperationofthe livewitheveryday.
Passive. 
B2.9 difficult,good,hard+infinitive 
[ToughMovementconstructionswiththeadjectivesdifficult,good,hard] x ThefirstRestaurantis"Mexico",itis
These are complex clauses comprising a main clausebeginning with aNoun Phrase,the Verb beand the adjectives situatednearthemetrostationandis
difficult,goodorhard(e.g.Applesaregood)followedbyasubordinateinfinitivalclause(e.g.Applesaregoodtoeat). notverydifficulttofind.
InToughMovementstructuresthesubjectofthemainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause, x Thegrammarandvocabularyarea
whichhasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.toeatapples)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Apples bithardtolearn.
isthelogicalobjectofeatingandthiswholeevent(eatingapples)isclaimedtobegood,notnecessarilytheapples 
themselves.TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovementconstructionscanoccupyothernonͲsubjectpositionsinthe
subordinateclausee.g.Thestudentiseasytostudywith.
B2.10 Doubleembeddedgenitivewith((of…)–’s) 
(An[[of]Ͳs]doubleembeddingofanofgenitivewithinanͲsgenitive) x AfterthatIwenttoafriendofmine’s
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.war)precededbyanͲsgenitive(possessive)phrasewhich housewhereIspentoneweek.
containsan–ofgenitivephrase(e.g.thekingofEngland’swar).

© UCLES/CUP 2011
 Table6:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC1level

 Structure/feature ExamplesfromtheCLC(C1level)
© UCLES/CUP 2011

C1.1 theverbchance+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x DearSirs,Ichancedtoknowaboutyour
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbchance(e.g.Ichance), Competitionfromaninternational
followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.IchancedtoknowaboutyourCompetitionfrom magazine.
an international magazine). In the SubjectͲtoͲSubject Raising constructions, the subject of the main Verb is also the
logicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitspositionasasubjectofthesubordinateclausetobecome
thesubjectofthemainclause(hence‘SubjectͲtoͲSubjectRaising’).
C1.2 believe,find,suppose,take+object+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising,NPͲVͲNPͲVPinfin] x Ifindthistobemoreinterestingthan
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsbelieve,find,supposeor thewalkingroutetoLakeHawksmere.
takefollowedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithan infinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Ifindthistobemore x OverallIfoundthistobepretty
interestingthanthewalkingroutetoLakeHawksmere).TheNounPhrasethisisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbfind satisfyingasitdoesfulfillmostofthe
and the logical subject of the subordinate infinitival clause, and it has moved out of its position as the subject of the students'wishes.
subordinateclausetobecomethedirectobjectofthemainclause(‘SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising’). 
C1.3 assumed,discovered,felt,found,proved(inPassivevoice)+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaisingplusPassive,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Thechildrenstorieswerefelttobethe
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsassumed,discovered, bestideaforkids,afterofcoursethe
feltorfoundinthepassiveform,(e.g.Thechildrenstorieswerefelt),followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitival ponyrides.
Verb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thechildrenstorieswerefelttobethebestideaforkids).TheNounPhraseThechildrenstoriesis 
thesubjectofthesubordinateclausethathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.Wefeltthechildrenstories
werethebestideaforkids)(‘SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising’).Itisthenfurtherpromotedtosubjectpositioninthemainclause
bytheoperationofthePassive.
C1.4 Doubleembeddedgenitivewith((–’s)–’s) 
(An[[Ͳs]Ͳs]doubleembeddingofan–sgenitivewithinan–sgenitive) x Afterspendingthefirstdayoftheir
ThesearecomplexphrasesconsistingofaNounPhrase(e.g.house)precededbyanͲsgenitive(possessive)phrasewhich marriageinthebride’sfamily’shouse
containsanotherͲsgenitive(possessive)phrase(e.g.thebride’sfamily’shouse).
C1.5 ModalMIGHTinthePermission(deontic)sense 
ThemodalverbmightisusedtodenotePermission. x MightItellyouwhatwediscuss?

23
 Table7:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC2level

 Structure/feature ExamplesfromtheCLC(C2level)
24

C2.1 declare,presume,remember+object+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising,NPͲVͲNPͲVPinfin] x Theydeclaresomeproductstobethe
These are complex clauses containing a main clause beginning with a Noun Phrase and the Verbs declare, presume or hitsoftheseason,thuscreatingfashion,
rememberfollowedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Hepresumedwork andfewofuswanttobeunfashionable
tobethewaytolive.).TheNounPhraseworkisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbpresumedandthelogicalsubjectofthe x Plus,Iremembermyclassestobevery
subordinateinfinitivalclausetobe,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthesubjectofthesubordinateclausetobecome participative,anddynamic.
thedirectobjectofthemainclause(‘SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaising’). 
C2.2 theverbpresumed(inPassiveVoice)+infinitive 
[SubjectͲtoͲObjectRaisingplusPassive,NPͲVͲVPinfin] x Notonlymeetingswithpeopleare
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbpresumedinthepassive presumedtogivenewexperiences.
form, (e.g. Not only meetings with people are presumed), followed by a subordinate clause with an infinitival Verb
(to+Verb)(e.g.Notonlymeetingswithpeoplearepresumedtogivenewexperiences).TheNounPhrasemeetingsisthe
subjectofthesubordinateclausethathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.Wepresumemeetingstobe)
(‘SubjectͲtoͲObject Raising’). It is then further promoted to subject position in the main clause by the operation of the
Passive.
C2.3 tough+infinitive 
[ToughMovementconstructionswiththeadjectivetough] x Whatsheknewwouldbereallytough
ThesearecomplexclausesbeginningwithaNounPhrase,theVerbbeandtheAdjectivetough(e.g.ourteamwastough) tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.
followedbyaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.ourteamwastoughtobeat).InToughMovementstructures,thesubjectof
themainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,whichhasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.to
beatourteam)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Ourteamisthelogicalobjectofbeatandthiswholeevent
(beatingourteam)isclaimedtobetough,notnecessarilyourteamitself.TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovement
constructionscanoccupyothernonͲsubjectpositionsinthesubordinateclausee.g.Whatsheknewwouldbereallytough
tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath

© UCLES/CUP 2011
 c) Examplesoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovebetweenadjacentlevels

Table8:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenA2toB1levels
© UCLES/CUP 2011


Keytofourerrortypestables8Ͳ11:bold=error,(word)=correction,[word]=errorhasbeencorrected,[]=unnecessarywordremoved

 Errortype ExamplesfromtheCLC(A2level)
1. AnaphorAgreement 
Whentheanaphorwordiscorrectandtheformoftheanaphorisvalidbutwrongin It'sthreeyearsoldandheworksverywell,butIwouldlikeanewcomputer.(it)
thecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan Ihavealotof[books].Iboughtoneyearsago.(them)
AnaphorAgreementerror.
2. FormofDeterminer 
Whenthearticles‘a’and‘an’areconfused. …amonthagoIboughtanhandheld.(a)
Thisisainterestingplace!(an)

3. MissingAdjective 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadjectiveforcompletenessandthat Here'realotofkindsofanimals.(lotofdifferentkinds)
adjectivehasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdjectiveerror. Theweatherisfantastic,we[allhave]reallyfun…(reallygoodfun)

4. MissingAdverb 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadverbforcompletenessandthat Ithinkwewill[]haveagoodtime[.]Hopetoseeyou(seeyousoon)
adverbhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdverberror. Youcangetbycar.(getthereby)

5. MissingConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaconjunction/linkword(orwords)for You[want]thispleasecallme.(Ifyou)
completenessandthatwordhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingConjunctionerror. IhopeIgobytrainsoIwillarriveat5o'clock,especiallyIwanttoplay[]yournew
videogame…(especiallybecauseIwant)

6. MissingQuantifier 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaquantifierforcompletenessandthat Iwillbuynewtrousersandapairofshoes.(buysomenew)
quantifierhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingQuantifiererror.
7. InflectionofQuantifier 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe Ithinkthatwecangoforawalk,rideabike,playfootballandotherssports.(other)
quantifier. Iboughta[pairof]trouser[s]andsomes[TͲshirts].(some)

8. ReplaceQuantifier 
Whenavalidquantifierwordinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpart Iwanttosellmanydolls.(alotof)
ofspeechbutnotthecorrectquantifier,itisaReplaceQuantifiererror. IwillmovetoothercitysoIwanttosellit.(another)
25

 
  
 9. UnnecessaryQuantifier 
Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction Myhobbiesaresuchassinging,dancinganddrawing.
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect,itisan IwanttosellthistablebecauseIhaveanewothertable!
26

UnnecessaryQuantifiererror.

Table9:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenB1toB2levels

 Errortype ExamplesfromtheCLC(B1level)
1. DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whereaconjunction/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidwordbut Ididn'tdoanything,accept[put]anewbedinmybedroom.(except)
hasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,it Now,I'mmoreattentiveinreadingletters...(when)
isaDerivationofConjunctionerror.
2. DerivationofDeterminer 
Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas I'mreallyglad,becauseyouwanttovisitminecountry.(my)
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa Youaskedmeaboutthebestplacetospendyoutime...(your)
DerivationofDeterminererror.
3. FormofDeterminer 
Whenthearticles‘a’and‘an’areconfused. Thefilmhasanhappyend...(a)
SendmeaeͲmail…(an)

4. InflectionofDeterminer 
When the learner has created a feasible but nonͲvalid inflected form of the It was really interesting to hear about all the different people and theirs
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein [backgrounds].(their)
numberwiththenounwhichitprecedes.
5. InflectionofQuantifier 
When the learner has created a feasible but nonͲvalid inflected form of the Ifyouhaveothersquestionspleasecontactme!(other)
quantifier. I think I will go [to] the park, near the zoo, where severals sports are [played].
(several)

6. InflectionofVerb 
Whenthelearnerhasmadeafalseassumptionaboutwhetheraverbisregularor …allthewallsarewhiteandI'vehanged[a]fewpaintingsonthem.(hung)
irregular and inflected it accordingly.  Most commonly, the error is caused by Afterthefilmwehaddinnerandwechatedaboutthefilm…(chatted)
puttingregularinflectionsonirregularverbs.

© UCLES/CUP 2011




 Table10:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenB2toC1levels

 Errortype ExamplesfromtheCLC(B2level)
© UCLES/CUP 2011

1. Agreement 
Whenthewordiscorrectandtheformofthewordisvalidbutwronginthe Iknowthatthiskindofjobsarewellpaid...(thesekinds)
contextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan …youcantrytheclothesyouchooseonandbesurethatitfitsyou.(theyfit)
Agreementerror.
2. NounAgreement 
Whenthenouniscorrectandtheformofthenounisvalidbutwronginthecontext Ifyouworkedwithmewewouldspendagoodsummerholidaystogether.(holiday)
becauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisaNoun Thishasbeenthemainreasontobanthesekindofplacesnowadays.(kinds)
Agreementerror.
3. ArgumentStructure 
Wherethestructureofasentenceorphrasecontravenesrulesofbothgrammar ButpleasetellmehowistheweatherinScotlandatthistime.(whatistheweather
andwordorderitisanargumentstructureerror. like)
Therefore,Ithinkyoushouldpaysomemoneybackforme.(paymesomemoney
back)

4. CountabilityofDeterminer 
Whenadeterminerformisusedwhichisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityof Whydoyougivethoseinformationinanadvertis[e]ment?(this)
thenountowhichitrefers,itisaCountabilityofDeterminererror. …justtofindthatperfecttinofbeansoratoothpaste.(some)

5. DerivationofAnaphor 
Whereananaphorresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidwordbuthasbeen Itwasverykindofyourstoinviteustoyourhome.(you)
incorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa
DerivationofAnaphorerror.
6. DerivationofConjunction 
Whereaconjugation/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidword …youareabletotakebooksanywhereyouwantto[,]eventhebookistooheavy.
buthasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrect (unless)
affix,itisaDerivationofConjunctionerror. Idon'tthinktelevisioncanreplacebooks,aswellasIdon'tbel[ie]vebookscan
replacetelevision.(and)

7. DerivationofDeterminer 
Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas PeoplerelyonmeasIalwayskeepmepromises.(my)
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa Claralookedathewatch.(her)
DerivationofDeterminererror.
8. InflectionofDeterminer 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe …Ithinkthisexperiencewouldbeuseful[on]yourscampsites.(your)
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein Ithinkanimalshelpuswithunderstandingnotonlytheirsbutalsoourown
numberwiththenounwhichitprecedes. [behaviour].(their)
27


  
 9. FormofAdjective Well,inmyopinionmythirdchoiceisthebetter.(best)
Whenavalidformoftheadjective(positive,comparative,orsuperlative)hasbeen …Ihadtheworsetime[of]mylife.(worst)
usedbutisthewrongforminthecontext. 
28

10. FormofAdverb 
Whenavalidformoftheadverb(positive,comparative,orsuperlativeform)has …[the]solution[that]better[satisfies]ourneeds.(best)
beenusedbutisthewrongforminthecontext. ButIwouldliketolivenearest,andtogotherebybicycle.(nearer)

11. FormofNoun 
Whenthesingularformofanounisusedwherethecontextdemandsaplural,or She'sonholidaysnext15thofJuly.(holiday)
viceversa. …mostofuswouldneverhavehadthechancetoseesomekindofanimals.(kinds)

12. FormofQuantifier 
Whenavalidformofthequantifier(singularorpluralform)hasbeenusedbutis …inmoreofthecases…(inmostcases)
thewrongforminthecontext. The[I]nternetmakesusabletofollowsportsevents,concertsandpoliticalspeeches
whicharethousandofmilesawayfromus.(thousands)
13. FormofVerb 
Wheneitherofthebase,Ͳingandto+infinitiveformsoftheverbhavebeenused Ifyouhaveanymorequestionsdon'thesitateaskingme!(toask)
whereanotherformisrequired. Yourideaaboutfindajobbeforestartingcollegeisgreat.(finding)

14. InflectionofAdjective 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe …Ialsoknowthatyouorganiseconferencesanddifferentsactivities.(different)
adjective.Thiscodealsocoversinstanceswherelearnersmistakenlymake Themosteasiestway...(easiest)
adjectivesagreewiththenounstheymodify.
15. InflectionofAnaphor 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe This[choice]doesn'tgivemanyartiststhe[opportunity]to[express]themself.
pronoun. (themselves)
…eachfriendofmines…(mine)

16. InflectionofQuantifier 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe …we[can]findfews[in]thenewspaper.(afew)
quantifier. …Imadeseveralsphonecalls…(several)

17. MissingAdjective 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadjectiveforcompletenessandthat Aretheyatadiscount,too?(theyavailableata)
adjectivehasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdjectiveerror. Iftherearemanycarsinacity,youwasteyourtime[]standing.(standingstill)
© UCLES/CUP 2011


18. MissingConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaconjunction/linkword(orwords)for SoitwouldbebetterI[wrote]aletter(betterifI)
completenessandthatwordhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingConjunctionerror. Thatwasmybestdayever,theoneIsharedamealwithPaulMcPartney.(onewhen
Ishared)
19. MissingDeterminer Herneighboursweremakingnoiseagain.(makinganoise)
 Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresadeterminerforcompletenessandthat Playingfootballisgoodforhealth.(foryourhealth)
determinerhasbeenomitted. 
20. MissingPreposition 
© UCLES/CUP 2011

Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaprepositionforcompletenessandthat Ilookforwardhearingfromyou.(forwardtohearing)
prepositionhasbeenomitted. OnethingIdon'tknowisthepay.(knowaboutis)

21. MissingQuantifier 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaquantifierforcompletenessandthat TheorganisergavemearadioandIhadtoadvisetheotherstaffmembersincaseof
quantifierhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingQuantifiererror. disorder.(caseofanydisorder)
Inthelastyears,therehasbeenagreatimprovement...(lastfewyears)

22. MissingVerb 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaverbforcompletenessandthatverb Afterthatwewillbackhome.(willcomeback)
hasbeenomitted. Whilebeforeitwouldenoughtoknow…(wouldhavebeenenough)

23. UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whenanunnecessaryextraconjunction/linkwordhasbeenusedinasentenceor …Iwasalsoworkingwithchildreninmytown,becauseinordertogetmoremoney.
constructioninsuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. Shethoughtonlymagicthatcouldhelpherbutitwasimpossible.

24. UnnecessaryPreposition 
Whenanunnecessaryextraprepositionhasbeenusedinasentenceor Iamlookingforwardtohearingaboutyouranswer.
constructioninsuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. Goingforshoppingisagoodthing…

25. UnnecessaryQuantifier 
Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction That'swhyIdon'tagreewithsomepeoplewhothinkthatkeepinganimalsiscruel
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect,itisan andunnecessary.
UnnecessaryQuantifiererror. Yourfriendswillwithoutnodoubt[]trytohelpyou,anddon'tforgetitisnottoo
lateyet.

26. UnnecessaryVerb 
Whenanunnecessaryextraverbhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstructionin Couldyoutellmeabouthowmuchdoyouwanttogetperhour...
suchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. Wealldecidedtogotohaveadaybytheseaside...

27. NegativeFormation 
Whenanattempttoconstructanegativeresultsinaninvalidconstruction. Ihadn'tagoodtime!(didn’thave)
Icouldnothardlybelieveit.(hardly)

28. ComplexError 
Whereanungrammaticalandincomprehensiblestringofwordsarewrittenanditis Iwishyoutospendyourstayasmoreexcitingasyoucan.
impossibletocorrectthem,itisaComplexError. Withoutstatesofminds,shesucceededinmakingmefeelthatlifewasgoingon.

29


 Table11:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenC1toC2levels

 Errortype ExamplesfromtheCLC(C1level)
30

1. AnaphorAgreement 
Whentheanaphorwordiscorrectandtheformoftheanaphorisvalidbutwrongin IwasexpectingtomeetafriendofminewhichlivesinSt.Andrews…(who)
thecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan Thesetwocomputergamesarecurrentlyoneofthebestfootballgame[s][]madein
AnaphorAgreementerror. thisdecade.(two)

2. DeterminerAgreement 
Whenthedetermineriscorrectandtheformofthedeterminerisvalidbutwrong Despitethelengthofthejourneytherewasnotanytoiletavailable[on]thecoach.
inthecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisa (a)
DeterminerAgreementerror. Fashionwasa[general]word,meaningthetwotypesofclotheswhichwerewornin
thatdays:...those)

3. VerbAgreement 
Whentheverbiscorrectandtheformoftheverbisvalidbutwronginthecontext Somethingwhichgrowsinpopularityarethesolarcells.(is)
becauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisaVerbAgreement Theworldhavechanged.(has)
error.
4. ArgumentStructure 
Wherethestructureofasentenceorphrasecontravenesrulesofbothgrammar Idemandanapologytobepublishedinyournewspaper...(demandthatanapology
andwordorderitisanargumentstructureerror.Theseerrorsareoftencalquesor be)
directtranslationsofL1structures. Thenintheadvertisementitiswrittensomethingaboutasocialprogrammewhich
istotallyabsent.(somethingiswritten)

5. CountabilityofDeterminer 
Whenadeterminerformisusedwhichisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityof Ihopeyouwillbeabletoimprovetheprogrammewiththese[information]...(this)
thenountowhichitrefers,itisaCountabilityofDeterminererror. …wearequitesurethatyouwillfindasuitableaccommodation()

6. CountabilityofNoun 
Whenanouncantakeonlyoneformbecauseitisuncountable,butaninvalid [However]wehaveanicegarden,whereinsummerourstudentsoftenspendtheir
pluralizedformhasbeenused,itisaCountabilityofNounerror. breakordotheirhomeworks.(homework)
Itisknownthatradiationscomingfromamobilephonecan be[heartdamaging].
(radiation)

7. CountabilityofQuantifier 
© UCLES/CUP 2011

Whenaquantifierisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityofthenountowhichit …thegroupsshouldhaveincludedlesspeople.(fewer)
refers,itisaCountabilityofQuantifiererror. Notonlyhaditsmalllegroombutalsothesafetybeltswereoutoforder.(little)

8. DerivationofAdjective 
Whereanadjectiveresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidadjectivebuthas Tosumup,thetourwasacompletelydisaster.(complete)
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa 
DerivationofAdjectiveerror.
 9. DerivationofAdverb 
Whereanadverbresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidadverbbuthasbeen …inoneword,everythingissosimple.(inaword)
incorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa Asrecentastenyearsago,...(recently)
© UCLES/CUP 2011

DerivationofAdverberror.
10. DerivationofAnaphor 
Whereananaphorresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidanaphorbuthasbeen It'sapleasuretoworkwithyourforanotheryear.(you)
incorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa AlltogetherIwouldliketostressthattheconferencewasveryusefultomyand
DerivationofAnaphorerror. helpedmeinmycareer.(me)

11. DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whereaconjunction/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidword Bythetimemygrandparentswereyoung,thereweresomanynormsandrulesand
buthasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrect restrictionsabouthowyoushouldlook:…(When)
affix,itisaDerivationofConjunctionerror. …peopleseemnottohaveenoughtimetohavesomerest,noteventocook!(or)

12. DerivationofDeterminer 
Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas Youreportintentionallyhurtourfeelings…(Your)
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa Itnameis"Superstar".(Its)
DerivationofDeterminererror. 
13. DerivationofPreposition 
Whereaprepositionresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidprepositionbuthas Notlikealotofotherbankswhichhurried[into]lau[n]chingtheirownproduct...
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa (Unlike)
DerivationofPrepositionerror. Relatedtothegym,it[cannot]beclosed.(Regarding)

14. DerivationofQuantifier 
Whereaquantifierresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidquantifierbuthas AlthoughIlikecomputersthecompanywhichIusedtoworkfordidn'tgiveaspecial
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa [training]…(any)
DerivationofQuantifiererror. …apparentlythesedaystherewasnoneshowprepared.(no)

15. FormofAdjective 
Whenavalidformoftheadjective(positive,comparative,orsuperlative)hasbeen Theysaidthatitwastheworsestrikeeverandthatitwouldlastalongtime.(worst)
usedbutisthewrongforminthecontext. Thisisthemostsimplewayforourcompanytoreachthetop.(simplest)

16. FormofAnaphor 
Whenavalidformofthepronoun(uninflectedorinflectedform)hasbeenusedbut Everyonewantstoachievehighermarksthanother.(others)
itisthewrongforminthecontext. …a[cheque]fromyourself…(you)

17. FormofDeterminer 
Whenthearticles‘a’and‘an’areconfused. Thesethreethingsaretheonesthatweconsidertobeofmoreimportance.(most)
Wearefortunateenoughtohaveagovernmentwhichregardseducationasa
importantthing…(an)
31


  
 18. FormofNoun Despitehavingtopaysuchheftyamounttodrive,…(amounts)
Whenthesingularformofanounisusedwherethecontextdemandsaplural,or Thankyouforyourconsiderations.(consideration)
viceversa. 
32

19. FormofQuantifier 
Whenavalidformofthequantifier(singularorpluralform)hasbeenusedbutis …moviesandcopiesfromanothercountries…(other)
thewrongforminthecontext. Justtrytogetoutmoreandusemoderntechnologyaslessaspossible.(little)

20. InflectionofAdjective 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe …whichresultedinhugesqueues.(huge)
adjective.Thiscodealsocoversinstanceswherelearnersmistakenlymake …you'llseethattheirlifestylewasmuchquieter,simplierandslower.(simpler)
adjectivesagreewiththenounstheymodify. 
21. InflectionofAdverb 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformoftheadverb. NobodyfrommygroupgotfarerfromtheHotel's[lobby]...(further)
…weneedtodothingsquicklierthanbefore…(morequickly)

22. InflectionofAnaphor 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe Theseservicesareonlythefirstpackageofseverals[]whichwillfollowoverthenext
anaphor. 12months[.](several)
Eachtimeeverythingschanges.(everything)

23. InflectionofDeterminer 
WhenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonͲvalidinflectedformofthe …becauseoursclassesfinishatseveno'clockp.m.(our)
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein …andthentraveltoyour'sfriend[s']countries.(your)
numberwiththenounwhichitprecedes.
24. MissingAdverb 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadverbforcompletenessandthat Thesecasesarefewandfarbetweentotakeplaceinreallife.(aretoofew)
wordhasbeenomitted. Furthermore,becauseofthisincidentImissedachancetoseemyfriend,whenwe
hadarrangedourmeeting.(hadalreadyarranged)

25. MissingDeterminer 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresadeterminerforcompletenessandthat …itwasreallyverydifficulttofindsomekindofentertainmentexceptwatchingTV
wordhasbeenomitted. inrooms.(inourrooms)
Thequalityoflunchyouprovidedwasthenextproblem.(ofthelunch)


© UCLES/CUP 2011

26. MissingNoun 
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanounforcompletenessandthatword Bytheway,thetrainwilltakeyouaboutthreeandahalfhoursandcostaround40
hasbeenomitted. marks.(trainjourneywill)
…thedepartmenthasaverylimitedofficeequipment.(limitedamountofoffice)

27. MissingVerb 
 Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaverbforcompletenessandthatword …theorganisershadneverpromisedthat45stallsbepresent…(stallswouldbe)
hasbeenomitted. Thiswouldnotonlyreducethetrafficcon[g]estionprobleminthecity,italsoenable
peopletoownacar...(itwillalso)
© UCLES/CUP 2011


28. ReplaceAdverb 
Whenavalidadverbinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartof …theoneabouttourismwashighabovestandard.(well)
speechbutnotthecorrectadverb. Ihavenoticedthatbreakfastisnomoreafamilything.(longer)

29. ReplaceQuantifier 
 Ihopemysuggestionswillbeofanyusetoyou.(some)
Whenavalidquantifierinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartof Moreover,thereareonlytwotelephonesforallofthedepartment.(thewholeof
speechbutnotthecorrectword. the)

30. ReplaceVerb 
Whenavalidverbinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartofspeech Inthiscontext,wecannotoverseethechangingroleofwomen...(overlook)
butnotthecorrectverb. Itdependsfromonepersontothenext.(differs)

31. UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord) 
Whenanunnecessaryextraconjunction/linkwordhasbeenusedinasentenceor Wehavegotenoughtimetodosomethingforentertainment,suchasdoingsports,
constructioninsuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. watchingmovies,andetc.
AsIknowtwopeople[in]thegroupwouldliketogoforlongwalks.

32. UnnecessaryDeterminer 
Whenanunnecessaryextradeterminerhasbeenusedinasentenceor Thehostfamiliesareverykindandhospitableandtheywillalsogiveyouaverygood
constructioninsuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. food.

33. UnnecessaryNoun 
Whenanunnecessaryextranounhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstructionin So,wesuggestavisittoanightclubdiscowherewecanhearsomemodernmusic
suchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. anddance.
Bothhotelscanprovidefullboardmealsandnicecomfortablerooms.

34. UnnecessaryQuantifier 
Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction Afterallthisterribleexperiencewithyourcompany...
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect. Wearehardly[ever]atalossforwordswhenmeetingsomeclients.


35. ComplexError 
Whereanungrammaticalandincomprehensiblestringofwordsarewrittenanditis Pacino'scareerexperienceseemstobeexplodingathismaximum.
impossibletocorrectthem,itisaComplexError. AndfinallyIwouldliketomakeagainnotewecouldn'ttakeanexam.(mention
33

againthat)

 d) AnexampleofhowagrammaticalfeaturedevelopsinlearnerlanguageacrosstheCEFRlevels

Table12:ThedevelopmentofusageofuncountablenounsacrossCEFRlevels
34


 Typicaluseofstructure/feature
A1 Canusesomeuncountablenounscorrectly:
information,money,time,work
withalimitedrangeofdeterminers:
some,alotof,the
 Ihavegotalotofinformationabouttheshops
A2 Canuseanincreasingrangeofcommonuncountable
nounscorrectlywithanincreasingsmallrangeofitems
beforeanoun:
alotof,some,more,theimportant
B1 Canuseanincreasingrepertoireofuncountablenouns
correctlywithagreaterrangeofitemsbeforethe
noun:
the,further,more,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful
 x 250ofthemareveryyoungandtheyneedalotof
Errorspersistwiththemostcommonitems.
B2 Canuseanincreasingrepertoireofuncountablenouns
correctlywithagreaterrangeofitemsbeforethe
noun:
the,further,more,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful,following,no
 Tourismhasaninevitablefactofbringingahuge
Errorsincreasewiththemostcommonitems.
© UCLES/CUP 2011
Examples MostcommonerrorsandCLCexamplesatthelevel
SheusuallydoesthehouseworkonSunday. homeworks,breads,houseworks
 
Ihavealotofworkincollege. x Idon’tlikehomeworks.
 x Shelooksafterthechildreneveryday.Thenshedoes
thehouseworksinherhouse.
nearourarea. x Youcanbuyalltypesoffruits,sauces,breads.

Canyouhelpme?Ineedmoreinformationabout informations,musics,papers,loves,homeworks
thiscourse. 
x Ihavesomeinformationsabouttheartclass.
x Youhavetobringapenandsomepapers.

Ourpresentaccommodationistoosmallforus. informations,equipments,homeworks,advices,furnitures,
 countrysides,works,softwares,trainings
Ifyouneedfurtherinformationjustask. 
x I’mlookingforwardtohearingfromyouifyourequire
furtherinformations.
trainings.

Abetterwayofspendingthemoneyistobuilda informations,advices,equipments,transports,
newfitnessclub. knowledges,works,spending,trainings,homeworks,
 researches,furnitures,behaviours,damages
IwouldliketoknowifIneedextramoney. 
 x Pleasesendmealltheinformationsandthe
application.
sumofmoneytolocalbusinesses. x Ithinkbothofthemhavereasonablepricesfortheir
foods.


C1 Canuseanincreasingrepertoireofuncountablenouns Formoredetailedinformationyoumaycontact informations,transports,trainings,equipments,advices,

correctlywithagreaterrangeofitemsbeforethe meon... knowledges,softwares,researches,furnitures,tuitions,
noun:  spendings,accommodations,feedbacks,congestions
the,further,more,some,this,interesting,detailed, Theyhavealreadybeenequippedwiththe 
useful,additional,essential,upͲtoͲdate necessaryhardwareandsoftwareandhaveaccess x Forreadersthatarelesskeenonsports,anarticle
 totheinternetandourdatabase. containingsomesimpleadvicesonhowtokeepfitwill
 Errorsincreasewiththemostcommonitemsandwith  bemorepleasanttoread.
determiners. Theonlycriticismwecanmakeistheamountof x Ihadasmallproblemwithtransports,becausethe
equipment. nearestbusstopwasabouttwomilesfaraway.
© UCLES/CUP 2011

x Thethreecomputerswereacquiredinordertoreplace
theoutͲofͲdateequipmentsthatwereusedbythe
GeneralManager.

C2 Canuseanincreasingrepertoireofuncountablenouns Researchanddevelopmenthaspreventedmanyof advices,behaviours,informations,researches
correctlywithagreaterrangeofitemsbeforethe usfromillnesses... 
noun:  x Readingthesebooksareveryinteresting,asmany
the,further,more,some,this,interesting,detailed, Itisforthesepeoplethatamagazinesuchasyours advicesarehiddeninside.
useful,additional,essential,upͲtoͲdate,enough, shouldgiveextensiveadvice. x Eventhoughsomeofourchildhoodinfluencesmay
provide  leadustonegativebehavioursasadults,suchasbeing
 Inaddition,therehasalsobeensignificant messy,itmightbeagoodideatobethankfulforthe
Errorsdecreasebutpersistwiththemostcommon damagetoourhouses:wallsandceilingscracking, goodinfluences.
items. rooftilescomingloose,andoccasionallywindow x Youcanevenexchangeyourteachingandlearning
panesbeingshattered! experiencesorinformationswithotherschools
throughcomputers.
x Allinformationsinthisstatementareprovidedwith
mybestknowledge.
x Manyresearcheshavebeenmadealreadyinorderto
findoutifotherplanets,likethemoon,MarsorVenus,
aresuitableforhumanlife.


Thesefindingsongrammararestilltentativeandsuggestfutureresearchdirections,includingextendingtheconceptof"criteriality"totheanalysistoother
samples of learner language and in particular to speech. Spoken language data is being collected and corpora are being built with the necessary
computationaltoolstoenabletheresearchtobeextendedinthatdirection.Inaddition,afocusontheCͲlevelscontinueswiththecollectionofacademic
Englishwritingsamples.WorkisunderwaytoproduceanEnglishGrammar Profileresourcethatboth documentsandpresentsthesefindingsinauserͲ
friendlyway,inlinewiththegeneralEnglishProfileapproach.
35
3TheEnglishFunctionsProfile

ThisresearchstrandreͲexaminestheuseoflanguagefunctionsindefininglanguageconstructsacrosstheability
rangeandinsettinglearningobjectiveswhicharesensitivetotheproficiencyleveloflearners.ThispartoftheEP
Programmeisprimarilyconcernedwiththeinputtothelearners:inotherwords,thefunctionsthatprovidethe
learningobjectivesaspartofacommunicativesyllabusateachleveloftheCEFR,andthereadingtextswhichare
judged to be suitable for different levels and which are presented to the learners for pedagogic purposes. This
researchworkisbasedonthefunctionalͲnotionalapproachwhichunderpinstheCEFRandwhichledtotheuseof
CanDostatementswithinitsGlobalScaleandbankofIllustrativeScales.EnglishProfilesuggestspracticalwaysin
whichtheexistingCanDostatementsintheCEFRcanbeexpandedandrefinedbyprovidingadditionaldetailwith
referencetocontextsofusewhichareparticularlyrelevanttolearnersofEnglish.

Languagefunctionsaimtocapturenotwhatlearnersknowaboutalanguage,orwhataspectsofthelanguagethey
areabletouse(i.e.thelexicoͲgrammaticalaspectsoflanguage),butrathertheyintendtoconveyhowlearnersuse
thelanguage:whattheycandowithitinsocialcontexts.Wheninvestigatingfunctions,inadditiontotheCEFR,
English Profile builds on the Threshold Series or TͲseries (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998a, 1998b, 2001; Trim
2009). The TͲseries was instrumental in promoting a communicative approach to language teaching from the
1970sonwardsandcoveredproficiencylevelsthatarenowassociatedwithCEFRA2(Waystage),B1(Threshold),
andB2(Vantage).AnA1(Breakthrough)specificationbyJohnTrimhasalsobeenmadeavailableelectronicallyfor
theEPProgrammeandallTͲseriespublicationsarenowfreelyaccessiblefromtheEnglishProfilewebsite.

AsGreen(2011)pointsout,theCEFR’sapproachwasclearlyinfluencedbyHymes(1972)andaconceptualization
of communicative competence which comprises both a “linguistic” and a “sociolinguistic” element. The
sociolinguistic dimension includes the dynamic interaction that occurs between the context and the discourse
produced.TheinteractionbetweencontextandthecognitiveprocessesofthelearnerunderpinsasocioͲcognitive
approachtolearning,teachingandassessmentonwhichtheCEFRitselfisbased,andwhichhasbeenimportantin
developingtheEnglishProfileProgrammeofresearch.

English Profile proposes a new, generative, Can Do
modelconsistingoffiveelementswhichcanbelinked DefininggenerativeCanDostatements:
to specific contexts and which can lead to a more 
‘framessettingouthowtheelementsoftheCEFR
detailedandtechnicaldefinitionoftheCEFRlevelsfor
modelmayinteractinshapingthedifficultyofdefined
English(seedefinitionalongside).
languageactivitiesandtasks.’(Green2011:160)
 
These Can Do statements are intended to help and ‘CanDostatements…shouldprovideenough
encourage practitioners to develop and validate Can informationtoguideusersincarryingoutavarietyof
Do statements to fit more appropriately with their purposes.Theyshouldoffersufficientdetailtoinform
own context and purposes, while at the same time, materialswritersandtestdevelopers(whoneedto
finding a way to relate them coherently to the operationalisethegeneralCEFRframeworkthrough
common framework. This aligns with the CEFR’s specific,contextualizedtasks);buttheyshouldalso
functions which are ‘widely interpretable … based on supportbriefersummarystatementsthatmight
communicatesuitablygeneralinformationtoothers,
the everyday expressions used by teachers’ (Green
suchastheusersoftestresults…Thestatements
2011:14).
shouldalsoserveasalinkbetweenthesedifferent
 purposes:usersshouldbeabletotracetheways
 inwhichtheelementsoftheframeworkare
 interpretedandrepresentedinthespecificdemands
 madeoflearnersinusinglanguagetocarryoutatask.’
 (Green2011:47)



36 © UCLES/CUP 2011
ThecomponentelementsproposedforthenewCanDostatementsincludethefollowing:

Activity:Can… The social act (function) or related sequence of acts (activity) that the learner
mightbeexpectedtoaccomplishbymeansofthelanguage,i.e.whatthelearner
cando
Theme/Topic/Setting:Concernedwith… The themes, topics and settings in relation to which the learner might be
expectedtoperform.IntheCEFR,applicablethemesaregroupedunderthefour
domains:educational,public,professionalandpersonal,i.e.whattheinteraction
isconcernedwith
Inputtext:Basedon… Thenatureofthetextthatthelearnermightberequiredtoprocessasabasisfor
his or her own contribution or to demonstrate his or her comprehension, i.e.
whatthecommunicationisbasedon
Outputtext:Producing… The nature of the text that the learner might be expected to produce or
participateinproducingtodemonstrate(aspecifieddegreeof)understandingor
toaccomplishatask
Qualities:Howwell? Thequalitiesthatthelearnerwouldbeexpectedtodemonstrateincarryingout
language activities. For production, these qualities are grouped under the CEFR
headingsofLinguistic,Pragmatic,SociolinguisticandStrategiccompetencesand
wouldanswerthequestionHowwell?
Restrictions:Providedthat… Physical or social conditions and constraints under which the learner would be
expectedtoperform,i.e.Providedthat…

Intermsoflanguagefunctions,EnglishProfilehasfocusedongettingabetterunderstandingofEnglishusedatthe
ClevelsbecausethesearetheleastwelldefinedintheCEFRandwerenotcoveredbytheTͲseries.Inkeepingwith
theevidenceͲledstanceoftheEnglishProfileProgramme,theseCanDostatementshaveastrongempiricalbasis.
EnglishProfileresearcherscollecteddataintheformoflanguagelearningmaterialswhicharealignedtotheCEFR
andareinusearoundtheworld.TherangeofsourcesthathaveinformedtheEnglishProfileCanDostatementsto
dateinclude:

x CEFRillustrativescales
x bestselling international textbooks and related support materials from different publishers including
CambridgeUniversityPress
x examinationhandbooksfromCambridgeESOL
x curriculumandsyllabusdocumentssourcedbyEnglishProfilepartnerssuchastheBritishCouncil,EnglishUK
andothers
x theBankofdescriptorsforselfͲassessmentinEuropeanLanguagePortfolios(Lenz&Schneider2004)
x online publications by educational institutions such as test specifications and handbooks, proficiency scales
andtextbooksupportmaterials
x additionalnonpubliclyavailablematerialsfromvariouseducationalcontexts.

ThroughtheEPNetwork(seeSections7and9),theresearchteamconsultedwidelyonthedevelopmentofthe
newCanDosfortheClevels.TheinventoryoftheserefinedandcontextualisedfunctionsisgiveninGreen2011in
the form of sets of English Profile Can Do statements. These Can Do Statements are reproduced here and are
dividedbymode(spokenorwritten)andwhetherrelevantforinteraction,productionorreception.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 37
 EnglishProfileCanDostatementsfortheClevels

38

Table13:CanDostatementsforSpokenInteractionattheClevels

Activity Topic/Setting Input Text Qualities–howwell? Restrictions
Can… Concernedwith… Basedon… Producing… Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic/(XStrategic) Provided
that…
1. accountforand complextechnical/  [spokeninteraction] P9.providingrelevantexplanations,argumentsand 
sustainhis/her abstracttopics discussion comments
opinions L2.isreadilycomprehensible
L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegrated
intotheflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants
2. discussthenature goodsorservices,  [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible 
andrelativemerits procedures,courses L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
ofparticular ofaction L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
choices appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto
theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
3. followand abstract,complex  [spokeninteraction] P11.turntakingisnatural 
contributeto unfamiliartopics groupdiscussion P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto
complex theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
interactions repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants
© UCLES/CUP 2011

betweenthird P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
parties tosimplification
L2.isreadilycomprehensible
L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
 S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
© UCLES/CUP 2011

X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
4. evaluate,restate matterswithintheir contributions [spokeninteraction] P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto 
andchallenge academicor fromother theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
professional participant repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants.
competence L2.isreadilycomprehensible
L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
5. framecritical familiartopics/  [spokeninteraction] P12.remarksarerelevant 
remarksorexpress matterswithintheir P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto
strong academicor theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
disagreementin professional repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants.
suchawayasto competence S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
minimiseany suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
offence L2.isreadilycomprehensible;L3.intonationisusedto
supportmeaning
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
6. expresssympathy personal  [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible 
orcondolence, relationships/ conversation L6.usesintonationandwordchoicetoexpressmood,
enquireintothe counsellingroles distinguishingbetweenshadesoffeeling
causesof L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
unhappinessor appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
sadnessandoffer context
comfort S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
 suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
7. discussworkwith matterswithintheir  [spokeninteraction] L5.usingappropriatetechnicalterminology 
colleagues academicor L2.isreadilycomprehensible
professional L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
competence P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
tosimplification
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
39

appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
 S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
40

P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto
theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
8. indicatelevelsof  requests [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible 
willingnessor  L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
reluctanceand L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
stateconditions appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
whenagreeingto context
requestsor S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
granting suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
permission
9. invite meetingsonmatters  [spokeninteraction] P12.playsaleadingpartindiscussionornegotiation 
participation, withintheir L2.isreadilycomprehensible
introducesissues, academicor L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
manages professional L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
contributions competence appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
10. summariseand meetingsonmatters  [spokeninteraction] P13.abletogainandholdfloor 
evaluatemain withintheir extendeddiscussionor P14.summaryisaccurate
pointsin academicor negotiation L2.isreadilycomprehensible
discussion professional L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
competence L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
11. enquireaboutand pricesand  [spokeninteraction] L5.usingappropriatetechnicalterminology 
negotiatespecial conditionsofsaleͲ extendednegotiation L2.isreadilycomprehensible
treatment rates,termsand L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
conditions P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
© UCLES/CUP 2011

tosimplification
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
 12. complainand poorservicee.g. service [spokeninteraction] L5.usingappropriatetechnicalterminology 
negotiateredress returningfaulty, agreements extendednegotiation L2.isreadilycomprehensible
© UCLES/CUP 2011

inappropriateor L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
unwantedgoodsand P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
negotiatingfora tosimplification
replacementor L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
refund appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
13. apologiseandask legal,regulatory  [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible infringements
forunderstanding matters:incaseof exchangeswithofficials L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning areminor
oftheirposition infringementsof L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
regulations appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
14. expressregrets   [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible 
andnegative L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
wishesor L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
intentions appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
 context
 S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
 suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
 X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
15. establishsolidarity  complaints [spokeninteraction] P15.contributionsareintegratedintotheflowofthe 
withinterlocutors aboutthird informalconversation(with discourseusinglinkingwords,repetitionofwords
through parties/ friends) usedbyotherparticipants
sympathetic conditions S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
questioningand suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
expressionsof L2.isreadilycomprehensible
agreement L6.usesintonationandwordchoicetoexpressmood,
distinguishingbetweenshadesoffeeling
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
41

X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary

 16. askforexplanation complex,abstract  [spokeninteraction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible 
orclarificationand ideas discussion L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
42

negotiate academic/ L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary

understanding professionalmatters appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
17. negotiateacourse   [spokeninteraction] P15.contributionsareintegratedintotheflowofthe 
ofactionwitha discussion discourseusinglinkingwords,repetitionofwords
partnerorgroup, usedbyotherparticipants
reportingonwhat L2.isreadilycomprehensible
othershavesaid, L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
summarizing, L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
elaboratingand appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
weighingup context
multiplepointsof S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
view suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary

Table14:CanDostatementsforSpokenProductionattheClevels

Activity Topic/Setting Inputtext Outputtext Qualities– howwell? Restrictions
Can… Concernedwith… Basedon… Producing… Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic/(XStrategic) Providedthat…
18. interpretspecialist complextechnical  [spokenproduction] L1.abletospeakatlengthasrequired topicsrelateto
topicstothe topics addressingaudiences L2.isreadilycomprehensible his/herfieldof
layperson  L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning interest
L4goodcommandofnonͲtechnicalcircumlocution, presentation
idiomaticexpressionsandcolloquialisms prepared
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary independently
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
P2.manipulatestheorderofelementstocontrol
informationfocus
S1.makestopicaccessibletothelayperson
© UCLES/CUP 2011

S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechtosuit
socialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
S3consistentregister
X1checkscomprehension
19. qualifyassertions complextechnical/  [spokenproduction] L1.abletospeakatlengthasrequired 
abstracttopics addressingaudiences L2.isreadilycomprehensible
L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
 L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
© UCLES/CUP 2011

context
L5.indicatinglevelsofconfidenceoruncertainty
P1.clear
P3.demonstratesflexibilityandcontrolofnuances
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
20. defineorspecify complextechnical/  [spokenproduction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible topicsrelateto
 abstracttopics addressingaudiences L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning his/herfieldof
 L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary interest
 appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
 context
 P1.clear
 P2.demonstratesflexibilityandcontrolofnuances
 P4.indetail,distinguishingbetweenobjectsor
 conceptsthatcloselyresembleeachother
 P5.atlength
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
21. giveinstruction seriesofcomplex  [spokenproduction] L2.isreadilycomprehensible instructionstoa
professional/ [sustainedmonologue] L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning workcolleagueor
academic L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary studentwithsome
procedures appropriatetotheinterlocutor(s),topicandsocial technical
context knowledge
L5.usingappropriatetechnicalterminology
P1.clear
P5.atlength
P6.detailed
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
tosimplification
X1.checkscomprehensionasnecessary
22. speculateor   [spokenproduction] P1.clear 
hypothesise, [sustainedmonologue] P6.detailed
comparingand P5.atlength
evaluatinga P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
numberof L2.isreadilycomprehensible
possible L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
developments P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
tosimplification
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
43

appropriatetotheinterlocutor(s),topicandsocial
context
 Table15:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforSpokenReceptionattheClevels

44

Activity Text Textcharacteristics Topic/Setting Qualities Restrictions

Can… Whenlisteningto… Characterisedby… Concernedwith… Howwell? Providedthat…
23. makenotesto presentations, extended complexpublic,academic producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext standardaccents,
extractand lecturesor monologue orprofessionaltopics levelrepresentationoffactualcontent familiartothelistener
reconstructthe documentary involvingdetailed summarisesthemainpoints rateofspeechis
mainpointsand broadcasts propositionalinformation accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofdetail natural
keysupporting thatisnewtothelistener
details andincludesabstract
concepts
24. extractthegist informalmeetings multiͲparticipant personalorpublictopicsof identifiesthemainpointsbeingmadeby conversationis
anddistinguish anddiscussions discussionwithnonͲ generalinterest participants animated–atafast
betweenopinions linearorganisation, identifiesallareasofagreementand naturalrate
frequent disagreementbetweenparticipants voicesareeasily
colloquialismsand differentiatedoraudio
overlappingturns issupportedby
images
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
25. identifythe informalmeetings multiͲparticipant personal,public,academic, accuratelyidentifiestheattitudesoremotions conversationis
emotionsor anddiscussions discussionmarked professionaltopics conveyedimplicitlybystress,pitchand animated–atafast
attitudesof bynonͲlinear intonation,lexicalchoices naturalrate
speakers organisation,  voicesareeasily
colloquialismsand differentiatedoraudio
overlappingturns issupportedby
images
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
26. extractgist,detail, formaldiscussions dialogues,multiͲ complexpublic,academic producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext contributionsare
purposesand onacademic,public participant orprofessionaltopics levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing clearlypresented–
mainpoints orprofessional discussionwith involvingdetailed relationshipsbetweenideas intendedforan
© UCLES/CUP 2011

 topics formalturntaking propositionalinformation accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofdetail audienceaswellas

 andorganisation– thatisnewtothelistener: fellowparticipants
 maybemediatedby facts,definitions standardaccent,
 achairperson familiartothelistener

27. extract,selectand multiplesources: varietyofspoken complex,abstract extractsandevaluatesinformationandopinions standardaccent,
 integratedetailed texttypes:extended personal,public,academic, fromdifferentsources familiartothelistener
information monologues,multiͲ professionaltopics integratestheseinpreparationforareport, discussionsareformal
© UCLES/CUP 2011

requiredtocarry participant essayorpositionpaperetc. andstructured

outrelatedtasks discussions 
28. identify,analyse formaldebates, dialogues,multiͲ personal,public,academic, identifieshowlinguisticresources(stress,pitch indialogues/
andevaluatethe interviews,business participant professionaltopics andintonation,lexicalchoices)areusedby discussions,voicesare
useofinteractive interactions, discussions participantstoresolveconflict,buildconsensus, easilydifferentiatedor
spokenlanguage situationsof promoteviewsetc.andevaluatesthesuccessof audioissupportedby
forpersuasion personalorpublic thesestrategiesinaninteraction images
conflict languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
29. evaluate presentations, extended personal,public,academic, identifiesspeakerpurposeandintended languageisstandard,
presentationsin speeches, monologue professionaltopics audience butarangeofaccents
relationtotheir evaluatestheuseoflanguageinrelationto maybeused
purposeand these:suggestsimprovements rateofspeechis
audience  natural
30. integrate multiplesources extended personal,public,academic, bringstogetherinformationfromdifferent languageisstandard,
informationand monologues, professionaltopics sourcestodescribeatasktobecarriedoutand butarangeofaccents
detailed dialogues stepstocompletethetask maybeused
instructionsto rateofspeechis
carryoutcomplex natural
tasksinvolving unfamiliarprocessor
multipleelements procedure
thecontextisfamiliar
–personaltothe
listenerorwithinthe
listener’sacademic/
professionalfield


45
 Table16:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenInteractionattheClevels

46

Activity Topic/Setting Inputtext Outputtext Qualities–howwell? Restrictions

Can… Concernedwith… Basedon… Producing… Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic Providedthat…
31. Writeinsupportof personalor resume [writteninteraction] L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover 
acandidatefora professional letter/emailofreference extendedtext
joboraward L2.makeseffectiveuseoflinguisticmodalitytosignal
thestrengthofclaim,argument,orposition
L5.complex
P1.clear
P2.appropriateandeffectivelogicalstructurewhich
helpsthereadertofindsignificantpoints
P6.reachesapositionorconclusion
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind
32. Writeapersuasive academicor personal [writtenproduction] L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover employment/
application professional information job/studyapplication extendedtext studywithin
employment letter/email L2.makeseffectiveuseoflinguisticmodalitytosignal his/herfieldof
thestrengthofclaim,argument,orposition interest
L5.complex
P1.clear
P2.appropriateandeffectivelogicalstructurewhich
helpsthereadertofindsignificantpoints
P6.reachesapositionorconclusion
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind
33. Evaluate,restate professionalor onlinediscussion [writteninteraction] L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover inrealtime
andchallengean academic onlinediscussion extendedsequenceofturns
© UCLES/CUP 2011

argument P1.clear
 P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
 S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
 readerinmind
 X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
34. Askfor complex,abstract  [writteninteraction] L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover inrealtime
 explanationor ideas onlinediscussion extendedsequenceofturns
clarificationand academic/ P1.clear
© UCLES/CUP 2011

negotiate professionalmatters P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure

understanding S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
35. expresssympathy sensitivepersonal newsof [writteninteraction] L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover 
orcondolenceand matters bereavement/ letterofsympathy, extendedtext
offercomfort divorce condolence L2.makeseffectiveuseoflinguisticmodalitytosignal
thestrengthofclaim,argument,orposition
L5.complex
P1.clear
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind

47
 Table17:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenProductionattheClevels

48

Activity Topic/Setting Inputtext Outputtext Qualities–howwell? Restrictions

Can… Concernedwith… Basedon… Producing… Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic Providedthat…
36. incorporate complexacademic professionalor [writtenproduction] P1.clear 
informationdrawn orprofessional academictexts reports,articlesoressays P2. appropriate and effective logical structure which
fromtheworkof topics helpsthereadertofindsignificantpoints
othersintohis/her P3.without infringing conventionallyͲaccepted
owntext academic/professional standards of the use of
others’work
37. setoutmultiple complexacademic professionalor [writtenproduction] L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over topicwithinhis/her
perspectivesonan orprofessional academictexts reports,articlesoressays extendedtext fieldofinterest
intellectualissue topics L2.makeseffectiveuseoflinguisticmodalitytosignal
thestrengthofclaim,argument,orposition
P4.makesclearauthor’sownstanceontheissue
P5.clearlydistinguishesownideasandopinionsfrom
thoseof(multiple)sources
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadopted

38. describeand complexacademic empiricaldata [writtenproduction] L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over 
interpret orprofessional fromresearch reports,articlesoressays extendedtext
topics L3.atlength(500wordsplus)
P1.clear
P6.reachesapositionorconclusion
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadopted
39. presentspecialist complexacademic researchor [writtenproduction] L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over topicwithinhis/her
material orprofessional professional/ reports,articlesoressays extendedtext fieldofinterest
topics academictexts forageneralaudience L3.atlength(500wordsplus) opportunitiesfor
L4.usessuitablynonͲtechnicalwordsandphrases redraftingand
P1.clear revision
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind
© UCLES/CUP 2011

S2.accessibletoanaudiencethatisnotfamiliarwith
thetopic
40. defineorspecify complexacademic Personal [writtenproduction] L3.atlength(500wordsplus) 
orprofessional experiences/ reports,articlesoressays P8. in detail, distinguishing between objects or
topics texts conceptsthatcloselyresembleeachother
L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over
 extendedtext
P1.clear
© UCLES/CUP 2011

L5.complex
P9.logical
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
41. writean complexacademic CoͲtext [writtenproduction] L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over topicwithinhis/her
introduction orprofessional longerreports,articlesor extendedtext fieldofinterest
topics dissertations L3.atlength(500wordsplus) opportunitiesfor
L5.complex redraftingand
P1.clear revision
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
P11. presenting key elements to be developed in
succeedingtext
42. writeaconclusion complexacademic CoͲtext [writtenproduction] L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over topicwithinhis/her
orprofessional longerreports,articlesor extendedtext fieldofinterest
topics dissertations L3.atlength(500wordsplus) opportunitiesfor
L5.complex redraftingand
P1.clear revision
P7.wellͲstructuredanddeveloped
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
P12.reviewsandsummarisesanextendedexposition
orargument

49
 Table18:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenReceptionattheClevels

50

Activity Text Textcharacteristics Topic/Setting Qualities–howwell? Restrictions

Can… Whenreading… Characterisedby… Concernedwith… Providedthat…
43. demonstrate articlesinserious lengthy,complex complexpublic,academic producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext accesstoreference
comprehensive newspapersor sentences orprofessionaltopics levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing tools
understanding magazines; infrequent,sometimes conveyingdetailed relationshipsbetweenideas opportunitiesfor
referencebooks; technicalvocabulary propositionalinformation accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofdetail reͲreading
specialised formalregister thatisnewtothereader: textsaddressedto
academic/ facts,definitions generaleducated
professional readership
publications OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
44. integrateideas articlesinserious lengthy,complex complex,public,academic identifiesallmainareasofagreementand accesstoreference
acrosstexts: newspapersor sentences orprofessionaltopics disagreementacrosstexts tools
compare, magazines; infrequent,sometimes includingabstractideas selectselementsfromtwoormoretextsto opportunitiesfor
contrast, referencebooks; technicalvocabulary constructabalancedresponsetoaquestion reͲreading
synthesize specialised formalregister textsaddressedto
academic/ generaleducated
professional readership
publications OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
45. demonstrate articlesinserious linguisticmeansfor complexpublic,academic accuratelysummarisestheviewsofthewriter accesstoreference
understandingof newspapersor conveyingattitude orprofessionaltopics;  tools
implicitattitudes magazines; includeuseof conveyingattitudesand opportunitiesfor
© UCLES/CUP 2011

andopinions referencebooks; metaphor/marked opinions reͲreading

specialised syntax/lexical textsaddressedto
academic/ connotation generaleducated
professional Textscharacterisedby: readership
publications lengthy,complex OR
sentences textsaddressedto
infrequent,sometimes professional/
 technicalvocabulary academic
formalregister communityto
© UCLES/CUP 2011

whichlearner
belongs
46. demonstrate personalmessages informalregister complexpublic,academic producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext accesstoreference
comprehensive ininformalletters, colloquialexpressions orprofessionaltopics levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing tools
understanding emailsetc. ellipticalcohesion conveyingdetailed relationshipsbetweenideas opportunitiesfor
informalarticles, culturalreferences propositionalinformation accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofdetail reͲreading
weblogsetc. thatisnewtothereader: textsaddressedto
facts,definitions generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
47. demonstrate personalmessages linguisticmeansfor personaltopics;conveying accuratelysummarisestheviewsofthewriter accesstoreference
understandingof ininformalletters, conveyingattitude emotions,attitudesand  tools
implicitattitudes emailsetc. includeuseof opinions opportunitiesfor
andopinions informalarticles, metaphor/marked reͲreading
weblogsetc. syntax/lexical 
connotation
informalregister
colloquialexpressions
ellipticalcohesion
culturalreferences
48. criticallyinterpret literarywritings formalregister personal,public, accuratelyrepresentstheviewsofthewriterand accesstoreference
articlesinserious lengthy,complex educationalor engagescriticallywiththemtoreachaconclusion tools
newspapersor sentences professionaltopics  opportunitiesfor
magazines; infrequent,sometimes reͲreading
specialised technicalvocabulary 
academic/ OR
professional informalregister
publications colloquialexpressions
personalmessages ellipticalcohesion
ininformalletters, culturalreferences
51

emailsetc.
     
 49. candemonstrate literarywritings formalregister personal,public, successfullyidentifiesgenre,tone,purpose, accesstoreference
awarenessofthe articlesinserious lengthy,complex educationalor stylisticfeaturesandlikelyimpact tools
52

impactonthe newspapersor sentences professionaltopics opportunitiesfor

readeroffeatures magazines; infrequent,sometimes reͲreading
ofstyle:lexical specialised technicalvocabulary 
andgrammatical academic/ OR
choices,discourse professional informalregister
organisation publications colloquialexpressions
personalmessages ellipticalcohesion
ininformalletters, culturalreferences
emailsetc. 
50. demonstrate articlesinserious lengthy,complex complexpublic,academic producesaccurategeneraloverviewofcontent undertime
broad newspapersor sentences orprofessionaltopics reproducesallmainideas pressure
understanding magazines; infrequent,sometimes conveyingdetailed accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofgist textsaddressedto
referencebooks; technicalvocabulary propositionalinformation generaleducated
specialised formalregister thatisnewtothereader: readership
academic/ facts,definitions OR
professional textsaddressedto
publications professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs

Researchisnowunderwaytospecifylanguagefunctionsatthelowerlevels(A1andA2)andadditionaldescriptorsarebeingdevelopedtospecifyfunctional
objectivesforyoungerlearnersofEnglishwhoarestudyingthelanguageaspartoftheirschoolcurriculum.EnglishProfileresearchersalsoaimtoprovide
learnerexamplesoffunctionalusageforeachCEFRlevel,illustratinghowrelatedfunctionsdevelopacrosstheCEFRlevels.

© UCLES/CUP 2011
4EnglishVocabularyProfile

The main thrust of the EP Programme’s research on vocabulary has resulted in the English Vocabulary Profile
(Capel2011),aninteractiveonlineresourcewhichdescribesthevocabularywhichlearnersofEnglishknowateach
leveloftheCEFR.Itprovidesalargesearchabledatabaseofdetailedinformationonthewordsandphrasesthat
areappropriateforlearnersateachleveloftheCEFRandisalreadybeingusedtoinformteaching,publishingand
assessmentactivities,withfurtherusesandupgradesplanned.

CompilingtheEnglishVocabularyProfile

TheEnglishVocabularyProfileresearchhasbeensubstantiallybutnotexclusivelycorpusͲinformed.Wehaveused
boththeCambridgeEnglishCorpus,a1.2billionͲwordcollectionofwrittenandspokenEnglish,andtheCambridge
Learner Corpus, a unique corpus of written learner English, currently standing at 45 million words and which
includesstudentwritingatallsixCEFRlevels,andfromover200countries.Workisnowunderwaytoconstructa
spoken learner corpus of 2 million words, which will further inform future iterations of the English Vocabulary
ProfilebyprovidingevidenceofvocabularyinL2speech,inbothtestingandothercontexts.

In combination with this corpus evidence, we have monitored a range of classroomͲbased sources, including
wordlistsfromleadingcoursebooks,readers’wordlistsandthecontentofvocabularyskillsbooks.Wehavealso
referred to the Vocabulary Lists for Cambridge ESOL’s Key English Test (KET) and Preliminary English Test (PET)
examinations,whichhavebeeninusesince1994andhavebeenregularlyupdatedtoreflectlanguagechangeand
patternsofuse.Finally,eventhoughitwaspublishedthirtyyearsago,theCambridgeEnglishLexiconbyRoland
Hindmarsh(1980)hasprovedinvaluableasacheckingsource,wherethelanguagehasnotevolvedovertime;it
toowasorganisedatmeaninglevel.

Many people will already be familiar with the working title of the project, which was English Profile Wordlists.
However, the resource is much more than a list of words for each CEFR level. The current English Vocabulary
Profile:

x containswords,phrases,phrasalverbsandidioms
x presentsthelevelofeachmeaningofawordinCEFRorder,tosuggestlearningpriorities
x provides detailed dictionaryͲstyle entries with clear definitions, grammatical information and guidewords to
meanings
x includesaudioandwrittenpronunciations
x containsmanyrealexamples,fromdictionariesandfromactuallearnersatanappropriatelevel
x canbesearchedaccordingtodifferentfilters,includingpartsofspeech,grammar,usage,topicandaffixes
x containsbothBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishversionswhichuserscaneasilyswitchbetween.

Whatdoesitmeanto“know”aword?

The core objective of the English Vocabulary Profile project has been to establish which words and phrases are
commonlyknownbylearnersaroundtheworld.Whatismeantby“know”inthiscontext?Wehavenotattempted
to separate receptive competence from productive as, in reality, so much will depend on learning styles and
priorities. In general, communicative classrooms in the 21st century provide more consistent opportunities for
usingnewlanguagethanagenerationago.Addedtothatistheunlimitedaccessthatmoststudentshavetothe
Internet,wheretheywillbebrowsingbutalsoactivelyparticipatingthroughEnglish.Forus,‘knowing’awordisa
cumulativeprocess,whichimplieslifelonglearning,asfurthermeaningsandusesareacquired.

Takeforexamplethewordknow.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileentryforthiswordstretchesfromA1toC2level,
with figurative and idiomatic uses coming in at the higher CEFR levels, suggesting that there are additional
© UCLES/CUP 2011 53
meaningsandphrasescontainingknowthatarenotacquireduntiltheClevels,seethecoreresultsforknowin
BritishEnglishbelow:



KeyfeaturesoftheEnglishVocabularyProfile

There are several key features of the English Vocabulary Profile, starting with its presentation of different
meaningsforthesameword.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileoperatesatthelevelofindividualmeanings,unlike
most vocabulary resources as some meanings are quite distinct from the core meaning of a word, and will be
encounteredbylearnersatdifferentCEFRlevels.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileteamhaveevaluatedeachsense
ofaword,startingfromitsfrequencyforfirstlanguageusersandcomparingthatwithlearnerdatathroughCUP’s
corpusͲinformeddictionarydatabase,whichistheonlymonolingualEnglishdictionaryresourcetoflagfrequency
atsenselevel.

The EVP also includes extensive information about phrases based on stateͲofͲtheͲart research on phrasal
expressions,forexamplemakeyourway,whichhasaB2senseofliterallygettoaplaceversustheC2figurative
senseofmakeyourwayinacareer:


 54 © UCLES/CUP 2011
Similarly, learner knowledge of phrasal verbs is being investigated by an EP Network partner in Japan who is
conductingalargeͲscaletesttoevaluatetherelativedifficultyof100ofthe442phrasalverbsthatarecurrently
included in the A1 to B2 levels. This test, which is being replicated in other regions, will enable us to compare
knowledgeofphrasalverbsacrossdifferentfirstlanguagebackgrounds.

Here is an extract from the entry for the word cool (showing A1 to B2 level) that illustrates some of meanings
availableandkeyphrasalverbsincludingcool:

Guidewordsincapital
lettersforeachmeaning
helptheusernavigate
throughlongentries
Phrasalverbsarelistedat
theendofanentry


TheEnglishVocabularyProfilealsoprovidesinformationongroupsofwordswithacommonroot(wordfamilies).
ThedifferentpartsofspeechinawordfamilywilloftenbeatdifferentCEFRlevelsaccordingtotheirfrequency.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 55
Another key area of research within the vocabulary strand is the investigation of affixation. Here too, native
speakerfrequencyhasplayedapartinthedecisionͲmakingprocessastoCEFRlevel,alongwithaconsiderationof
thetransparencyofthedifferentpartsofspeechinrelationtothebaseword.Whenanaffixisattachedtoaword,
it may be transparent in meaning – for example, it is not difficult to understand downloadable from the verb
download Ͳ but it is less easy to work out the meaning of changeable, as in changeable weather, formed from
change.

WearecurrentlydevelopingtheEnglishVocabularyProfileforlevelsC1andC2.Thisentailslookingagainatthe
less frequent meanings of words that are already included in the A1 to B2 levels, and adding new words and
phrases.

AccessingtheEnglishVocabularyProfile

You can see a threeͲletter Preview version for the complete English Vocabulary Profile on the EP website. The
current online resource covers A1ͲB2 levels; click on the thumbnail on the homepage to access the EVP at
www.englishprofile.org

YoucanusetheEnglishVocabularyProfileto:

x checkthelevelofwords,phrasesandmeanings
x producelistsofwordsatcertainlevelsforaparticulartopic,orwithcertaingrammaticalfeatures,etc.
x seehowthedifferentmeaningsofwordsfitacrossCEFRlevels
x getrealexamplesofhowwordsandphrasesareused–bynativespeakersandbylearnersatdifferentlevels
x compareAmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish
x getmoreinformationoncollocations
x getanoverviewofwordfamilies.

ForfurtherinformationabouthowtousetheEVP,visittheEPwebsiteandexploretheInformationBookletunder
Resources.TofindoutmoreaboutthecompilationoftheEVPseeCapel(2010a,2010b).



 56 © UCLES/CUP 2011
5HowtousetheEnglishProfile

ThissectionsuggestswaysinwhichELTprofessionalssuchasteachers,curriculumplannersandmaterialsortest
writers can use the English Profile resources contained in this booklet, specifically to enable them to make
decisionsaboutwhichEnglishlanguagepointsaresuitableforteaching,learningandassessingateachCEFRlevel.
TherearefourareaslistedbelowwhichcanbenefitfromtheEnglishProfile,withexemplificationofhowdifferent
groupsofELTprofessionalsmightuseEnglishProfileresourceswithintheseareas.

A Deciding whether particular English language points are relevant for a specific purpose, learner group
andCEFRlevel
x Ateachercheckingwhethersomekeyvocabularyforalessonissuitablefortheirclass.
x AtestdevelopercheckingwhetheraparticulargrammaticalpointissuitableforanA2test.
x Anauthorcheckingwhataspectsofagrammaticalarea(e.g.pasttense)aresuitableforaB1course.

B IdentifyingsuitableEnglishlanguagepointsforaspecificpurpose,learnergroupandCEFRlevel
x AcurriculumplannerisdrawingupthevocabularylistforanA1course.
x An author wants to identify language points that are particularly difficult for Spanish speakers at B1
level.
x AtestdeveloperhastodecidewhichstructurestoincludeintheassessmentsyllabusforaC1exam.
x Anauthorisproducinganexerciseofprefixes/suffixesforaparticularsetofwords.
x Ateacherislookingforarangeofexamplesof‘refusingarequest’suitableforB2learners.

C ObtainingauthenticlearnerlanguagetoillustratelanguagepointsataspecificCEFRlevel
x Ateacherisputtingtogetheranexerciseonaparticularlanguagepoint,usingexamplesproducedby
learnersatthesamelevelastheirclass.
x Atestwriterislookingforasuitablesentenceforaparticulartestitem.
x Acurriculumplannerwantstoaddtothesyllabusexamplesofparticularstructuresthataresuitable
forthelevel.
x An author is writing a unit on health at B1 level and wants a list of suitable words and phrases to
include.
x Ateacherislookingforexamplesof‘askingforpermission’inaformalworkcontextsuitableforaB2
class.

D GainingadeeperunderstandingofEnglishlanguagepointswithinandacrossCEFRlevels
x Anauthorwantstoknowhowanunderstandingofcountable/uncountablenounsprogressesfromA1
toB1CEFRlevelstoworkoutwhatshouldbeincludedinanA1orB1levelcourse.
x A teacher wants to see how the different meanings of keep are normally acquired across the CEFR
levels.Itisinthetop500wordsforEnglish,butwhichmeaningsshouldstudentslearnfirst?
x AtestwriterneedstoknowwhatverbsaremostsuitableforanitemonthepassivevoiceatB2level.
x A curriculum planner wants to make sure the C2 curriculum covers the language of ‘presenting a
counterͲexample’inbothformalandinformalcontexts.

TheEnglishProfiledescribeswhatlearnersknowandcandoateachCEFRlevel.ELTprofessionalswillmakeuseof
thatinformationindifferentwaysaccordingtotheirsituationandrequirementsasthereisnosingleEnglishProfile
curriculumthatisrightforalllearnersinallcontexts.TohelpELTprofessionals,theEnglishProfilewillsharesome
sample curricula based on English Profile tools, but ELT professionals will always need to make decisions about
howtheseexamplesapplytotheirowncontext.Wewelcomeyourfeedbackonwhethertheresourcespresented
hereareofpotentialoractualuseinyourspecificcontext,togetherwithanyexamplesofhowyouhavealready
used,orplantousethem.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 57
6WhatisEnglishProfilebasedon?

TheEnglishProfileProgrammehassetouttoprovidethedefinitiveguidetowhatlearnersofEnglishknowateach
CEFRlevel.Ithasdonethisbycombining:

Leadingeducationalorganisations x CambridgeESOL
x CambridgeUniversityPress
x TheBritishCouncil
x EnglishUK
WorldͲleadingresearchinstitutions x UniversityofCambridge
x UniversityofBedfordshire
x UniversityofNottingham
x andotherEPNetworkPartners
ExtensivedataaboutrealEnglishlanguageuse x CambridgeEnglishCorpus
x CambridgeLearnerCorpus
x Arangeofothercorporafromaroundtheworld
x Awiderangeofcoursebooks
x Examspecificationsandwordlists

EnglishProfileresearchersuseaninnovativemethodologyfordescribingEnglishwhichisbothempiricalinthatit
isbasedonreallanguageasproducedbyspeakersofEnglishworldwide;andinternationalinthatitwillnotsolely
beconcernedwithEnglishasitisspokenintheUK,orinotherEnglishͲspeakingcountries.Theycanachievethis
largelybecausetheyhaveaccesstouniqueandvaluabledatabasesofEnglishlanguageinuse.
Previous attempts to describe English at different CEFR levels have been produced by
languagespecialistslargelyusingtheirinsightasexpertusersandteachersofthelanguage.
However,EnglishProfile'sresultsarebasedonobserveddata,providingconcreteevidenceof
whatlearnersthroughouttheworldcandoateachCEFRlevel.Twoofthemaincorporaused
to date are the Cambridge English Corpus (formerly known as the Cambridge International
Corpus)andtheCambridgeLearnerCorpus.TheCambridgeEnglishCorpuscontainsover1.2
billionwordsandcomprisesmaterialsfromahugevarietyofsourcesfromtheUKtheUSA,AustraliaandSingapore
amongothersthatincluderealandupͲtoͲdateexamplesofnativespeakerlanguage.Researchersusethiscorpus
(andotherslikeit)todiscoverhownativespeakersuseEnglish. ForEnglishProfilewealsowanttolookathow
nonͲnativespeakersuseEnglish.
The Cambridge Learner Corpus has been at the centre of EP research work to date (see Section 2 for an
introduction), although as it consists entirely of exam data it required complementary non examination learner
data.Sometimeslearnersmaytrytoavoidlanguagetheyfinddifficultandstickto“safe”vocabulary,grammaror
functionsinexams,ratherthanrisktryingoutlanguagethey’reunsureof.This,amongotherreasons,iswhywe
arecurrentlycollectingnonexamdatafromlearnersallovertheworldfortheCambridgeEnglishProfileCorpus
(CEPC). We are working to build the Cambridge English Profile Corpus with the collaboration of a network of
educational establishments across the world, including state schools, universities, private language schools,
research centres, government bodies (including ministries of education) and other ELT professionals. Together
we’recollectingawidevarietyofdatatypesfromanumberofcontexts,suchasclassroomwork,conversations,
homework, and so on. The corpus will be balanced acrossa number of variables, including the first language of
learners,thecountrywheredataarecollected,theageoflearnersandtheirCEFRlevel.

ForcurrentinformationonourcorpusͲrelatedactivities,visittheEPwebsiteandclickontheCorpuspage.
 58 © UCLES/CUP 2011
7HowtogetinvolvedwithEnglishProfile

GettinginvolvedwithEnglishProfileisyouropportunitytoshapetheCEFRforEnglish.Youcansubmitdatafor
ourresearch,getinvolvedinresearchitself,oryoucansimplyjointhenetworkcommunityandkeepintouchwith
developments.Asthispublicationgoestopresswearepreparingforthepublicationoftheinauguralvolumesof
theEnglishProfileStudiesseries(Green2011;Hawkins&Filipoviđ2011)andfollowingthat,wewillbewritingan
EnglishProfileHandbookfullofpracticalapplications,anticipatedpublicationdateearly2012.Ontheeventsside,
EP team members will be presenting at major events in China, Australia and the Czech republic in the coming
months(amongstothers),docheckoutourEventswebpageformoredetailsandwehopetoseeyouthere.

JointheEPNetwork

Joining the EP Network as a data contributor or researcher is straightforward; to submit data please contact us
throughourwebsitebyfillingintheform‘Getinvolvedindatacollection’underCommunity.Learnerssubmittheir
dataviaanonlinedatacollectionportalwhichhasbeendevelopedespeciallyforEnglishProfile.

ThebenefitsofjoiningtheEPNetwork:

1. OnlineaccesstotheCEPC(whichwouldincludethecontributor'sowndata)inasearchableformat.Teachers
canusethistohelpthemunderstandtheirstudents'needsbetter,andtodevelopteachingmaterialswhich
catertothoseneeds.
2. FreeaccesstotheEnglishVocabularyProfile,afantasticonlineinteractivevocabularyresourcedevelopedas
partofEnglishProfile.
3. FreeticketstoEnglishProfileworkshops,whichwillincludetrainingrelevanttoteachers,suchashowtoratea
student'sworkbyCEFRlevel.
4. AdvancenoticeofEnglishProfileͲrelatedpublicationsandautomaticsubscriptiontoEnglishProfileJournal.
5. A'certificateofparticipation'(onrequest)foryourschool,andlistingofyourschool'sname,withthanks,on
ourdatacontributorswebpage.
6. InvitationstoEnglishProfileresearchseminarsandotherEnglishProfileevents.

Givefeedbackonthisbooklet

Wewelcomeyourfeedbackonthispublication:

x Doesitprovidetheinformationyouneed?
x Doesthepresentationoftheinformationworkforyou?
x HowdoyouthinkyoucouldmakeuseofEnglishProfile?
x WhatelsewouldyouliketoseefromEnglishProfile?

Pleasegotowww.englishprofile.orgtosendusyourfeedback,mentioningEnglishProfileVersion1.1.
© UCLES/CUP 2011 59
8References

Hereyouwillfindkeyreferencesmentionedinthispublication.AfullerbibliographycanbefoundontheEnglish
ProfilewebsiteunderResearchers:www.englishprofile.org
EnglishGrammarProfile
Hawkins,JA&Buttery,P(2010)CriterialFeaturesinLearnerCorpora:TheoryandIllustrations.EnglishProfile
Journal1,e5doi:10.1017/S2041536210000103

Hawkins,JA&Buttery,P(2009)Usinglearnerlanguagefromcorporatoprofilelevelsofproficiency:Insightsfrom
theEnglishProfileProgramme.InLTaylor&CJWeir(Eds)LanguageTestingMatters:Investigatingthewider
socialandeducationalimpactofassessment,StudiesinLanguageTesting,vol.31,(pp.158Ͳ175).Cambridge:
UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

Hawkins,JA&Filipoviđ,L(2011)CriterialfeaturesinL2English:SpecifyingtheReferenceLevelsoftheCommon
EuropeanFramework.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.1,Cambridge:UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.
O'Keeffe,A&Mark,G(inpreparation)TheEnglishGrammarProfile.Tobeavailableonlineat:
www.englishprofile.org

Salamoura,A&Saville,N(2010)ExemplifyingtheCEFR:CriterialfeaturesofwrittenlearnerEnglishfromthe
EnglishProfileProgramme.InIBartning,MMaisa&IVedder(Eds)Communicativeproficiencyandlinguistic
development:IntersectionsbetweenSLAandlanguagetestingresearch,EuroslaMonographsSeries,vol.1,(pp.
101Ͳ132).Availableonlineat:http://eurosla.org/monographs/EM01/101Ͳ132Salamoura_Saville.pdf

Salamoura,A&Saville,N(2009)CriterialfeaturesacrosstheCEFRlevels:EvidencefromtheEnglishProfile
Programme.ResearchNotes37,34Ͳ40,Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Availableonlineat:
www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/rs_nts37.pdf

Saville,N&Milanovic,M(2011)SeriesEditors’NoteinHawkins,JA&Filipoviđ,LCriterialfeaturesinL2English:
SpecifyingtheReferenceLevelsoftheCommonEuropeanFramework.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.1,Cambridge:
UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

EnglishFunctionsProfile

Onlinesurvey:www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella/cando

Green,A(2011)Languagefunctionsrevisited:Theoreticalandempiricalbasesforlanguageconstructdefinition
acrosstheabilityrange.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.2,Cambridge:UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

Green,A(2010)RequirementsforReferenceLevelDescriptionsforEnglish.EnglishProfileJournal1,e6
doi:10.1017/S204153621000005X

Lenz,P&Schneider,G(2004)IntroductiontothebankofdescriptorsforselfͲassessmentinEuropeanLanguage
Portfolios.Availableonlineat:
www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/?L=E&M=/documents_intro/Data_bank_descriptors.html

Saville,N&Milanovic,M(2011)SeriesEditors’NoteinGreen,ALanguagefunctionsrevisited:Theoreticaland
 60 © UCLES/CUP 2011
empiricalbasesforlanguageconstructdefinitionacrosstheabilityrange.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.2,Cambridge:
UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

Trim,JLM(2009)Breakthrough.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Availableonlineat:
www.englishprofile.org

vanEk,JA(1975)TheThresholdLevelinaEuropeanUnit/CreditSystemforModernLanguageLearningbyAdults.
Strasbourg:CouncilofEurope.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(2001)Vantage.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(1998a)Waystage1990(revisedandcorrectededition).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(1998b)Threshold1990(revisedandcorrectededition).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.

Wilkins,D(1976)NotionalSyllabuses.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

EnglishVocabularyProfile

CambridgeESOLexaminationvocabularylists(KETandPET):
www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113295_ket_vocablist09.pdf
www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113298_pet_vocablist09.pdf

Capel,A(2011)TheEnglishVocabularyProfile.Availableonlineat:www.englishprofile.org
Capel,A(2010a)InsightsandissuesarisingfromEnglishProfileWordlistsproject.ResearchNotes41,2Ͳ7,
Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Availableonlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN41p2Ͳ
7.pdf

Capel,A(2010b)A1–B2vocabulary:insightsandissuesarisingfromtheEnglishProfileWordlistsproject.English
ProfileJournal,1,e3doi:10.1017/S2041536210000048

Hindmarsh,R(1980)CambridgeEnglishLexicon:agradedwordlistformaterialswritersandcoursedesigners.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

CorpusDevelopment

Alexopoulou,T(2008)BuildingnewcorporaforEnglishProfile.ResearchNotes33,15Ͳ19,Cambridge:Cambridge
ESOL.Availableonlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN33p15Ͳ19.pdf

Briscoe,E,Carroll,J,&Watson,R(2006)TheSecondReleaseoftheRASPSystem.InProceedingsofthe
COLING/ACL2006InteractivePresentationSessions,Sydney,Australia.

Nicholls,D(2003)TheCambridgeLearnerCorpusͲerrorcodingandanalysisforlexicographyandELT.InArcher,D,
Rayson,P,Wilson,A&McEnery,T(Eds),ProceedingsoftheCorpusLinguistics2003Conference,UCRELtechnical
papernumber16,UCREL,LancasterUniversity.

© UCLES/CUP 2011 61
GeneralEnglishProfilereferences

Coste,D(2007)ContextualisingusesofthecommonEuropeanframeworkofreferenceforlanguages.Paper
presentedatCouncilofEuropePolicyForumonuseoftheCEFR,Strasbourg2007.Availableonline
www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/SourceForum07/DͲCoste_Contextualise_EN.doc

CouncilofEurope(2005)ReferenceLevelDescriptionsforNationalandRegionalLanguages.Guideforthe
productionofRLD.Version2.Strasbourg:LanguagePolicyDivision.Availableonlineat:
ww.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/DNR_Guide_EN.pdf

CouncilofEurope(2001)CommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages:Learning,Teaching,
Assessment.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

EnglishProfileBibliographywww.englishprofile.org 

EnglishProfileGlossarywww.englishprofile.org

Little,D(2007)TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages:PerspectivesontheMakingof
SupranationalLanguageEducationPolicy.TheModernLanguageJournal91(4):645Ͳ55.

McCarthy,M(2010)Spokenfluencyrevisited.EnglishProfileJournal1,e4doi:10.1017/S2041536210000012

Milanovic,M(2009)CambridgeESOLandtheCEFR,ResearchNotes37,2Ͳ5,Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Available
onlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN37p2Ͳ5.pdf

Saville,N&Hawkey,R(2010)TheEnglishProfileProgramme–thefirstthreeyears.EnglishProfileJournal1,e7
doi:10.1017/S2041536210000061

Trim,JLM(2010)TheModernLanguagesProgrammeoftheCouncilofEuropeasabackgroundtotheEnglish
ProfileProgramme.EnglishProfileJournal1,e2doi:10.1017/S2041536210000097

 62 © UCLES/CUP 2011
9TheEnglishProfileNetwork

FoundingPartners










EPNetworkPartners

ThefollowinginstitutionsareinvolvedindatacollectionorresearchactivitiesforEnglishProfile:

x ATLCoopLombardia,Cantù
x BabeƔͲBolyaiUniversitywww.ubbcluj.ro
x BanatUniversityofAgriculturalScienceandVeterinaryMedicinewww.usabͲtm.ro
x ColegioNewlands,BuenosAireswww.colegionewlands.com
x CologneUniversityofAppliedScienceswww.fhͲkoeln.de
x ElColegioLeonardoDaVinci,Madridwww.colegioͲleonardodavinci.es
x EscuelaOficialdeIdiomasdeBurgoswww.eoiburgos.es
x EscuelaOficialdeIdiomasdeMadridͲMoratalaz(ExtensiónPuentedeVallecas)
 www.educa.madrid.org/web/eoi.moratalaz.madrid/vallecask.html
x FONUniversitywww.fon.edu.mk
x HogeschoolͲUniversiteitBrusselwww.hubrussel.be
x InternationalProgrammesCenter“EFPenza”www.efpenza.ru
x InternationalUniversityofNoviPazarwww.uninp.edu.rs
x KaplanInternationalCollegeswww.kic.org.uk
x KragujevacUniversitywww.ekfak.kg.ac.yuandwww.filum.kg.ac.rs
x MaryImmaculateCollegewww.mic.ul.ie
x MasarykUniversitywww.muni.cz
x MegatrendUniversitywww.megatrend.edu.rs
x MetropolitanUniversityBelgradewww.fit.edu.yu
x MoscowInstituteofForeignLanguageswww.gaudeamus.ru
x NoviSadUniversitywww.uns.ac.rs
© UCLES/CUP 2011 63
x Parhamergymnasiumwww.parhamer.at
x PalackýUniversitywww.upol.cz
x PrešovUniversitywww.unipo.sk
x TheRomanianMinistryofEducationResearchandInnovationwww.edu.ro
x ShannonCollegeofHotelManagementwww.shannoncollege.com
x SingidunumUniversitywww.singidunum.ac.yu
x TalkTeflSupportCentre,Gorgan,Iran
x TechnicalCollegeaēakwww.vstss.com
x TokyoUniversityofForeignStudieswww.tufs.ac.jp
x UniversidadChilenoͲBritánicadeCulturawww.ubritanica.cl
x UniversidadComplutensedeMadridwww.ucm.es
x UniversidadPolitècnicadeValència(CampusdeAlcoy)www.upv.es
x UniversitateaBabeƔͲBolyaiwww.ubbcluj.ro
x UniversityofKragujevacwww.kg.ac.rs
x UniversityofNišwww.ni.ac.rs
x VilniusPedagogicalUniversitywww.vpu.lt
x WyǏszaSzkoųaLingwistycznawww.wsl.edu.pl

EUͲfundedEPNetworkProjectMembers
x CambridgeUniversityPresswww.cambridge.org/uk
x CambridgeESOLwww.CambridgeESOL.org
x CRELLA,UniversityofBedfordshirewww.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella
x BanatUniversitywww.usabͲtm.ro
x CologneUniversityofAppliedScienceswww.internationalͲoffice.fhͲkoeln.de
x ComplutenseUniversity,Madridwww.ucm.es
x MasarykUniversitywww.muni.cz
x PresovUniversitywww.unipo.sk
x TheDublinInstituteofTechnologywww.dit.ie






 64 © UCLES/CUP 2011
 EnglishProfile

EnglishProfile
Introducing the CEFR for English
The English Profile Programme is an elaboration of the reference level descriptions
of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) that is
concerned specifically with the English language.
Introducing the CEFR for English

Since its publication, the CEFR has become influential in building a shared
Version 1.1

understanding of performance levels for foreign language learners. However, there

is a considerable gap between the broad descriptions of levels provided in the
CEFR, which cover a range of languages and learning contexts, and the level of
detail required for applications such as syllabus or test design, which English Profile
addresses.
English Profile has applications in English language pedagogy and assessment,
curriculum design, materials development and test construction.
This booklet introduces the theoretical and empirical bases of English Profile,
setting out the ambitions of the Programme and presenting emerging findings.
It is for teachers, curriculum planners, writers, test developers and other ELT
professionals. It will help them make decisions about which English language
points are suitable for learning at each level of the CEFR.
EMC/7624/1Y08
www.englishprofile.org