SYLLABUS

THEORY
Indian Poultry industry-brief outline of the different segments-poultry statistics.
Classification of poultry, common breeds of poultry including duck, quail, turkey
& guinea fowl and their descriptions. Description of indigenous fowls.
Reproduction in fowl, male and female reproduction systems, formation of eggs,
structure of eggs. Important economic traits of poultry, egg production, egg
weight egg quality, growth, feed consumption and feed efficiency, fertility and
hatchability, plumage characteristics and comb types. Scavenging system of
management raising of chicks, scavenger feed base of village. Low input
technology; backyard and semi intensive unit of various sizes; their description,
management and economic achievements.
New colored feathered birds developed in public and private sectors for meat
and egg production for rural poultry; their acceptability and assimilation in rural
eco-system.
Mixed farming and poultry raising. Concept of self-local market unit
Brooding and rearing practices used for chicken, duck, quail, turkey and guinea
fowl.
Economic production of chicken and other classes of poultry.
Hatching and feeding norms for different species of poultry. Marketing of poultry
and poultry products. Setting of farms for different classes of poultry. Organic
and hill farming.
PRACTICAL
Morphological description of common exotic poultry breeds like White Leghorn (WLH), Rhode
Island Red (RIR), Plymouth Rock, Cornish and New Hampshire. Diagrammatic illustration of body
parts of chicken, duck, quail, guinea fowl and turkey. Descriptive specialties of indigenous birds,
listing of its advantageous value in rural areas. Diagrammatic representation of scavenging,
backyard and semi intensive units; with habitats, feed base and shelter. Conservation of indigenous
germ plasm; listing of conservation techniques. Demonstration of newly developed breeds in rural
environment Housing, equipments, nesting and brooding requirements. Vaccination, medication
and incubation requirements. Preparation of projects for rural people on poultry and otherspecies
(duck, quail, guinea fowl and turkey).

MODULE-1: INDIAN POULTRY INDUSTRY

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Growth and development of Poultry Industry in India

 Strength/Achievements of Poultry Industry
 Statistics on Poultry population and Per-capita availability in India
 Various factors responsible for commercialisation of Poultry

GROWTH OF POULTRY INDUSTRY

 Scientific Poultry keeping in India - first

advocated by Christian Missionaries
towards the beginning of the 20th Century A.D
 Organized effort to develop poultry in India was first started in 1957 when second
five year plan (1956-61) was launched
 Hybrid layer strains - introduced into India in 1955 and broiler strains in 1961
 An All India Poultry development Project - initiated by setting up of regional
poultry farms at Bangalore, Mumbai, Bhubaneswar, Delhi and Simla to
acclimatize imported good quality stock under their respective agro-climatic
conditions
 Period between II and IV Five-Year plan - turning point in the history of poultry
industry in India
 Central Poultry Breeding Farms at Mumbai, Bhubaneswar and Hasserghatta -
produced high egg producing strains and Chandigarh farm has evolved fast
growing broiler strains
 Random Sample units at Hasserghatta, Mumbai and Bhubaneswar were
conducting egg laying and broiler quality test and thereby provided useful
information to poultry farmers and breeders regarding the performance of
various stocks available in the country
 Central Training Institute for poultry production and management at
Hasserghatta - Imparted training to the State Agricultural and Veterinary
University officers engaged in various aspects of poultry farming
  Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has sponsored All India
coordinated research projects on poultry breeding and poultry nutrition in
number of research institutes including Agricultural and Veterinary
Universities of the country
 National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED) -
marketing of egg and poultry meat at national and regional levels

POULTRY DOMESTICATION

 Historical and Archaeological evidences - chickens were domesticated during

5400 B.C.,
 The term "Poultry" indicates all domesticated species of birds like chicken, ducks,
turkeys, Japanese quail, guinea fowls, geese, pigeons, ostrich, emu etc.,
 Chicken - most numerous and popular among the domesticated poultry species
and account for 92 per cent of the total poultry
 Ducks account for 9 per cent of poultry population (FAO, 2008) and are mostly
found in coastal states of the country and in states with more lakes and rivers
like West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Assam, Jammu
& Kashmir and Tripura
 Duck raising - still in a primitive stage and indigenous ducks outnumber exotic
ducks in spite of their inferior performance
 Important Indigenous ducks are Chara and Chemballi (Kuttanad ducks) of
Kerala, Sythetmete and Nageswari of Eastern region, Aarani ducks of
Tamilnadu, Pati, Deo, Cinahanh and Raj Hanh varieties of Assam.
 The duck population in Asia is 101 million (FAO,2008)
 India has a population of 36 million ducks (FAO,2008)
 Quail eggs and meat have also become popular
 Growth of quail farming - is progressing but the progress is slow due to insistence
on wild life licensing, high cost of production and non-availability of superior
quail germplasm
 Turkey, Guinea fowl farming, Emu and Ostrich farming - are in infant stage and
has good potential for commercial exploitation

STRENGTH / ACHIEVEMENTS OF POULTRY INDUSTRY

 High consumer acceptance of eggs and Broiler meat

 Improved Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR), quality control, upgraded management.
 Advances in new feed milling technologies
 Purchase of feed raw materials and supply of better quality materials
 Better breeding stocks with assured price
 Rationalized pricing of breeder and commercial stocks
 Pelleted feeds with increasing market share
 Availability of feed additives viz. enzyme, probiotics, prebiotics, acidifiers etc.
 Positive role of Integrators and corporates in industry
 Distribution of feed units in all regions
 Increase in percentage of processed foods
  Effective and fast transport system of raw and finished products
 Marketing of branded eggs
 Tapping of export potentials
 Advancement in disease diagnosis and screening procedures

Development of poultry industry in India has been brought about by the

following ways

 Developing new more productive layer and broiler strains

 Development of vaccines
 Giving freedom to the poultry farmers for fixing prices for egg through
organizations like National Egg Co-ordination Committee (NECC)
 Financing of poultry schemes

POULTRY PRODUCTION

 Improvement in genetic potentiality and productivity of hybrid layers and

broilers - 60 per cent of the increase in production of egg and meat
 Hybrid layers of today - lay on an average of 310 eggs per year compared to 240-
250 eggs 30 years back
 Genetic improvement - Broilers which achieved mean body weight of 1500 g at 8
weeks of age during early eighties of 20th century attain 1.8-2.0 kg mean body
weight at present in about 38 days of age
 India - Third largest producer of eggs in the world next only to China and USA
 Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra , Haryana and Tamil Nadu - major egg producing
states that account for more than 60 per cent of the eggs produced in the
country
 India ranks fifth in the world in respect of poultry meat production with the
highest production recorded for USA
 Andhra Pradesh - leading state in broiler production; other major broiler
producing states are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Punjab, West Bengal and
Karnataka. More than 65 per cent of the broilers produced in India are raised
in these states.

INDICATORS - POULTRY STATISTICS (Source:FAO)

 Historical and Archaeological evidences - chickens were domesticated during

5400 B.C.,

Egg Production

 During the past four decades, annual egg production in India has gone up to
register about 55,640 million eggs in 2010 (estimated)
 Per capita availability of eggs - increased from a mere seven eggs per annum to
48 in spite of population explosion witnessed in India
Broiler Production

 Although hybrid broiler strains - brought into India in the year 1961, the highly
tender and juicy broiler meat was not readily accepted by the Indian public
 Sustained propagation by the Government, State Agricultural Universities and
the industry has resulted in growing awareness on the nutritive aspects and
cost advantage of broiler meat over other red meats like mutton, chevon etc
 An initial, slow and steady growth - witnessed in broiler population during 70's
and the broiler industry during 1985 had made an impressive growth
 The low fat, low calorie, high protein, cost effective broiler meat -now finds ready
acceptance not only among urban consumers, but also in rural households

Indicators of Poultry Development in India

Year Production Per capita

availability

Eggs Broiler Poultry Meat Eggs Poultry

(Million) (Million) ('000 MT) (No.) Meat (g)

1961 2881 <1 81 7 188

1971 5340 4 121 10 220

1980 12500 30 179 18 266

1985 16128 75 274 22 365

1990 23300 190 412 28 498

1991 23660 215 440 28 521

1992 22740 210 427 26 493

1993 24800 235 454 28 517

1994 26290 275 507 29 566

1995 28130 330 578 31 633

1996 30000 400 659 32 707

2000 33500 700 980 34 820

2003 37000 1100 1440 37 1200

2005 44000 1700 1900 41 1400

2007 51000 2000 2240 45 1980
2010 55640 2370 2650 48 2300

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR COMMERCIALISATION OF

POULTRY

 High prolificacy -one layer breeder produces at least 240 chicks in an year
 Shorter generation interval
 It is adaptable to various agro-climatic conditions, i.e. chicken can be reared at
temperatures as low as 0oC and as high as 40oC. Chicken can be economically
reared in arid, semi-arid conditions aswell as in high humid zones.
 Chicken can be reared under high stocking density (number of birds/unit area).
In one acre of land, about 10,000 layers under deep litter system of rearing and
25,000 layers in cage system can be reared; in case of broilers, about 20000
birds can be reared whereas only limited heads of cattle or sheep can be reared
in the same holding. Poultry farming requires a modest initial capital outlay
and its returns are achieved much earlier.
 Land required for poultry need not be fertile, further the water requirement is
also less when compared to other species of livestock. Cattle production and
small ruminant production are dependent mostly on the availability of land,
which is a limiting factor for improving such activities.
 Poultry can be managed under varied systems and also it easily adapts to
automation, enabling large numbers to be reared in one farm. Poultry farming
and production techniques are simple and need less skill which means that
even the uneducated or poorly educated rural population can run a poultry
farming business quite successfully if the necessary facilities are made available
at a reasonable cost.
 Among the various species of livestock, the dressing yield and edible yield of
poultry is the highest.
 Poultry: 72-75%; Beef: 50-55%; Pig: 68-72%; and Sheep & Goat: 40-48%.
 Poultry meat and egg are food materials universally acceptable without being
forbidden by any religious taboos.
 The poultry industry has helped in uplifting the allied industries like
manufacturing of equipment, feed, pharmaceuticals, vaccines etc. Credit
facilities are available from various nationalised banks, scheduled banks, rural
co-operative banks etc., with refinancing facility from National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). In other words, poultry
farming provides the employment for rural and urban population with scope
for diversification, increases revenue, and enhances the value of certain agro
and industrial products and by-products by transforming them into quality
products like poultry meat and eggs.
 Poultry meat and eggs are considered to be the cheapest food sources of animal
protein. There is a higher consumer preference for poultry products because of
low value units of eggs and young broiler meat available at low cost.
  Unlike other animal fats, egg and chicken lipids are not fats; but oils good for
health; they contain more omega-9 fatty acid-MUFA which increases the good
HDL-cholesterol in the serum. Moreover, they contain considerable amounts of
omega-3 fatty acids (N-3 PUFA) which reduce the serum bad LDL-cholesterol.
Hence, egg and chicken lipids are good for health.
 Chicken are the most efficient converters of feed into meat and egg. It hardly
requires 1.6 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of body weight and in case of eggs it
requires 1.4 kg of feed to produce 12 eggs or 2.0 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of
eggs

FUTURE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF POULTRY

INDUSTRY

The factors which will promote and accelerate the growth of Indian poultry
sector during the next two decades include:

 Increase in human population of the country as well as that of the world.

 Change in the life style of people with more people becoming non-vegetarian.
 Strict enforcement of Animal Welfare Laws in industrially developed countries
resulting in shifting of production centres to developing countries like China,
India, Brazil and Mexico.
 Increase in demand for poultry and poultry products in world market.
 Competitiveness of poultry egg and meat compared to the other foods of animal
origin.
 Poultry's contribution to food production and food security and its special role in
alleviation of poverty and employment and empowerment of rural women.
 Organic egg and meat is gaining popularity in western countries even though they
cost more. Small holder backyard systems of poultry production existing in our
country provide ample opportunity for production of organic poultry egg and
meat. This will help in expansion of small holder system and also in obtaining
foreign exchange.

Future appears to be very bright for poultry egg and meat processing industry. Rapid
growth of this sector will help to provide wholesome poultry products to the consumers.

The demand for ready-to-cook chicken and value added poultry products although very
small at present, is likely to grow several folds very soon as has happened in western
countries through appropriate consumer education and if necessary through suitable
legislation. The ability of the Indian poultry sector to fulfill its targeted growth in
productivity and output will depend upon the quality, availability and accessibility of
services. Development of human resources and upgrading the skill and capability of
existing human resources will be necessary.

MODULE-2: CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY

Learning objectives
  This module deals with various classes, breeds and varieties of poultry.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES OF POULTRY

 Chicken
 Ducks
 Turkeys
 Geese
 Quails, Guinea fowl and Pigeons

DEFINITION OF CLASS, BREED, VARIETY, STRAIN AND LINES

 Class - Used to designate a group of birds - developed in certain regions or

geographical areas. They are American, Asiatic, Mediterranean and English.
 Breed - refers to an established group of birds within a species related by
breeding, possessing a distinctive shape, conformation, plumage colour, comb
type, general body weight and breeds true. Ex. Aseel, Rhode Island Red,
Leghorn, Cornish, etc.
 Variety - used to sub-classify breeds. There may be many varieties within a breed
differentiated by plumage colour, pattern and comb type Ex. White Leghorn,
Black Leghorn, Brown Leghorn, Barred Plymouth Rock etc.
 Strain - Sub classifications of a breed. Normally a strain is named after the
person who has evolved them or it can also be named after the institution
where it is developed. They are developed duly giving importance to certain
specific traits like egg production, early maturity, better feed efficiency, egg
weight etc. Ex. Meyer strain of White Leghorn, Forsgate strain of White
Leghorn, Sterling strain of Rhode Island Red.
 Lines - Sub classes of a strain developed such that the gene(s) responsible for a
particular trait is fixed so as to be utilized for production of commercial
hybrids.

HYBRIDS OF CHICKEN

 These are incrossbreds of poultry, produced by 2-way, 3-way or 4-way crossing of

inbred pure lines.
 They are the actual commercial-type of poultry used for egg or meat production;
since they are high laying/fast growing. However, they will not breed-true and
are unfit for further breeding.
 These birds possess high degree of heterosis and hybrid vigour.

1. Common egg-type hybrid chicken

 BV-300, ISA, Babcock,

Bovans, Euribrid, Hyline, HH-260, Dekalb, Keystone,
Lohmann and H & N Nick chick.

2. Common Meat-type hybrid chicken

  Cobb, Ross, Steggles, Arbor acres, Hub chicks, Hybro, Hubbard, Lohmann, Pilch,
Starbro, Tegel, Anak-2000, Marshall, Peterson, Samrat-2000 and Avian-34.

NOMENCLATURE OF DIFFERENT POULTRY SPECIES

(Age and Sex wise)
Sl. Species Adult Young
No.
Male Female 0-8 weeks 9-18
weeks

1. Chicken Cock Hen Chick M:Cockerel

F:Pullet

2. Duck Drake Duck M:Drakeling M:Drakelet

F:Duckling F:Ducklet

3. Goose Gander Goose Goosling

4. Turkey Tom Turkey Poult

Turkey hen

5. Quail Quail Quail Quail Chick

cock hen

6. Guinea Guinea Guinea Keet

Fowl Fowl Fowl

7. Pigeon Pigeon Pigeon Squab

POULTRY BREEDS-HISTORY OF EVOLUTION

 In the process of evolution, cold blooded (poikilotherms) reptiles are the

ancestors of birds
 The birds are warm blooded, (homeotherms) feathered and flying reptiles,
adapted for hot and dry climate of their terrestrial habitat
 Now birds are classified into the class Aves, Subclass Neornithes, super order
Ratitae (flat breast bone- Ostrich, Emu and Kiwi) and Carinatae (Keel breast
bone- all flying birds)
 Red jungle fowl - closely resembles chicken so that there is no doubt that it was
the main ancestor.
 Historical and scientific documentations suggest that domestication of chicken
originated from the Asian continent only. China, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar
(Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and other South East Asian countries
 were the home of the ancient jungle fowls from which the modern day breeds and
commercial strains of chicken were evolved.

Zoological names of domesticated fowls with Chromosome number

Sl. No. Common Name Zoological Name and Chromosome number (2n)
1. Chicken Gallus gallus domesticus -78
2. Duck Anas platyrynchos - 80
3. Turkey Meleagris gallopavo - 80
4. Goose Anser anser- 80
5. Japanese quail Coturnix coturnix japonica - 78
6. Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus -78
7. Guinea fowl Numida meleagris - 78
8. Partridge Perdix perdix- 80
9. Pheasant Phasianus colchicus - 82
10. Pea fowl Pavo cristatus – 80
11. Ostrich Struthio camelus – 80
12. Pigeon Columba livia – 80
13. Dove Columba oenas -80
14. Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata – 80
15. Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae-80

CLASSIFICATION OF CHICKEN

 Based on the place of origin (Standard or official classification)

 Based on utility, economics or commercial value

BASED ON THE PLACE OF ORIGIN

 Asiatic - Eg. Brahma, Langshan, Cochin

 American - Eg. Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte
 Mediterranean - Eg. Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona
 English - Eg. Orpington , Sussex, Cornish
 Continental - Eg. Houdans, Hamburg, Polish, Campines, Lackvelders
  Oriental - Eg. Malaya, Yokohama, Sumatra, Cubalayas
 French, South American (or) Latin American - Eg. Araucana
 African - Eg. Negro, Jago

BASED ON UTILITY, ECONOMICS OR COMMERCIAL VALUE

 Egg-type: Eg. Leghorn

 Meat-type: Eg. Cornish, Plymouth Rock
 Dual purpose: Eg. Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire
 Game type: Eg. Aseel
 Fancy variety or Exhibition - type: Eg. Silky, Frizzled, Bantams
 Desi type: Eg. Kadaknath, Naked neck, Chittagong

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS STANDARD

CLASSES OF CHICKEN

American Class

 Body size - Medium to heavy

 Egg shell colour -Brown
 Shanks - Clean and yellow
Skin - yellow (except Jersey Black giant, where the shanks are black) Ear
lobes-Red
 Comb Shape- Rose or Single
 Eg. Plymouth rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Jersey Black giant, New
Hampshire

Asiatic Class

 Body size -Heavy

 Egg shell colour-Brown,
 Broody with motherly instinct
 Ear lobes -Red, mostly
 Shank - feathered and yellow
 Skin - Yellow (except Langshan)
 Eg: Brahma, Cochin, Langshan

English Class

 Body size - Medium to large

 Egg shell colour - Brown
 Ear lobes - Red
 Shank - Clean and White
 Skin -White
 Comb shape -Single (except Cornish with pea comb)
 Eg: Australorp, Cornish, Dorking, Orpington and Sussex
Mediterranean Class

 Body size -Small

 Egg-type, non-broody
 Egg shell color - White
 Ear lobes -White
 Shanks - Clean and yellow/slate coloured
 Skin -Yellow or White
 Eg: Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian

INDIGENOUS FOWLS - ASEEL

Indian Chicken Breeds

Aseel

 The literal meaning of Aseel is real or pure.

 Aseel is well known for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged
fighting qualities.
 The name Aseel appears to have been given to this indigenous breed because of
its inherent qualities of fighting. The remarkable endurance of an Aseel even
during the most critical stages of fight is proverbial as it prefers death to
dishonour. The Aseel is, therefore, known to every game lovers all over the
world for these specific characteristics.
 Andhra Pradesh is said to be the home of this important breed. The best
specimen of this breed, although rare, are encountered with the fanciers and
the people engaged in cock-fighting show through out the country.
 Aseel is larger inbuilt with noble looking and dignified appearance. A good
specimen of an Aseel cock usually measure 28 inches from back to toe.
 The standard weight varies from 3 to 4 kg for cocks and 2 to 3 kg for hens. The
wattles are rudimentary and almost imperceptible. The beak is short and well
curved. The face is long and not covered with feathers. The eyes are compact,
 well set and present bold looks. The neck is long, uniformly thick but not
fleshy.
 The general feathering is close, scanty and almost absent on the breast. The
plumage has practically no fluff and the feathers are tough. The tail is small
and the legs are strong, straight, clean and set well apart. The birds as a rule
present upright material gait suggestive of strength and alertness. Aseel is
larger in built with noble looking and dignified appearance.

Performance Profile

 Body weight at 20 weeks 1220 g

 Age at sexual maturity 196 days
 Annual egg production 92
 Egg weight at 40 week 50 g
 Fertility 66 %
 Hatchability FES 63 %

Chittagong

 It is also known as Malay and is found in Eastern India

INDIGENOUS FOWLS - KADAKNATH

 This breed is otherwise known as “Kalamasi” which means “fowl with black flesh”
and is native of Madhya Pradesh
 The colour of the day old chicks is bluish to black with irregular dark stripes over
the back.
 The adult plumage varies from silver to gold spangled to blue black without any
spangling.
  The skin, beak, shank, toes and soles of feet of males and females are dark gray
colour. Even the comb, wattles and tongue also show a purplish hue. The shining
blue tinge of the earlobes add to its unique features.
 The peculiarity of this breed is that most of the internal organs show the
characteristic black pigmentation which is more pronounced in trachea, thoracic
and abdominal air sacs, gonads, elastic arteries, at the base of the heart and
mesentery. Varying degree of blackish colouration is also found in the skeletal
muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain and bone marrow. The black colour of
muscles and tissues is due to the deposition of melanin pigment, a genetic
condition called "Fibromelanosis".

Performance Profile

 Body weight at 20 weeks (g) 920

 Age at sexual maturity (days) 180
 Annual egg production (number) 105
 Egg weight at 40 week (g) 49
 Fertility (%) 55
 Hatchability FES (%) 52

Busra

 Small to medium sized bird found in Gujarat

INDIGENOUS FOWLS - NAKED NECK

 Naked neck is relatively larger inbuilt with long cylindrical neck.

  As the name indicates, neck of the birds is fully naked or only a tuft of feathers is
seen on the front of the neck above crop. The resulting bare skin becomes
reddish particularly in males as they approach sexual maturity. General body
feathering is also reduced.
 Various types of combs viz. pea, rose, walnut and single combs are seen.
 The beak is short and well curved. The face is long and not covered with feathers.
The eyes are compact and well set. The skin is thin and pinkish in colour.
 The beak and shanks have no correlation with plumage colour. Main plumage
colours are brown, black, white and mixture of brown and black.
 Due to the reduced feathering, the birds are capable to tolerate the tropical stress.
It lays the biggest size eggs among all the Indian native breeds of chicken.
 Trivandrum region of Kerala is considered to be the homeland of Naked neck but
it is available throughout hot and humid coastal area including Andman and
Nicobar island and North-Eastern states of the country in small numbers.
 People of these regions have great affinity for Naked neck birds due to their
better adaptability to the hot and humid climatic conditions as well as for
better taste and flavour of meat.

INDIGENOUS FOWLS - FRIZZLE

 Frizzle fowls have oval body with well-developed comb and wattles. The skin is
thin and pinkish pale in colour.
 The beak and shanks generally have no correlations with the plumage colour and
are creamish pale in colour.
 The birds have single comb and earlobes are well developed with white spots on
them. The eyes are bright and well-developed. Plumage colours vary considerably
among the birds but white, brown, black and mixed colour are most common.
  Frizzle fowls are found all over the hot and humid coastal areas including
Andaman Nicobar Islands.
 Good numbers of these birds are also available on high altitudes hilly tracts of
North-Eastern states.
 It is said that birds have better adaptability to the hot and humid climatic
conditions.

DUCKS

The domesticated breeds of ducks can be classified as follows

 Egg type breeds

 Meat type breeds
  Ornamental type and
 Indigenous breeds

EGG TYPE BREEDS

Campbell

 Campbell ducks - developed by Mrs. Campbell during the beginning of the 19th century
by crossing Rouen (male line) with Indian Runner (female line)
 Khaki Campbell is a variety resulted from colour selection of the Campbell breed
 The drake is having lustrous green bronze colour in head, neck up to sternum and the
remainder body is of shades of Khaki and the duck is having uniform shades of khaki
throughout the body which makes it useful for sex differentiation

Indian Runner - derives its name from its place of introduction- East India

 It is having perpendicular carriage which is the out standing feature of this breed
 It does not have pronounced shoulders
 The body shape and carriage (posture) resemble the penguins
 Three standard varieties - Fawn, White and White penciled
 They are excellent layers and thus formed the female line in developing the Campbell
ducks

Nageswari

 It is an indigenous egg type breed of duck commonly seen in North-eastern part of the
country.
 These birds are highly resistant to disease and capable of laying 180-200 eggs even
under the range system of rearing.
 The females weigh around 1.5 kg and males weighing 1.7 kg.

MEAT TYPE BREEDS

Pekin - These ducks originated in China

 White Pekin is the most popular duck.The plumage is creamy white, the flesh is
yellow and the bill and legs are deep orange
 The adult body weight of drake and duck will be 4 kg and 3 kg
 Early maturity, fleshing and good laying capacity are the special features of this
breed

Aylesbury -Native of England

 The plumage colour is spotless white in both the sexes. The legs and feet are
orange. It is larger than pekin and the adult drake and duck weigh around 4.5 kg
and 4 kg, respectively
Rouen ducks - Originated in France. This formed the basis (male line) for developing
Campbell ducks

Muscovy - Originated in South America. The males have no characteristic drake

feathers. However, have a knob on the head like a crest. If Muscovy is crossed with other
ducks, the progeny will be “sterile” called Mule ducks having high growth rate and
lean meat. The incubation period is 35 days .

The plumage colour is spotless white in both the sexes. The legs and feet are orange. It is
larger than pekin and the adult drake and duck weigh around 4.5 kg and 4 kg,
respectively

ORNAMENTAL TYPE

 Buff Orpington, Mandarin, Crested white etc.

INDIGENOUS BREEDS

Indigenous duck breeds

 Sythetmet, Nageswari ducks of North Eastern states

 Kuttanad ducks of Kerala (Variety -Chara and Chemballi)
 Arani ducks of Tamilnadu

In India, 90-95 percent of ducks are indigenous or nondescript types, which are hardy,
with mediocre egg production and highly suitable for extensive system of rearing.

Hybrid Ducks

 Cherry valley (Both Meat and Egg type)

 Hytop (Mule duck)
 Legarth (Meat-type)

TURKEYS

 Turkeys - originated from Northern and Central America and were domesticated
about 300 years ago by the Europeans colonized in North America

Common varieties of turkeys

 Broad Breasted Bronze

 Broad Breasted White
 BeltsVille White
 White Holland
 Narragansett
 BROAD BREASTED BRONZE

 Most popular and heaviest variety of turkey

 As the name indicates, it is having a broad and prominent chest region and
bronze coloured feathers
 The males and females at maturity weigh 15-18 kg and 12-13 kg, respectively
 Most of the present day hybrid turkeys are crosses of different strains of Broad
Breasted Bronze or Beltsville White
 One of the common hybrid turkeys popular in North America is Nicholas Turkey.
It is the cross of the Broad Breasted Bronze and Beltsville white

BELTSVILLE SMALL WHITE TURKEY

 It is a medium sized turkey having white feathers

 They produce more eggs compared to Broad Breasted Bronze
 The toms weigh 10-12 kg at maturity and hens 7-8 kg

WHITE HOLLAND

 It is a popular variety of turkey most commonly found in European countries

 It is bred and developed in Holland after importing several varieties from North
America
 They are also usedin producing crosses with the local turkeys to improve their
growth rate and reproductive ability
 The toms weigh 10-12 kg and the hens 6-8 kg at maturity

NARRAGANSETT

 This is a popular variety next to White Holland

 It is commonly reared in Germany and Italy
  Most of the hybrid turkeys available in Europe are crosses of White Holland or
Narragansett

GEESE

Toulouse

 Originated in France. Some strains are non-broody and the goose is a fair layer
among the heavy breeds
 Gooslings tend to grow slowly and have to be kept to an older age before being
ready for market
 The flesh is coarser than the Emden and the proportion of bone and offal is high
 The progeny of a Toulouse goose crossed with an Emden gander grows rapidly
and has good fleshing qualities
Gander-14 kg; Goose-9 kg

Emden

 Originated from Hanover in Germany

 It is a heavy breed, a prolific breeder with a quiet disposition and currently the
most popular in New South Wales
 Emdens are good egg producers (upto 40 eggs per season), good sitters, early
maturing and good foragers
 Because feathers from Emdens are white, they are of greater value than feathers
from other geese
 Gooslings can be sexed at day old with a reasonable degree of accuracy as female
chicks have a darker down than male chicks
  Bill, legs and feet are bright orange and the hard tight plumage is pure glossy
white
 Other goose breeds are African, Chinese, Egyptian, Canada etc.

JAPANESE QUAILS

 In India, the Japanese quail, scientifically known as Coturnix coturnix japonica

is very popular
 These birds are well suited for research studies and economical
 Males weigh less than the females
 Colour of the feathers in the breast region in the male is a plain rust colour while
in the female it is speckled
 Eggs are mosaic patterned
 The known breeds of Japanese quails - Manchurian Golden, British Range,
English White and Tuxedo

Japanese quail meat

 Japanese quail can be sold to the market at five weeks of age as live birds. The
practice of hot water dipping and defeathering is not followed, and the skin is
removed along with feathers, after the birds have been bled, by slitting the
necks.
 Cleaned meat will be 70-74 percent of the live body weight. Quail meat contains
more protein (22-24 percent) and less fat (about 2 percent) than most other
kinds of meat, like mutton, chicken, etc. Therefore, it is good for growing
children and youths and also for convalescing and health-conscious adults.
 Quails carry more meat in the breast region (41 percent) and also contain a high
amount of calcium.

Japanese Quail egg

 Quail eggs are tasty, they containmore yolk than chicken eggs. They can be
served as boiled eggs for table purposes, and children are very fond of them.
 Quail eggs contain higher proportions of high-quality protein and fat. They can
also be used to prepare pickles.

GUINEA FOWL

Guinea fowl - derive their name from Guinea, a part of the West Coast of Africa

The domestic guinea fowls descended from one of the wild species of Africa and the
ancient Greeks and Romans were known for raising them as table birds.

Origin Africa
Adult body weight 1.5 kg
 Sex differentiation By voice
Age at sexual maturity 6-7 months
Varieties Pearl , White and Lavender
Annual egg production 170-180 eggs
Egg weight 40-45 grams
Egg shell colour Dark brown
Purpose of rearing Meat purpose, Have red lean meat with strong game flavour
Marketing Age 12-13 weeks
Incubation period 28 days

COMB

Comb types

 A comb is defined as a fleshy protuberance on top of the head of a fowl, larger on

the male fowl than the female.
 Comb patterns help in identifying the various breeds and varieties of chicken.
The common comb pattern noticed in chicken is the 'single comb'. This comb is
very prominent in the White Leghorn breed.
 A typical comb has a base, blade, serrations, points and spikes.
 The comb is an indicator of the reproductive ability of the bird as the growth of
the comb is controlled by oestrogen and androgen hormones. An experienced
farmer will distinguish a healthy bird from a sick bird by observing the comb
alone.
 The comb should be brick red in colour and erect (except in White Leghorn
females where it falls on anyone side) it should be prominent, rigid, velvetty,
soft, warm and waxy to touch.
 Sick birds or a poor layer will have a dry, shrunken, pale, cold comb, with chalky
deposits over the surface. Some of the diseases can be identified by the colour
and condition of the comb.

COMB VARIETIES

The varieties of comb are

 Single comb
 Rose comb
 Pea comb
 Strawberry comb or Walnut comb
 Cushion comb
  Cap comb
 Cup comb

SINGLE AND ROSE COMB

Single comb

 This is a comb when viewed from the front is narrow and has spikes on the top,
one behind other.
 It consists of a blade which is the lower solid portion.
 The space between the spikes are known as serrations. The serrations and spikes
are definite in size and shape in different breeds.
 White Leghorn has five or six spikes. Rhode Island Red has six spikes. The
number of spikes on the comb depends on the action of the modifying
genotype. (e.g.) White Leghorn, White Rock.

Rose Comb

 This comb is nearly flat on the top and is covered with small irregular points
finished with spikes. It varies in length and the length of carriage varies
according to the breed. The modifying genes determine the size and number of
rounded points on the comb as well as the length and direction of the spikes.
(e.g.) Rose combed Leghorn, Wyandotte.
 PEA, WALNUT AND CUSHION COMB

Pea comb

 This is a comb resembling three very small single combs joined together at the
base and rear. (e.g.) White Cornish, Dark Cornish

Walnut or Strawberry comb

 This comb resembles one half of a strawberry fruit or a walnut with the round
part uppermost. It is small in size and has irregular grooves on the surface.
(e.g.) Malay, vaienkoppe

Cushion comb

 This comb is basically noticed in the Silkie breed. (e.g.) Silkie

CAP AND CUP COMB

Cap comb or V-shaped comb

 This comb will be in the form of a stylish cap and this is seen in red cap breeds.
(e.g.) Polish.

Cup comb
  This comb is cupped between two single combs stretched further apart and fused
at the base. This is seen in butter cup breeds. (e.g.) Butter cup, Poland.

FEATHER

Parts of feather

 The root is called 'calamus'. The base is known as the 'quill', which gives rise to a
structure known as a shaft which in turn terminates in a structure called 'rachis'.
 The structure called barbs arise from the shaft which gives rise to the barbule.
This further gives rise to barbicels. These join together to form the vane.
 Feather serves as a protection to the bird from extremes of weather by insulating
the body. They are essential for flight. The feather pattern and colour will assist in
identifying the breed and variety and also help in identifying the sex of the bird,
because sexual dimorphism exists in the feather pattern of poultry.

Sex differentiation

 In the male fowl the tail feathers are sickle shaped.

 In case of ducks the male has a curved tail feather (sex curl) known as the 'Drake
Feather', which is useful in identifying the sex of the bird.
 In the Tom turkey the tail feather is long when compared to that of the female.
 In the Japanese quail the feathers on the neck and breast region of the male is
golden or rust brown, while in the female it is speckled. Condition of feathers
help in identifying a good layer from a non-layer, an old layer from a young layer
and also to identify the stage of moult in a bird.
 Male Japanese quail Female Japanese quail

FEATHER TYPES

The various types of feathers are as follows:

 Contour feather: This forms the general covering of the body and wings including
the large flight feather of the wings.
 Covert feather: These are noticed on the base of the wings and do not have
barbicels; also called fluff.
 Down feather: This is present in newly hatched chicks. Sometimes it is seen
below the contour feathers especially in the abdominal and head regions.
 Filo plume: Hair like structures under the contour feathers of the body, which
can be seen when the feathers are plucked. It consists of an axis and very few
terminal barbs.
 Pin feather: Are very small feathers.

FEATHER TRACTS

 Even though the body of the bird looks fully covered with feathers, it has
originated only from certain definite feather tracts called "Pterylae". There
are 10 pairs of feather tracts.
oCephalic
oAlar
oHumoral
oSpinal
oCrural
oVentral
oFemoral
oCervical
oAuxiliary
oCaudal
  During the moulting process, the feathers are shed in a particular pattern starting
from the cephalic tract and finally ending with the crural tract.

MODULE-3: EGG FORMATION AND STRUCTURE

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Steps involved in the process of Egg formation

oGraafian follicle development, Albumen secreting region, Shell and Shell
membrane secreting region, formation of Cuticle and
Pigment secreting region-Oviduct
 Hormonal control of Ovulation and Oviposition
 Structure of egg and Different parts of Egg viz.Albumen, Egg yolk, Air cell, Shell
and Shell membran

PROCESS OF EGG FORMATION

Formation of egg (Click here to view the animation for egg formation)

 The yolk is not the true reproductive cell, but a source of food material from
which the live cell (blastoderm) and its resultant embryo partially receives its
nutrients for growth
 When the female attains sexual maturity- mature ovum inside the graffian follicle
grows rapidly and reaches its full size in about 9 to 10 days due to the action of
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) produced by the anterior pituitary
 The yolk weight also increases 7 days prior to ovulation due to the deposition of
yolk material over the ovum in concentric and alternate layers of white and
yellow of which, white layer of yolk is deposited during the night and the yellow
layer during the day
 As the ovum increases in size, due to the deposition of yolk, the nucleus migrates
from the centre of the ovum to the periphery and lies underneath the vitelline
membrane
 The nucleus of the infertile egg is called 'germ spot' and that of fertile egg 'germ
disc'
 The anterior pituitary releases Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) that
regulates the growth and maturity of graffian follicle and Luteinising hormone
(LH) that helps to release the ovum by rupture of graffian follicle
 The liberation of ovum from graffian follicle is called Ovulation
 Ovulation occurs normally 14 to 75 minutes after oviposition (act of laying)
 Most of the albumen is formed in the magnum, so it is known as the albumen-
secreting region of the oviduct. Peristaltic movement of the magnum pushes
the ovum to the isthmus
 Chalazae, the egg protein formed in the magnum, becomes visible only in the
uterus and not before, probably because of change in colloidal structure of
 albumen adjacent to the yolk and rotation of this albumen around the yolk in
the uterus.
 The inner and outer shell membranes of the egg are formed in the isthmus.
Probably some amount of water is also added to albumen in the isthmus.
 The uterus is responsible for the formation of egg shell and hence is also known
as shell gland. Calcium required for the formation of the egg shell is mobilized
from the feed assimilated and long medullary bones.
 The tubular and unicellular glands present in uterus secrete a watery fluid which
is added to the albumen through the shell membranes.
 The shell pigments are formed in the uterus during the last 5 hours before the
oviposition and brown colour of egg shell is due to the pigment Porphyrin.
 The cuticle is laid on the outside of shell in the uterus and it represents the last of
the concentric layers of egg formation.
 The oviposition or laying of egg, is through the contraction of uterus. The
hormones responsible for uterine contraction and oviposition are oxytocin and
vasotocin released from the posterior lobe of pituitary.

EGG STRUCTURE

Four Major structures of the egg from outside to inside are

 Shell
 Shell membranes
 Albumen
 Yolk

EGG SHELL

The egg shell consists of

 Cuticle
 Spongy or calcarious layer
 Mammillary layer or matrix and pores
 Pores are funnel shaped, distributed at right angles to the shell surface and form
connecting passages between the shell membrane and cuticle.
 Average number of pores varies from 8,000-10000 per egg, distributed unevenly
over the shell surface with more number of pores at the broad end than at the
narrow end.

SHELL MEMBRANE

The shell membrane consists of

 Air cell
 Outer shell membrane
 Inner shell membrane
  Air cell is situated in between the two membranes at the broad end
 Air cell - formed as a result of contraction of the egg contents, soon after
oviposition, due to differences in the temperatures exposed to by the egg prior
to and after oviposition
 The outer shell membrane is attached firmly to the shell by numerous cones on
the shell surface extending into the membrane
 The inner shell membrane closely surrounds the albumen

ALBUMEN

 The albumen consists of 4 layers, namely

oChalaziferous or inner thick white, which forms (3%)
oInner thin albumen (17%)
oOuter thick firm or dense albumen (57%)
oOuter thin albumen (23%) of total albumen
 The chalaziferous layer -very close to the yolk immediately surrounding the
vitelline membrane of the yolk - twists into two chords on either sides of the
yolk called chalazae, which are formed due to rotational movement of the egg
in the oviduct

Functions of chalazae

 Chalazae - hold the yolk firmly in its central position and thus serves as an anchor
for yolk
 Chalazae - contain a protein called lysozyme, which is possessing antimicrobial
properties and helps to prevent the microbial spoilage of the egg
 Ageing, improper storage and microbial spoilage makes thick albumen watery

YOLK

The yolk consists of

 Concentric layers of dark and light yolk material, due to differences in their
chemical composition
 Latebra is the centre of the yolk, which is a small, nearly circular core of light
coloured fluid, which does not completely harden on boiling
 Nucleus of Pander is a cup-shaped structure, which is an extension of the neck of
latebra, connecting the base of the germinal disc
 In an infertile egg it is unicellular (ovum) and contains haploid number of
chromosomes, called "Blastodisc". It is circular in shape, with a diameter of
about 3.5 mm and with vacuoles in it. Where as in a fertile egg, it is a
multicellular structure having diploid number of chromosomes, called
"Blastoderm". It is oval in shape, with an average diameter of about 4.5 mm
and with no vacuoles in it.
 "Vitelline membrane" is a semi-permeable elastic membrane, surrounding the
yolk, separating the yolk material from the albumen
 LEARNING OUTCOME

This chapter deals with

 Parts of Male Reproductive structures

 Physiology of Spermatogenesis
 Parts of Female Reproductive system - Ovary and Oviduct
 Parts of Oviduct viz. Infundibulum, Magnum, Isthmus, Uterus and Vagina
 Process of Egg formation

MALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

 Male reproductive structures include testes, vas deferens, cloaca and the
rudimentary copulatory organ

FUNCTIONS

 Testes are paired, small ovoid structures lying on the dorsal body wall, on either side of
the vertebral column and anterior to the kidneys. The testes are reddish-yellow in colour.
The left kidney is slightly larger than the right one
 The testis is formed of numerous slender seminiferous tubules, inside which
spermatogenesis takes place. From each tubule arises the vas deferens, which join
together to form the long coiled epididymis. The epididymis of each side continues down
as the vas deferens and terminates in the cloaca
 Puberty in a cockerel (immature male) is defined as the age when spermatozoa first
appear in ejaculated semen
 Sperms undergo maturation in the epididymis and attain the power of motility here. The
sperms are carried down with the seminal secretion into the cloaca from where they are
discharged during copulation
 The number of fully formed sperms released from the seminiferous epithelium into the
lumen is known as “Spermiation”.
 The pH of the semen varies between 7.45 to 7.63.
 Daily sperm output in cocks is about 2000×10 6 while in toms it is about less than
1120×106 .
 On the median ventral portion of the cloaca is a small button-like structure called
copulatory papilla, which is the rudimentary copulatory organ
 During copulation the papilla of male and female are everted and pressed together so
that sperms are ejected directly into the female urodeum, from where they are squeezed
into the oviduct by the contraction of the urodeum. A temperature, lower than that of the
body at the nodule, probably hastens maturity of the sperms

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

  Birds are unique among animals as they reproduce through an egg which
contains all the necessary components for the commencement and
maintenance of life process during embryonic development
 The hen actually does bulk of the reproductive work prior to the laying since the
egg laid provides all the nutrients necessary to create and maintain early life of
the embryo
 The female reproductive system consist of Ovary and Oviduct
 At the time of early embryonic development, two ovaries and two oviducts exist.
But the right set atrophies, leaving only the left ovary and oviduct at hatching

OVARY AND OVIDUCT

Ovary

 At the time of embryonic development, two ovaries and two oviducts exist,
but only the left ovary and oviduct are functional at hatching, the right
atrophies
 The left ovary is situated at dorsal part of abdominal cavity and the fore end of
kidneys
 The ovary is responsible for the formation of yolk only

Oviduct

 The oviduct is a long zig zag tube consisting of glandular and muscular parts .
Oviduct extends from the ovary to the cloaca. It has 5 distinct parts, viz.
infundibulum (9cm), magnum (33cm), isthmus (10cm), uterus (10-12cm) and
vagina (12cm)
 Infundibulum is the funnel-shaped, anterior portion of the oviduct, and measures
about 9 cm in the laying hens. The mature ovum immediately after release
from the graffian follicle, is engulfed by the infundibulum, and remains there
for about 18 minutes before moving to the magnum
 Magnum, about 33 cm in the laying hens is the largest portion and albumen-
secreting region of the oviduct. The ovum remains in the magnum for about 2
hrs and 54 min
 The ovum stays in isthmus for about 1 hour and 14 minutes. Shell membranes are
secreted and egg gets its shape in this region
 Uterus, also known as shell gland, is a pouch-like structure and the ovum stays
here for about 20 hours and 40 minutes in the uterus
 Vagina is the terminal portion of the oviduct having a muscular sphincter at the
utero-vaginal junction which helps in expelling the egg during oviposition

MODULE-4: IMPORTANT ECONOMIC TRAITS OF POULTRY

Learning objectives

 To study the Economic traits of Layers

 o Age at sexual maturity
o Body weight at maturity
o Egg number
o Egg weight
o Egg quality traits
o Feed efficiency
o Livability/Survivability
o Egg Production Indices
 To study the Economic traits in Broilers
o Growth traits - Body weight and Growth rate
o Feed efficiency
o Livability/Survivability at market age
o Carcass traits -Dressing percentage in Commercial broilers

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF LAYERS

 Age at sexual maturity (days)/Age at start of lay

 Body weight at maturity
 Egg production/Egg number
 Egg weight
 Feed efficiency
 Livability

AGE AT SEXUAL MATURITY

Age at sexual maturity (days)/Age at start of lay

 For a flock of layer pullets, age in days at which 5 % egg production level is
reached is considered as the age at maturity. It usually falls within 21st week of
age. Sometimes the level may be reached even at 19th or 20th week which is not
desirable. It happens when additional night lighting is given to growers
indiscriminately even after six weeks of age
 If laying starts early, the eggs laid are smaller in size which continue to be so for
long time, thus affecting the egg price and in turn, the profitability
 Adopt lighting schedule for growers as advised
 Strain of the bird and quality of feed are two other factors influencing age at start
of lay of eggs

BODY WEIGHT AT MATURITY

 This character decides feed efficiency, egg number and egg weight
 The body weight of layers at start of lay has to be optimal; it should neither be
low nor high
 Low body weight indicates poor growth of egg forming female reproductive tract,
which in turn will result in poor egg production and egg weight
  Higher body weight at maturity will lead to higher feed consumption and reduced
persistency
 If higher body weight is due to high abdominal fat, the same will obstruct
infundibulum and affect egg production
 Strain and feed quality also influence this character

EGG NUMBER

 Commercial hybrid layers produce around 300-310 eggs in one year from 21-72
weeks of age.

Factors such as

 Strain of the bird

 Age and body weight at start of lay
 Lighting schedule during growing and laying
 Feed quality (protein, energy, vitamins, mineral and trace mineral content and
toxin free feed)
 Culling procedure
 Climate
 Managemental factors like space allowances
 System of feeding
 Water quality
 Vaccination and other disease control measures influence egg number

EGG WEIGHT

 It varies from 52-56 g on an average

 Egg weight is mainly dependent on body weight of the birds
 Birds at later stage of production are comparatively older, heavier and lay larger
sized eggs
 First egg in a clutch (series of eggs laid daily without a break) is always heavier
than other eggs in the series
 If total number of eggs laid in a laying cycle of one year is comparatively less,
individual egg size by such strain of birds is normally larger and if the egg
number is more egg size will be comparatively less. To overcome this and to
decide as to which strain is preferable, another character known as “egg mass”
is considered
 It is the total weight of eggs laid by a bird in a laying cycle
 It depends both on egg number and average weight of an egg
 All other factors such as quality of feed, managemental factor, age, strain etc.,
which influence body weight also have an influence on egg weight

FEED EFFICIENCY

 It denotes the efficiency of conversion of feed into egg.

  Feed efficiency of layers is calculated in terms of conversion into number of eggs
(per dozen eggs) or weight of eggs (per kg egg mass)

 Feed efficiency of a layer depends on the

 strain of the bird
 average egg number
 egg weight (in the latter case)
 Quality of feed (energy, protein and contents of other vital nutrients, presence of
toxins, if any, inclusion of performance promoters etc.), managemental care
(space allowances, system of feeding, feed wastage, proper debeaking,
deworming, insect and rodent control), climate, disease control measures etc.

LIVABILITY

 Per cent livability is worked out separately for each of the three stages of layer
management viz. in Brooder (0-8 weeks), Grower (9-20 weeks) and Layer (21-
72 weeks) stages
 Permissible levels of mortality during these stages are 4%, 2-3% and 6-8%
respectively
 Accordingly, livability levels of 96%, 96-97% and 92-94% are prescribed as
optimal for these stages independently of each other
 Strain, feed quality, litter management, vaccination schedule and other disease
control measures, disease outbreaks, lay out and design of poultry houses,
climate, biosecurity measures adopted, dead bird and manure disposal, parent
breeder management and hatchery sanitation etc. all influence livability levels
in layers

EGG PRODUCTION INDICES - LAYERS

Egg production or egg number percentage (No.)

 Hen-housed egg production

 Hen-day egg production

ECONOMIC TRATIS OF BROILERS ENTERPRISE

 Growth traits - Body weight and Growth rate

 Feed efficiency
 Livability/Survivability at market age
 Carcass traits - Dressing percentage

BODY WEIGHT AT MARKET AGE

 It is the average live weight of a broiler when sold to market. It is obtained by

dividing the total weight of birds sold by the number of broilers. Since the
broilers fetch price based on their body weight, it is advantageous to get heavy
birds at an early market age (fast growing).
 The body weight at market age depends on so many factors, the knowledge of
which will help the farmer to make their birds grow faster viz. Strain,
disinfection, downtime, system of rearing, water sanitation, feeding, night
lighting, watering, floor space, growth promoters, housing design etc.

FEED EFFICIENCY
  The term indicates the quantity of feed required to put up a unit live body weight.
Since feed involves 70 % of the cost of production, feed efficiency or efficiency
of feed conversion by the broilers determines profit margin also. It is calculated
as:

 For broilers, a feed efficiency of 1.8-2.0 kg feed to put one kg live body weight is
considered as optimal. Lower the feed efficiency value, the better for the
farmer.
 The factors influencing feed efficiency are strain, quality and energy level of feed,
feeding, growth promoters, climate, floor space, role of microbes, mortality etc.

LIVABILITY/SURVIVABILITY AT MARKET AGE

 Under standard rearing conditions, 94 to 96 % livability is anticipated at market

age since the death rate (mortality) should not exceed 4 to 6 %.
 The factors influencinglivability are strain, housing design, disinfection and
other disease control measures, medication, vaccination, standard of
management like brooding, extremes of climate, downtime between batches,
system of rearing, Quality of feed, litter material etc.

CARCASS TRAITS

 It is the proportion of edible meat to total live weight which varies from 72 to 76
%.
 Strain of the bird, energy content of the diet, feeding
and watering before
slaughter, length and time of transport etc. are some of the factors that
influence dressing yield.

FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY

Fertility

 Refers to capacity to reproduce. It is the factor, which determines the successful

offspring that may be obtained from a given number of eggs.

Factors influencing fertility

  Sex Ratio
 Age of breeders
 Length of duration between mating
 Diseases and management practices.
 Fertility is expressed as % of fertile eggs in a set of total eggs incubated.
 Fecundity-Producing many offspring.
 Fecundate – To fertilize

Hatchability

 Is defined in two ways

o Based on the fertile eggs set (FES)
o Based on the total eggs set (TES)
 Refers to the % of chicks hatched to the eggs set.
 Size, shape and condition of egg shell are important for hatching. Very large and
very small eggs do not hatch well.
 Eggs having abnormal shape show low heritability.
 Condition and duration of storage of eggs prior to incubation as well as setter and
hatcher environment affect hatchability (or) The quality of fertilized egg to
produce normal embryonic development with normal emergence of the young
when incubated.

FACTORS AFFECTING FERTILITY

 Age of the parent stock: There is an increase in fertility in a breeder flock between
the ages of 25 to 40 weeks after which fertility gradually diminishes
 Breed: Lighter breeds like White Leghorn is more fertile than heavier breeds like
the broiler breeders.
 Genetic factors: Many genes influence fertility eg: in Wyandotte the gene
responsible for rose comb (RR) lowers fertility in males.
 Environmental factors: Excessive high and low temperature reduces fertility due
to poor mating frequency because of the inactiveness of the birds.
 Disease conditions: Many diseases like Ranikhet disease, Mycoplasmosis,
Salmonella etc., affect fertility.
 Sex ratio: Both higher and lower males to female ratio will reduce fertility. The
recommended ratio in lighter breeder is 1:10-12,. In broiler breeder 1:8-10 and
in J.quails 1:1-2
 The semen volume, sperm concentration and number of successful mating also
alter fertility. Inseminating the birds during the after noon can lower fertility.
 Nutritional factors: Some deficiencies like vitamin A, E , Biotin, Pantothenic acid
and B2 and minerals like calcium, phosphorous, sodium, Magnesium,
Manganese, Zinc and Iodine lower fertility.
 Photo period: A photo period of 16 hrs per day will give optimum fertility. By
either lowering the length of period to 12 hrs or increasing it to 18 hours lowers
the fertility.
  Male nutrition: Male breeders should be fed with lower protein levels of 12-14%
for optimum fertility.

FACTORS AFFECTING HATCHABILITY

Hatchability is defined as the number of chicks produced from eggs. It is measured by

two means

 Hatchability on the total number of eggs set

 Hatchability on the fertile eggs set

The factors affecting hatchability are:

 Breed, strain and individual variation.

 Presence of lethal and semi lethal genes like creeper, crooked toe, crooked beak,
polydactyl conditions
 Intense Inbreeding leads to reduced fertility while out-breeding improves it.
 Management and nutritional status of breeding stock with special reference to
minerals and vitamins alter hatchability considerably. B2 deficiency causes 0%
hatchability. Vitamins A, B2 and E are critical vitamins which affect
hatchability.
 Too high and very low temperature in breeder houses also lower hatchability.
 Hatchability is higher in egg from younger flocks and vice versa. Eggs from birds
between the age of 21 to 40 weeks hatch well.
 Eggs having abnormal shape, too small or extra large eggs, thin shelled eggs with
poor internal quality do not hatch well.
 Faulty pre-incubation storage conditions for eggs reduce the hatchability
considerably
 Optimum temperature and humidity in incubator is most essential for desired
hatchability. Abrupt and frequent variation in these factors alters hatchability
seriously.
 The desire levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in incubator play major role in
obtaining optimum hatchability seriously.
 The reverse setting of eggs with narrow end up lower the hatchability seriously
 Inadequate and faulty turning of eggs during incubation lower the hatchability.
 Use of separate hatcher with slight decrease in temperature and increase in
humidity as compared to that setter improves hatchability.
 Diseases which are vertically transmitted lowers hatchability.

EGG QUALITY

External Characteristics and Grading of Shell Eggs

 A normal chicken egg is ovate in shape.

  Wide variation in shape may lead to breakages during handling and transport.
For easy transportation and merchandising of egg, the egg should possess
normal external characteristic.
 If shape and size are abnormal, the eggs are liable to break. Similarly, thin shell
and weak shell egg or shell less eggs are liable to break and are unfit for
transportation.
 Moreover, eggs with thin shells loose their quality quickly.
 Shell colour and other external characteristics will determine the market
acceptability.
 Clean eggs will be sold at premium price, than dirty eggs.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EGG

The external characteristics of the egg will be assessed by the following

methods:

 Egg size/ weight

 Shape
 Shell colour & Texture
 Cleanliness
 Volume
 Specific gravity
 Surface area

EGG QUALITY - EGG SIZE OR WEIGHT

 Each species of bird has its own standard egg weight. Similarly the egg weight
vary between breed and age of the bird. Heavier birds produce heavier egg.
 A normal chicken egg weighs 55-60gm depending upon the breed and age. The
chicken egg will be about 1/30th of the hen's body weight.
 In case of ducks, the egg weight ranges from 65-70gm, depending upon the
breed. When compared to chicken, ducks lay heavier eggs which will weigh
1/25th of its body weight.
 Goose lay eggs weighing 130-200gm, depending upon the breed.
 Japanese quail eggs will weigh around 10gm, which will be about 1/15th of its
adult body weight. When compared to body size, Japanese quail lay heavier egg
than other species.
 Turkey egg will weigh 65-70g, ad it is only about 1/60th of its body weight. In all
species of birds, older birds lay heavier eggs than younger birds. Record the
weight of egg provided to 0.1gm accuracy using triple beam balance.
 Some times the egg size will be extremely small or large as in the case of yolk
less/ double yolked eggs which are difficult to transport because they will break
during transit. They are sold in the farm itself.
 EGG QUALITY - SHAPE

 The usual egg shape is "ovate". The shape of the egg plays a major role in packing
and transport.
 The normal shape of an egg can be marred due to diseases like Ranikhet and
Infectious Bronchitis. Too small or too large eggs are discarded in the farm
itself.
 Egg shape is expressed as "Shape index'. Here the process is to measure the
maximum length of the egg using a vernier caliper and also the average width
of the egg measured in two places. It is measured to an accuracy of 1mm and
the shape index is arrived at by using the formula.

 A normal egg will have a shape index of 72 (Range 70-74).

 Egg which is spherical in shape will have a shape index of 75 and above; such of
those eggs which are elongated/ elliptical will have lesser shape index of 70.
These eggs which do not fall into the normal range of the shape index cannot

EGG QUALITY-SHELL COLOUR AND TEXTURE

 It indicates smoothness and roughness of shell surface and also indicates shell
quality.
 Shell colour is due to the presence of pigments.
 Ooporphyrin gives brownish colour to the egg shell, which is normally seen in
eggs laid by the Asian, the English and the American Class of birds.
 The pigments Oocyan causes other blue colour in eggs seen in eggs laid by the
breed Aracauna.

be used for hatching

EGG QUALITY - CLEANLINESS AND VOLUME

Egg quality - Cleanliness

 This is essential for consumer satisfaction and also to improve and maintain the
keeping quality.
 A dirty egg may harbour harmful microbes which will spoil the egg and render it
unfit for consumption.
 Eggs collected from deep litter will be more dirty than caged eggs, obviously due
to dirty wet litter and delayed collection of eggs.
Egg quality - Volume

 Volume is also one of the indicators of egg size.

 Egg volume is directly proportional to the egg size. Since the specific gravity of
egg is more than one, the volume of a fresh egg will always be less than the egg
weight. However a small egg will have greater volume by weight ratio.
 The egg volume of different species will be around 90-95% of their fresh egg
weight. To measure the volume of the egg, fill a measuring cylinder of 500 ml/
1 litre capacity with a known quantity of water.
 After noting the lower meniscus of the water, gently slant the measuring cylinder
and slide the egg carefully into the measuring cylinder and note the final
reading of the water, the difference in value will give the volume of egg in cm3.

EGG QUALITY - SPECIFIC GRAVITY

 This gives an indication of the egg shell quality, as well as its freshness. Fresh
eggs will have higher specific gravity than old and long stored eggs, because there
will be a loss of moisture in the old eggs which inturn replaced by air. So the air
cell will become bigger as the egg is stored for a longer time.
 Similarly, eggs having stronger shell will have higher specific gravity than thin
shelled eggs.
 The measure of specific gravity can be made by several methods.
o By measuring the egg weight and then weighing the egg in water, to find
the weight loss in water.
o By dipping the eggs in a salt solution having several concentration of salt
dissolved in it; having a specific gravity ranging from 1.0-1.1 with
an interval of 0.02.

A normal egg will have a specific gravity of 1.06.

 Any value less than this may indicate that the egg is old or the eggs are thin
shelled; irrespective of other criteria, smaller eggs will have high specific gravity
due to more uniform shell.
 By knowing the egg weight and volume.

EGG QUALITY - SURFACE AREA

 It is calculated by using the formula

Where, 12.6 is a constant.

 Surface area of an egg is directly proportional to egg size. The surface area will be
more for elongated eggs than for spherical eggs.

ECONOMIC PRODUCTION-COMMERCIAL BROILERS AND

LAYERS

Economic traits of commercial broilers and their mean performance

 Body weight at day old (g) : 42

 <PBody weight at 6th week (g) : 2075
 Feed consumption – 6th week (g) : 3611
 Feed conversion ratio (FCR) – 6th week : 1.74
 Ready-to-cook yield (%) : 70-72

Economic traits of commercial layer and their mean performance

I. Rearing period (0 -17 weeks)

1 Livability (%) 96 %
2 Body weight at 5 and 8 weeks of female (g) 370/590
3 Feed consumption per bird 5.2 kg

II. Laying period

1 Age at 50 % production 140 days

2 Feed consumption per hen day (21-80 weeks) 108 g
3 Livability % (17-80 weeks) 94 %
4 Hen housed egg production (72 weeks) 319
5 Egg weight (g) at 32, 60, 72 weeks 56.5, 58.7, 59.6
6 Egg mass (kg) upto 60, 72 weeks 14.9, 18.0
7 Feed conversion per kg egg mass -60, 72 weeks 1.98, 2.01
8 Livability (%) at 60, 72 weeks 96, 94.8 %
 9 Body weight (g) at 20, 40, 72 weeks (female) 1295/1450/1540
10 Egg number per hen housed at 40, 72 weeks 108/275
11 Feed intake cumulative per hen housed at 40, 72 weeks 16.8/40.0

ECONOMIC PRODUCTION- BROILER BREEDER AND LAYER

BREEDER

Economic traits of broiler breeders and their mean performnce

1 Body weight (g) at 20, 24 and 64 weeks of 1980-2140, 2400-2700 and 3350-
female 3650 g
2 Age at 50 % lay 26-27 weeks
3 Age at peak production 29-31 weeks
4 Hen housed egg production (upto 64 weeks) 175-185
5 Percent hatchability 84.5-87.0
6 Number of broiler chicks per hen housed (24-64 139-150
weeks)
7 Average number of unsettable eggs per hen 3-5 %
housed
8 Livability (%) at 1-24 and 25-64 weeks 95-97 and 90.5-93.5 %
9 Feed consumption – per egg laid (g) 3288 (0-64 weeks)
10 Feed consumption – per 100 broiler chicks (kg) 41.0 (0-64 weeks)

Economic traits of layer breeders and their mean performance

1 Livability (%) 1-18, 19-70 week Males 93/93

Females 97/97
2 Age at 50 % peak production 143 days
3 Hen housed egg number - 19-70 weeks 293
4 Hen day egg number -19-70 weeks 297
5 Number of settable eggs per hen housed at 25-70 weeks 280
6 Number of female chicks produced at 25-70 weeks 112
7 Per cent hatchability (%) at 25-70 weeks 85 %
8 Body weight (kg) of male and female at 18, 60 weeks 1.45/2.12
Male
Female 1.23/1.89
9 Feed consumption per hen housed 1-18 weeks 5.84
10 per dozen eggs 19-70 weeks 1.39
11. Egg quality traits Albumen index – 0.10
Yolk index – 0.40
Specific gravity – >1.06
Shell thickness –
>0.33mm

ECONOMIC PRODUCTION - COMMERCIAL MEAT TYPE

TURKEYS AND JAPANESE QUAIL

Economic traits of commercial meat type turkeys and their mean

performance

1 Body weight at day old, 6, 12, 16, 20 and 24 weeks of males 1.8/3.8/5.5/6.8/8.4
kgs
2 Body weight at day old, 6, 12, 16, 20 and 24 weeks of 1.2/2.4/3.7/4.5/5.6 kgs
females
3 Livability (%) at 6, 16, 24 weeks 96, 94, 93
4 Feed efficiency at 6,12,16,20 and 24 weeks 1.8/2.2/2.8/3.6/4.2
5 Ready-to-cook yield (%) Males 78-80
Females 74-76

Economic Traits Of Meat Type Japanese Quail And Their Mean

Performance

Commercial

1 Body weight (g) at 0,7,14,21,28 days 8, 32, 80, 132, 190 g

2 Feed efficiency at 7,14,21,28 days 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.6
3 Livability (%) at 7,14,21,28 days 97, 95.5, 94.5, 94

Parent
 1 Egg weight (g) – 16 weeks 13 g
2 Age (days) at 5%,50%, 75% egg production 51d, 65d,72d
3 Livability (%) at 6, 24, 40 weeks 93%, 85%, 77%
4 Egg number hen housed to 24, 40 weeks 88, 160
5 Body weight (g) at 6 weeks and at 40 weeks Males 215 g and 240 g
6 Females 265 g and 280 g
7 Hatchability (%) – summer, other seasons 65, 72 %

MODULE-5: SCAVENGING SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Scavenging system of management

 Introduction -Backyard /rural poultry keeping
 Extensive system of housing
 Semi-intensive system of housing
 Feeding through scavenging
 Feed resources under free-range rearing
 Scavenging Feed Resource Base (SFRB)

INTRODUCTION - BACKYARD / RURAL POULTRY KEEPING

 Desi birds in villages constitute as source of ready money and so called “Walking
Banks”. Backyard poultry farming will generate petty cash for house hold
requirement in addition to providing a balanced food with minimum inputs
available in the rural areas
 The backyard poultry farming is more beneficial to small, marginal farmers, land
less labourers, tribal and backward class people
 Backyard poultry keeping can play a great role in alleviating the protein hunger in
rural sections of our country.
 It is a land saving, with low financial investment and minimum management
requirements but can bring about a sizable income to the rural families
 Feeding of backyard poultry is made easy by using household wastes, farm
products and green vegetation, besides free scavenging for waste grains and
insects

EXTENSIVE SYSTEM OF HOUSING

Free-Range Extensive systems

 Rearing of poultry by letting them loose on ground (field) is known as “Free-

range system"
 Under free-range conditions, the birds are not confined and can scavenge for
food over a wide area. Rudimentary shelters may be provided by way of
temporary roofing supported by ordinary poles. The birds may also roost
outside, usually in trees and nest in the bush
 The flock contains birds of different species and varying ages.
 Poultry are housed at night under backyard systems but allowed free-range
during the day. They are usually fed a handful of grain in the morning and
evening to supplement scavenging

SEMI - INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF HOUSING

 These are a combination of extensive and intensive systems where birds are
confined to a certain area with access to shelter. Birds are half-way reared in
houses and half-way on ground or range (Pen and Run system)
 In the “run” system, the birds are confined in an enclosed area outside during the
day and housed at night.
 The success of rearing depends on maintenance of condition of runs to reduce the
contamination. The danger of infection is from the ground immediately
surrounding houses called "foul-patch" due to congregation of birds there for
most of the time in a day
 Feed and water are available in the house to avoid wastage by rain, wind and
predators

FEEDING THROUGH SCAVENGING

 Birds under scavenging conditions pickup farm produced grain like maize, jowar
and millets to meet their energy requirement and depend upon, at least
partially, on grains offered by flock holders in early part of the day
 In addition birds scavenge to prey on insects, worms, larvae, snails, termites,
maggots, marine wastes etc. to satisfy the protein, mineral and vitamin needs.
However, a considerable diversity in climate, terrain, ethnic groups,
socioeconomic status etc, significantly influences the feeding pattern in
different geographical locations
 Therefore, the sustainability of poultry depends upon the interplay between
environment, local resources, agricultural practices and skills in poultry
management
 Any gap between the scavenge able feed and the feed required has to be
compensated with supplemental feed
 Under household conditions available feed ingredients are at times given in
combination, which, invariably will be imbalanced and may in fact be
deleterious, if the birds are restricted from scavenging. However, the
importance of supplemental feed cannot be underestimated due to its direct
and indirect effects on many aspects of production
 A bird cannot certainly find all the nutrients needed for optimum production
round the year. During peak production and dry season, hens can be exposed
to vitamin and mineral deficiencies due to scarcity of natural resources of feed.
Hence, offering supplemental feed becomes essential.

FEED RESOURCES UNDER FREE - RANGE REARING

 Availability of feed resources on extensive system of rearing exhibits considerable

variability due to geographical, climatic and agricultural factors.
 However, the feed resources available to the weakest family in the community
are;
ohousehold wastes
onaturally occurring organic material like worms, insects, maggots termites
etc,
ocrop surpluses and their by products
ofodder material and
onon commercial feed like grasses, herbs, algae etc.

SCAVENGING FEED RESOURCE BASE (SFRB)

 It is important to monitor the quantity of scavengeable feed available seasonwise

in a village to assess the gap between resources accessible to the birds and their
actual requirement to provide feed through supplementation
 SFRB is defined as the total amount of food items available to all scavenging
birds in a given area. It depends on the number of households, the type of food
crops grown, and their crop cultivating and crop processing methods as well as
on the climatic conditions that determine the rate of deposition of the
food items
  If the biomass of the flock exceeds carrying capacity of SFRB, some birds in the
population, particularly the weaker ones will die. On the other hand survival
will be more when SFRB is more than the requirement of flock
 Seasonal fluctuations in the SFRB occur due to periods of fallow or flooding,
cultivation, harvesting and processing. The land area available for scavenging
and the distance a flock can travel to scavenge will depend on flock size, feed
availability, population density, agricultural activities, predators etc. If the
capacity of SFRB and seasonal variations are known, efficient strategies for
better scavenging, feed resource availability can be evolved
 The SFRB includes termites, snails, worms, insects, grain from sowing,
harvesting by-products, seeds, grass, fodder tree leaves, water-plants and
unconventional feed materials. The crop contents can be utilized to determine
the metabolizable energy and protein components of scavenging feed
resources. The anticipated reduction in SFRB can be determined and
accordingly appropriate nutrients can be supplemented

MODULE-6: NEWLY DEVELOPED COLOUR PLUMAGED BIRDS

FOR RURAL POULTRY

Learning objectives

 This module deals with the newly developed birds suitable for rural
environment.

COLOURED CHICKEN VARIETIES - RURAL POULTRY

Coloured Chicken varieties-Backyard farming

 Nandanam Chicken-1 & Nandanam-Broiler II (TANUVAS, Chennai)

 Giriraja (UAS,Bangalore), Indian Broiler developed at Bangalore under AICRP on
Poultry (IBB-83)
 Swarnadhara (KVAFSU), Coloured broilers-Rajali under AICRP on Poultry,
Bangalore
 Vanaraja, Gramapriya and Krishi-bro (PDP, Hyderabad)
 Krishna-J (Jabalpur farm varsity)
 Grama Laxmi (Kerala Agricultural University) and Kalinga Brown
(Bhuvaneshwar-based poultry organisation -- CPDO)
 Development of scavenging chicken at CARI, Izatnagar with native fowl base
 CARI NlRBHEEK
 CARI SHYAMA
 UPCARI
 HITCARI

GIRIRAJA
  First initiative by poultry breeders to develop
varieties suitable for backyard
rearing. It is a polycross, resemble local fowls in plumage color and pattern and
was released in1989.
 Easily acclimatize to varied agro climatic regions
 Sturdy and more tolerant to many diseases
 Adapted well to scavenging conditions
 Very popular all over the country and also abroad

SWARNADHARA AND RAJA II

Swarnadhara

 Swarnadhara birds are similar to Giriraja in their plumage colour and pattern
 Released in 2005
 Birds are more compact than Giriraja and produces 180-200 eggs
 Better suited to scavenging because of thin and longer shanks

Raja II: Coloured broilers

 Second in the series of coloured broilers developed at Bangalore

 Similar to Giriraja and Krishibro in Plumage colour and Pattern
 Suitable for small farmers to rear in few 100s to 1000s
 Quite hardy and more tolerant to diseases and leg abnormalities than commercial
broilers

NANDANAM CHICKEN - I AND NANDANAM BROILER - II

Coloured Chicken Varieties developed at TANUVAS

  Nandanam Chicken - I
oThis strain was developed from the Sterling strain of Rhode Island Red
breed. Nandanam chicken – I is a purebred having dark red plumage
with medium sized body and is a dual-purpose breed
 Nandanam Broiler - II
oThis is a coloured broiler chicken developed through sustained selection
and breeding for 10 years in the synthetic broiler scheme.
oMulti coloured feather pattern with good survivability under the backyard
system are the advantages of this breed

VANARAJA AND GRAMAPRIYA

Vanaraja

 Vanaraja is a multi-coloured dual-purpose chicken variety developed at Project

Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad, for free range and rural backyard rearing.
 The plumage colour and disease resistance of Vanaraja is similar to
native
chicken. Vanaraja grows fast and produces more eggs than native chicken

Gramapriya

 Gramapriya is a multi-coloured egg purpose chicken variety developed for free

range and rural backyard rearing. This bird lays more number of eggs than
native chickens and eggs are tinted brown in colour and heavier than native
chicken eggs.
 This bird has better adaptability to adverse conditions and better
immunocompetence.

CHICKEN VARIETIES - CARI

Cari Nirbheek

 It is cross of Indian native breed Aseel with Cari Red.

Birds are active, larger in
built, pugnacious in nature with high stamina and majestic gait. They are able
to save themselves from their predators due to its fighting characters and
activeness and are adapted to all climatic zones of the country.

Cari Shyama

 It is cross of Kadakanath breed of Indian native chicken with Cari Red. Birds have
plumage of various colours dominated by black. The skin, beak, shank, toes
and soles are dark gray colour. Most of the internal organs show the
characteristics black pigmentation. Varying degree of blackish colouration is
also found in skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain and bone
marrow.
Upcari

 Indian native chicken with Frizzle plumage has been crossed with Cari Red for
development of UPCARI birds These multicoloured birds have single comb and
medium body size. Presence of Frizzle plumage helps in fast heat dissipation
due to which birds are better adapted to tropical climate especially for arid
zones.

Hitcari

 Indian native chicken with Naked neck plumage has been crossed with Cari Red
for development of HITCARI birds which are adapted to tropical climate
specially for hot and humid coastal region of the country.

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF VARIOUS STRAINS DEVELOPED FOR

RURAL POULTRY FARMING
Name Type Body Feather Purpose Institutions
weight colour
(KGs)
Giriraja Synthetic 1.50 Multicolour Dual Dept. of Poultry
Breed cross U.A.S., Bangalore
Swarnadhara Breed cross 0.90 Mixed Egg Dept. of Poultry,
Bangalore
KVAFSU ((B)
Vanaraja Breed cross 1.40 Mixed Dual P.D.P. Hyderabad
A.V.M Breed cross 1.05 Mixed Meat A.V.M.Coimbatore
Krishna.J Synthetic 0.60 Mixed Egg Jabalpur
Krishnapriya Breed cross 0.90 Mixed Dual Kerala
CARI-Gold Breed cross 1.00 Mixed Dual CARI, Izat Nagar
Croiler Synthetic 1.20 Mixed Meat KECG Delhi
B2 Synthetic 1.10 Multicolour Meat IPPM,TANUVAS
Nandanam Synthetic 0.90 Red Dual IPPM,TANUVAS
IBB 83 Synthetic 1.2 Multicolour Dual AICRP,Bangalore
RAJA II Synthetic 1.5 Multicolour Dual AICRP,Bangalore
SATPUDA- Synthetic 1.00 Multi Yaswant Agritech Pvt
DESI coloured Ltd.
SATPUDA- Synthetic 0.10
SPK
 MODULE-7: BROODING MANAGEMENT - EGG TYPE
CHICKS

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Purpose of Brooding
 Types of Brooding Equipment
 Brooder Operation
 Feeding and Watering - Recommendations
 Brooding temperature and duration
 Chick comfort zone
 Space requirements - Chicks
 Water and Feed intake-Layer chicks
 Debeaking
 Vaccination Schedule-Layer chicks
 Cage rearing-Layer chicks

PURPOSE OF BROODING

 Egg type female chicks are received as Day old Chicks (DoC) at the farm and they
require additional warmth during early age for atleast two to three weeks
 The thermoregulatory mechanism of a newly hatched chick is not well developed
and takes about two weeks for this mechanism to develop fully and maintain
homeostasis
 Therefore chicks cannot maintain the body temperature properly for the first few
weeks of life; and may be subjected to chilling, if not properly taken care off
 Under these circumstances, artificial brooding is mainly aimed at, providing
extra heat or warmth during the first two to three weeks of the chicks life
 This is done to prevent cold shock since the environmental temperature may be
lower than the hatcher temperature
 A brooder simulates the care and attention of a mother hen

CLASSIFICATION OF BROODING

Natural brooding

 It is done with the help of broody hens after hatching, up to 3 to 4 weeks of age.

Artificial brooding

 In artificial brooding large number of baby chicks are reared in the absence of
broody hen.
  Equipments used for brooding are called brooders. Brooder comprises of three
elements:
o Heating source
o Reflectors
o Brooder guard
 Heating source may be electrical, gases like natural gas, LPG and methane, liquid
fuel like kerosene and solid fuel like coal, wood can be used as a heating material.

Charcoal stove / kerosene stove

 Where electricity is not available, ordinary charcoal / kerosene stoves are used to
provide supplementary heat to chicks.

These stoves are covered with plate / pans to dissipate the heat.

Electrical brooder

 It is also thermostatically controlled heating system that spread required amount

of heat uniformly above large area, this avoid crowding of chicks under brooder
directly.
 One electrical brooder can be used for 300 to 400 chicks.

Infra red bulbs

 It is a self reflecting bulb. One 250 watts IR bulb can provide brooding for about
150 to 250 chicks.
  Gas brooder Natural gas, LPG or methane is connected to heating element
which is hanged 3 to 5 feet above the chick to provide heat. Now practised
particularly in semi-environmentally controlled and environmentally
controlled houses. These are costly but can take care of 1500 to 2000 chicks

Reflectors

 These reflectors are called Hovers . Flat type hover– These hovers are provided
with heating element, heating mechanism and pilot lamp and in some cases
thermometer is also there in order to record the temperature.
 Canopy type hover – These reflectors are in concave shape consisting of ordinary
electrical bulb, thermostat mechanism and in some cases thermometer.

Brooder guard / chick guard

 They are used to prevent chicks from straying too far away from heat supply until
they learn the source of heat.
 We have to provide brooder guard with a diameter of 5 feet, height of the brooder
should not exceed 1.5 feet.
 For this purpose, we can use materials like cardboard sheet, GI sheet, wire mesh,
and mat etc. depending upon the season of brooding.
 During summer season, brooding is done for 5-6 days. In winter season it is 2-3
weeks.

Heater coils

 Hater coils may also be provided for warmth instead of bulbs.

 Heater coils of various watts capacities with thermostats, reflector hoods and
hanging chains are available for providing heat to chicks. These coils are more
 suitable for cold climates, because they give more heat. Separate tube lights
have to be provided for lighting the house. They have to be hanged above the
reach of the chicks

 Centralised heating system of brooding is followed in environmentally

controlled poultry houses; where the room temperature is maintained at an
average of 32°C during first week of age
 Battery brooders – Multi-tier cage brooding is also practised. Bulbs or heaters
with thermostats are used to provide warmth to chicks in the battery cages
 Bio-gas brooders – Certain farms use the cage droppings and cow dung to
generate bio-gas; which will be used to provide light and heat to the birds

BROODER OPERATION

Brooder Operation - Prior to the arrival of Chicks

 About 24 hours before the anticipated time of arrival of the chicks, the brooder
arrangements are made and kept ready
 The house is cleaned, white washed and blow lamped
 Litter materials - Dry litter material such as saw dust, wood shavings, paddy
husk etc. is spread to a height of 5 cm and newspaper has to be placed over this
to prevent the chicks from consuming litter material
 Brooder guards - can be made of metal sheets or even card board. The brooder
guards have to be arranged in a circular fashion on litter material with
necessary heating arrangements
 Downtime - The house may be prepared before hand for the purpose and kept
vacant for considerable length of time (minimum two weeks downperiod); 225
chicks may be let into brooder arrangement of 150 cm diameter and 300 chicks
in 180 cm size brooder guard circle
  Required number of feeders and waterers are arranged alternate to each other on
the newspaper area.
 The chick linear feeders and chick waterers should be placed alternatively in a
radiating way, to give a "cart wheel" appearance
 Care should be taken to avoid placing them crowded at the centre under the
source of heat
 Keep feeders open for five hours and also spread some feed on the newspaper
 Two linear feeders of 60 cm size and two chick waterers may be used for every
100 chicks
 Automatic feeders and waterers may also be used as per manufacturer‟s
specifications
 Allow free moving space on the sides of waterers and feeders.
 Switch on the bulbs 1-2 hours before the arrival of the chicks to keep the
environment warm. When chicks are delivered, do not allow the delivery van
into the farm premises. Take delivery at the entrance itself.

FEEDING AND WATERING

Feeding

 Brooder mash with 22% crude protein and 2700 Kcal/kg of metabolisable energy
has to be prepared and provided (As per the recommendation of BIS)

Watering

 Antibiotics and vitamins may be continued for 3-5 days. Keep medicated water in
the waterers before leaving the chicks into the brooder arrangement
 Good quality, potable medicated water has to be provided in the waterers. Look
for the health of the chicks at the time of delivery
 Keep boiled and cooled drinking water ready
 Add 8 g of glucose, 0.5-1g of mild antibiotic or antibacterial drug per litre,
electrolytes and vitamin mixture at recommended dosage in water for the first
day

BROODING TEMPERATURE AND DURATION

Before receiving the chick, the heat source should be switched on

 Temperature required during the first week is 90-95oF, later reduced by 5oF every
week, to reach a temperature of 75oF
 Brooding period is a very sensitive period particularly during the cold months or
rainy seasons
 Lighting for heating (brooding) has to be provided for 23 1/2 hours in a day for
first 3 days, switching it off for only 30 minutes during day time
 Later on, lighting for heat may be given during night only up to the end of 2nd or
3rd week, depending on the season
  It may be restricted to
one week only during peak summer and extended to three
weeks during winter/ rainy seasons. In such seasons, it is advisable to close the
sides of the house with thick curtains during first week

BEHAVIOUR OF CHICKS

 As the chicks arrive, check whether the chicks are healthy, of uniform weight
 Count the chicks, and moist the beak of the chick by dipping it in the water
containing vitamins, electrolytes and/or antibiotic and place it gently into the
brooder arrangement
 Check that the chicks move actively scratching and taking feed and water. Return
weak, inactive, unhealthy chicks with matted feathers at the back and the dead
chicks and ask for replacement

Chick comfort

 It is necessary to verify whether the warmth given is sufficient to the chicks.A

thermometer kept at the bird level will indicate the temperature
 More practical way of assessing the adequacy of warmth provided is by watching
the distribution of the chicks within the brooder guard management
 If they crowd under or near the source of heat, then the warmth given is not
sufficient. Then, a bulb may be added to the hover or the height of the hover
may be brought down. If chicks have moved to the periphery and are reluctant
to come to the centre under heat source, then temperature in the environment
is higher than required. The hover may be pushed up or a bulb removed. If the
chicks feel comfortable at the given temperature, they walk actively throughout
the area unmindful of the heat provided and some take rest setting their head
down on the side, the posture being given the name as “Chick comfort”.
 Heat source should be placed at the right height at the centre and the
temperature has to be checked by observing the chick comfort zone

Newspaper - removed after 3 or 4 days and must be burnt.

Chick or brooder guards - removed after a week or 10 days. The corners of the
rooms have to be rounded off and the litter material spread out. As age advances the
initial chick feeders and waterers may be replaced with bigger ones to match the growth
of the chicks

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL RATIONS AND NUTRIENT

REQUIREMENTS FOR EGG-TYPE CHICKS
Source:IPPM,Chennai
Ingredients Chick mash
Age in weeks 0-8
Maize 26
 Cumbu 24
Dorb 15
SB Meal 20
SFOC EXT 4
Dry Fish 10
MM 1
Shell Grit
DCP
Total 100
Nutrients Chick mash
C.P 21.60
ME K cal / Kg 2708
Calcium 1.18
Phosphorus 0.41
Lysine 1.24
Methionine 0.42

SPACE REQUIREMENTS - CHICKS

 Floor space allowance during brooder stage is 0.75 sq.ft. (675 cm2) per layer chick
 Feeder space allowance required is 1.0 cm per bird up to four weeks and 2.5 cm
up to eight weeks and 0.5 and 1.0 cm are the space allowances to be given per
bird in waterers respectively for those periods
 Accordingly, the brooder house should be constructed with required space for the
number of chicks to be ordered at specified intervals
 Initially, smaller size feeders and waterers with lesser depth will have to be
provided which should be changed to larger size with greater depth after three
weeks of age
 Adjust the height of the feeders and waterers to match the height of the growing
birds to avoid wastage
 Feed and water the birds twice daily at regular intervals
 Watch the growth of the birds and water and feed consumption regularly

WATER AND FEED INTAKE - LAYER CHICKS

 Feed and water intake by 1000 layer chicks

Age in Feed intake/ Water intake/ day Body weight at end of the
weeks week (kg) (litre) week (g)

1 40 10 60

2 80 25 105

3 140 45 160

4 200 65 230

5 250 80 300

6 300 95 370

7 350 105 440

8 390 120 510

DEBEAKING

Debeaking/Beak trimming

 To avoid feed wastage, the chicks are to be debeaked. Their beaks have to be cut
short by electrical cauterization
 Debeaking if carried out properly may be done only once during fourth week. It
may also be performed at the end of second week and repeated at 12-14th week.
The upper beak has to be cut 2/3rd and the lower beak 1/3rd portion. The cut
portion has to be cauterized by touching on the hot plate. The tongue should be
carefully held back
 Undertake debeaking during cooler parts of the day
 Provide anti-stress B-complex vitamins and vitamin K in drinking water before,
during and after the day of debeaking; adjust the feeder and waterer height to
be lower than before to suit the shortened beak
 Engage experienced persons to perform debeaking, to do it properly with lesser
stress and to avoid the necessity for repetition. Since layer chicks are
comparatively more active, they tend to peck at each other‟s back
(cannibalism), cause injury and death also. Debeaking helps to prevent such
instances

VACCINATION SCHEDULE - LAYER CHICKS

Suggested Vaccination Schedule during Layer chick stage

SI. Age in Type of vaccine Remarks

No. days

1. 0 day Mareks‟ vaccine Ensure that the same has been

(Hatchery) given at the hatchery itself

2. 5-7th RDVF/ LaSota Drops at the nostril/ eyes

day

3. 14-16th IBD vaccine Eye drops/S/C injection

day (Intermediate/ killed)

4. 20th day IB vaccine Optional consult local

veterinarian

5. 26th day IBD (intermediate) Eye drops/ drinking water

6. 30th day LaSota vaccine Drinking water/ eye drops

7. 56th day RDVK/ R2B S/C injection

 Take care to buy quality vaccines, kept under proper storage conditions
 Ensure proper dosage as per specifications
 Vaccinate the birds with minimum stress to them

CAGE REARING - LAYER CHICKS

 Chicks can be reared in cages also from 0-8 weeks

 Fix the cages at 75 cm above the floor level
 Cages may be of 180 x 90 cm size (6‟ x 3‟) and 30 cm (1‟) height
 About 100 chicks may be reared in it with 160 cm2 space per chick. The floor has
to be made of 1.25 x 1.25 cm size welded mesh of 16 gauge thickness
 One 100 watt bulb is sufficient on the top of the cage for providing heat for first
three weeks
 For first two weeks, small feeders and waterers have to be kept inside the cage
and afterwards they may be fixed outside on the sides of the cage. For first few
days, it may be required to keep card boards on the sides of the cages to
prevent small young chicks falling down through the sides

MODULE-8: CARE OF GROWER MANAGEMENT - EGG TYPE

CHICKEN

Learning objectives
This module deals with

 System of Housing and Feeding ,Growth pattern in grower stage of Layers

 Lighting & Vaccination - Growers
 Deworming
 Dipping/Spraying
 Culling
 Cage rearing - Growers

HOUSING AND FEEDING - GROWERS

 Majority of the farmers tend to neglect layer birds at this age. However, it has to
be kept in mind that the reproductive organs of the bird which produce eggs later
on undergo proper growth only during this age and it is all the more necessary to
provide appropriate care during grower phase

Housing & Feeding

 Growers may be reared in separate grower houses or continued to be reared in

brooder-cum-grower house
 Floor space allowance has to be increased to 1.4 sq.ft. (1260 cm2) per bird
 Feeder space to be given is 6-8 cm per bird. One linear feeder of 120 cm length
and 8 cm depth may be provided for 40 grower birds. Raise the height of the
feeders as age advances
 Waterer space allowance during growing phase is 2 cm per bird. A circular
waterer of 36 cm height and 8 cm depth of 6 litre capacity may be provided for 50
growers. At this age, 100 birds will take about 15-20 litres of water per day.
Provide fresh, cool, potable water twice a day.
 Take care to avoid spillage of water on the litter. Rake the litter often to bring
down the moisture level

Grower mash - Recommendations

 Feed them with grower mash containing 16% crude protein and 2600 Kcal/kg of
M.E. up to 20 weeks of age. They may take approximately 60 to 80 g of feed per
bird per day

Restricted Feeding Programme

 It is not advisable to provide ad libitum feeding at this age as the birds may then
tend to put on more fat and their persistency of egg production will be reduced
later on. If birds are found to be over weight, then follow alternate day feeding or
quantum restriction of feed (only 75% of normal quality to be provided per day)
to bring down the body weight
 RESTRICTED FEEDING PROGRAMME

There are two types of restricted feeding.

oQuantitative feed restriction

 In which the amount of feed is reduced below the normal
requirement of birds.
 This can be done on day-to-day basis or skip-a-day programme or
skip-two days in a week programme.
 But this restriction depends on the matching of the flock average
body weight with standard body weight provided by the breeder.
 Quantitative feed restriction is usually followed in commercial
breeders.
oQualitative feed restriction
 In which the quality of the feed is reduced below the standard
requirement of the bird.
 This can be done by including unconventional feeds or lesser
nutrient feed ingredients in place of high protein or high energy
diet.
 Here the quantity of allotment to the bird is not restricted.
 During restricted feeding programme, provide more number of feeders and see
that all the birds are taking feed simultaneously or otherwise dominant birds
will take more amount of feed and the weaker will be subjected to feed
deprivation and hence the uniformity will be affected.

Advantages of feed restriction during growing period

 A considerable saving on feed cost because, only 80 % of the calculated feed

requirement will be offered.
 They are likely to consume less feed per dozen eggs even during laying period
when they are offered ad libitum feed.
 The pullets accumulate less fat and therefore produce more eggs.
 It is easier to identify weaker birds at an early age during feed restriction.
 Culling of such birds helps not only saving feed but also promoting layer house
survivability because, healthier birds will be moving to laying house.
 Layers feed-restricted during growing period have been found to produce heavier
eggs in longer clutches than those fed ad libitum.

FLOCK UNIFORMITY

 At a given age, growing pullets should have average body weight very close to
breeder recommendations and at least 70% of the birds‟ weight within 10% of
flock average.
 Points to be considered for getting uniformity among growing pullets are:
oReceive chicks of uniform weight.
oProvide proper feeding, watering and floor space.
 oChange the feeder and waterer according to the age.
oThe height of the feeder and waterer should be at the back height of the
bird.
oProvide proper energy in the diet.
oSample weights of the pullets are taken at regular intervals and change the
feed accordingly.
oProvide proper feeding space, so as to all birds consume feed
simultaneously.

GROWTH PATTERN IN GROWER STAGE

Age in Body weight at Age in Body weight at
weeks end of the weeks end of the
week (g) week (g)

9 565 15 985

10 635 16 1045

11 705 17 1100

12 785 18 1160

13 855 19 1210

14 920 20 1260

LIGHTING AND VACCINATION - GROWERS

Lighting - Growers

 If natural day length remains constant around 10-12 hours per day or decreasing
during growing period, no artificial lighting at roof level is necessary. If the day
length is increasing, then start giving additional lighting so as to maintain
constant day length during growing phase. If necessary, repeat debeaking at 12-
14 weeks of age following the precautions already given.

Vaccination - Growers

 Fowl pox vaccine has to be given on 10th week by web-puncture method. Vaccine
against infectious bronchitis is recommended between 12-13th week depending
on the need.
 RDVK/R2B vaccine against Ranikhet disease should be given at 16/17th week of
age by S/C route as injection.
 DEWORMING AND DIPPING

 In general, growers reared on deep litter suffer from round worm infestation of
the intestines and sometimes with tape worms also, especially if the farm is
located around wet fields
 As a routine, the birds may be dewormed between 16-18 weeks of age and a few
days before they are to be transferred to laying cages. Otherwise, the worms eat
upon the feed consumed by the birds, bring down their health status which
may hamper onset of laying of eggs
 Piperazine, robendol, levamisole, thiobendazole, zodex etc, are the drugs used to
remove round worms while panacur, taenil, helmonil, dicestal etc., are used
against tape worms at recommended dosage levels. Stop watering for two
hours and then allow limited levels of medicated water to ensure that the
required dosage of medicines is consumed by the birds without any wastage
through left-over water
 Dipping in 0.25% sumithion, malathion or sevin solutions or Spraying may be
carried out whenever the infestation of ectoparasites is noticed and preferably
on hot/sunny days. Take care to avoid dipping head into the medicated
solution
 Leave the birds outside after dipping to facilitate drying under sunlight
 External parasite infestation may be prevented by having solid floor without
cracks, painting the wooden supports with petrol oil mixture or 40% Nicotin
sulphate

CULLING

 Cull the poorly grown, injured and lame birds regularly

 Ensure that mortality level during brooding is below 4% and duringgrowing
phase below 3%
 Keep proper records on number of chicks received, feed intake, mortality, day to
day culling, medication and vaccinations

CAGE REARING - GROWERS

Cage system of rearing - Growers

 Growers can also be reared in cages

 The floor may be made up of welded mesh of 1.25 x 5.0 cm size
 In a cage of 180 x 90 cm size, 50 birds can be reared with a space allowance of
325 cm2 per bird
 Feeders and waterers may be fitted lengthwise on the sides one below the other

MODULE-9: CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS

Learning objectives
This module enables the learner to learn in detail about the

 Care and Management of Layers

 Deep litter system of rearing - Layers
 Cage rearing - Layers
 Advantages of Cage rearing - Layers
 Lighting management - Layers
 Egg Production - Layers
 Collection of eggs
 Vaccination Schedule

DEEP LITTER SYSTEM OF REARING - LAYERS

 Grower birds are transferred to layer houses at the end of 18th week itself after
deworming and dipping and protective vaccination against Ranikhet disease.
 Layers can be reared both on deep litter and in cages. When reared on litter, litter
material has to be provided to 12-15 cm height

Space allowance

 A floor space allowance of 2 sq.ft. (1800 cm2) per bird has to be given
 Circular or linear feeders may be provided; feeder space allowance of 10-12 cm
per bird bas to be given
 Furnish waterer space allowance of 2.5 cm per bird
 A linear feeder of 180 cm length and 10 cm depth will suffice for 35 layer birds
 Circular plastic or aluminium water basins may be used
 Use waterer guards on the waterers at all stages of rearing to avoid birds standing
on the edge and tilting the waterers
 Provide fresh, cool water twice a day
 During laying stage 1000 birds will consume 250 litres of water per day
approximately
 A circular waterer, of 45 cm diameter and 7cm depth will be sufficient for 50
birds
 Arrange the feeders and waterers alternatively at equal distance; take care to
adjust their heights so as to avoid feed wastage
 Fill them only to 2/3rd of their capacity at any time

Layer mash

 Layermash with 18% crude protein, 2700 KCal/kg of M.E. 2.75% calcium and
0.80% available phosphorous has to be fed. Ad libitum feeding at all times has
to be ensured

Nest boxes

 Nest boxes made of G.I or aluminium sheets may be provided at 45 cm height-

one for every three to five birds
  The layers have to be trained to get into the nest box for laying eggs
 Otherwise, eggs laid on the floor have higher chances of breakage
 The mouth of the box should be of 30 cm width with a depth of 20 cm. Some
litter material may be spread inside the nest boxes. Some farmers even tend to
use pots as nest boxes as they provide cooler atmosphere to the birds
experiencing stress while laying

CAGE REARING - LAYERS

Based on the number of birds in a cage , it is classified as

 Single or individual bird cage (Only one bird in a cage)

 Multiple bird cage (From 2 to 10 birds, usually 3 or 4 birds per cage)
 Colony cages (Holding birds more than 11 per cage)

Based on the number of rows

 Single-deck
 Double-deck
 Triple-deck
 Four-deck
 Flat-deck

Based on arrangement of cages

 Stair-step cages
o M-type cages
o L-type cages
 Battery cages (Vertical cages)
 Layer birds are reared mostly in cages. Cages of various sizes are to house 3-5
birds in a cage. Currently, reverse cages are used with their longer side being
fitted to remain in the front. The cages of following sizes may be made and fitted
in rows

45 x 30 cm - for 3 birds
45 x 40 cm - for 4 birds
50 x 35 cm - for 4 birds
55 x 45 cm - for 5 birds
60 x 37.5 cm - for 5 birds

 These cages are arranged in two or three such rows one above the other on either
side. They are termed as Californian cages.
 Depending on the number of rows, and number of tiers in each row, the breadth
of caged layer house ranges from 24-26 feet (7 to 8 metres)
 There is no stipulation for length of such houses, which can be adjusted as per the
number of birds to be housed
  No side walls are required for cage houses with the mesh being stretched down to
the floor level to facilitate better ventilation for drying up the moisture in the
droppings
 A floor space allowance of 420 – 450 cm2 is allowed within cages
 Conventionally, the bottom of the lower most cage was fitted at 75cm height from
the floor
 Now a days, they are fitted at 120-240 cm height above the floor level with
walking platforms constructed on the sides
 The layer cage will be of 40 cm height. The floor is fitted with 2.5 x 5.0 cm size
weld mesh of 14 gauge thickness. On sides, 7.5 x 7.5 cm size mesh of 16 gauge
thickness is fitted
 The bottom floor is provided with 1/6 slope downwards to the front to facilitate
rolling of the eggs to the cage front. The mesh rails on cage floor should run
from back to front and not sideways; otherwise they will block free run of the
eggs downwards to the front
 Waterers are fitted above the feeders in the front
 Automatic waterer nipples/ buttons and feeders may be provided to the cages

Elevated cage houses

 Of late, „elevated cage houses‟ are preferred in which cages are fitted at above 5-6‟
height platform
 This arrangement widens the gap between birds and their droppings, facilitates
quicker drying and easy removal of droppings
 ADVANTAGES OF CAGE REARING - LAYERS

Cage rearing facilitates

 Easy management
 Lesser space requirement
 Easy collection of eggs
 Better egg weight
 Clean egg production
 Easy culling and reduced mortality levels

LIGHTING MANAGEMENT - LAYERS

 Artificial lighting has to be provided during laying stage by a minimum of one 60

watt bulb for every 200 sq.ft. area
 Start giving 20 minutes additional lighting per week and go on increasing it until
a total day length (natural day length + duration of artificial lighting) of 16
hours per day is reached. It may be maintained at the level till 72 weeks of age
 Day length should never be decreased during laying period

PRODUCTION INDICES - LAYERS

Egg Production

 Egg laying starts at 21st week and the rate of laying (percentage production)
increases every week to reach a level of 90% and above by 28 weeks of age which
is maintained up to 40-42 weeks
 Afterwards, it slumps down slowly to reach 70% or below by 72 weeks of age.
When the egg production goes below 65%, it is uneconomical to retain them
unless the egg price is exceptionally high
 Egg production may be calculated as percentage on total number of birds
available at 21st week (hen-housed egg production) or on number of birds
available on each day (hen day egg production)

Egg Production indices

Hen-day egg production percentage

 HDEP is mostly used for the scientific studies and truly reflects the production
capacity of the available birds in the house.
 A farm average of 85% or more per year is desirable.

Hen-housed egg production percentage

  It is usually expressed in numbers. HHEP values of 80% or 295 or higher are
desirable.
 Although HDEP is an excellent indicator of how well the live birds are laying, it
does not consider egg size and egg quality.
 Since these factors help in determining the income from eggs, HDEP is often
misleading from a profit standpoint.
 It also fails to account for past mortality. However, it is the best egg production
index available and is universally used by the industry.
 From a cost of egg production standpoint, HHEP is good as it measures the
effects of both egg production and mortality.
 If there is no mortality during a period, the HDEP and HHEP are equal.

Egg mass

 The use of egg mass rather than egg numbers will lead to better comparisons of
flocks or strains of birds.
 To calculate egg mass it is first necessary to determine the average weight of eggs
by weighing representative samples of the eggs produced.

Average egg mass = Per cent HDEP X Average egg weight in

grams (Per hen per day in grams)

Feed efficiency (Feed conversion ratio – FCR)

 Feed efficiency per kg egg mass

o This takes into consideration of the feed intake, egg weight and egg
production. It is the ratio between the feed consumed and the egg mass.

FCR = Kg of feed consumed / Kg of egg produced

(per kg egg mass)

o A value of 2.2 or less is advantageous to the farm.

 Feed efficiency per dozen eggs
o This takes into consideration of the feed intake and egg production. It is
the ratio between the feed consumed and the number of eggs produced.
FCR = (Kg of feed consumed x 12) / Total eggs produced
(per dozen eggs)

o A value of 1.5 or less is advantageous to the farm.

Egg feed price ration (EFPR)

 It is used to find out the ratio between the receipts from egg and expenditure on
feed.

EFPR = Total value of egg produced / Total value of feed consumed

 An EFPR ratio of 1.4 and above is desirable.

COLLECTION OF EGGS

 Layer type chicken lay their eggs mostly during forenoon

 Eggs may be collected twice in the morning and once in the afternoon
 Frequency of egg collection has to be increased to four to five times during peak
summer
 In large layer farms, it is preferable to have air-cooled room for storage of eggs
 Specially designed plastic/ cardboard trays have to be used to collect eggs
 Usually 30 egg capacity collecting trays are used. It is not advisable to collect eggs
in baskets

VACCINATION SCHEDULE

Vaccination Schedule For layers (0-72 weeks of age)

Age Type of Vaccine Route of administration

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccination S/C 0.2 ml Turkey Herpes

vaccine

5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine RDVF O/N

10th day Leechi Disease Vaccine Water

12-14 Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Pruning Intermediate Georgia

days O/N or water
18-22 Infectious Bronchitis O/N or water
days

24-27 IB Vaccine Booster Water

days

28-30 RD vaccine Booster La Sota - Water

days

6th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine or Infectious Coryza S/C

Vaccine (if prevalent in the area)

8th Week RD vaccine RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m

9th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing web

10th-11th Infectious Coryza S/C

Week

12th-13th IB Booster Water

Week

18th week RD Booster RDVK or R2B - S/C or I/m

45th-50th RD La Sota Repeated Every once in 2 Water

Week Months

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL RATIONS AND NUTRIENT

REQUIREMENTS FOR LAYERS
Ingredients Layer mash
Age in weeks 21 - 72
MAIZE 54
DORB 9
SB MEAL 14
SFOC EXT 8
DRY FISH 8
MM 2
S.GRIT 4
DCP 1
 Total 100
Nutrients Layer mash
C.P 18.04
ME K cal / Kg 2706
Calcium 3.02
Phosphorus 0.55
Lysine 0.97
Methionine 0.3

MOULTING

Natural Moulting

 Moulting is a normal physiological process of shedding and renewing feathers in

feathered species and it occurs in both sexes
 In the wild state, birds usually shed and renew old, worn plumage before the
beginning of the cold weather and their migratory flights
 Birds normally shed their old feathers and grow new feathers once a year, which
is controlled by the gonads and the thyroid gland and is associated with a drop
in estrogen levels and a decreasing rate of egg production

Commencement - Natural Moulting

 Natural moults in commercial layer normally occur after 8 to 12 months of egg

production
 The loss of feathers is an orderly process with the head feather being shed first,
followed by the feathers on the neck, body, wing and finally the tail

FACTORS AFFECTING MOULTING

 Several factors affect the onset and length of moulting. The important factors are
oWeight and physical condition of the bird
oLength of light exposure
oNutrition of the bird and
oEnvironmental temperature and humidity
 It is possible to speed the moulting process through a program of force moulting,
thereby recycling the hens for another period of egg production and improved
egg quality.

PURPOSE OF FORCE MOULTNG (FLOCK RECYCLING)

  To minimize the cost to bring the flock into production
 To increase the length of egg production
 When the current egg prices are low with anticipation of higher egg prices after
the flock returns to production
 Lack of available cash to maintain the flock
 Availability of empty laying houses

FORCE MOULTING REQUIREMENTS

Force (Induced) Moulting requirements

 Under forced moulting, a layer flock is induced to shed and replace its feathers at
a time selected by the flock manager
 An induced moult causes all of the hens in a flock to go out of production for a
period of time
 During this period, regressing and rejuvenation of the reproductive tract occur,
accompanied by the loss and replacement of feathers

The three main factors involved in Force Moulting are:

Initiating the Moult

 All moulting programs require that egg production be reduced to zero, which is
usually accomplished by fasting (no feed) the flock or by limiting critical
nutrients such as protein, calcium or sodium until or beyond the time of
production ceases
 Artificial lights should be turned off in open-sided houses and reduced to not
more than 8 hours in environmentally controlled houses

Resting the Flock

 Once the flock is out of production, it may be held out of production for as little
as 1 week to as much as 4 to 5 weeks depending on the requirement and the
feeding program implemented during this period
 The level of nutrition can regulate the length of the resting period
 Low-protein or low-calcium diets will generally keep a flock out of production

Returning the flock to production

 When the flock is to be returned to production, a layerdiet should be fed and

lights should be returned to the normal lighting program for layers
 A 50% rate of lay should be reached in 2 to 3 weeks and the peak should follow in
an additional 2 to 4 weeks

TYPES OF FORCE MOULTING PROGRAMME

Types of Force Moulting (Flock recycling) programs

 Two cycle moulting program

oThis program involves one moult and two egg production cycles
oThe hens are moulted after about 10 months of egg production, brought
back into egg production and then sold at about 24 months of age
 Multiple-cycle moulting program
oThis program involves two or more moults and three or more cycles of egg
production
oThe hens are first moulted after about 9 months of production, then held
through successfully shorter cycles and sold at 30 or more months of age

FORCE MOULTING - METHODS

 Conventional force moulting program

 Low Nutrient Diet program
 Moulting by feeding zinc
 Use of drugs and other compounds

LOW NUTRIENT DIET PROGRAM

 Many countries do not allow egg producers to use the fasting methods because of
concern for the welfare of the flocks. In such instances, the producer must use
feeding programs which will achieve zero egg production without resorting to the
complete removal of feed
 These methods include
o Full or limited feeding of low protein or low nutrient diets
o Pullet diet - calcium and phosphorus levels
o No water restriction
o Reduction of day length

CONVENTIONAL FORCE MOULTING PROGRAM

 This is otherwise known as on again/ off-again program

Days Feed Water Light

1 None None 8 Hours

2 None None 8 Hours

 3 45g/ hen Water 8 Hours

4 None None 8 Hours

5 45g/ hen Water 8 Hours

6 None None 8 Hours

7 45g/ hen Water 8 Hours

8 None None 8 Hours

9 45g/ hen Water 8 Hours

10 through Restricted feeding- Water 8 Hours

55-60 about 75% of full feed
intake

61 Full-feed layer ration Water 14 – 16

Hours

Note: Inducing moulting of Chicken through starvation is banned in India.

MOULTING BY FEEDING ZINC

 About 20g of zinc per kg in the layer diet (25kg of zinc oxide per ton feed) is used
for a period of 5 days along with reduced photoperiod
 Then the birds are subjected to a regular laying ration containing 50 mg of zinc
per kg diet (Normal level) and increased light period (14 to 16 hours)
 While on the high zinc program, hens will eat less than 10% of the normal
amount of feed and will lose from 450 to 340g of their original weight within
the first 7 to 10 days
 Egg production should stop by the fifth day after zinc feeding is started
 Birds will come back into production about 7 days after the high zinc diet is
removed and peak egg production (75 to 80%) occurs depending upon the age
at moult

Use of drugs and other compounds

 Compounds such as methalibure, enheptin, progesterone, chlormadinone,

aluminium, iodine and others have been shown experimentally to effectively
produce a moult

MODULE-10: REARING PRACTICES - BROILERS

Learning objectives
This module is intended for the learner to learn in detail about

 Brooding and Space requirements

 Feeding and Watering - Broilers
 Monitoring Growth rate
 Growth performance and Feed efficiency Chart - Commercial Broilers

BROODING AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS

Brooding of Broilers

 Brooding arrangement for straight run (unsexed) day old broiler chicks received
at the broiler farms has to be made similar to layer type chicks described earlier
 The diameter for the brooder guard may vary from 150-240 cm for 175-300
chicks per unit respectively
 Newspaper spread on the litter may be removed after three days and the chicks
guard arrangement also dismantled after eight days

Space requirements - Broilers

 Floor space allowance for broilers is 450 cm2 (0.5 sq.ft.) per bird upto 18 days
and 1000 cm2 (1.1 sq.ft) per bird after wards upto market age
 Feeder space allowance is 3 cm and 6-7 cm per bird
 Waterer space allowance is 1.5 and 3 cm per bird for the above periods
respectively
 The waterers and feeders may have to be changed after second week and at fifth
week and larger sized equipment have to be provided for adequate feeder and
waterer space allowances

FEEDING AND WATERING - BROILERS

Feeding of broilers

 Feeding of broilers may be done in two phases

oDuring first four weeks - Broiler starter mash with 22-23 % crude protein
and 2950 Kcal/kg of M.E. has to be fed
oAfter four weeks, till they are marketed,Broiler finisher mash with 19.5%
crude protein and 3100 KCal/kg of M.E. has to be given
oThe broilers may also be fed in three phases from 0-2 weeks, three to five
weeks and from sixth week to market age. Accordingly, different feed
formulations have to be made for the three phases

Watering of broilers

oClean, potable water should be provided. Early morning, as a first duty in

daily routine, empty the waterers, clean them and provide water afresh
 oWatering may be done twice daily and feeding four times in a day
oFill waterers and feeders to only their 2/3rd capacity. Take care to avoid
spillage of water on the litter
oIf conventional chick waterers and plastic basins are used, have one spare
set of waterers and clean and sun dry the used set every day
 During feeding and watering, take care that the birds are disturbed to the
minimum. If possible, same person may be allowed to attend to one batch.
Feeding and watering may also be done at the same time everyday to minimize
the stress
 Take all steps to avoid feed wastage. Provide adequate number of feeders; make
provisions to adjust the height of feeders, so that the brim of the feeder/
waterer is hiked to the level of the back of the growing broiler

MONITORING GROWTH RATE

Monitoring Growth rate in broilers

 Monitor the growth of the broilers up to the market age by weighing atleast 10
birds of average size at the end of every week of age so as to make sure that they
put on weight normally and there is no sudden drop in growth rate
 If the growth rate is lower than the standard, the farmer has to check the quality
of feed for the presence of toxins, adequacy of protein and amino acid levels
(lysine, methionine etc.) and also the possibility of presence of any sub-clinical
infection
 Also watch out for daily consumption of feed and water as any drastic change has
to be investigated

GROWTH PERFORMANCE AD FEED EFFICIENCY CHART

Growth performance and feed efficiency of broilers

Age Mean Feed Cumulative Feed Water

(weeks) body intake/ feed intake efficiency intake
weight 1000 per bird (g) 1000
(g) birds/ birds/
day (kg) day
(litre)

0 42 -- -- -- --

1 170 19 146 0.86 46

2 380 37 426 1.12 89

 3 720 68 945 1.31 165

4 1170 102 1730 1.48 245

5 1680 134 2720 1.62 320

6 2220 168 3996 1.80 405

 The table gives average weight of each bird,

anticipated at the end of the week,
and daily feed and water consumption by 1000 birds at the respective age even
though water and feed consumption will vary depending on season
 Feed consumption will go down and water consumption will increase during
summer and during winter/rainy season, water consumption will decrease and
feed consumption will go up

VACCINATION SCHEDULE - BROILERS

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT) 0.2ml S/C
5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N
10th day Infectious Bronchitis vaccine O/N
12-14 days Infectious Bursal Disease O/N
Vaccine- Intermediate Georgia
28th day Booster RD La Sota Water

MODULE-11: BROODING AND REARING PRACTICES FOR

DUCKS

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Brooding and rearing practices for Ducks

 Duck farming
 Housing
 Brooding of ducklings
 Grower rearing practices
 Layer duck rearing practices
 Feeding of Ducks
 Watering of Ducks

DUCK FARMING
  Duck farming in India is characterized by nomadic, extensive, seasonal, and is
still held in the hands of small and marginal farmers. Traditionally West Bengal
and Kerala are the major consumer states for duck egg and meat and one of the
reason is that duck egg and meat highly suits and impart taste for their fish based
culinary preparations.
 Binomial nomenclature for duck is Anas platyrhynchos

Advantages of Duck farming

 Ducks are more prolific and produce 15-20 eggs more than backyard chicken.
 Size of the duck egg is 10-15 gram larger than chicken egg.
 Ducks have long productive and profitable life i.e., they will lay in second and
third year also.
 Ducks supplement their feed by foraging; hence it will reduce the feed cost.
 Marshy, swampy river side, wet lands, barren lands not suitable for chicken can
be used for duck rearing.
 Ducks lay their eggs during early in the morning (3am to 8am) and saves time
and enables easy egg collection.
 Duck farming is having symbiotic relationship with paddy cultivation, so ducks
and paddy cultivation can be integrated in the entire paddy farming areas.
 Ducks are quite intelligent birds and they can be easily trained for their daily
routine (going to ponds, feeding etc) and it reduces the labour for management.
 Ducks are quite hardy, ducklings are easy to brood and are resistant to common
avian diseases.

HOUSING

 In general, ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well
ventilated, dry, and rat proof.
 In semi intensive system of rearing, the house should have easy access to outside
run as the ducks prefer to come out during the day time, winter and rainy time.
 The run should have slope away from the house to provide drainage.
 In the house of semi intensive system, a continuous water channel of size 50 cm
wide and 15-20 cms depth should be constructed at the far end, on the both
sides, parallel to the pen in the grower and layer house.

BROODING OF DUCKLINGS

Brooding of ducklings (0-4 weeks)

 Ducklings may be brooded on wire floor, litter or batteries. The brooding period
of layer ducklings is 3-4 weeks while for meat type ducklings 2-3 weeks is
sufficient.
  In general, in chilly season, brooding period needs to be extended by 1-2 weeks
longer than the regular period. Provide hover space of 90-100 sq.cm per
duckling under the brooder. A 250 watt bulb can brood 30-40 ducklings. The
temperature of 32оC is maintained during the first week. It is reduced by about
3оC per week till it reaches 24оC during the fourth week.
 Under wire floor system of brooding, the space recommended is 0.5 sq.ft
per duckling while under deep litter system, it is 1.0 sq.ft per bird up to three
weeks of age.
 Water in the drinkers should be 5.0-7.5 cm deep, just sufficient to drink and not
to dip themselves.
 The thickness of the litter recommended is 3 cm or more in order to absorb the
excess moisture of droppings of the ducklings.
 Under extensive system, no artificial warmth is provided. However, the heat in
the brooder shed is conserved by making “Closed tents” (Tent brooding) to
provide the required warmth. The ducklings are allowed to swim in water only
after attaining a week atleast.

GROWER REARING PRACTICES

Grower (5-16 weeks)

 Ducks can be reared both in intensive and semi intensive system.

 Under intensive system, floor space of 3 sq.ft per bird up to 16 weeks of age is
sufficient.
 Under semi intensive system of rearing, a floor space of 2-2.5 sq.ft per bird for
night shelter and 10-12 sq.ft per bird for outside run is necessary for free flow
of birds up to 16 weeks.
 Water in the drinkers should be 10 -12 cm deep to allow the immersion of their
heads.
 Partitions up to the height of 60-90 cm separating the pen and run are adequate
for control of ducks.
 In rural duck farming, straight run ducklings (male and female) will be reared up
to 20 weeks of age, then female ducks will be kept for laying purpose and male
ducks will be sold for meat purpose after selecting good males for breeding.

LAYER DUCK REARING PRACTICES

Layer (above 17 weeks of age)

 Under intensive system, a floor space of 4 sq.ft per bird is essential. In semi
intensive system a floor space of 3 sq.ft per bird for night shelter and 10-12 sq.ft
per bird of outside run space is required.
 For wet mash feeding 10 cm of feeding space and for dry mash or pellet feeding
7.5 cm of feeding space per bird is required. For the collection of clean and
hatching eggs, a nest box with 30x30x45 cm dimension shall be provided at the
rate of one per three ducks.
 Lighting duartion of 14-16 hours is necessary for optimum egg production.
 The age at first egg and 50 percent egg production are 120, 140 days and the
annual egg number is 300 eggs for Khaki Campbell ducks in intensive farming.
 The daily feed intake during laying, body weight and egg weight at 40 weeks of
age is 120-140 gram, 1800 gram and 68 gram respectively.

FEEDING OF DUCKS

 Ducks are good foragers. In extensive system of rearing, ducks are allowed to
graze on pre and post harvested paddy fields, ponds, lakes, canals.
 In this system, fallen paddy grains, insects, snails, earthworms, small fishes,
fingerlings, tadpoles, water plants like algae etc. are the main source of feeding
for ducks.
 Here, it is worth mentioning that paddy cultivation and duck farming is having
symbiotic relationship, paddy fields are the excellent foraging centers for
grazing ducks and duck droppings are good sources of manure for paddy field
and they also condition the soil by its shoveling like action in grazing and
feeding.
 So active duck farming is seasonal, coincide with monsoon based paddy
cultivation season. As a thumb rule 100 ducks require 0.5 acre paddy field per
day for effective grazing.
 During non laying periods, they are fed with low cost feed sources like paddy
husk and low graded grains like broken rice, sorghum etc.
 Normally the rural duck farmers are practicing exclusively extensive system of
rearing with grazing.
 However under the intensive and semi intensive system of rearing, ducks may be
fed with dry mash, wet mash or pellets.
 Ducks prefer wet mash due to difficulties in swallowing dry mash.
 The most important point in feeding is Ducks should have an access to feed with
water. During the first eight weeks, ducks should always have an access to feed
but later on they may be fed twice a day ie first in the morning and then later
afternoon

WATERING

 Though ducks are water fowls and fond of water, in contrast to the prevailing
myth among farmers, water for swimming is not essential at any stage of
rearing .
 However, water in drinkers or water channels provided in the house should be
sufficiently deep enough to allow the immersion of their heads and not
themselves. If they cannot do this, their eyes will get scaly and crusty and in
some cases, blindness may follow. In addition, they also clean their bills
periodically and wash them to keep it clean.

COMMON DISEASES OF DUCKS

  In general, ducks are subjected to relatively few diseases when compared to
chicken, but they are serious in nature.
 Light sandy soil is ideal for duck farming, because it tends to keep less disease
germs and drain well. Since certain infections of chickens may be transmitted
to ducks such as salmonellosis, colibacillosis, it is desirable to keep duck farm
away from commercial chicken farms.

Viral diseases

Duck virus enteritis (Duck Plague)

 It is an important contagious disease affecting adult birds, characterized by

vascular damage with tissue haemorrhage and free blood in body cavities. The
intestine and gizzard will be filled with blood.
 It usually occur in per acute form and the mortality varies from 5-100 percent.
The major symptoms are droopiness, ruffled feathers, discharge from eyes and
nostrils, swollen and sticky eyelids, greenish watery diarrhea. In males
prolapse of penis and in females severe drop in egg production will be noticed.
 The lesions are vascular damage, severe haemorrhages in gastro intestinal tract,
petichae in liver, pancreas, lungs, kidney, ovary.
 In layers massive haemorrhages in ovary some times fill the abdominal cavity.
 Parent stock and commercial stock shall be immunized with live attenuated
vaccines to transfer maternal antibody to the chicks. Commercial layers also
immunized with vaccines at 8 weeks of age.

Duck virus hepatitis

 It is a highly
infectious disease of ducks primarily affecting ducklings of 2-3
weeks of age, characterized by severe hepatitis.
 The major symptoms are closed eyes, falling on their sides, severe convulsions
and death. The primary lesions are enlarged liver with haemorrhages.
 The reddish discolouration and mottling appearance of the liver with enlarged
spleen and kidney is observed. Breeding stock can be immunized at 6-7 months
of age to protect the ducklings.

Bacterial diseases

Salmonellosis

 The main causative organism is Salmonella typhimurium, usually occurs during

first few days of life, clinical manifestation will be exhibited during the start of
lay or peak production. The major symptoms are swollen and edematous
eyelids.
 The primary lesions are enlargement and mottling of liver, pericarditis and
arthritis makes the bird difficult in standing. The sulpha and furazolidone are
the drug of choice for salmonellosis and control is by removal of carrier birds.
Pasteurellosis (Duck cholera)

 It is an infectious disease caused by Pasteurella multocida around four weeks of

age. The symptoms are raised body temperature, green colour diarrhea,
complete paralysis of legs and sudden death. Prevention is by vaccination and
treatment with suitable antibiotics.
 The prominent lesions are pericarditis and arthritis, petichae in myocardium.
The distended pericardial sac will be filled with yellow flakes and caseous
masses. Treatment with sulpha drugs will be beneficial and control with
elimination of affected birds.

Fungal diseases

Aflatoxicosis

 It is caused by aflatoxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus and they are
most potent carcinogen for ducks. Maize, Groundnut oil cake, soya bean oil
cake, rice polish are the major feed ingredients for aflatoxin production on
storage in wet conditions.
 Improper drying and humid weather favours the fungus growth. Ducks are very
susceptible to aflatoxin content of the feed especially exotic ducks are more
susceptible than indigenous ducks. The common aflatoxins are B1, B2, G1, G2
and B1 is the most potent toxin. The minimum toxic dose is 0.03 ppm in the
feed.
 The major symptoms are poor growth, lameness, purple discolouration of feet
and legs. Ducklings will develop ataxia, c onvulsion and death. There is no
specific treatment for aflatoxin and the preventive measures are, avoid the wet
and mouldy feed and feed stuffs and use of completely dried feed and addition
of fungistats and toxic binders.

Aspergillosis

 It is caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. Inhalation and ingestion are main modes

of infection.
 The symptoms are dyspnea, gasping and accelerated breathing and ocular
discharge.
 The major lesions are yellowish grey material or whitish fluffy spots in lungs,
trachea, and abdominal cavity.
 The prevention is by good management of litter and avoiding over crowding.

Parasitic diseases

 Ducks are resistant to internal parasites, however, ducks grazing stagnant and
over crowded ponds may get infestation of fluke, tape and round worms.
 Regular deworming with broad spectrum anthelmintics at 3 months interval
during growing and laying stage will control the problem.
 MODULE-12: BROODING AND REARING PRACTICES FOR
JAPANESE QUAIL

Learning objectives

This module deals with

 Brooding and rearing practices for Japanese quail

 Advantages of Japanese quail farming
 Brooding of quail chicks
 Quail farming under Cage system

JAPANESE QUAIL FARMING - ADVANTAGES

Japanese quail farming

 The term “quail ” refers to a group of small--sized birds, which generally crouch
or run rather than fly to escape from danger, the term itself meaning “to sink,
shivering from fear ”.
 Zoological name for Japanese quail is Coturnix coturnix japonica
 Japanese quail (Cotumix coturnix japonica) is the domesticated species widely
reared throughout the world for meat and eggs.

Advantages

The reasons for the popularity of Japanese quail farming are as follows:

 Japanese quail rearing does not require specially designed houses.

 The initial capital requirement is less due to lesser floor space requirement
 The quail will be ready for market/table purpose at the age of five weeks itself.
They start laying from the sixth week itself. Hence the return on investment is
faster.
 The Japanese quail management is much easier since they are comparatively
more resistant to diseases than chickens, do not normally require any
vaccinations, deworming, etc.
 The maintenance and recurring costs are also less because they consume less feed
due to smaller body size.

Thus, Japanese quail farming can be undertaken with less capital investment, little skill
to obtain faster returns.

JAPANESE QUAIL REARING

 Japanese quail can be reared either on the floor or in specifically designed cages.
 Under floor rearing, the roofing can be made of thatch or tiles, while the floor has
 to be made of cement or concrete flooring to facilitate easy cleaning and
disinfection.
 When Japanese quail are reared for table (meat) purposes, about 5 quail per
square foot area (floor space per bird: 180 cm2) can be raised. In a 10‟ x 10‟ (0.9
m2) room, about 500 Japanese quail can be reared up to market age (5 weeks).
 Alternatively, two weeks rearing on the floor, followed by cage rearing up to
market age, can also be practiced.

BROODING ARRANGEMENTS FOR JAPANESE QUAIL CHICKS

 The brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected atleast a day in
advance to receive the chicks.
 Litter materials like paddy husk or groundnut hulls is spread to about 2.5 cm
depth, and newspaper is spread over it.
 A brooder guard in the form of a cardboard sheet or metallic sheet about 20 cm
height is arranged in a circle over the newspaper on the litter material. It is
fastened properly.
 Japanese quail chicks are very tiny and cannot adjust themselves to a chill or cold
environment. Hence, adequate warmth must be ensured by providing
incandescent/infra-red bulbs at the centre of the brooder guard arrangement,
or by coal-stove heating or gas brooding. The brooder house must remain
covered up to the roof on all four sides, with full walls and windows.
 Open-sided houses with mesh arrangements must be closed with thick screens to
conserve the heat.

BROODING SPACE - JAPANESE QUAIL

 In a brooder guard circle of 3 feet diameter (90 cm), about 150 chicks can be
accommodated. It is not advisable to allow more than 300 chicks inside one
circle.
 An electric bulb with a hood cover can be provided at 15 cm height at the centre of
the circle, providing approximately 1 watt per chick. The heating arrangement
has to be continued day and night during the first week, but only during the
night in the second week. The brooder house temperature at the level of the
birds has to be about 98oF, which may be reduced by about 3oF every 3 days.
 During winter and rainy seasons, heating has to be continued for
atleast three weeks , while during summer, the practice may be restricted to
only 10 days. From third week onwards, Japanese quail chicks do not require
night lighting.

Drinkers and feeders -Space requirements

 Drinkers and feeders should not be kept under the source of heat inside the
brooder circle. A drinker space of about 0.3 cm, and a feeder space of 0.6 cm
per bird, must be provided during 0-2 weeks, and this has to be increased to
0.6 and 1.2 cm respectively from 3-5 weeks of age.
  The drinker size should be adjusted so that the gap between the brim of the plate
and the cup should not be more than 1 cm, otherwise the chicks will get into the
drinker and get drowned.
 Upto two weeks, two chick drinkers of 10 cm diameter and 1.5 cm high on the
sides, each of 500 ml capacity, and two feeder plates of 22 cm diameter and 2
cm high will be sufficient for 150 chicks in each brooder circle.
 From the third week, a linear feeder 45 cm long, 2.5 cm height and 10 cm wide,
and a drinker of 15 cm diameter and 2.5 cm high at the brim and 1200 ml
capacity will be sufficient for 75 quail chicks.

CAGE REARING - JAPANESE QUAIL

 Two differently designed types of cages are required to rear Japanese quail chicks
up to market age.

Brooder quail cage rearing

 A brooder cage is required to rear them from day-old to 17-18 days of age and a
grower cage from 18-19 days to market age.
 The cages are designed as multi-tier cages (four or five tiers arranged one over
the other) with about a 10 cm gap between each tier, and a droppings tray fitted
into the gap. Each tier can be further divided into smaller compartments.
 A brooder cage can be constructed as four or five tiers of 180 x 120 x 25 cm, and
each tier can be divided into four compartments of 90 x 60 cm size each. About
100 chicks can be reared in each compartment, and 400 chicks in each tier.
Provision must be made for heating bulbs in the centre of each compartment.
 Appropriate side feeders and drinkers are provided inside the compartment
itself.

Grower quail cage rearing

 The grower cage can be 240 x 120 x 25 cm size, with each tier divided into four
compartments of 120 x 60 cm size each. About 60 quail can be reared in each
compartment up to market size.
 Feeders and drinkers are fixed outside the cage units. Feeding is done three times
a day and watering twice daily without limiting the intake.
 Japanese quail chicks should not be left without feed or water at any time of the
day. This will affect their growth rate and increase the mortality rate.

MODULE-13: BROODING AND REARING PRACTICES FOR

TURKEYS & GUINEA FOWL

Learning objectives

This module deals with

  Intensive system of rearing Turkeys
 Feeding of Turkeys
 Nutrient requirements of Turkeys
 Semi-intensive and Range system
 Guinea fowl -Origin
 Rearing practices for Guinea fowl
 Confined rearing of Guinea fowls

TURKEY FARMING

Introduction

 Domestic turkey production started in Europe in the 16th century. The

consumption of turkeys at Christmas is a tradition which was spread to other
countries by the British and Spanish.
 In India, turkey production is still in its infancy. Because of the structural
changes that are taking place in the broiler production in South India, the small
farmers who were eased out of the market are now looking to turkey
production as an alternative means of employment, particularly as people are
searching for diversified food items. The tendency to accept processed frozen
food is now also growing in this region.
 At present, Indian institutions, like Central Avian Research Institute, IzatNagar,
UttarPradesh, Department of Animal Husbandry, Kerala, Central Poultry
Breeding Farm, Hessarghatta, Karnataka, Poultry Research Station, Nandanam
of Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai and
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, are promoting turkey production
among Indian farmers.

INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF REARING TURKEYS

 Management of turkeys is similar to that of chicken. The building should be

located at an elevated place, and cement floors are preferred.

Management of Turkey poults

 Binomial nomenclature for Turkey is Meleagris gallopavo

 Turkey poults grow very slow during early part of brooding and also they do not
eat voluntarily. Hence, they should not be overcrowded and should be guided
towards eating. About 900 cm2 of floor space per poult is required during the
first 3-4 weeks and thereafter up to eight weeks the floor space is increased to
0.135 m2 per poult.
 A compartment of 3 x 3 m will be suitable for housing 100 poults up to 4 weeks of
age. They are transferred to a compartment of 3 x 4.5 m for further floor
brooding until 8 weeks.
  From 9-12 weeks of age, the floor space must be increased to 0.18 m2 per growing
poult, and thereafter until sixteen weeks of age, the minimum floor space
allowance is 0.23 m2 per poult.
 After sixteen weeks, they require 0.36m2 space per bird. For small turkey breeds,
the floor space requirements may be reduced slightly.
 The floor space is reduced to almost one-third under the range system, since only
a small shelter is required to protect them from rain and sun.
 Turkey poults are also to be brooded at a temperature of 950F during the first
week of brooding. The brooder temperature may be reduced by 50F weekly
until it reaches 700F.
 Artificial heat may be stopped at fourth week during summer and sixth
week during winter. Debeak the poults at about 10 days of age. Trim the
upper beak halfway between the tip and the nostrils with an electric debeaker.

FEEDING OF TURKEYS

 The turkey meat has very low fat content compared with other commercial avian
species. For this reason, turkey diets have a smaller energy to protein ratio than
those of other species.
 Balanced feed for turkeys may not be available commercially as easily as that of
chickens; however, experienced farmers can easily prepare their own feed in
consultation with poultry nutritionist.
 As turkeys require more protein, minerals and vitamins than chickens to support
their growth, turkey rations are more costlier than chicken rations. Since the
energy and protein requirement of the two sexes vary, they may be reared
separately to obtain better results.
 Poults give more trouble than chickens with respect to feeding. The sooner they
are fed after hatching, the better. If they don‟t find feed and water easily,
starvation or dehydration can occur. Turkeys must always be fed on troughs or
hoppers, and never on the ground.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT - TURKEYS

Feed for turkeys

Age (weeks) Type of feed CrudeProtein ME (KCal/kg)

(%)

0-5 Starter diet 28 2800

6-8 Grower-first diet 26 2800

9 - 12 Grower-second diet 22 3000

13 - 16 Market age Finisher diet 16 3300

13 - 24 Holding/pre-layer diet 12 2750

SEMI INTENSIVE AND RANGE SYSTEM - TURKEY

 Turkeys are also reared under range systems in the backyards of rural
households.
 Popular commercial production is through a semi-intensive system. Under this
system, turkey poults are reared up to four to six weeks of age in closed, confined
houses, after which they are allowed to forage for a few hours in an open yard
during the day and then housed in the shelter for the rest of the day and night.
Growers and breeders are reared under this type of semi-intensive system.
 Strutting behaviour is normally observed in Toms than female Turkeys

FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCES FOR TURKEYS UNDER SEMI-

INTENSIVE SYSTEM
Age (weeks) Space per bird

Shelter Open yard

7 - 12 weeks 0.09 m2 0.18 m2

13 - 16 weeks 0.16 m2 0.32 m2

17 weeks-market age 0.22 m2 0.45 m2

Breeders 0.27 m2 0.54 m2

 When the turkeys forage, they consume the sparse cultivated grass and greens
available in the open yard and the feed cost is reduced. The farmers claim that
they are able to get better fertility and hatchability under the semi-intensive
system than under the intensive system.
 The feeders and drinkers are provided inside the shelter in a shaded
environment.
 Turkeys are better foragers and digest fibre better than chicken. Therefore they
are fed with cut legumes like lucerne (alfalfa), desmanthus, stylo, etc., in the
yard, which reduces the feed cost.

TURKEY DISEASES

 Turkeys are completely resistant to Marek‟s disease and Infectious Bronchitis.

Newcastle disease, Fowl pox and coccidiosis occur in a mild form
  Some of the commonly encountered diseases in turkeys are mycoplasmosis, fowl
cholera, erysipelas and possibly haemorrhagic enteritis and avian influenza
 Turkeys are protected against fowl cholera and erysipelas by vaccination.
 It is difficult to control mycoplasmosis (caused by Mycoplasma meleagridis ),
since the disease is transmitted through eggs and semen
 This disease can be eliminated or reduced by using Mycoplasma-free turkey
breeding populations, and by dipping the hatching eggs in antibiotic solutions
(Gentamicin or Tylosin)
 In case of a disease outbreak, the sick birds must be isolated
 If the outbreak occurs during the brooding period, the brooder house must be
thoroughly cleaned; and if the outbreak occurs in birds in the yard, the flock
must be moved to clean ground and the veterinarian should be consulted for
treatment
 Normal mortality under standard management up to maturity is 6-10 percent,
and the farmer should not be unduly alarmed by the sporadic death of one or
two birds in a flock
 If fowl pox is prevalent in the area, vaccinate the growers between 6-8 weeks of
age. Breeders must be given booster vaccinations by about 7-8 months of age

GUINEA FOWL - ORIGIN

Guinea Fowl

 Guinea fowls originated in Africa from where they spread to almost all the parts
of the world. In their natural habitat, they are found in great numbers in
Savannahs of Sudan where they live in groups, the birds sleeping on trees and
seeking all their feed from the fields.
 It is timid and gregarious in nature than that of chicken and habit of crowding
together in panic is liable to cause heavy losses. Being noisy it cannot be reared
in close vicinity of human dwellings. In wild state they cause havoc to the
crops. Their peculiar feeding behaviour results in abnormally high feed wastage
from the feeders. Guinea fowls are more resistant to heat than chicken. It is
however possible to raise guinea fowls in wet climate also. During
transportation it resists suffocation better than chicks.

Advantages of rearing guinea fowl as compared to chicken are

 Low cost of production.

 Premium quality of meat.
 Greater capacity to utilise green feeds.
 Better capacity to scavenge insects and grains.
 Better ability to protect itself from predators.
 Better resistance to common poultry diseases like Ranikhet and Fowl pox.

REARING METHODS - GUINEA FOWL

Free Range

 Free range guinea fowl farming constitutes a noteworthy resource for pheasants
in some countries.
 A system ranges from providing night shelter to a complete outside rearing where
birds spend their nights on the trees around the farmer's dwelling.

Semi-free range

 For meat type guinea fowl, aviary rearing in enclosures surrounded by wire mesh
and roofed over by netting is very common.
 For 1000 guinea fowl chicks, a starter house of 24 m2 is required for housing
during first three weeks. This communicates with the rearing house to which
chicks are then transferred. This comprises of 40 m2 shelter equipped with
perches and further leads into an aviary of
200 m2. This accommodation should be located on a permeable soil showing
slight slope for water drainage.
 For egg type guinea fowls, hens are made flightless by amputating extremity of
wing at the most distal joint. The hens lay eggs wherever she chooses and nests
need not be provided.

CONFINED REARING - GUINEA FOWLS

 Rearing of guinea fowls in confinement without any access to out doors has given
better performance. For meat purpose, the batches of not more than 500 can
be reared in lighted houses with density of 8-10 m2 should be allowed. In dark
houses, however, large batches at the density of 12 birds per m2 can be allowed.
 Layer type birds can be reared on soil or batteries. For rearing on soil the density
of 3-5 birds per m2 in a house well equipped with perches is recommended.
 In battery rearing the breeding females are maintained in cages and fertility is
ensured through artificial insemination

MODULE-14: SETTING OF FARMS FOR POULTRY

Learning objectives

 This module deals with the general principles of housing different species of
poultry.

SELECTION / LOCATION OF FARM SITE

 The location of the farm should facilitate easy operational convenience for
various activities of the farmer.
 The farm should be located away from the city.However, not too far away to
make strenuous to bring in and take out materials.
  Breeding farms should be located in an isolated place, away from commercial
farms to ensure biosecurity.
 A commercial farm should be located nearer to the marketing centres.However,
it should not be located in a congested area or in close proximity to existing
farms. There should be a minimum distance of 1 km. from existing farms.
 It should be away from the Highway to avoid noise and dust pollution but it
should have an access to connecting roads.
 It should be within 20-30 kms. from the main marketing centres and this is
particularly true with broiler farms as these birds will cause a considerable
loss during transportation by way of shrinkage and stress leading to mortality.

TOPOGRAPHY

 The farm should be located at an elevated area, preferably on even land with
proper facilities for drainage.
 The area should be well protected against strong winds as it could easily damage
the poultry house

SOIL AND WATER

Soil

 The most reliable soil is loamy or sandy loam. The right kind of soil reduces
construction expenditure, avoids seepage, dampness, erosion etc.

Water

 This plays a major role in the physiology of the bird. Abundant water is required
for various activities. A minimum amount of 1 litre/bird/day is required.
 The water should be potable and must be subjected to various tests for impurities
like total solids, microbial contaminations, high percentage of salts of sodium,
potassium and chlorine. Water should be tested for nitrites and nitrates whose
presence will indicate organic pollution.
 The desirable quality guidelines for drinking water to poultry are as follows:

Water quality Permissible Desirable level

 Total hardness 60-180

 pH 6.8-7.5
 Nitrate 10 mg/litre
 Nitrite 0.4 mg/litre
 Total bacterial count 0/ml
 Coliform count 0/ml
 Calcium chloride 60 mg/litre
 Sodium 50 mg/litre
 Sulphate 125 mg/litre
 TRANSPORTATION AND LABOUR

Transportation

 The farm must be well connected to a highway to facilitate easy transportation

and availability of inputs like chicks, feed, etc.

Labour

 The farm should be within the reach for labours to travel easily and fast.

SYSTEMS OF HOUSING

 The broilers may be raised on deep litter, in cages or in batteries with slatted or
wire floor system. However, deep litter system of housing is the most widely
used system for broilers.
 Layers are reared on deep litter floors, in cages or on different kinds of floors at
different ages. Deep litter floor rearing involves rearing chicks or birds on any
one of the preferred litter materials (paddy husks, groundnut hulls, wood
shavings, etc.) spread on the floor.
 Cages of different sizes with different sized meshes need to be fabricated for
rearing layer chicken of different ages

BROILER HOUSING

The major capital expenditure is on buildings and therefore it needs thorough planning.
The various types of buildings required on a broiler farm are:

 Brooder houses and Grower houses

 Broilers need houses to protect them from extremes of climate, theft, predatory
animals like wild cats, dogs or bandicoots, etc. to ensure easy and better
management, to facilitate automation and to provide ideal and comfortable
rearing conditions.

OPTIMAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR REARING

BROILERS

 Temperature: 22-30oC (70-85oF)

 Relative humidity: 30-60 per cent;
 Ammonia: Less than 25 ppm;
 Litter moisture: 15-25 per cent;
 Airflow: Airflow should be 10-30 metres per minute
 ORIENTATION

 The broiler houses should be oriented with their long axis facing East-West
direction to avoid direct sunlight falling into the building.
 The rule of the thumb is that the long axis of the houses should be parallel to the
shadow of a vertically erected pole during the hottest summer.

ELEVATION

 The floor-level of broiler houses should be raised 30 cm (one foot) above the
outer ground level to prevent seepage of water into the house.
 The floor should be made of cement concrete to prevent damage by rodents and
to permit easy and efficient cleaning and disinfection.
 Mud floors and sand floors should never be permitted, as they will render
cleaning between batches very difficult and will harbour micro-organisms,
cysts of parasites, etc., which may cause outbreaks of disease in subsequent
batches.

WIDTH AND LENGTH

 The width of open-sided broiler houses should not be wider than 24 ft (7.20 m) or
less than 16ft (4.80 m) to permit optimal cross-ventilation.
 The length of the house may vary depending on the required capacity and the
length of the available land. In tunnel-ventilated broiler houses fitted with
automatic feeders and drinkers, the width may extend up to 12.00 m.

WALLS

 The long walls on the sides should not be more than 35 cm high above the floor
level, with the rest of the area covered with a mesh.
 Open-sided broiler houses are preferred in tropical conditions for their hot
climate.
 The top of the sidewall should be tapered sloping downwards to avoid young
birds perching on the walls. The wall should be thoroughly cement-plastered
and well watered to avoid cracks formation.
 In places of extreme climatic conditions, the walls may be constructed with
hollow bricks for an insulating effect.
 The space between the top of the sidewall and the roof must be covered with wire
mesh (1.25 X 1.25 cm, 20-22 gauge thick), welded mesh (2.5 X 5.0 cm, 12-14
gauge thick) or chain link (2.5 cm, 12 gauge thick). It should be durable and
strong and close enough to prevent the entry of rodents and predators.
 The doors may be fitted with strong G.I. rod supporting-frames of welded mesh
at 8-10 m intervals, each one metre in width
 ROOF

 The roof may be thatched (straw, coconut leaves or palmyrah leaves), tiled or
covered with light roof (asphalt or bitumen), asbestos or aluminium sheets.
 Thatched roofs are cheaper, but less durable and may leak. They provide a cooler
environment during the hot summer.
 To prevent leakage, the slope of thatched roofs must be steeper. Asbestos or
aluminium roofs are durable, but more costly.
 As houses with these roofs remain hot during summer, the height at the ridge
should preferably be about 4.0-4.5 m.
 Tiled roofing is good for low-capacity farms, and asbestos roofing for larger
farms.
 The broiler houses can also be two-storeyed, with the lower floor having a
concrete roof which will serve as the floor for broilers raised on the first floor.
 The height of the roof should preferably be 2.40-3.00 m at the eaves, and 3.60-
4.50 m at the ridge. Thatched roofs may have a lower height of 1.95 m at the
eaves.
 The projection of the roof at the eaves (overhang) should be atleast 0.90-1.35 m
on either side to prevent direct sunlight and the splashing of rain water into the
buildings. It is better to adjust the overhang to be half the length between the
eaves and the top of the sidewall (the height of the area covered by mesh).
 In regions of extreme climatic conditions, it is very useful to have the roof
insulated. Insulation may be provided by a bed of straw on the top of the roof,
or by having false roofing at the level of the eaves in the form of mats spread to
cover the entire roof area.
 Plywood, coir or hardboard as a covering can also be useful. The roof may also be
painted with white aluminium paint to reflect the sun's rays and thereby reduce
the heat build-up within the house.
 In areas where the summer is severe, it is better to have high roofed broiler
houses, or to provide ridge ventilation at the roof. Chimneys can also be
provided on the roof at intervals.
 In areas where winter is severe, it is advisable to have square-shaped broiler
houses which expose a smaller area and help to conserve the heat produced by
birds within the building.

NUMBER OF BROILERS HOUSES

 An approximate floor space of 1 sq.ft per bird (one square meter/ 10 birds )
should be provided, and thus enough floor space should be constructed
according to the required capacity.
 Under the all-in-all-out system, depending on the capacity required and length
and slope of the available land, minimum number of houses with a width not
more than 24 feet and of required length to provide the suggested space
allowance may be constructed.
 It is advisable to maintain at least a 9.0 m distance between two broiler houses to
ensure proper ventilation.
  Under the multiple batch system, if chicks are received bi-weekly, the houses or
pens should be in multiples of 4 + 1. If chicks are received every week, the
houses or pens should be in multiples of 8 + 2 to provide sufficient extra space
to facilitate a minimum of two-week intervals between the rearing of two
successive batches in any house.

FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCE - BROILERS

 The floor space requirement per broiler depends on their body weight, housing
system and climatic conditions.
 Approximately 540 cm2 (0.6 square feet) per kg live body weight is the required
floor space for broilers on floor under tropical conditions. Accordingly, at the
end of two, four, six and seven weeks of age, floor space allowances of 120, 367,
730 and 945 cm2 space per bird is required for average body weights of 220,
680, 1350 and 1750 g respectively. For a body weight of 1650 g, 900 cm 2 (one
square foot) of floor space is sufficient. In summer, the space allowance may be
increased by 20 per cent and in winter reduced by 15 per cent.
 When they are reared in cages, half the spaces suggested are sufficient.
 The cages must be fitted at a height of 75 cm above floor level with feeders and
drinkers fitted on the sides, running along the length and width of the cages.
 Cage houses meant for broilers need not have sidewalls, and weld-mesh cover
may be provided up to the bottom floor level.
 The cage mesh size should be 1.25 x 1.25 cm for the floor and 2.5 x 5.0 cm on the
sides to allow birds to take feed and water.
 Many practical difficulties, like injuries to the flesh of the birds or to the
attending workers, breast blisters due to the heavy weight of the birds, leg
weakness, difficulty in gathering for the market, maintenance costs, etc., have
forced farmers to abandon this system of housing for broilers.
 The emergence of full automation of feeding and watering and environmentally
controlled houses may encourage farmers to opt for cage housing for broilers in
future, as it ensures a faster growth rate, better feed efficiency and lower
mortality levels.
 Environmentally controlled broiler houses may be established in future in this
region when higher investments are made in broiler rearing for large-sized
broiler farms. Such houses will have no windows. Hot air will be removed by
exhaust systems and fresh air introduced through inlets by negative pressure.
Air temperature, relative humidity, lighting, ammonia level, ventilation rate,
etc., will be monitored and controlled automatically. Birds with the best micro-
environment will grow faster with better feed efficiency.

LAYER HOUSING

 The number of buildings required for layers varies according to the length of
intervals between receipt of each batch of chicks. Based on this, the layer farm
may be established as follows.
 o 1 + 2 pattern - One brooder cum grower house + two layer houses (chicks
to be received at 28-week intervals)
o 1 + 3 pattern - One brooder cum grower house + three layer houses (chicks
to be received at 20-week intervals)
o 1 + 1 + 5 pattern - One brooder house + one grower house + five layer
houses and the chicks are to be received at 12-weeks intervals
o The layer farm may also be established according to the 2 + 6 pattern by
receiving chicks at 10-week intervals

BROODER SPACE REQUIREMENT

 The floor space allowance during the brooder stage is 675 cm2 per bird. Feeder
space allowance required is 1.0 cm per bird up to four weeks, 2.5 cm up to eight
weeks. Drinker space allowance per bird for the same period is 0.5 and 1.0 cm
per bird respectively.
 Chicks can also be reared in cages from 0-8 weeks. Fix the cages at 75 cm above
the floor level.
 Cages should be 180 X 90 cm in size and 30 cm in height.
 About 100 chicks may be reared in such cages with 160 cm2 space per chick. The
floor must be made of 1.25 X 1.25 cm size welded mesh of 16 gauge thickness.
 One 100 watt bulb on the top of the cage is sufficient for providing heat for
brooding. For the first two weeks, small feeders and drinkers must be kept
inside the cage and afterwards they may be fixed outside on the sides of the
cage.
 For the first few days, it may be necessary to keep cardboard on the sides of the
cages to prevent small young chicks from falling down through the sides.

GROWER SPACE REQUIREMENTS

 Growers may be reared in separate grower houses or they may remain in the
brooder-cum-grower house.
 Floor space allowance has to be increased to 1260 cm2 per bird. Growers can also
be reared in cages.
 The floor should be made up of weld mesh of 1.25 X 5.0 cm size.
 In a cage of 180 X 90 cm size, 50 birds can be reared with a space allowance of
325 cm2 per bird. Feeders and drinkers may be fitted lengthwise on the sides,
one below the other.

LAYER SPACE REQUIREMENTS

 Layers can be reared either on deep litter or in cages. When reared on litter, litter
material must be provided to a height of 12-15 cm.
 A floor space allowance of 1800 cm2 per bird must be given. Circular
or linear
feeders may be provided; feeder space allowance of 10-12 cm per bird must be
given.
  A linear feeder of 180 cm long and 10 cm deep will suffice for 35 layer birds. Free
supply of feed at all times has to be ensured.
 Most often, layer birds are reared in cages. Cages of various sizes are used to
house three to five birds in a cage.
 Currently, reverse cages are used, with longer sides fitted to remain in front.
Lately, raised platform houses are being constructed, to facilitate quicker
drying of droppings and their easy removal. The cages are constructed on a
platform at a height of about 180-240 cm.

Cages of the following sizes may be made and fitted in rows:

o45 X 30 cm - for 3 birds

o45 X 40 cm - for 4 birds
o50 X 35 cm - for 4 birds
o50 X 45 cm - for 5 birds
o60 X 37.5 cm - for 5 birds
 These cages are arranged in two or three such rows next to each other on either
side. They are called Californian cages.
 A floor space allowance of 420-450 cm2 is provided inside the cages.
Conventionally, the bottom of the lower most cage is fitted at 75 cm height
from the floor.
 Nowadays, they are fitted at 180-240 cm height above floor level, with walking
platforms constructed on the sides.
 The layer cage will be 40 cm in height. The floor is fitted with 2.5 X 5.0 cm 14
gauge weld mesh. On the sides, 7.5 X 7.5 cm 16 gauge mesh is fitted. The
bottom floor is provided with a one-sixteenth slope downwards to the front to
enable the egg to roll to the cage front. The mesh rails on the cage floor should
run from back to front and not sideways; otherwise they will block the free run
of the eggs to the front. Drinkers are fitted above the feeders in the front.
Feeders and automatic drinker nipples or buttons may be provided in the
cages.
 Cages are fitted in two or three tiers on either side of the row under the
Californian system. Two to three such rows of cages are arranged in a caged
layer house.
 Depending on the number of rows and the number of tiers in each row, the
breadth of the caged layer house ranges from 5-8 m. There is no stipulation for
the length of such houses, which can be adjusted to the number of birds to be
housed.
 No sidewalls are required for cage houses, as the mesh is stretched down to the
floor level to facilitate better ventilation to dry the moisture in the droppings.
 The 'elevated cage houses' or raised-platform cage arrangement widens the gap
between birds and their droppings, and facilitates quicker drying and easy
removal of droppings.
 Cage rearing facilitates easy management, lesser space requirement, easy
collection of eggs, lesser percentage of broken eggs, better egg weight, clean egg
production, easy culling and reduced mortality level.
 DUCK HOUSING

 In general, ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well
ventilated, dry, and rat proof.
 In semi intensive system of rearing, the house should have easy access to outside
run as the ducks prefer to come out during the day time, winter and rainy time.
 The run should have slope away from the house to provide drainage.
 In the house of semi intensive system, a continuous water channel of size 50 cm
wide and 15-20 cms depth should be constructed at the far end, on the both
sides, parallel to the pen in the grower and layer house.

REARING METHODS - GUINEA FOWL

Free Range

 Free range guinea fowl farming constitutes a noteworthy resource for pheasants
in some countries.
 A system ranges from providing night shelter to a complete outside rearing where
birds spend their nights on the trees around the farmer's dwelling.
Improvements, even small ones, in this type of farming are of economic and
social importance. Among easily effective improvements are providing
drinking water and health care.

Semi-free range

 For meat type guinea fowl, aviary rearing in enclosures surrounded by wire mesh
and roofed over by netting is very common.
 For 1000 guinea fowl chicks, a starter house of 24 m2 is required for housing
during first three weeks. This communicates with the rearing house to which
chicks are then transferred. This comprises of 40 m2 shelter equipped with
perches and further leads into an aviary of
200 m2. This accommodation should be located on a permeable soil showing
slight slope for water drainage.
 For egg type guinea fowls, hens are made flightless by amputating extremity of
wing at the most distal joint. The hens lay eggs wherever she chooses and nests
need not be provided.

SEMI INTENSIVE AND RANGE SYSTEM - TURKEY

 Turkeys are also reared under range systems in the backyards of rural
households.
 Popular commercial production is through a semi-intensive system. Under this
system, turkey poults are reared up to four to six weeks of age in closed,
confined houses, after which they are allowed to forage for a few hours in an
open yard during the day and then housed in the shelter for the rest of the day
 and night. Growers and breeders are reared under this type of semi-intensive
system.

INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF REARING TURKEYS

 Management of turkeys is similar to that of chicken. The building should be

located at an elevated place, and cement floors are preferred.

Management of Turkey poults

 Turkey poults grow rapidly and for the best performance they should never be
over crowded. About 900 cm2of floor space per poult is required during the
first 3-4 weeks and thereafter up to the eighth week the floor space is increased
to 0.135 m2per poult.
 A compartment of 3 x 3 m will therefore be suitable for housing 100 poults up to
4 weeks of age, when they may be transferred to a compartment of 3 x 4.5 m for
further floor brooding until 8 weeks.
 From 9-12 weeks of age, the floor space must be increased to 0.18 m 2 per growing
poult, and thereafter until sixteen weeks of age, the minimum floor space
allowance is 0.23 m2 per poult.
 After sixteen weeks, they require 0.36m2per turkey. For small type turkeys, the
floor space requirements may be reduced slightly. The floor space is reduced to
almost one-third under the range system, since only a small shelter is required
to protect them from rain and sun.
 Turkeys require warmer conditions than chickens, and a temperature of 95 0F
should be maintained during the first week of brooding. After this age, the
brooder temperature may be reduced approximately 50F weekly until it reaches
700F or the equivalent of the prevailing environmental temperature. Artificial
heat may be discontinued during the sixth week in winter brooding, and in the
fourth week in summer brooding. Debeak the birds at about 10days of age.
Remove the upper part of the beak halfway between the tip and the nostrils
with an electric debeaker.

FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCES FOR TURKEYS UNDER SEMI-

INTENSIVE SYSTEM
Age (weeks) Space per bird

Shelter Open yard

7-12 weeks 0.09 m2 0.18 m2

13-16 weeks 0.16 m2 0.32 m2

17 weeks-market age 0.22 m2 0.45 m2

 Breeders 0.27 m2 0.54 m2

 When the turkeys forage, they consume the sparse cultivated grass and greens
available in the open yard and the feed cost is reduced. The farmers claim that
they are able to get better fertility and hatchability under the semi-intensive
system than under the intensive system.
 The feeders and drinkers are provided inside the shelter in a shaded
environment.
 Turkeys are better foragers than chickens, and can digest fibre better than
chickens. They are therefore also fed cut legumes like lucerne (alfalfa),
desmanthus, stylo, etc., in the yard, which helps to reduce the feed cost.

JAPANESE QUAIL HOUSING

 In a brooder guard circle of 3 feet diameter (90 cm), about 150 chicks can be
accommodated. It is not advisable to allow more than 300 chicks inside one
circle.
 An electric bulb with a hood cover can be provided at 15 cm height at the centre of
the circle, providing approximately 1 watt per chick. The heating arrangement
has to be continued day and night during the first week, but only during the
night in the second week. The brooder house temperature at the level of the
birds has to be about 98oF, which may be reduced by about 3oF every 3 days.
 During winter and rainy seasons, heating has to be continued during the third
week as well, while during the summer, the practice may be restricted to only
10 days. From the third week onwards, Japanese quail chicks do not require
night lighting.

Drinkers and feeders -Space requirements

 Drinkers and feeders should not be kept under the source of heat inside the
brooder circle. A drinker space of about 0.3 cm, and a feeder space of 0.6 cm
per bird, must be provided during 0-2 weeks, and this has to be increased to
0.6 and 1.2 cm respectively from 3-5 weeks of age.
 The drinker size should be adjusted so that the gap between the brim of the plate
and the cup should not be more than 1 cm, otherwise the chicks will get into the
drinker and get drowned.
 Upto two weeks, two chick drinkers of 10 cm diameter and 1.5 cm high on the
sides, each of 500 ml capacity, and two feeder plates of 22 cm diameter and 2
cm high will be sufficient for 150 chicks in each brooder circle.
 From the third week, a linear feeder 45 cm long, 2.5 cm height and 10 cm wide,
and a drinker of 15 cm diameter and 2.5 cm high at the brim and 1200 ml
capacity will be sufficient for 75 quail chicks.
 MODULE-15: MARKETING OF POULTRY AND POULTRY
PRODUCTS

Learning objectives

 This module deals with marketing trend for eggs and meat in rural and urban
India.

MARKETING

 Marketing may be defined as the performance of business activities that direct

the flow of goods and services from producer to the consumer at the
appropriate time, place and in the form the consumer desires.

EGG MARKETING

Egg Marketing Channels

 Direct marketing of eggs include the following methods of selling:

osales from the farm (farm gate)
odoor-to-door sales
oproducers‟ markets and
osales to local retail shops.
 A typical marketing channel is made up of :
oCollectors
oAssembly merchants
oWholesalers
oRetailers

Organised Marketing Channel

oDirect Channel: Producer – Consumer

oProducer –Collector–Assembly Merchant – Wholesaler – Retailer –
Consumer
oProducer – Wholesaler –Retailer – Consumer
oProducer – Collector- Assembly Merchant – Consumer
oProducer – Retailer - Consumer
 The efficiency of marketing channel is reflected by the share of the consumers
rupees received by the producer. The higher the share, greater the efficiency of
marketing channel
 Egg prices vary from one market to another and from one season to another. In
summer, wholesale egg prices were low to the level which is sometimes lesser
than the cost of production. Therefore proper attention has to be given to
efficient disposal of market eggs
 EGG MARKETING ORGANIZATION

National Egg Coordination Committee (NECC)

 NECC was formally registered under the Societies Registration Act in May 1982.
With a membership of more than 25,000 it is the largest single association of
poultry farmers in the world. Most of today‟s egg production in India comes from
NECC members.
 NECC has various centres and they exchange information among themselves
which help them to determine price for each zone. Co-ordination between zones
permits judicious movement of eggs dependent upon supply and demand.

NECC Objectives

 Price declaration
 To decide upon a reasonable price for eggs this ensures a fair return to the
farmers, decent margins to the middleman and a fair price to the customer
 To monitor the egg stock level in different production centres
 To organize and unite poultry farmers across the country
 To generate employment by encouraging people to take up egg farming and egg
trading
 To promote exports and develop export markets

National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED) has taken

up egg marketing in New Delhi and extended to terminal markets like Mumbai,
Chennai, Calcutta, Hyderabad and some other important industrial areas.

Main Objectives of NAFED

 Provision of reasonable remuneration to the poultry farmers

 Economic price to the consumer
 Employment to the weaker section of the society

Layer Integration
 BROILER MARKETING - INTEGRATION

 Integration is the association, coordination, amalgamation of companies engaged

in various stages of production of particular product, or related products, so that,
there will be a smooth flow of inputs and outputs from one unit to other, leading
to overall reduction in the cost of production of the final product
 In all developed countries, the poultry production at present is an integrated
operation from the primary breeder to the consumer. Each stage or unit is
associated with the other stages
 An integrator will coordinate all these activities. Usually, an integrator is the
owner of the processing plant, hatchery and the feed mill and pay commission to
others for the services rendered by them
 There are only few integrators in each developed country, who will control the
entire poultry production in these countries
 The poultry farmers are acting only as contract growers receiving commission
for the eggs, broilers and turkeys produced by them. The farmers are not the
owners of the birds, but the integrators are the real owners
ACTIVITIES - BROILER INTEGRATION
  In broiler industry, the integrator may be owning the breeding farms, parent
stock, growers, hatchery, feed mill, rendering plant and poultry processing
plant
 He will integrate with few contract parent stock farms, who will supply hatching
eggs on commission basis. The integrator is the owner of the parent stock and
will supply ready-to-lay parent stock and feed to the contract breeder farms.
 Similarly, the integrator will supply day old broiler chicks and feed to the contract
broiler growers and take back grown up broilers, after paying growing
commission to them
 The integrator will process all the birds in his processing and further processing
plants and later supply to the super markets and restaurants for sale
 The hatchery waste and offals are processed in the rendering plant and the meat
meal and chicken fat are used in the feed

ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATION

 The cost of production of the final product will come down, for the ultimate
benefit of the consumer
 It will be possible to go for diversified products and newer fast foods
 Due to large volume of operation, the integrator can go for advertisement for
promoting his products
 All main and by products will be utilized and recycled without any wastage. This
will not only prevent environmental pollution; but also reduces the cost of
production of the main product
 It will stabilize the prices, by balancing the supply and demand

MARKETING-PROCESSED CHICKEN

 The market for frozen or chilled poultry products is only limited to few
institutions i.e. hotels, fast-food restaurant chains and to a negligent extent to
urban consumers
 This very small segment of consumers is served by processing sector, whose
volume account for hardly 2% - 3% of production. However, certain State
Governments are envisaging to discourage slaughtering of birds within the
Municipal jurisdiction limits due to pollution and other issues
 If such measures are pursued, the sale of slaughtered chicken is expected to
increase and the processing units if simultaneously advertise on the quality
aspects of dressed chicken the consumers could be advised to pay slightly
higher amount for frozen/chilled chicken for their health

RURAL MARKETING

 Rural Marketing is still in dormant stage and is like a sleeping dog. It is not
 organized but has a great future.
 An attraction yet to be exploited by rural farmers, is the production of organic
poultry meat and eggs this would be a special market in the cities and has a great
potential for export as developed countries would pay a premium proce for these.
 In India the eggs and meat obtained from the country chicken is normally sold
within the community or used for the family and the marketing system is
informal and poorly developed.
 Slow and steadily, people from the villages are realizing that the meat and the
eggs of the country chicken fetch a premium price but are unable to form an
organized sector to market the meat and eggs. The sale of poultry products enable
poultry keepers to obtain money to premium spent on their own and family
needs.
 A traditional product that can be sold at a premium price can help small
producers to compete with industrial type commercial production. Ways and
means of improving the production of local chicken that will bring better revenue
to the rural poor must be planned.
 Presently in India eggs are bought by the local shop keeper. In some places
merchants from urban areas use local agents to purchase eggs and chicken from
farming families and sell them in the cities. The intermediaries involved in this
business are the main beneficiaries.
 The existence of a local market offering good sales opportunity and adequate
transport facilities are an obvious pre requisite for the development of rural
poultry.
 Rural consumers are far less homogenous than their urban counter parts. The
rural markets are less exploited and are more agricultural based. There are many
opportunities in the rural market that need to be tapped. Unfortunately rural
marketing is beset with various problems, mostly due to the geographic spread of
the villages and the distance from the main market.
 Rural salesmanship is inefficient and this could be attributed to illiteracy.

MAJOR HURDLES

 The traditional marketing activities of promotion, distribution, sales and

servicing undertaken in the urban and semi-urban areas are not available to
the rural poor. The major hurdles are:
oHigh distribution cost
oHigh initial market development expenditure.
oInability of the small retailer to carry stock without adequate credit
facility.
oGenerating effective demand for goods.
oMass communication and promotion problems.
oBanking and credit problem.
oManagement and sales management problem.
oMarket research problem.
oInadequate infrastructure facility.
 oHighly dispersed and thinly populated markets.
oLow per capita, lower standards of living condition, social, economic and
cultural backwardness of the rural masses.
oLow level of exposure to different product categories.
oCultural gap between urban based markets and rural consumers.

STRATEGIES FOR RURAL MARKETING

 The practice of treating rural markets as an appendage of the urban market is not
right since rural markets have their own independent existence. These markets
should be ruralised rather than trying to make them into a convenient
extension of the urban market.
 A focus on injecting a marketing culture into the villagers must be planned and
accomplished. The educated unemployed youth can be used for this mission.

Concept

 Decentralise rural markets from urban bases. Buying and selling should have an
interaction and not just be one way.
 Educated youth can be trained in salesmanship.
 Villagers can be educated on their right and know the market trend.
 The youth can be trained to be in line with newer developments.
 A computer centre where the educated youth are trained must be established and
become a centre point for learning latest trends, rates etc.

MODULE-16: OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR INCUBATION OF

EGGS

Learning objectives

 This module deals with optimum conditions for successful incubation of eggs

INTRODUCTION

 They are also known as principles of incubation or ideal conditions for incubation
or factors essential for incubation of eggs.
oTemperature
oVentilation
oHumidity and
oTurning of eggs are physical conditions essential for optimum hatchability,
irrespective of methods of incubation.
 These principles of incubation vary as per the species of birds.

TEMPERATURE
  Temperature plays a major role in obtaining optimum hatchability with strong,
viable chicks. Variations in temperature directly affect hatching per cent and
quality of chicks.
 The period of hatching, size of chicks, embryonic mortality and viability of chicks
are directly controlled by temperature.
 Similarly, the stages of variations in temperatures also have a considerable effect
on hatching, i.e. altered temperatures during critical stages of incubation is
more deleterious than in other stages of incubation.
 On an average 37.5 to 37.8oC temperature is required for incubation for poultry
species in forced draft incubator during first phase of incubation, i.e. up to
transfer of eggs to the hatcher. It is reduced by about 36.5oC in separate
hatchers.
 The same temperature can be maintained throughout incubation and hatching in
case of incubator-cum-hatchers.
 The higher temperature leads to smaller and dull chicks; deformed chicks with
crooked necks and toes, spread legs, etc.
 A high temperature results in delayed hatch and poor hatchability. Physiological
zero is that temperature below which embryonic growth is arrested and above
which it is initiated. The optimum incubation temperature as mentioned above
can vary based on the following factors.
oSize of the egg
oShell quality
oBreed or strain of chicken
oAge of the egg when it is set
oHumidity of the air during incubation

HUMIDITY

 The amount of moisture in the air within the incubator is very important to the
normal development and subsequent hatching of eggs. In order to create space
for growing embryo weight loss of about 12 percent is expected through water
loss of hatching eggs during first phase of incubation.
 More weight loss will lead to smaller sized chicks and vice versa. Hence,
abnormal fluctuations in humidity during incubation should not be allowed. The
excess moisture loss from eggs due to low relative humidity during incubation
will result in small and hard chicks while extreme low humidity during actual
hatching will lead to embryos dried out in shell or dead in shells.
 Similarly, large and soggy chicks will be produced due to high humidity during
incubation with tendency of delayed hatch and lowered hatchability. The chicks
may stick to shells.
 The relative humidity is measured by comparative reading of dry and wet bulbs of
the thermometer and by calculating the difference of these reading (dry bulb
reading – wet bulb reading). Maintaining a relative humidity of approximately
55% under normal conditions prevents excessive moisture loss from the eggs.
 There is an interaction between temperature and humidity during the embryonic
 process. Higher temperature requires lower humidity and vice versa.

VENTILATION

 Oxygen is required for respiration of all living beings and the same is the case of
developing embryo also. The optimum hatchability is achieved with 21 per cent
oxygen level in incubator.
 The lower level of oxygen in incubator is more detrimental than higher level. It
has been observed that about 5 per cent reduction in hatchability was noted for
every one percent decrease in oxygen content.
 As the embryo advanced in age, its oxygen requirement increases and more
carbon dioxide is given off.
 The concentration of CO2 should not be more than 0.3 to 0.5 percent for
optimum hatchability. More than 1% concentration of CO2 leads to increased
embryonic mortality while 5 percent carbon dioxide in incubator is lethal to all
embryos.
 Hyper-ventilation also should be controlled and taken care off.
 Ventilation is more important from 13th day of incubation in case of chicken eggs
than in initial period.
 It has been observed that the percentage of hatchability has been drastically
reduced in places at an altitude of 3500 feet and above. This is due to reduction
of pressurized concentration outside limits of 0.2 to 1.5%.

TURNING OF EGGS

 Once the egg is placed under incubation the specific gravity in egg lessens and the
yolk settled in the thin albumen raises to come in contact with the outer thick
albumen if the egg is not turned. Therefore frequent turning of egg is essential
for movement of embryos in the eggs during first phase of incubation to avoid
sticking and setting of embryos to shell and deaths. Similarly, turning
facilitates uniform heating of egg contents in auto operated incubators.
 Usually tilting of egg through 45oangle on both the sides on their perpendicular
axis for 4-5 times a day leads to maximum hatchability. Turning is not required
in hatchers or it is stopped from one day before the actual commencement of
hatching.
 The turning must be gentle as vigorous turning may lead to blood ring formation
with increased mortality.

SETTING OF EGGS

 It is general practice to set eggs at broad end up in incubator which is called as

up-right position.
 Setting of egg in up-right position will hold the air
cell in a regular position and
controls malposition of embryos. This also facilitates development of the head
 of embryo towards air-cell due to which it is easy for the developing chick to
penetrate through the air-cell for commencing of pulmonary respiration. It has
been observed that reverse setting results in lowered hatchability by about 8
percent and the quality of chicks are also impaired.

TRANSFERRING OF EGGS TO THE HATCHER

 At the end of 18 days of incubation in chicken eggs the eggs are transferred to the
hatcher. Here they are placed in trays and kept horizontal.
 Turning of egg has no value in the hatcher. The temperature in the hatcher is
36.7oC, while the humidity is maintained at 70%.
 Too little moisture at the time of hatching will produce chicks smeared with egg
or shell, stuck down or partial dehydration. Too much humidity will cause
chicks to be smeared with egg and the navel will not be properly closed.
 In the hatcher the oxygen level should be maintained at 21% as large amount of
CO2 are being liberated by the newly hatched chick.
 The embryo pips the shell by a change is the oxygen supply within the egg at the
time pulmonary respiration begins.
 It pips the shell using the egg tooth which is a small projection above the beak.

MODULE-17: FEEDING NORMS FOR POULTRY

Learning objectives

 This module deals with feeding norms for various species of poultry

NUTRIENTS

 Nutrients are essential substances present in different types of foods which

perform various life-sustaining functions in the body
They are required for growth, maintenance and thereby productive process and
a deficiency of nutrients in the feed below the required level results in the
development of diseases referred to as “deficiency diseases”
Poultry require more than 40 such nutrients, which are classified into six major
groups based on their chemical nature, their functions or role, and the method
in which they are determined
 The groups of nutrients are:
o Proteins
o Carbohydrates
o Fats
o Vitamins
o Minerals
o Water
 These groups of nutrients are present both in the poultry feed and in the bodies
of the fowls. However, they are not directly transferred from the feed to the
tissues, but are split in the bird‟s body during digestion, absorption and the
 metabolism process. The various functions performed by each nutrient and the
requirement needed by poultry vary from nutrient to nutrient.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS

Proteins

 Proteins are considered the building blocks of the body.

 They are essential for proper growth and for building health.
 Most materials used as ingredients in poultry feeds contain some protein.
 Grains generally contain 8-9 percent of crude protein but cannot meet the bird‟s
total protein requirement.
 It is therefore necessary to include other ingredients, which contribute higher
levels of protein.
 Oil cakes are good sources of vegetable protein, while dried fish and meat meal
supply animal protein.
 The amount of protein required by broilers varies considerably according to age
and level of performance.
 There is a high demand for protein at the early stages of development.
 Moreover, the energy level of the ration also decides the protein requirement; the
higher the energy level, the greater the percentage of protein required.
 Protein is made up of several amino acids and it is necessary to know the
composition of any protein-rich ingredient in terms of its constituent amino
acids and its requirements.

Amino acids
Non essential Essential Critical Limiting
Alanine Lysine Lysine Lysine
Aspartic acid Methionine Methionine Methionine
Glutamic acid Methionine+ Cystine Methionine + Cystine Threonine
Hydroxy proline Tryptophan Tryptophan Tryptophan
Proline Threonine Threonine
Glycine + Serine Arginine Arginine
Isoleucine Isoleucine
Leucine
Valine
Histidine
Phenylalanine
 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine

Carbohydrates and Fats

 Birds require energy or fuel to maintain their body heat, to keep the body systems
running continuously and to perform different types of functions.
 Birds derive their supplies of energy from two major groups of nutrients:
carbohydrates and fats/oils.
 Carbohydrates and fats are not actually taken into consideration when defining
the nutrient requirements for poultry. Instead, the metabolisable energy (ME)
value is the one most frequently used to describe the energy value of
ingredients and compound rations for poultry.
 The ME values of most of the feed ingredients have been compiled and are
available for ready use.
 These are calculated as gross energy minus energy voided through droppings
(faeces+urine) and gases, and is expressed as kilocalorie per kilogram of feed (1
KCal =4.18 KJ).
 The energy content of the feed determines the quantity of feed intake by birds. If
the energy level is lower, the feed consumed per day is higher, and vice versa.
 The total intake of other nutrients in the feed is therefore also influenced by the
energy content of the feed.
 It is then necessary to adjust the density of different nutrients present in poultry
feed, not only to the requirements of the bird but also to the expected feed
intake per day which is determined by the energy content of the feed.
 Since most of the vitamins and minerals are normally provided in poultry feed
well in excess of the daily requirement, it is customary to adjust only the
protein content to the energy content. This relationship is referred to as the
calorie: protein ratio or the C:P ratio , which is more important than the total
requirement of energy or protein.

Vitamins

 Vitamins are complex compounds, which play an important role in metabolism.

 Even though they are required in relatively small amounts, the presence or
absence of vitamins makes all the difference between profit and loss in poultry
farming.
 Good growth, prevention of leg weakness and thickness of eggshells, all need
precise vitamin levels. Vitamins occur in many naturally available feed
ingredients. They can also be added as supplements to meet the birds‟
requirements.
 Vitamins are classified into two groups, namely, fat-soluble vitamins and water-
soluble vitamins.
 The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, D, E and K. The water-soluble vitamins
are the B complex group of vitamins, and vitamin C.
 Vitamins in the B complex group are thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin,
pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), biotin, choline, folic acid and cobalamine
 (B12). Vitamins, A, B2 and D3 are called “critical vitamins” for poultry, as any
deficiency in their availability severely impairs the growth rate and egg
production.

Minerals

 About one percent of the broiler meat and 11 percent of the eggs are made up of
minerals, while bones contain about 40 percent minerals.
 Minerals are also found in all body tissues and fluids, and perform many
important functions like the formation of bone and eggshell, clotting of blood,
etc.
 Feed ingredients of animal origin contain more minerals; those of vegetable
origin have a lower proportion.
 As minerals found in common feedstuffs may not supply the birds‟ requirements,
mineral supplements are added to the ration to overcome the possible
development of deficiency symptoms.
 The minerals required for poultry are classified as “macro”, “micro” and “trace”
minerals, depending on their requirement level.
 The macro minerals are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and
magnesium; the micro minerals are iron, manganese, zinc, copper and iodine,
and the trace minerals are cobalt, fluorine, selenium, molybdenum, etc.

Water

 Water makes up about 60 percent of the composition of the bird‟s body. Birds can
survive for a long time, even two to three days, without taking in solid mash,
but suffer very quickly, within 12 hours, if there is a shortage of water.
 A free supply of cool, fresh, clear, potable water should therefore be ensured
throughout the day.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS - POULTRY

Nutrient requirements - Poultry

 Under intensive system of rearing poultry in confinement, they need a complete

feed, having all the essential and non-essential nutrients, for optimal
performance
 The nutrient requirements are not common for all poultry. They vary with
species, breed, variety, age, purpose of rearing (such as for meat, table eggs,
hatching egg production, Hatching Chicks etc.), season, environment and
rearing system (cages, deep litter etc)

Feed quality

 A good quality feed must have all the essentialnutrients in the right proportion
and specified quantities. For the guidance of the feed manufacturers and
 poultry farmers, several organisations, standards have stipulated the nutrient
requirements for different types of poultry feeds
 In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.); which was formerly known as
Indian Standards Institutes (I.S.I.) has specified the nutrient requirements of
chicken. But it has not stipulated any such standards, for other species of
poultry. Hence for these, we have to follow some other standards like National
Research Council (NRC) of U.S.A. and Agricultural Research Council (A.R.C.)
of U.K. These standards are used in feed formulations; so that the feed
prepared will supply all the nutrients in the right proportion.

CLASSIFICATION OF FEED SUPPLEMENTS

Feed Supplements / Additives

 A feed additive or a supplement is a substance or mixture of substances other

than the bulk and basic feed stuffs
 Used in small quantities, usually at less than one percent level in the
compounded feeds in order to supplement certain nutrients and non-nutrients
to improve the quality of the feed and the performance of the birds fed
 Feed supplements are broadly classified into two categories, namely:
oNutrient Feed Supplements
oNon-Nutrient Feed Supplements

FUNCTIONS OF FEED ADDITIVES

Different feed additives perform different functions. They are added to poultry feed in
order to:

 Improve the nutritive value of the feed and feed efficiency

 Improve the growth rate and egg production
 Protect the birds from stress and improve their immune status
 Prevent spoilage of feed due to microbes, fungi, rancidity and other physical
conditions
 Enhance colour, flavour, palatability and general appearance of the feed and
make it more attractive to both the farmer and the bird
 Help to prevent caking, dustiness and loss of feed during storage, handling and
feeding
 Improve the quality of the egg yolk colour, shell thickness and meat quality
 Have sparing action on certain nutrients and prevent nutritional imbalance
 Certain non-nutrient feed additives cause thinning of the gut wall and thereby
facilitate better absorption of nutrients
 Prevent various deficiency diseases, other diseases of nutritional origin, and
certain bacterial and parasitic diseases

NUTRIENT FEED ADDITIVES

  Nutrient feed additives contain certain essential nutrients necessary for the
normal growth and production of the birds.
 Deficiency of these nutrients in poultry will lead to various anatomical and
physiological abnormalities, deficiency diseases, poor growth rate, low egg
production and low resistance to disease. They need to be added if the
formulated feed is not expected to contain such nutrients at required levels.

Nutrient feed additives can be further classified into the following categories:

Vitamin supplements

 Fat-soluble vitamins, supplying such vitamins as vitamin A, D3, E and K.

 Water-soluble vitamins such as B-Complex group of vitamins and vitamin C

Mineral supplements

 Macro minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium

and sulphur
 Micro minerals such as manganese, zinc, iron, copper and iodine
 Ultra trace elements, like selenium, cobalt, molybdenum and chromium

Essential amino acids

 Additives supplying lysine, methionine and tryptophan

Protein hydrolysates

 A pre-digested protein such as hydrolysed feather meal, hair meal, etc. supplying
essential amino acids and other nutrients

Liver extract

 Supplies essential nutrients in the most suitable form for absorbtion

Live yeast and yeast extract

 Supplies essential nutrients, digestive enzymes and unidentified growth factors

(U.G.F.).

Fermentation by-products

 Supply various essential nutrients and U.G.F.

NON-NUTRIENT FEED ADDITIVES

  This group of feed additives do not have any direct nutritional role, but are added
to the feed to reduce mortality and morbidity caused by various diseases and
stress factors; to improve feed efficiency by better digestion, absorption and
utilisation of nutrients; to enhance colour, flavour, consistency and quality of
feed, and to improve the shelf life of the feed by curbing, caking, moulds,
mustiness, oxidation and other physical, chemical and micro-biological
degradation

Classification, Uses and Examples

Non-nutrient feed additives are classified based on their nature and functions:

 Antibiotic feed supplements: U sed to control sub-clinical bacterial

infections and thereby boost the performance. Examples are tetracyclines,
tiamutin, lincomycin, tylosin, erythromycin, colistin, doxycycline, bacitracin,
flavomycin, virginiamycin, etc. It is advisable to use antibiotics which are not
used in the treatment of human and animal diseases. Introduction of probiotics
with favourable microbes has now limited the usage of antibiotics in feed.
 Non-antibiotic anti-microbial feed supplements: Check bacterial
infections and promotes performance. Examples: Furazolidone, chlorhydroxy-
quinoline.
 Antimycotic agents: Prevent mould growth and production of toxins.
Examples: Gentian violet, copper sulphate, propionic acid, calcium propionate
and sodium benzoate.
 Coccidiostats: Prevent outbreaks of coccidiosis. Examples: Dinitro-ortho-
toluamide, salinomycin, robenidine, nicarbazine, monensin and maduramycin.
 Anti-parasitic additives : Check various parasitic infestations. Examples:
Dichlorophan, Niclosamide and Praziquantel.
 Anti-oxidants: Prevent oxidative rancidity of fats and oils. Examples: B.H.T.,
B.H.A. and Ethoxyquin.
 Enzymes : Help in better digestion of the food. Examples: Protease, lipase,
cellulase, amylase, phytase and pectinase.
 Hormones : Promote growth rate, feed efficiency and egg production.
Examples: Caseated iodine, melengestrol acetate, ethylestranol and stanazol.
 Arsenicals : Promote growth rate, feed efficiency and carcass finish.Examples:3
Nitro-4-hydroxy phenyl arsanilic acid.
 Adsorbents : Adsorb or bind toxins and prevent their absorption from the
intestine. Examples: Zeolites, activated charcoal.
 Pellet binders : Used for pelleting the feed in preparation of crumbled feed for
broilers. Examples: Bentonite, sodium alginate, carboxy methyl cellulose,
gelatine, lignosulphonate, carragenan and guargum.
Deodorising agents : Reduce the ammonia production in the litter.
Example: Yucca extract.
 Flavouring agents : Improve feed flavour and thereby feed intake, growth rate
and production. Examples: Essential oils, fish oils,etc.
 Pigments : Impart attractive colour to the feed as well as to the products like egg
yolk and skin. Examples: Canthaxanthin, leutin, zeaxanthin,etc.
  Herbal preparations: Tone up the liver, improve the appetite and increase
disease and toxin resistance power of the birds. Examples: Extracts of herbs.
 Performance boosters: Improve overall performance of the birds by various
means. Examples: Nitrovin,avoparcin,etc.
 Immuno-stimulants: Stimulate anti-body production, cell-mediated
immunity and general resistance to disease. Examples:
Tetrahydrophenylimidazole, immogen, levamisole,etc.
 Other miscellaneous feed additives: Perform certain specific functions in
the body or feed and thereby improve the performance. Examples: Electrolytes,
egg-up, egg toner, etc.

PROBIOTIC or DIRECT FED MICROBIALS (D.F.M.)

 Probiotic is a live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host
animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance resulting in a better
performance in terms of growth or feed efficiency. Probiotic preparations are
made from bacteria, yeast and fungi. Commonly included probiotic preparations
in various combinations are:
o Bacteria: Strains of Lactobacillus , Leuconostoc , Bifidobacterium ,
Pediococcus and Streptococcus
o Fungi: Strains of Aspergillus
o Yeast - Strains of Saccharomyces.
 Probiotics act by suppressing viable counts of pathogenic bacteria such as
Escherichia coli, producing antibacterial compounds, by competing for nutrients
and adhesion site in the intestinal epithelium. In general, probiotics increase
growth rate in broilers, egg production in layers, and reproductive performance
in breeders.However, the effect of probiotics is more noticeable in stressed birds
than in healthy ones.

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (B.I.S.) SPECIFICATIONS -

CHICKEN

Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.) specifications-Chicken: IS - 1374-1994

Characteristics Broiler Broiler Chick Grower Layer Breeder

starter finisher feed feed feed feed
feed feed
Moisture max % 11 11 11 11 11 11
Crude protein min 23 20 20 16 18 18
%
Crude fibre max % 6 6 7 8 8 8
Acid insoluble ash 3 3 4 4 4 4
max %
Salt (as (NaCl) Max 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
%
Calcium min % 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0
Available 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
phosphorus min %
Lysine min % 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.65 0.65
Methionine min % 0.5 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.3
Metabolizable 2800 2900 2600 2500 2600 2600
energy (ME) Kcal/
kg
Manganese, mg/kg 90 90 90 90 90 90
Vitamin A, IU/kg 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000
Vitamin D3, IU/kg 600 600 600 600 1200 1200
Vitamin E, mg/kg 15 15 15 10 10 10
Vitamin K, mg/kg 1 1 1 1 1 1
Riboflavin, mg/kg 6 6 6 3 3 3
Biotin, mg/kg 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.15
Choline 1400 1600 1300 900 800 800
Pyridoxine, mg/kg 5 5 5 5 5 8
Aflatoxin, max, 50 50 50 50 50 50
P.P.b.
NRC REQUIREMENTS - TURKEYS

Nutrient requirement of Turkeys as % or units kilogram of diet as per

National Research Council-1994 (NRC 1994) specifications

Nutrient Growing turkeys - males and females Breeders

0-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20- Holdin Layin
week week week week week 24 g g
s s s s s week
s
M.E. 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 2900 2900
 (KCal/kg)
Protein % 28 26 22 19 16.5 14 12 14
Linoleic 1 1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.1
acid %
Calcium % 1.2 1 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.5 2.25
Non- 0.6 0.5 0.42 0.38 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.35
phytate
phosphoru
s%
Magnesiu 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
m mg/kg
Manganes 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
e mg/kg
Zinc 70 65 50 40 40 40 40 65
mg/kg
Selenium 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
mg/kg
Vitamin A 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000
IU/kg
Vitamin 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100
D3 ICU/kg
Vitamin E 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 25
mg/kg
Vitamin K 1.75 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.75 0.5 0.5 1.0
mg/kg
Vitamin 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
B12 mg/kg
Biotin 0.25 0.2 0.125 0.125 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.200
mg/kg
Riboflavin 4.0 3.6 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 4.0
mg/kg

NRC REQUIREMENTS-DUCKS

Nutrient requirement of ducks as % or units kilogram of diet as per NRC

 (1994) specifications

Nutrient 0-2 weeks 2-7 weeks Breeding

M.E. (KCal/kg) 2900 3000 2900
Protein % 22 16 15
Lysine % 0.90 0.65 0.60
Methionine % 0.40 0.30 0.27
Methionine + Cystine % 0.70 0.55 0.50
Calcium % 0.65 0.60 2.75
Non-phytate phosphorus % 0.40 0.30 --
Manganese mg/kg 50 -- --
Selenium mg/kg 0.20 -- --
Zinc mg/kg 60 -- --
Vitamin A IU/kg 2500 2500 4000
Vitamin D3 ICU/kg 400 400 900
Vitamin E mg/kg 10 10 10
Vitamin K mg/kg 0.5 0.5 0.5
Niacin mg/kg 55 55 55
Pantothenic acid mg/kg 11 11 11
Pyridoxine mg/kg 2.5 2.5 3.0
Riboflavin mg/kg 4.0 4.0 4.0

NRC REQUIREMENTS-JAPANESE QUAIL

Nutrient requirement of Japanese quail as % or units per kilogram of diet

as per NRC (1994) specifications

Nutrient Starting and growing Breeding

M.E. (KCal/kg) 2900 2900
Protein % 24 20
Lysine % 1.30 1.00
 Methionine % 0.50 0.40
Linoleic acid % 1.0 1.0
Calcium % 0.8 2.5
Non-phytate phosphorus % 0.30 0.35
Manganese mg/kg 60 60
Selenium mg/kg 0.2 0.2
Zinc mg/kg 25 50
Vitamin A IU/kg 1650 3300
Vitamin D3 ICU/kg 750 900
Vitamin E mg/kg 12 25
Vitamin K mg/kg 1 1
Vitamin B12 mg/kg 0.003 0.003
Biotin mg/kg 0.3 0.15
Riboflavin mg/kg 4 4
Thiamin mg/kg 2 2

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR GUNIEA FOWL

Nutrients 0-4 weeks 5-8 weeks 9-24 weeks 24 weeks
Pre-Brooder Brooder Grower Layer
Crude protein – 24.5 20.5 17 18
(CP%)
Metabolizable energy 2850 2800 2750 2650
(Kcal/kg)
Calcium-Ca(%) 1.18 1.08 1.10 3.41
Phosphorus (%) 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.45
Lysine (%) 1.45 1.15 0.85 0.84
Methionine (%) 0.42 0.38 0.37 0.35

MODULE-18: ORGANIC FARMING AND MIXED FARMING

Learning objectives

 This module emphasizes the importance of organic farming and mixed farming of
poultry.

INTRODUCTION

Organic farming is a system of farming which aims to promote animal health and
environmental sustainability through holistic management for positive health based on
a biologically active soil

 To be certified as organic egg, the hen should have been fed with organic feed,
which is produced without synthetic pesticides, drugs, antibiotics or
Genetically Modified Crops
 Hens used to produce organic eggs should not be fed rations containing meat by-
products, such as meat and bone meal
 The "organic" label has also been applied to eggs produced by hens that are
consuming diets, which do not contain any drugs or hormones. These organic
eggs must come from the hens reared in deep litter systems, with sufficient
access to free-range

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Basic Principles of Organic Farming

 A precautionary approach to health issues

 Positive rather than reactive health management
 A focus on the fundamental causes of health problems rather than the symptoms
 Preference for the use of natural rather than artificial processes.

Organic standards and practices include the following

 Limits on unit sizes and stocking density avoid intensive housing conditions
 Slower growing breeds encouraged
 No routine prophylactic drug treatments-usually only individual animals which
are actually ill are treated, and then are required to be treated
 Homeopathic and/or Ayurvedic treatments are preferred to Allopathic
 Animal health plans obligatory for each farm, to identify weaknesses and
improvements required in the system for positive health
 Record keeping
 Breeding strategies are being developed to improve health including fertility.

AIMS OF ORGANIC PRODUCTION

  To produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity
 To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and
cycles
 To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the organic
production processing system
 To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system involving
micro-organisms, soil flora, plants and animals
 To maintain and increase the long-term fertility of soil
 To maintain the genetic diversity of the production system and its surroundings,
including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats
 To use as far as possible renewable resources in locally organised production
systems
 To create a harmonious balance between crop production and animal husbandry
 To minimise all forms of pollution

CONDITIONS FOR CERTIFIED ORGANIC EGG

To produce a certified organic egg, the chicken which lays the egg must be certified
organic itself or if from a conventional source, must be from those layers fed
with organic feed for atleast six months before the eggs are certifiable. Some of the
regulations which apply to organic egg production are as follows:

 All the ingredients used to feed the laying hen must be from certified organic
sources. No herbicides, fungicides, insecticides or chemical fertilizers are
allowed.
 The farmer must replenish the soil naturally with the goal of sustainable
production.
 Housing must allow for "reasonable liberty, normal socialization, maximum fresh
air, day light and shelter from inclement weather conditions". The birds must
have access to free range or large open air runs and has contact with the
natural ground.
 No antibiotics, prohibited parasiticides or coccidiostats are allowed in the egg
producing flock. In the event of treatment, birds must be withdrawn from
organic production for a period of 90 days or twice the official waiting period,
which ever is greater. Only after the producer has met all the production
regulations and had his birds, his own land and his books inspected farm can
only be recommended for organic status. Once approved, a certificate will be
issued stating that the eggs are certified organic.

MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS-LAYERS

Mandatory Requirements - Organic Farming

 100% certified organic feeds.

 1.75 square feet per bird in the hen house.
 Uninterrupted supply of clean water.
 Natural light in the house.
 Adequate ventilation to prevent ammonia build-up.
 Access to the outdoors when seasonally appropriate.
 Outdoor area providing five square feet per bird.
 Egg storage area holding eggs at 60 0 F

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

 Temperature: 40 - 80 degrees F
 Humidity: 60 - 80%
 Waterers: At least one bell waterer per 75-100 birds, or one nipple per 10-15
birds on line waterers.
 Roost Area: Flat roost area that hens cannot get under, with waters over this.
Periodically dust with Calcium Phosphate or lime to keep ammonia down. Six
inches per bird on roost area.
 Litter: Should be sawdust, shavings, certifiable hay or straw, or ground cobs.
 Floor: Area should be dry with certifiable scratch feed on the floor to encourage
turning of the litter. If using the deep litter method, it must be microbially
alive, and turned periodically with moisture to aid break down. Lime the floor
periodically to disinfect.
 Transition : Rest time of two weeks between batches is encouraged to break
parasite cycle. Clean house thoroughly, lime heavily, or spray a mild bleach
solution to disinfect.
 Ventilation: Should maintain adequate air movement to avoid an overwhelming
ammonia smell. Ammonia levels in house should be less than 20 PPM. Ridge
vents are highly encouraged to remove ammonia and moisture.
 Lighting : Supplemental lighting not mandatory but encouraged. Fourteen to
sixteen hours recommended. Never decrease for hens once they are laying.
 Vaccination permitted against certain diseases may also be carried out
 Feed: All laying hens must be fed 100% certified organic feed from day one.
oDo not feed kitchen scraps. High-quality certifiable hay (either ground into
feed or as bedding) keeps the yolk color dark. Feed constituting a major
component of any animal production system and in the case of egg
production, the major cost, it is vital that every aspect of the diet is
correct in order to ensure optimum performance. When formulating
rations suitable for organic egg production it is necessary, as with any
ration, to take into consideration not only the nutritional requirement of
the bird and the legislative standards applicable to the diet.
oOrganic standards prohibit the inclusion of genetically modified material
and products produced using genetically modified organisms. Those of
plant origin currently permitted, along with their by-products, include
cereals, oil and legume seeds, tuber roots and forages. However, a
further restriction on these products is the fact that they must not have
been produced or prepared using chemical solvents. Animal products
permitted for inclusion under the regulations include milk and fish or
other marine animals, plus by-products.
oAll yolk pigments must be of natural origin
The cost of the diet

 Due to the aforementioned issues it is obvious that organically produced raw

materials are going to cost more to buy than their conventional counterparts.

Outdoor Access

 Some form of pasture rotation (or a very large area provided) to maintain at least
30% plant cover.

Organic chicken meat standards

 Reared in movable housing

 Stocking rate 833 birds per hectare
 Birds selected from slow growth potential and higher age at slaughter
 Large, shaded open spaces and controlled flock sizes.
 Feed contains 75% cereal content and remaining 25% is composed of vegetable
based protein.

House

oIn France the maximum size of house is 400 m2 with range areas on both
sides.
oIn U.K. it is wooden houses 2M x 5M x 1.5 M height on skids moved by
tractor.
 Density requirement in France is 11 birds/M2, maximum threshold for broilers in
mobile home is a maximum of 16 birds or 30 kg per M2.
 Slaughter age – minimum 81 days
 Minimum free range – 2 M2/bird, under EU Standards it is 2.5 M2 per bird.
 Birds must not be transported for more than 100 kms or 2 hours by road.

Feeding for organic egg/meat production

 There are two regulations within the legislation that need to be considered
oFeed is intended to ensure quality production rather than maximizing
production.
oDisease prevention is by the use of high quality feed, together with regular
exercises and access to pasturage, having the effect of encouraging the
natural immunological defence of the animal.
oThe ingredients must be clear and traceable.

Health

 Generally it is accepted that mortality rates are

likely to be higher in birds kept
under range.
 The estimated mortality rate is 10% for organic table birds.
  The development of an animal health plan is an essential part of any organic
farming system.
 It takes account of all aspects of the individual including stress, general well
being as well as physical symptoms.

Label rouge

 The label rouge traditional free range poultry is found in France.

 The label rouge system has a unique label on the finish product.
 Each bird serves as a label which serves as its individual “identity card”.
 A detailed summary of the bird‟s history on the label offers the consumer total
reassurance with respect to the quality and safety of the product.

MIXED FARMING AND POULTRY RAISING - INTRODUCTION

 This is also known as “Integrated Farming” and eco-agricultural approach. This

term of mixed or integrated farming is used for denoting farming practices that
adopt and integrate components of crops, livestock, aquaculture and
agroforestry in a manner that mimic natural feed back loops whereby
enhancing the overall synergy of the system
 The main consideration in this system is to minimize the use of external inputs by
enhancing the recycling of materials within the system through a process of
value addition, which is achieved by intermediate components that make use of
the by-products (wastes) from one component (Poultry) as inputs (fertilizers,
food) for another
 The nature of the components that are integrated or “Mixed” will depend on the
local resources, ingenuity of the farmer and marketing opportunity
 Normally under the integrated or mixed farming system a few key components
would be the main stay around which the other activities would be inter linked
and build upon, this takes a holistic approach, where every linked operation
using the best available knowledge and technologies would improve production
to maximize it
 A symbiotic relationship is formed between the farming families and their natural
resource endowments

POULTRY AND FISH PRODUCTION

 Poultry cages (Chicken or Duck) can be constructed on the top of the ponds. The
dropping will serve as a potential source of feed for the fish as well as manure.
Additional advantages are elimination of unwanted insects in the pond by the
ducks
 Pigeon cages have been constructed above the fish pond with just an initial stock
of two pairs, this later multiplied to nine pairs within 14 months
 The integration of poultry and fish can increase overall production intensity and
economics on land, labour and water requirements for both poultry and fish
  One hectare of static water fish ponds can process the wastes of upto 1500
poultry, producing fish in quantities of upto 10 MT/ha.
 Poultry wastes are more nutrient dense than other livestock wastes, they contain
less moisture, fibre and compounds such as tannins that discolour water.
Integration of village poultry system with backyard fish culture has brought
much benefit with little extra cost

POULTRY INTEGRATION WITH CROPPING SYSTEMS AND

AGRO FORESTRY

 Poultry integrated with cropping systems and Agro forestry has provided very
good returns to the farmer. These farms have cows, goats and poultry comprising
of chicken, ducks, turkeys etc. They graze on the grasses and leftover crops and
grains and while wandering they also become biological mowers
 Geese have been used in many cropping systems as deweeders. In India the
rearing of ducks go along with Paddy cultivation where the land is fertilized with
duck dropping, while the ducks get the left over grains, snails, insects etc. A
symbiotic relationship is maintained
 The movement of these birds and livestock tend to disturb the insect pest which
takes refuge in ground covers and chicken feed on these insects. Where crop-
livestock integrated farming system is practiced, several factors need to be
considered – these include the choice of livestock, stocking density, fencing and
security, eradication of noxious weeds, feed supply and a possible damage to
crops
 Involvement of women is more in the mixed farming systems
 Integrated farming systems having many more crops and enterprises, require
more labour, but each enterprise needs a small amount of labour everyday.
Hence, family labour is necessary, it also adds value to the women labourers
 The special features of integrated farming system are the provision of balanced
diet to all the members of the family instead of giving one cereal. Mono-
cultivation provides yield after some months, whereas integrated or mixed
farming systems provide diet in various forms around the year. In addition mixed
farming system provided steady income through sale of various farm products

BENEFITS OF MIXED FARMING

 Offer scope of getting income throughout the year

 Reduced dependency on external inputs
 Provides employment opportunity throughout the year
 Eco friendly
 Reduces risks due to vagaries of nature
 Brings about a general level of self-reliance in the community
 MODULE-19: HILL FARMING

Learning objectives

 This module deals with hill farming of poultry at higher altitudes.

INTRODUCTION TO HILL FARMING

 The dominant features in hill farming are the small land holdings and sloping
marginal land with poultry raising.
 In the high hill temperature zones, it is more feasible to raise the available
local/indigenous poultry breeds since they are most fit for scavenging on hilly
tracts.

CONSTRAINTS UNDER HILL FARMING

 Undulating topography, small fragmented and scattered land holdings with

limited availability of inputs.
 Slopes and soil erosion.
 The land is inaccessible, infrastructure, communication and mobility are affected
due to various physical, climate and socio economic factors.
 Water quality.
 Natural hazards.
 Difficulties of Marketing

HILLY AREAS-SYSTEM OF REARING POULTRY

 Poultry provides economic and livelihood security to both land holding and
landless hill families. Chicken are traditionally reared by the tribal‟s and their
husbandry is integrated within the whole farming system. In village
communities, almost every farmer rears a few chicken near their homes and
mostly the birds are managed under a scavenging system. Very little time and
money is spent on rearing them and they become a part of the family. In some
hilly tracts some exotic birds have also been introduced like the Rhode Island
Red, White Leghorn, New Hampshire etc. later the improved variety of birds
that have indigenous blood in them have been introduced and are doing well.
 Under the scavenging system, particularly during the colder months, the birds
are let loose to roam freely for part of the day (during the warm part of the day)
and then are shut in, and supplemented with extra feed. This system allows the
bird to be protected from inclement weather and are also protected from
predators. Also, the manure from these birds is used to fertilize the soil. This
system is adaptable to a range of flock sizes and is also able to produce more
eggs and meat compared to the scavenging system.
  In the hill and mountain regions, where food grain is deficient, the scavenging
system could provide eggs for the family without duly worrying about feeding
the birds. Local consumers prefer egg and meat from the indigenous birds
rather than from the exotic birds.
 Under the semi-scavenging system, since the birds are reared indoors for a large
proportion of time, they are more prone for managemental diseases like
coccidiosis and mortality and morbidity levels can be high. In this system, the
farmer needs to construct a small house depending on the size of the flock. The
house is of low cost and is made with locally available materials

HIGH ALTITUDE AND HATCHABILITY

 A decrease in 10% hatchability has been observed for every 300 meter increase in
altitude.
 There are reports that the hatchability decreased to 30% at 2000 meters.
 It has been observed that locally produced eggs may reveal lower porosity of the
shell which may restrict the diffusion of gases at lower atmospheric pressure.
 Adoption can develop through a greater ability of the embryo to form
haemoglobin in the red blood cells and through the development of a greater
heart column of the growing embryo to compensate for the lower oxygen level.
 In most cases it may be preferable for birds to lay the hatching eggs at a higher
altitude and hatch them in a lower area. Transportation of eggs have to be
carried out with great care

REARING OF BROILERS IN HILLY TRACTS

 Rearing of broilers in higher altitude reduced growth rate and also increased
mortality.
 Broilers being fast growing birds have a high metabolism and their requirement
of oxygen is high, therefore they could be raised in an environmentally controlled
house in high altitude areas

INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF REARING BIRDS-HILLY TRACTS

 In this system due to the terrain, the houses have to be smaller in length and
many in number. In order to conserve heat, planning and construction of
poultry house in hilly areas should be made square to the extent possible.
 Under this system of rearing in hilly areas, the birds have to be fed with a
balanced feed and the cost of feed increases as it has to be transported up the
hill.
 As the temperature is cool, the requirement for feed increases to maintain body
warmth.
 During the cold seasons the birds have to be protected from „wind chill‟ factor,
and the open sides of the house are closed with gunny bags or plastic sheets.
  The wind direction should be observed and the curtains on that side must be
closed up more.
 The opening and closing of the curtains in the open curtained house must be
monitored and closely to prevent a build up of ammonia due to reduced
ventilation.
 Small air inlets can prevent the house from becoming very chill as the cool air can
drop on the birds, chilling them

HEALTH AND FEEDING

Health

 The major problem in intensive rearing of chicken in hilly areas is respiratory

disease and coccidiosis. The cold air falls rapidly on the floor displacing warm
air, leading to chilling- this cold air cannot absorb the water in the atmosphere
and therefore as it falls on the litter, the litter gets caked and due to lower
ventilation there is increase in ammonia,leading to respiratory disease. Also
wet litter can lend itself to coccidiosis problems. In young birds the gut is
chilled by contact with cold and humid litter and this leads to enteritis.

Feeding

 The bird has to maintain its body temperature and requires high energy feed.
Chicken eat more feed when the environmental temperature is cold. A practical
rule for the extra feed required for body maintenance is to provide 1% more
feed for each 1ºC temperature below the required house average of 18 to
20ºC.Provide the birds with a balanced feed to control body weight and egg
production. Prevent feather loss in these birds as this could „chill‟ the birds
excessively.

Training

 The farmers and those who intend to take up poultry farming in hilly areas must
be trained. Training must be organized in such a way,to inform farmers of
recent developments and suitable technologies concerning small scale poultry
production in hilly terrain. Training on rearing meat and egg birds, selection of
good layers, incubation and hatching methods, formulating rations with locally
available ingredients, vaccination and health care must be regularly planned.

Breeding

 Breeder farms can be maintained in higher altitudes but the hatchery must be
built at a lower altitude. Frequency in collection of egg must be more, to
prevent chilling of the hatching egg which lowers hatchability.

EXERCISE 1: DESCRIPTION OF COMMON EXOTIC BREEDS

 AND VARIETIES OF CHICKEN
WHITE LEGHORN

 The breed originated from Leghorn valley in Italy and named as Leghorn. It was
selectively bred further in the USA for improving its laying capacity.
 There are about 10-12 varieties of this breed, amongst them white and brown
varieties are more popular.
 The white leghorn is the egg laying champion of the world and lays large size
white eggs.
 It has bright red, well developed single comb with 4-5 points standing erect in
cock, while dropping over the eye in hen.
 The ear lobe is white. The beak, shank and toes are yellow. The plumage is bright
white.
 It is quiet tolerant to tropical climate and has proved its laying capacity
throughout the world. It does not have tendency to deposit fat and feed
consumption in around 110 g per day.
 Nearly all the commercial hybrid layers are derived from White Leghorn.
 The cock and hen weigh about 1.8 to 2.7 kg respectively.

RHODE ISLAND RED (RIR)

 The breed has been developed in Rhode Island in the US using the Asiatic and the
Mediterranean birds.
 It has rich brownish-red plumage with greenish-black tail. The rose and single
comb varieties are noticed.
 The skin and shanks are yellow with red ear lobes. It lays brown shelled eggs and
popular dual purpose breed in rural areas of tropical countries as it resembles to
country hens. It has slow feathering character.
 The standard body weights of cock and hen are about 3.7 kg and 2.9 kg
 respectively.
 It is a dual purpose breed (egg and meat) consumes around 120 g/day/bird. It is
hardy and prolific.

PLYMOUTH ROCK
 Barred White Plymouth Rock
Plymouth
Rock

 The breed has been evolved in America and has good laying ability along with
very good fleshing characters.
 The adult body weight of Cock -3 kg and hen-2.4 kg.
 The comb is single with red ear lobes.
 The shanks and skin is yellow. It lays brown eggs. Out of white and barred, barred
Plymouth Rock is more popular since it aids for auto-sexing of chicks at day-
old.
 The plumage is grayish-white and white Plymouth Rock is widely used in crosses
for broiler production.
 CORNISH AND NEW HAMPSHIRE

Cornish
  It was selectively bred in Cornwell, Britain and white variety is more popular as
excellent meat bird.
 The males are widely used for various crosses of meat birds. The plumage colour
is white with red ear lobe.
 The comb is pea type with yellow beak and shanks. It lays brown eggs and
average body weight of cock and hen are 3.2 to 4.5 kg respectively.

New Hampshire

 The breed was evolved at Hampshire in US which is somewhat mixed breed.

 It has red plumage which is brighter in males and darker in females. It has been
developed from RIR breed through selective breeding. It has faster feathering
character.
 Female lines are used for producing broiler strains with cocks of heavy breeds
like Sussex.
 It has single comb with red ear lobes. The skin and shank is yellow. It lays large
brown eggs. The standard body weights of cock and hen are about 3.7 kg and
3.1 kg, respectively.
 EXERCISE 2: DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIGENOUS/ LOCAL
BREEDS AND VARIETIES OF CHICKEN

Breeds of indigenous chicken of India

 Aseel
 Kadaknath
 Naked neck
 Nicobari
 Ghagus
 Busra
 Chittagong
 Miri
 Daothigir
 Brown Desi
 Danki
 Titri
 Harringhatta
 Black
 Kashmir
 Faveralla
 Kalasthi
 Loalab
 Punjab Brown
 Tani
 Tellicherry
 Ankaleshwar

ASEEL

Indian Chicken Breeds

 Aseel

 The literal meaning of Aseel is real or pure.

 Aseel is well known for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged
fighting qualities.
 The name Aseel appears to have been given to this indigenous breed because of
its inherent qualities of fighting. The remarkable endurance of an Aseel even
during the most critical stages of fight is proverbial as it prefers death to
dishonour. The Aseel is, therefore, known to every game lovers all over the
world for these specific characteristics.
 Andhra Pradesh is said to be the home of this important breed. The best
specimen of this breed, although rare, are encountered with the fanciers and
the people engaged in cock-fighting show through out the country.
 Aseel is larger inbuilt with noble looking and dignified appearance. A good
specimen of an Aseel cock usually measure 28 inches from back to toe.
 The standard weight varies from 3 to 4 kg for cocks and 2 to 3 kg for hens. Pea
comb are also occasionally encountered. The wattles are rudimentary and
almost imperceptible. The beak is short and well curved. The face is long and
not covered with feathers. The eyes are compact, wells et and present bold
looks. The neck is long, uniformly thick but not fleshy.
 The general feathering is close, scanty and almost absent on the breast. The
plumage has practically no fluff and the feathers are tough. The tail is small
and the legs are strong, straight, clean and set well apart. The birds as a rule
present upright material gait suggestive of strength and alertness. Aseel is
larger in built with noble looking and dignified appearance.

Performance Profile

 Body weight at 20 weeks (g) 1220

 Age at sexual maturity (days) 196
 Annual egg production (number) 92
 Egg weight at 40 week (g) 50
 Fertility (%) 66
 Hatchability FES (%) 63

ASEEL VARIETIES

Aseel-Dega variety Aseel-Reza variety

 The Aseel has a short, broad breast, straight back and a close set strong tail root.
The outstanding feature of this breed is the thick and long neck, long and
slender face (without feathers), short beak, short, small comb, ear lobes and
the absence of wattles.
 The legs are long, strong and straight and the bird has an upright and majestic
gait.
 The plumage colouring is brilliant and the Aseel cock comes in many
colours:typically Dega (red plumage), Reza (golden and red spotted plumage),
Massara (blue black), Poola Massara (spotted), Savala (white and black spots),
Kaki (pure black), Petta maru (hen-like colouring) and Settuva (white). The
preferred colours are Dega, Reza and Massara
 The average weight of a 2-year-old full sized adult male ranges between 5-8 kg.
The average weight of a hen is 3-4 kg.

INDIGENOUS FOWLS - KADAKNATH

 This breed is otherwise known as “Kalamasi” which means “fowl with black flesh”
and is native of Madhya Pradesh
 The colour of the day old chicks is bluish to black with irregular darkstripes over
the back.
 The adult plumage varies from silver to gold spangled to blue black without any
spangling.
 The skin, beak, shank, toes and soles of feet of males and females are dark gray
colour. Even the comb, wattles and tongue also show a purplish hue. The
shining blue tinge of the earlobes add to its unique features.
 The peculiarity of this breed is that most of the internal organs show the
characteristic black pigmentation which is more pronounced in trachea,
thoracic and abdominal air sacs, gonads, elastic arteries, at the base of the
heart and mesentery. Varying degree of blackish colouration is also found in
 the skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain and bone marrow. The
black colour of muscles and tissues is due to the deposition of melanin
pigment, a genetic condition called "Fibromelanosis".

Performance Profile

 Body weight at 20 weeks (g) 920

 Age at sexual maturity (days) 180
 Annual egg production (number) 105
 Egg weight at 40 week (g) 49
 Fertility (%) 55
 Hatchability FES (%) 52

NAKED NECK

 Naked neck is relatively larger inbuilt with long cylindrical neck.

 As the name indicates, neck of the birds is fully naked or only a tuft of feathers is
seen on the front of the neck above crop. The resulting bare skin becomes
reddish particularly in males as they approach sexual maturity. General body
feathering is also reduced.
 Various types of combs viz. pea, rose, walnut and single combs are seen.
 The beak is short and well curved. The face is long and not covered with feathers.
The eyes are compact and well set. The skin is thin and pinkish in colour.
 The beak and shanks have no correlation with plumage colour. Main plumage
colours are brown, black, white and mixture of brown and black.
 Due to the reduced feathering, the birds are capable to tolerate the tropical stress.
It lays the biggest size eggs among all the Indian native breeds of chicken.
 Trivandrum region of Kerala is considered to be the homeland of Naked neck but
it is available throughout hot and humid coastal area including Andaman and
Nicobar island and North-Eastern states of the country in small numbers.
 People of these regions have great affinity for Naked neck birds due to their
better adaptability to the hot and humid climatic conditions as well as for
better taste and flavour of meat.

FRIZZLE
  Frizzle fowls have oval body with well-developed comb and wattles.
 The skin is thin and pinkish pale in colour.
 The beak and shanks generally have no correlations with the plumage colour and
are creamish pale in colour.
 The birds have single comb and earlobes are well developed with white spots on
them. The eyes are bright and well-developed. Plumage colours vary
considerably among the birds but white, brown, black and mixed colour are
most common.
 Frizzle fowls are found all over the hot and humid coastal areas including
Andaman Nicobar Islands. Good numbers of these birds are also available on
high altitudes hilly tracts of North-Eastern states.
 It is said that birds have better adaptability to the hot and humid climatic
conditions.

COMB TYPES

The varieties of comb are:

Single comb - This is a comb when viewed from the front is narrow and has spikes on
the top, one behind other. It consists of a blade which is the lower solid portion. The
space between the spikes are known as serrations

Rose comb - This comb is nearly flat on the top and is covered with small irregular
points finished with spikes.
  Pea comb -This is a comb resembling three very small single combs joined
together at the base and rear.
 Strawberry comb or Walnut comb - This comb resembles one half of a
strawberry fruit or a walnut with the round part uppermost. It is small in size and
has irregular grooves on the surface. (e.g.) Malay, Kvaienkoppe.

Cushion comb - Silkie breed

V-Shaped comb
 FEATHER

Parts of feather

 The root is called 'calamus'. The base is known as the 'quill', which gives rise to a
structure known as a shaft which in turn terminates in a structure called 'rachis'.
 The structure called barbs arise from the shaft which gives rise to the barbule.
This further gives rise to barbicels. These join together to form the vane.
 Feather serves as a protection to the bird from extremes of weather by insulating
the body. They are essential for flight. The feather pattern and colour will assist in
identifying the breed and variety and also help in identifying the sex of the bird,
because sexual dimorphism exists in the feather pattern of poultry.

Sex differentiation

 In the male fowl the tail feathers are sickle shaped.

  In case of ducks the male has a curved tail feather (sex curl) known as the 'Drake
Feather', which is useful in identifying the sex of the bird.
 In the Tom turkey the tail feather is long when compared to that of the female.
 In the Japanese quail the feathers on the neck and breast region of the male is
golden or rust brown, while in the female it is speckled. Condition of feathers
help in identifying a good layer from a non-layer, an old layer from a young layer
and also to identify the stage of moult in a bird.

Male Japanese quail Female Japanese quail

ERCISE 4: POULTRY HOUSING

Selection of farm site

 One of the main intentions of a poultry farmer is to have easy operational

convenience for various activities
 The farm should be located away from the city but not too far away that it
becomes strenuous to bring in and take out materials
 A breeding farm should be located in an isolated place, away from commercial
farm operation to prevent the spread of disease
 A commercial farm should be located nearer to the marketing centres

Location

 A commercial farm should not be located in a congested area or in close

proximity to existing farms
 There should be a minimum distance of 1 km. from existing farms
 It should be away from the Highway to avoid noise and dust pollution but it
should have access to connecting roads
 It should be within 20-30 kms. of the main marketing centres and this is
particularly true with broiler farms as these birds will cause a considerable loss
by means of transportation shrinkage and stress leading to mortality
Topography

 The farm should be located in an elevated area, preferably on even land with
proper facilities for drainage
 The area should be well protected against strong winds as itcould easily damage
the poultry house, therefore wind breaks in the form of trees can be maintained
around the house. This would also provide shade during hot seasons

Soil

 The most reliable soil is loamy or sandy loam.

The right kind of soil reduces
construction expenditure, avoids seepage, dampness, erosion etc.

Water

 This plays a major role in the physiology of the bird

 Abundant water is required for various activities, a minimum amount of 1
litre/bird/day is a must
 The water should be potable and must be subjected to various tests for impurities
like total solids, microbial contaminations, high percentage of salts of sodium,
potassium and chlorine. Water should be tested for nitrites and nitrates in
which presence will indicate organic pollution

Transportation

 The farm must be well connected to a highway, making it easy for transportation
and easy availability of inputs like chicks, feed, etc.

Labour

 The farm should not be beyond the limits of

human travel as labour is one major
requirement of every farm should be cheap

Space

 The space between any two buildings should be more than 30-35 ft. (10 metres)
while space between the brooder house and adult houses should be 100 feet
(30-35 metres)
 The brooder house should always be towards the leeward side
Poultry houses should be on an elevated area so that rain water will flow down
to meet the manure and burial pits and not vice versa
 Therefore leveling is an important factor to be considered before erection of a
poultry house

Farm roads
  Convenient and adequate roads for easy transportation of inputs and outputs is a
must and easily accessible to town or market

Fencing

 Office, staff quarters, store room and other structures which come into contact
with personnel should be fenced such that personnel from outside will not
come in direct contact with the main farm
 The big gate should be wide enough to allow a lorry. It should be structured with
a wheel dip filled with disinfectant solution
Other than these, bore wells with overhead tanks, pump room etc. are the other
important structures

SYSTEM OF POULTRY HOUSING

System of Poultry housing

 This is otherwise known as the open sided curtained houses, normally seen in the
tropics, where the flow of air and light solely depend on the hands of nature

Chick or Brooder Houses

 This could be a cage house or a deep litter house. Normally chick rearing is done
using deep litter houses. The brooder house should be leeward in direction i.e.
away from the direction of wind sweeping from the layer and grower houses

Grower Houses

 Deep litter
 Cage
 Raised platform cage houses

Layer House

 Deep litter
 Cage
 Raised platform cage houses

Breeder Houses

 Deep litter
 Slat and deep litter
 Cages
 POULTRY HOUSE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

 A poultry house should provide maximum comfort to the bird. It should have a
healthy atmosphere with good ventilation. It should be cooler during the hotter
months and comfortably warm during the cold months. It should have enough
light and a comfortable microclimate. While constructing a poultry house a
future vision should be kept in mind, by providing adequate space for future
expansion

Economy

 This is a major criteria to be considered as a farmer who is interested in making

good profits, but this should not compromise the durability of the building to
withstand the vagaries of nature. The building design will depend on the
capacity of the farm, topography, soil and size of operation

Orientation

 The orientation of a poultry house in a tropical climate must be East-West. i.e. its
long axis running East-West and the width extending North-South.
The open house is oriented East-West to avoid direct sunlight falling into the
poultry house and also to minimise the splashing of rain water into the house
during monsoon

Width
  For a tropical open type house the width preferred is 24-26 feet (7 to 8 metres)
extending upto a maximum of 33 feets (10 metres). If the width goes beyond 10
metres, there will not be ample ventilation, particularly during hot weather

Length

 Depending on the topography and soil condition the length can be extended to
230 feet (70 metres) preferably 100 to 230 feet (30 to 70 metres) and this can
be partitioned suitably with a provision of separate doors for each
compartment

Height

 From the floor level the height of the house must be 10 to 12 feet. At the eaves
level it should be 7 to 10 feet (2 to 3 metres) and at the ridge level 10 to 13 feet
(3.5 to 4.5 metres) depending on the type of roof material used, width and type
of poultry house

Foundation

 The foundation should be strong enough to support the wall and other structures.
The type and depth of the foundation will depend on the nature of soil, height
and width of the building and the type of roofing material used. The elevation
of the inside floor from the outside ground level depends on the water table of
the soil, water logging condition of the surrounding area and the extent of
seepage of water into the poultry house during the rains. The elevation ranges
from 0.5 to 1 foot

Floor

 A cement concrete floor will eliminate disease problem and help in easy cleaning
and disinfection, problems due to insects, rodents, worms and seepage will be
reduced. In a cage house the working area should be cemented. The floor
should have a slight slope for easy cleaning and flow of water. A cemented floor
will be impermeable to parasites and easy to clean

Wall

 The side wall of the poultry house should be built upto a height of 1 foot in case of
a deep litter house. The inside of the wall facing the house should be rounded
off to prevent perching. In a cage house no side walls are necessary, only pillars
need to be constructed to support the roof

Doors

 Doors either single or double should swing both ways

Roof

 The roofing materials used may vary based on the needs, requirements and
budget of the farmer. The various roofing materials are Straw, Coconut leaf,
Palmyrah leaf, Light roof (Asphalt), Tiles (Country and mangalore), Plastic,
Asbestos, Aluminium,Fibre glass

Overhang

 The roof at the eaves should atleast extend 3

to 4 feet (1 to 1.25 meters.) and this
will depend on the height of the house. This is required to protect the birds
from being exposed to sunlight and the splashing of rain water into the house.
The normal thumb rule is that the length of the overhang will be half the
window height

Type of roof

 Shed: This type of roof is out dated. This has a wall which is totally enclosed on
one side with the roof slanting forward. Ventilation is only on one side. No
cross ventilation
 Gable: This is suitable for all type of houses. There is good cross ventilation. This
type of roof is highly suitable for environmentally controlled house
 Half Monitor: In this system one roof overrides the other leaving a small gap of
6" which is closed by using a mesh. These houses not only allow cross
ventilation but also as ridge ventilation. This roof type is more suitable for the
tropics
 Full Monitor: This is costly and needs a special truss. It is provided with ridge
ventilation where warm air within the house escapes out and the vacuum is
filled by fresh air drawn from the outside

OPTIMAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR HOUSING

POULTRY

 Temperature: 22-30oC (70-85oF)

 Relative humidity: 30-60 per cent
 Ammonia: Less than 25 ppm
 Litter moisture: 15-25 per cent
 Airflow: Airflow should be 10-30 metres per minute

ORIENTATION AND ELEVATION - POULTRY HOUSE

Orientation

 The broiler houses should be oriented with their long axis facing East-West
direction to avoid direct sunlight falling into the building.
  The rule of the thumb is that the long axis of the houses should be parallel to the
shadow of a vertically erected pole during the hottest summer.

Elevation

 The floor-level of broiler houses should be raised 30 cm (one foot) above the
outer ground level to prevent seepage of water into the house.
 The floor should be made of cement concrete to prevent damage by rodents and
to permit easy and efficient cleaning and disinfection.
 Mud floors and sand floors should never be permitted, as they will render
cleaning between batches very difficult and will harbour micro-organisms,
cysts of parasites, etc., which may cause outbreaks of disease in subsequent
batches.

WIDTH OF POULTRY HOUSE

Width

 The width of open-sided broiler houses should not be wider than 24 ft (7.20 m) or
less than 16ft (4.80 m) to permit optimal cross-ventilation
 The length of the house may vary depending on the required capacity and the
length of the available land. In tunnel-ventilated broiler houses fitted with
automatic feeders and drinkers, the width may extend up to 12.00 m

Walls

 The long walls on the sides should not be more than 35 cm high above the floor
level, with the rest of the area covered with a mesh
 Open-sided broiler houses are preferred in tropical conditions for their hot
climate
 The top of the sidewall should be tapered sloping downwards to avoid young
birds perching on the walls
 The wall should be thoroughly cement-plastered and well watered to avoid cracks
formation. In places of extreme climatic conditions, the walls may be constructed
with hollow bricks for an insulating effect
 The space between the top of the sidewall and the roof must be covered with wire
mesh (1.25 X 1.25 cm, 20-22 gauge thick), welded mesh (2.5 X 5.0 cm, 12-14
gauge thick) or chain link (2.5 cm, 12 gauge thick)
 It should be durable and strong and close enough to prevent the entry of rodents
and predators
 The doors may be fitted with strong G.I. rod supporting-frames of welded mesh
at 8-10 m intervals, each one metre in width

ROOF
 The roof may be thatched (straw, coconut leaves or palmyrah leaves), tiled or
covered with light roof (asphalt or bitumen), asbestos or aluminium sheets.
 Thatched roofs are cheaper, but less durable and may leak
 They provide a cooler environment during the hot summer. To prevent leakage,
the slope of thatched roofs must be steeper. Asbestos or aluminium roofs are
durable, but more costly

 As houses with these roofs remain hot during summer, the height at the ridge
should preferably be about 4.0-4.5 m. Tiled roofing is good for low-capacity
farms, and asbestos roofing for larger farms
 The broiler houses can also be two-storeyed, with the lower floor having a
concrete roof which will serve as the floor for broilers raised on the first floor
 The height of the roof should preferably be 2.40-3.00 m at the eaves, and 3.60-
4.50 m at the ridge. Thatched roofs may have a lower height of 1.95 m at the
eaves
 The projection of the roof at the eaves (overhang) should be atleast 0.90-1.35 m
on either side to prevent direct sunlight and the splashing of rain water into the
buildings. It is better to adjust the overhang to be half the length between the
eaves and the top of the sidewall (the height of the area covered by mesh)
 In regions of extreme climatic conditions, it is very useful to have the roof
insulated. Insulation may be provided by a bed of straw on the top of the roof,
or by having false roofing at the level of the eaves in the form of mats spread to
cover the entire roof area
 Plywood, coir or hardboard as a covering can also be useful. The roof may also be
painted with white aluminium paint to reflect the sun's rays and thereby reduce
the heat build-up within the house
 In areas where the summer is severe, it is better to have high roofed broiler
houses, or to provide ridge ventilation at the roof.
 Chimneys can also be provided on the roof at intervals. In areas where winter is
severe, it is advisable to have square-shaped broiler houses which expose a
smaller area and help to conserve the heat produced by birds within the
building

NUMBER OF BROILERS HOUSES

 An approximate floor space of 1 sq.ft per bird (one square meter/ 10 birds )
should be provided, and thus enough floor space should be constructed
according to the required capacity
 Under the all-in-all-out system, depending on the capacity required and length
and slope of the available land, minimum number of houses with a width not
more than 24 feet and of required length to provide the suggested space
allowance may be constructed
 It is advisable to maintain at least a 9.0 m distance between two broiler houses to
ensure proper ventilation
 Under the multiple batch system, if chicks are received bi-weekly, the houses or
pens should be in multiples of 4 + 1
 If chicks are received every week, the houses or pens should be in multiples of 8 +
2 to provide sufficient extra space to facilitate a minimum of two-week
intervals between the rearing of two successive batches in any house

FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCE

 The floor space requirement per broiler depends on their body weight, housing
system and climatic conditions.
 Approximately 540 cm2 (0.6 square feet) per kg live body weight is the required
floor space for broilers on floor under tropical conditions
 Accordingly, at the end of two, four, six and seven weeks of age, floor space
allowances of 120, 367, 730 and 945 cm2 space per bird is required for average
body weights of 220, 680, 1350 and 1750 g respectively
 For a body weight of 1650 g, 900 cm 2 (one square foot) of floor space is
sufficient. In summer, the space allowance may be increased by 20 per cent
and in winter reduced by 15 per cent.
 When they are reared in cages, half the spaces suggested are sufficient.
 The cages must be fitted at a height of 75 cm above floor level with feeders and
drinkers fitted on the sides, running along the length and width of the cages.
 Cage houses meant for broilers need not have sidewalls, and weld-mesh cover
may be provided up to the bottom floor level.
 The cage mesh size should be 1.25 x 1.25 cm for the floor and 2.5 x 5.0 cm on the
sides to allow birds to take feed and water.
 Many practical difficulties, like injuries to the flesh of the birds or to the
attending workers, breast blisters due to the heavy weight of the birds, leg
weakness, difficulty in gathering for the market, maintenance costs, etc., have
forced farmers to abandon this system of housing for broilers.
 The emergence of full automation of feeding and watering and environmentally
controlled houses may encourage farmers to opt for cage housing for broilers in
future, as it ensures a faster growth rate, better feed efficiency and lower
mortality levels.
 Environmentally controlled broiler houses may be established in future in this
region when higher investments are made in broiler rearing for large-sized
broiler farms. Such houses will have no windows. Hot air will be removed by
exhaust systems and fresh air introduced through inlets by negative pressure.
Air temperature, relative humidity, lighting, ammonia level, ventilation rate,
etc., will be monitored and controlled automatically. Birds with the best micro-
environment will grow faster with better feed efficiency.

LAYER HOUSING - SYSTEM OF REARING

 The number of buildings required for layers varies according to the length of
intervals between receipt of each batch of chicks. Based on this, the layer farm
may be established as follows.
o1 + 2 pattern - One brooder cum grower house + two layer houses (chicks
to be received at 28-week intervals)
o1 + 3 pattern - One brooder cum grower house + three layer houses (chicks
to be received at 20-week intervals)
o1 + 1 + 5 pattern - One brooder house + one grower house + five layer
houses and the chicks are to be received at 12-weeks intervals
 The layer farm may also be established according to the 2 + 6 pattern by receiving
chicks at 10-week intervals
  The floor space allowance during the brooder stage is 675cm2 per bird. Feeder
space allowance required is 1.0 cm per bird up to four weeks, 2.5 cm up to eight
weeks. Drinker space allowance per bird for the same period is 0.5 and 1.0 cm
per bird respectively

HOUSING EGG - TYPE CHICKS IN CAGES

 Chicks can also be reared in cages from 0 - 8 weeks. Fix the cages at 75 cm above
the floor level.
 Cages should be 180 X 90 cm in size and 30 cm in height. About 100 chicks may
be reared in such cages with 160 cm2 space per chick.
 The floor must be made of 1.25 X 1.25 cm size welded mesh of 16 gauge thickness.
 One 100 watt bulb on the top of the cage is sufficient for providing heat for
brooding.
 For the first two weeks, small feeders and drinkers must be kept inside the cage
and afterwards they may be fixed outside on the sides of the cage.
 For the first few days, it may be necessary to keep cardboard on the sides of the
cages to prevent small young chicks from falling down through the sides.

GROWER PHASE

 Growers may be reared in separate grower houses or they may remain in the
brooder-cum-grower house.
 Floor space allowance has to be increased to 1260 cm2 per bird. Growers can also
be reared in cages.
 The floor should be made up of weld mesh of 1.25 X 5.0 cm size. In a cage of 180
X 90 cm size, 50 birds can be reared with a space allowance of 325 cm2 per
bird.
 Feeders and drinkers may be fitted lengthwise on the sides, one below the

SYSTEMS OF REARING FOR LAYERS

 Layers can be reared either on deep litter or in cages. When reared on litter, litter
material must be provided to a height of 12-15 cm
 A floor space allowance of 1800 cm2 per bird must be given
 Circular or linear feeders may be provided; feeder space allowance of 10-12 cm
per bird must be given
 A linear feeder of 180 cm long and 10 cm deep will suffice for 35 layer birds
 Free supply of feed at all times has to be ensured. Most often, layer birds are
reared in cages
 Cages of various sizes are used to house three to five birds in a cage
 Currently, reverse cages are used, with longer sides fitted to remain in front
 Lately, raised platform houses are being constructed, to facilitate quicker drying
of droppings and their easy removal.
 The cages are constructed on a platform at a height of about 180-240 cm.
Cages of the following sizes may be made and fitted in rows:

o 45 X 30 cm - for 3 birds
o 45 X 40 cm - for 4 birds
o 50 X 35 cm - for 4 birds
o 50 X 45 cm - for 5 birds
o 60 X 37.5 cm - for 5 birds
 These cages are arranged in two or three such rows next to each other on either
side. They are called Californian cages.
 A floor space allowance of 420-450 cm2 is provided inside the cages.
 Conventionally, the bottom of the lower most cage is fitted at 75 cm height from
the floor
 Nowadays, they are fitted at 180-240 cm height above floor level, with walking
platforms constructed on the sides
 The layer cage will be 40 cm in height. The floor is fitted with 2.5 X 5.0 cm 14
gauge weld mesh. On the sides, 7.5 X 7.5 cm 16 gauge mesh is fitted
 The bottom floor is provided with a one-sixteenth slope downwards to the front
to enable the egg to roll to the cage front
 The mesh rails on the cage floor should run from back to front and not sideways;
otherwise they will block the free run of the eggs to the front
 Drinkers are fitted above the feeders in the front. Feeders and automatic drinker
nipples or buttons may be provided in the cages
 Cages are fitted in two or three tiers on either side of the row under the
Californian system. Two to three such rows of cages are arranged in a caged layer
house
 Depending on the number of rows and the number of tiers in each row, the
breadth of the caged layer house ranges from 5-8 m. There is no stipulation for
the length of such houses, which can be adjusted to the number of birds to be
housed
 No sidewalls are required for cage houses, as the mesh is stretched down to the
floor level to facilitate better ventilation to dry the moisture in the droppings
 The 'elevated cage houses' or raised-platform cage arrangement widens the gap
between birds and their droppings, and facilitates quicker drying and easy
removal of droppingsCage rearing facilitates easy management, lesser space
requirement, easy collection of eggs, lesser percentage of broken eggs, better egg
weight, clean egg production, easy culling and reduced mortality level
 EXERCISE 5: POULTRY FARM EQUIPMENTS

Introduction

 Good equipment is a pre-requisite of better poultry management. Poultry

equipment is basically meant for three purposes:
oBrooding
oFeeding
oWatering
 In addition to this, "Small" equipment for vaccination, debeaking cleaning,
disinfection, etc. are also necessary.

BROODING EQUIPMENT

Objective of brooding equipment - Is to provide a suitable temperature to chicks from

the day-old-stage upto the time they are able to adapt and regulate their temperature to
the ambient environmental temperature condition

 Brooder guard
o This is a hard board or GI sheet 12" to 18" wide and 25" long totally, which
forms a brooding ring of 7-8 feet diameter
o This is used where brooding is done on deep litter, to restrict the
 movement of the chicks away from the heated area
o Generally 250 chicks are placed within the brooder guard having 7-8 feet
diameter
o In farms where brooding is done in cages, the brooder guard is not
necessary
 Heater or Brooder
o There are many types of heaters or brooders. The most common are:

a. Hover type

 This is the most frequently used type of brooders

 The heating unit is generally a 250 watt bulb, preferably an infra-red-bulb or
incandescent bulbs about five in number having individual on/ off switch
arrangement
 This is covered by a round or angular sheet of metal (GI sheet 3 feet x 3 feet bent
suitably) to deflect the heat towards the floor
 The brooder unit is usually suspended from the ceiling by a cord or cable in such
a manner that it maybe raised or lowered depending on the brooding
temperature required

When not in use it may be drawn up as high as possible out of the way

 Gas brooders : Gas is used to provide warmth. This is cheaper than electric
heating.

 Infrared brooding: An Infra Red bulb is used to provide warmth, one infrared
bulb is sufficient for 250 chicks.
b. Automatic brooder

 This consists of a closed heating element of 600 watts with a reflector and a
thermostat. This heater is sufficient for 250 to 300 birds and is hung in the same
way as the hover

c. Fuel heaters

 In areas where power supply is not available or erratic, heaters using paddy husk,
sawdust or kerosene as fuel are used, such as:

Bukhari heaters

 A cylindrical chamber with a central funnel

 The chamber is packed with sawdust or paddy husk as fuel
 Generally used as a room heater
 Care is to be taken to lead the funnel gauges and smoke out of the brooder house

Kerosene stove

 This arrangement also serves as a room heater

 Proper precautions are to be taken to avoid accidental fires in this case
Coal heaters

 Coal is used to heat the room, normally 'Leeco' or hard coal is used to heat the
room for 8 hours
 Used to heat a pan of sand or stone pebbles

FEEDING EQUIPMENT

Starting feeders (Chick feeders)

 In order to 'train' chicks to eat at an early age, for the first few days a large area of
feed must be supplied. This is generally done by spreading feed on filler flats or
in chick feeders with the lids open.
Linear feeders

 There are many variations in the manual linear feeders. The most common are
trough type made of GI sheets with a grill over the trough to prevent birds from
going inside. The trough may have an inward lip to prevent feed spillage. The
feeders are placed on suitable stand/legs. There are many sizes of feeders in
use and the linear feeder space required per bird varies with breed and age of
the birds.

Round feeders (or) Circular feeders

Traditional

 This feeder consists of a large GI tube of about 8" in diameter and about 2 ft.
long. At the bottom a large pan is suspended, into which feed flows from the
tube, and from which birds eat. The whole feeder is suspended from the ceiling
at the height of the birds' back. One such feeder is generally enough for 25
birds.

Standard

 This round feeder operates on the same principle and consists of a pan of about
16" diameter with a central cone of 10kg. feed capacity. The pan is surrounded
by a grill with 12-16 space access. The feeder is filled once a day and feed flows
from spaces between the cone and pan. This feeder is sufficient for 40 broilers
or 50 layers and is also suspended from the paurlins of the roof.
 The advantage of tube or round feeder is that, is needs to be filled only once a day
and provides the birds with a steady supply of feed through out the day. These
are, in effect, semi-automatic feeders.

Shell grit box

 This is kept in layer sheds to provide shell grit for the layers by choice feeding.

Automatic Feed System

  Automatic feeders consist of a trough or pan from which birds may eat and a
mechanism to automatically transport feed from a central hopper to the trough
or pans. Two main types of such feeding systems in use are:

Trough and Chain System

 A continuous trough goes around the poultry house which has a special flat chain
which drags the feed along the length of the trough. A hopper at one end of the
shed or in the service room acts as a reservoir for the feed. The same linear
feeder space is required per bird as with the manual linear feeders. The whole
system generally rests on the floor or may be winched up depending on the
requirements.

Conveyor and Pan System

 Feed is moved through a tube by means of an auger (screw type device) or a cable
with discs threaded on it. At intervals of about 5 ft. holes are made in the tube
to enable feed to drop into pans below from which the birds eat. The pan
generally has a grill to promote efficient feeding. Some automatic method is
employed to stop the flow of feed once the pans are full. Some systems also
have the facility for feed to drop into all pans simultaneously to avoid a rush of
birds to the beginning of the system when the feeding starts. This is
advantageous over the chain system where feed takes some time to reach the
end of the system. Refinements to this system includes a winching
arrangement to raise or lower the entire feeding system, and automatic timer
which will start up the system at a pre-set time, etc. The above auto feeding
systems are generally suitable for broilers from the age of 4 weeks upwards and
layers from 9th week onwards.

WATERING EQUIPMENT - CHICKS

Chick drinkers

 Waterers for young chicks are confined almost exclusively to the pot and pan or
jar and pan arrangement
 This generally consists of a aluminium pot or plastic jar inverted over an
aluminium plate
 A pot or jar with a capacity of 1-2 litres of water is enough for 25-50 chicks
 It is better to have several small drinkers rather than fewer larger ones

Auto chick drinkers

 These are made of plastic and connected in series to an overhead pipeline in the
shed, which in turn is connected to the shed tank or reservoir
 The drinker works on a simple float principle that ensures a steady supply of
fresh water at all time and at the same time prevents overflow
 One such chick drinker is sufficient for 50 broiler chicks upto 4 weeks of age
 As soon as chicks learn to drink and the brooder guards are expanded or
removed, larger drinkers must be substituted

GROWER / LAYER DRINKERS

Basins

 These vary in capacity: eg. 5 ltr. capacity for 25 growers/ broilers, 8-10 ltr.
capacity for 25 layers
 Disadvantage of conventional basin drinkers is that they require to be cleaned
and filled frequently and manually, and water tends to get stagnant and dirty
very easily. This is perhaps the greatest source of E.Coli infection in a poultry
farm.

Automatic bell drinkers

 These drinkers are made of high quality plastic and suspended from the ceiling
at a convenient height for the bird to drink from. The flow of water into the
drinking trough is controlled by a value assembly which works on a weight
principle
 The drinkers are arranged in rows down the length of the shed and/or fed from
common overhead pipes connected in turn to the overhead shed tank, which
may be inside or outside the shed
 Generally one drinker for 50-70 birds is sufficient, depending on the season

Nipple drinker

 Nipple drinkers are individual outlets of water, generally one for three birds.
These are usually used in cages but can also be used on deep litter, preferably
with a cup arrangement
  The nipple drinkers are attached directly to common PVC pipe line and work on a
spring loaded or ball loaded principle. A low pressure head tank is required to
feed the nipple line

Automatic cup type of drinker

 This also works on a simple float principle

 The most common conventional drinkers used for growers, layers and older
broilers in deep litter are plastic basins covered with a weld mesh grill
(waterguard)

VACCINATORS, DEBEAKERS AND MINOR EQUIPMENTS

Vaccinators

 Dropper type, which consists of a plastic dropper which has a snap-on

arrangement for attachment as a cap to standard size vaccine vials
 Automatic vaccinators, which are spring loaded syringes with a storage container
attached. These vaccinators have adjustments making them capable of
delivering varying doses of vaccines

Debeakers

 Debeakers available inIndia are generally the pedal type which activates a heated
blade to cut and cauterize the beak in a single and simultaneous operation
Wall type thermometers

 For checking the temperature of the brooder area of shed

Weighing scales

 Preferably of the pan and dial type, are used to take weights of chicks, growers
and broilers. A suitable capacity of such a scale may be 5, 10 and 20 kgs

Shovels and Rakes

 Shovels is mainly used for gathering and shoveling litter material. Whereas rakes
are used to turn the litter material

Transporting cages

 For transporting the bird the cages used are of size 4 feet length x 4 feet breadth x
1 feet height. They can hold 20 birds. These crates are made of weld mesh or
plastic

NESTS AND CAGES

Nests

Layers tend to go to a corner which is cool and dark for laying eggs. To prevent floor
eggs nest should be provided.

There are two types of nests:

 Open Type
o Open type of nests are used for commercial layers
o These are either single or community type. Generally for layers a nest of
10" length x 10" width and 12" depth is preferred
o In layer parent stock a nest box of size 12" x 12" x 15" is to be provided
 o In the Community type of nest the length can be of 6 feet length of single,
two, three or even four tier. Commonly 2 tiers or single tier is used and one
nest is provided for 5 layers
 Trap type
o In breeding studies and where egg production records are maintained trap
type of nests are used. As soon as the bird enter the nest the door closes
and the bird will not be able to get out of the nest unless assisted. The nest
provided must be well ventilated

Cages

 The advantage of cages is that less floor space is occupied. There is better feeding
efficiency, reduced wastage of feed and easy culling and medication. There are 2
tier and 3 tier cages 4 layers can be placed in a cage with dimension of 18" x 18" x
12" (Height x Length x depth) and 5 growers are placed in the same area.

ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION
For a one time investment in automatic equipment the following advantages are
attainable:

 Labour saving
oThe major advantage of automated feeding and watering systems is that
the dependence on labour is avoided/ reduced
o Labour costs too are reduced quite considerably
 Automated systems
oProvides a 24 hours supply of fresh water and feed which promotes regular
water supply and good feeding, health and production
 Wastage reduced
oWastage of feed and water is reduced or eliminated with automatic
systems

DISADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION

Cost

 The one-time cost of installing automatic equipment is high

 This must be weighed against the availability and cost of labour in the area as
well as its reliability

Reliability of power supply

 While automatic drinkers do not require power, automatic feeding systems are
power dependent and if power supply is not reliable they must be backed up by
a stand by generator. This cost must also be considered.

Servicing

 The accessibility of servicemen and spare parts in case of breakdown of automatic

equipment must be ensured before deciding to install it

EXERCISE 6: VACCINATION PROGRAMME

Precautions to be followed during vaccination

 Selection of particular vaccine against particular diseases.

 Maintenance of cold chain of the vaccine.
 All the material used for vaccination should be thoroughly disinfected without
using chemicals.
 Vaccination should be carried out in cooler parts of the day.
 All the empty vial etc. should be destroyed safely.
 Only healthy stock should be vaccinated preferably after deworming.
 Before and after vaccination anti-stress medicine should be given in drinking
water.
  The vaccinator should put the face mask and overcoat.
 Use the reconstituted vaccine within two hours after reconstitution.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR LAYERS

Common Vaccination Scheule for Layers

Age Type of Vaccine Route of

administration

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccinine S/C 0.2 ml

5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N

12-14 Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine- O/N or water

 days Pruning Intermediate Georgia

28-30 RD vaccine Booster- La Sota Water

days

8th RD vaccine- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m

Week

18th RD Booster- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m

week

For layer in High Density areas

Age Type of Vaccine Route of

administration

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT) S/C 0.2 ml

5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N

10th day Leechi Disease Vaccine (Optional) Water

12-14 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine- Pruning O/N or water

Intermediate Georgia

18-22 days Infectious Bronchitis O/N or water

24-27 IB Vaccine Booster Water

days

28-30 RD vaccine Booster- La Sota Water

days

6th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine or Infectious Coryza S/C

Vaccine (if prevalent in the area)

8th Week RD vaccine- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m

9th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing web

12th-13th IB Booster Water

Week

18th week RD Booster- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m

45th-50th RD La Sota repeated every once in 2 Months Water

 Week

 This vaccination schedule is followed in an area where Poultry farm

concentration is high

VACCINATION SCHEDULE - BROILERS

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT) 0.2ml S/C

5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N

10th day Infectious Bronchitis vaccine O/N

12-14 days Infectious Bursal Disease O/N

Vaccine- Intermediate Georgia

28th day Booster RD La Sota Water

EXERCISE 7: INCUBATION - CARE OF HATCHING EGGS

Procuring hatching eggs

 Most hatcheries have their own breeder flocks

 Franchise hatcheries raise their breeder stock and produce their own hatching
eggs in most of the cases
 At times owners, who own both the breeders and the poultry farm, are involved
with some type of contract to produce eggs for a hatchery in predetermined
quantities
 Occasionally one hatchery may have over supply of hatching eggs while another
does not have enough Under these circumstances the hatchery with the surplus
will sell eggs to the other. Such a procedure is quite common with large
integrators where one person or company may own and operate several
hatcheries

PRECAUTIONS WHILE RECEIVING HATCHING EGGS

 The hatching eggs received by the hatchery must not be contaminated

 Truck drivers and their helpers must shower and change into clean clothes,
headgear and foot wear before entering any truck involved with the egg
transport or before entering a hatchery
 All trucks, trollies etc., delivering hatching eggs must be disinfected and
fumigated with formaldehyde gas before eggs are placed in them

SELECTION / GRADING OF HATCHING EGGS

  Eggs having ridges, flat side, pointed at tip, smaller in size and also with
abnormal shell e.g. thin, porous soft tip or light coloured should be rejected
 Depending upon the breed, the selected eggs must confirm to the standard egg
size and shape specifications. Some of the imperfections stated above are
inherited; their rejection would reduce their incidence in the next generation

COOLING OF HATCHING EGGS

 After hatching eggs are laid or brought to hatchery, they should be cooled to a
temperature well below Physiological zero temperature to arrest the embryonic
development
 Physiological zero - Is the temperature below which embryonic growth will be
arrested, and above which it is reinitiated
 Temperature in the egg holding room should be 65oF (18oC) to curtail embryonic
development completely. The humidity of the cooling room should be around 75-
80 %. But when eggs are held for more than 14 days holding at 55oF (13oC) will
produce better hatches

EXERCISE 8: INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS

Warming eggs prior to setting

 Approximately 6 hours prior to placing eggs in the incubator they should be

moved from the egg cooler room to a room with a temperature of about 22oC
 It is advantageous to bring the eggs to room temperatue before placing them in
the incubators
 Placing cool eggs in the incubator will lower the incubating temperature for
several hours, thus delaying the hatching time of the eggs already set in the
machine

SETTING TIME OF HATCHING EGGS

 Approximately 6 hours prior to loading eggs in the incubator they should be

moved from the egg cooler room to room temperature
 Setting time should be adjusted as per the time the chick supply is scheduled to
begin
 Ordinarily, chicks should reach to the customer‟s farm within 12 hours after they
are hatched out
 If the chicks are scheduled to be supplied early in the morning, chicks should be
removed from the hatchery at about 9.00 to 10.00 pm
 Accordingly, eggs should be set at a time that will allow chicks to hatch and dry
prior to 9.00 to 10.00 pm
 This means that the average egg setting time will be about 5.00 to 6.00 pm
  White Leghorn eggs require less than 21 days to hatch, and hence eggs from
White Leghorns should be set later than those from meat type breeders

POSITION OF HATCHING EGGS IN INCUBATORS

Position of hatching eggs

 In cabinet type incubators, the eggs are arranged in a vertical position with broad
end up and hot air is circulated by fan or stirrer
 The trays are turned by 40-45 degrees in either direction
 They are run by electricity, coal or oil and have economy of space through the use
of several layers of trays

Setting and hatching trays

 Cabinet type incubator has a setting compartment with setting trays and a
hatching compartment with hatching trays in the same cabinet
 They have thermocapsule arrangement with temperature, relative humidity
control system along with turning arrangement
 A successful flat type incubator must maintain 39.4°C with the centre of the bulb
set 5cm above the floor of the egg tray

SETTER AND HATCHER TEMPERATURE

 For cabinet type chick incubators it should be 37.5°C to 37.8°C at the centre of the
egg, whereas in hatchers the ambient temperature may be reduced by 1°C to
avoid late embryo mortality at too high temperature
  Optimum relative humidity inside the incubator for best results should be
maintained at 65-70% in setter compartment for the first 18 days and 75-80 %
relative humidity needs to be maintained during the last 3 days of incubation in
the hatcher compartment

TURNING OF HATCHING EGGS

 Embryo should gently but frequently be moved within the egg to prevent its
settling and adhering to other structures, if left for 21 days in one and the same
position
 The need for frequent turning appears to be the greatest in the earlier stages of
incubation in setter compartment before the full development of the extra
embryonic sacs and their fluids
 The interval between turnings is 1 to 4 hours

REMOVAL OF HATCH

 There exists a difference of about 36 hours between the time the first and last
chicks hatch
 From practical standpoint, chicks should be delivered to the farm within 12 hours
after the entire group is removed from the hatcher
 Excessive drying of chicks in the hatchery should be avoided as it may cause
dehydration to chicks
 Chicks should be removed from the machine as soon as all are hatched. When the
chicks are removed from the hatchers the temperature of the chicks holding room
should be 75 ° F (23.9 ° C) to reduce the danger of chilling and have a relative
humidity of 75% to reduce dehydration
 After counting the number of healthy chicks, they will be placed comfortably in
chick boxes for transportation

HATCHERY FLOWCHART FOR HATCHING EGGS AND CHICKS

 INCUBATION PERIOD AND PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS -
HATCHING EGGS

Incubation period and physical requirements for incubating eggs of various

species of poultry

Species Incubation Days of Temperature Relative

period transfer оC humidity (%)
(days)
Setter Hatcher Setter Hatcher

Chicken 21 18-19 37.7 37.2 55 75

Duck 28 24-25 37.5 37.1 57 80

Turkey 28 24-25 37.4 36.9 55 75

Muscovy 35 30-31 37.5 37.1 57 78

Duck

Goose 28-34 25-26 37.4 36.9 58 80

Guinea 28 24-25 37.6 37.2 57 76

fowl

Japanese 17 14-15 37.4 37.2 56 76

quail &
Pigeon

Pheasant 24 20-21 37.6 37.2 57 79

& Bob
White
Quail

Pea fowl 28-30 25-26 37.4 36.9 55 75

Ostrich 42 35-36 36.0 35.6 30-35 40-45

Emu 52 47-48 36.0 35.4 40 50

EXERCISE-9: PROJECT REPORT FOR A BROILER FARM

Objectives
  To start a 7000 birds capacity broiler farm on a weekly batch system with 1000
birds x 7 batches, near Chennai.
 To produce and sell in retail 1000 broilers per week.
 To develop an independent retail market channel to derive more income.
 To prepare own feed, to reduce feed cost
 To improve the availability and per capita consumption of highly nutritious
broiler meat locally.
 To generate self employment and more employment potential by way of engaging
local persons for farm work, processing and retailing.

Technical details and assumptions

 House : Open sided, tile roofed, deep litter house.

 Floor space : half square feet per bird up to 25 days of age and one square feet
per bird there after.
 Poultry house cost = Rs.50/- sq.ft.
 Other buildings cost = Rs.100/- sq.ft.
 Equipment cost = Rs.10/- bird capacity

Assumptions

Total number of birds in the farm = 7000

Total number of batches in the farm = 7 (but house will be provided for 8
batches, to clean one house during
down time)
Total number of birds per batch = 1000
Batch interval = one week
Down time = One week
Cost per day old broiler chick = Rs.10
Extra free chicks supplied per batch = 5% i.e. 1050 total chicks per batch
Saleable broilers per batch per week = 980
Mortality = 7% (including extra weak chicks)
Growing period = 45-50 days
Average dressed body weight = 1.3 kg
Dressing cost / bird = Rs.1.00
Marketing : Direct retail marketing = 50% sold as live chicken & 50% as
dressed chicken in a retail shop.
Marketing cost / bird = farm mixed Rs.3 (excluding dressing
cost)
Feed = Own feed
Empty feed bags = 1 bag / 100 kg feed used.
Feed cost : Average cost of = Rs.8/kg.
prestarter, starter and finisher feeds
Average feed per bird sold = 4 kg.
Feed efficiency = 2.22
Manure production = 4 kg per bird
Project completion period = 4 months
Bank holiday period = 2 months from completion date
Loan repayment period = 5 years, including holiday period
Bank interest = 15%

FARM BUILDINGS

 Since housing is the major item of capital expenditure, the poultry house will be
designed with minimal budget; but without sacrificing any comfort to the birds,
for optimal growth rate. Various specifications of the farm buildings are
furnished below, as well as in the blue prints enclosed.
oOne shed will be 30' x 120' size outer to outer with 4 pens (rooms) each of
500 sq.ft area to accommodate 4 batches x 1000 birds from 0 to 25 days
of age with 1/2 sq.ft/bird + one 400 sq.ft owner / supervisor quarters +
200 x 2 workers quarters + 600 sq.ft feed room + 200 sq.ft store room =
3600 sq. ft.
oAnother shed will be of 30' x 133.3' outer size; partitioned into 4 x 1000
sq.ft rooms to rear 4 batches of broilers from 26th day onwards = 4000
sq. ft. area.
 Both the houses are oriented east-west with long axis facing north and south and
short axis on east and west, to prevent direct sun light into the poultry houses.
They are constructed with stone pillars with brick and cement walls and floor
plastered with cement, two feet elevation, seasoned country wood or Palmyra
reapers, tile roof, 1' high side brick wall, followed by 6' high 1" G.I. chain link
mesh, metal doors, 3' over hang of roof at eaves, to prevent splashing of rain
water and direct sun light. The feed room, store and the workers quarters will
have brick side walls to the full height.

Birds

 A batch of 1000 day -old commercial broiler chicks will be purchased every week.
After mortality about 7% including free chicks about 980 broilers will be ready
for sale in about 7 weeks period, with an average body weight of 1.8kg.
  Between batches (down time) the poultry house will be thoroughly cleaned,
washed and disinfected by spraying disinfectants and applying flame gun on
the wire mesh, walls, floor and outside the shed for about 10 feet, followed by
white washing the floor and walls; in order to get rid off disease producing
organisms and thereby breaking the disease cycle.

Feed

 Own broiler feed will be prepared in the farm premises by installing a grinder and
purchasing feed ingredients and feed supplements in the local market. Own
feed will be not only cheaper; but also fresh and of good quality. This will avoid
unnecessary water medication and reduce the cost of production of broilers,
considerably.

Flock Health Cover

 In order to minimize mortality, morbidity and to optimize the growth rate and
feed efficiency, proper health care will be strictly followed. The farm sanitation,
cleaning, waste disposal, disinfection, water sanitation procedure, vaccination
and medication will be carried out strictly according to the procedure
suggested by the consultant veterinarian.
 Moreover, the broilers, shed and equipment will be insured, to overcome losses
due to natural calamities, theft, diseases etc.

BANK LOAN REQUIRED

 The total cost of the project will be Rs.11.57 lakhs; of this the promoter's share
will be Rs.3.64 lakhs and the bank finance needed is Rs.7.93 lakhs only (vide
statement - III)

NON-RECURRING EXPENDITURE

Statement – 1

Non-recurring Expenditure (Amount in lakhs)

1. Cost of 2000 sq.ft. broiler brooder + 4000 sq.ft. broiler = 3.00

grower houses as described in the text and figure enclosed
total 6000 sq.ft. at Rs.50/- sq.ft.
2. Cost of 1600 sq.ft. space for feed store, supervisor and 2 = 1.60
workers quarters at Rs.100/- sq.ft.
3. Land development charges like fencing, provision of gate, = 0.30
 farm roads etc.,
4. Cost of bore well, overhead tank, water pump and pipe line = 0.50
to all sheds
5. Cost of feed grinder, motor starter etc. = 0.25
6. Cost of feeders, waterers, platform weighing scale, wheel = 0.70
barrow, sprayer, brooders and other farm equipment at
Rs.10/- bird for 6000 birds
7. Rent advance for starting a chicken retail shop = 0.50
8. Cost of furnishing the shop, scale, feather plucker, crates, = 0.50
freezer and dressing equipment
Total non-recurring expenditure = 7.35

WORKING CAPITAL

Statement – II

It is the capital needed to run the farm until the first batch of birds are ready for sale and
money obtained for further rotation. This is equivalent to two months recurring
expenditure. (Rs. in lakhs)

1. Cost of 1000 X 7 batches of day-old broiler chicks at Rs.10 = 0.70

each
2. Feed (ingredients) cost for 7 batches at an average of 4kg/ = 2.24
bird X 7000 birds X Rs.8000/ tonne
3. Other miscellaneous cost for 2 months at Rs.4/bird for = 0.28
7000 birds
Total working capital = 3.22

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT, SHARE OF THE PROMOTER

Statement – III

Total Capital Investment, Share of the Promoter (Margin money),

Bank Finance Needed and Annual Interest (Amount in Lakhs)

Sl. Description Total Promoters Share Bank Finance

No. capital (25%) required (75%)

1. Land cost (1.23 acres) 1.00 1.00 (100%) --

2. Building and equipment (vide 7.35 1.84 5.51

statement –I)

3. Working capital (statement – 3.22 0.80 2.42

II)

Total Cost 11.57 3.64 7.93

 Bank Interest = 15%

 Holiday period = 6 months
 Repayment period = 5 years

ANNUAL RECURRING EXPENDITURE

 Statement – IV
 Annual Recurring Expenditure (Rs. in Lakhs)

1. Cost of 1000 day-old broiler chicks X 52 batches/ year at = 5.20

Rs.10 each
2. Feed cost for 52,000 broilers X 4 kg/ bird at Rs.8/ kg = 16.64
3. Medicine, vaccine, insurance, labour, electricity, fuel, health = 2.08
cover, transport etc. @ Rs.4/- bird for 52,000 birds
4. Chicken retail shop rent, electricity, labour and other = 1.20
miscellaneous expenditure @ Rs.10,000 X 12 months
Total annual recurring expenditure (excluding bank interest = 23.92
and principal repayment)
ANNUAL GROSS AND NET RETURNS

Statement – V

Annual Gross and Net Returns (Rs. in Lakhs)

1. By retail sale of about 490 live broilers per batch X each = 16.05
weighing 1.8kg X 52 batches/ year = 45864 kg X Rs.35/- kg
live weight
2. By retail sale of about 490 dressed chicken/ batch each = 19.87
weighing 1.3kg X 52 batches X Rs.60/- kg
3. By sale of about 2000 empty feed gunny bags at Rs.5 each = 0.10
4. By sale of about 200 tones of manure at Rs.100/- ton = 0.20
Total annual gross income* = 36.22
LESS: Annual expenditure (Statement – IV) = 23.92
Annual net returns (before repayment of bank loan) = 12.30

 The annual gross returns during first year will be Rs.31.34 lakhs because there
will not be sales during first 7 weeks period; only 45 batches will be sold
instead of 52 batches. Hence the I-year net receipts before loan repayment will
be Rs.7.42 lakhs.

ECONOMICS OF BROILER

Economics of broiler ( 1000 broilers under deep litter system)

Assumptions

1. Cost of building with asbestos roofing = Rs 100/sq.ft

2. Floor space requirement (DLS) = 1 sq.ft/bird
3. Cost of feeders and waterers = Rs 10/bird
4. Cost of day old broiler chick = Rs 25/ chick
5. Feed consumption upto 6 weeks = 3.8 kg/bird
6. Cost of feed = Rs 15/kg
7. Miscellaneous cost (medicine, litter material, = Rs 3/ bird vaccine, labour and
electercity)
8. Mortality up to 6 weeks = only 2%
9. Cost of live broiler = Rs 50/kg live weight
10. Manure voided = 3.8 kg/bird
11. Cost of manure = Rs 750/ton
12. Cost of empty gunny bags = Rs 10/bag
13. Live body weight at the age of 6 weeks = 2 kg/bird
14. Loan interest = 12%

Total =Rs. 7,10,000

I. FIXED CAPITAL (NON – RECURRING COST)

( approximately 1 acre of land is required which is already available)

1. Cost of building (1sq. ft/bird x Rs.100/sq.ft x 1000 birds x 6 batch) = Rs . 6,00,000

2. Cost of equipment (Rs. 10/bird x 1000 birds x 6 batch) = Rs. 60,000
3. Land development charges ( over head tanking &fencing) = Rs. 50 000
Total = Rs. 7,10,0,000
 BROILERS - WORKING CAPITAL AND TOTAL PROJECT COST

II. Working capital

1. Cost of day old broiler chicks = Rs. 1,50.000

(Rs. 25/chick x 1000 birds x 6 batch)
2. Cost of feed up to 6 weeks = Rs. 3,42,000
(3.8 kg/bird x Rs. 15/kg x 1000birds x 6 batch)
3. Miscellaneous cost (medicine, vaccine, = Rs. 18,000
Litter material, labour and electercity)
(Rs. 3/bird x 1000 birds x 6 batches)
Total = Rs. 5,10,000

III.Total cost (Total capital investment)

Total project cost = fixed capital + working capital.

= 7,10,000 + 5,10,000

= Rs. 12,20,000.

In the total project cost, 75% will be get as loan from bank, 25%will be the farmers own
money.

75%loan = Rs. 9,15,000

25%own money = Rs. 3,05,000
Total Rs. 12,20,000

ANNUAL RECURRING EXPENDITURE AND NET INCOME

IV. ANNUAL RECURRING EXPENDITURE. (FOR 1 YEAR)

52 weeks x 1000 birds =52000 birds

1. Cost of day old chicks (Rs. 25/chick x 52000 chicks) = Rs. 13,00,000
2. Cost of feed per annum (3.8 kg/bird x Rs. 15/kg x 52 weeks x 1000 birds) = Rs. 29,64,000
3. Miscellaneous cost (medicine, litter Material, vaccine, labour, electricity) ( Rs. = Rs. 1,56,000
3/bird x 1000birds x 52 weeks)
 Total = Rs.
4,20,000
4. Annual interest (12%) ( Rs. 9,15,000 x 12% ) Rs. 1,09,800
Total = Rs.
45,29,800

V. ANNUAL GROSS RECEIPT.

Mortality 2% = 20 birds

1000 – 20 = 980 birds.

1. By sale of live birds (980 birds x 52 weeks x 2kg/bird X Rs. 50/kg live wt) = Rs. 50,96,000
2. By sale of manure = ( 980 birds x 52 weeks x 3.8kg manure) = Rs. 1,45,236.
Total amount of manure =193648 kg (193.648 tons x 750kg/ton) = 193.648 tons
3. By sale of empty gunny bags (Feed consumed =3.8kg/bird x 52 wks) X = Rs. 26,340.
1000 birds
= 1,97,600 kg. = 1,97,600/75
1 bag = 75 kg
No . of bags = (2634 bags x 10 Rs) = 2634 bags
Total = Rs. 52,67,576
Total annual receipt = Rs. 52,
67,576.
Total annual expenditure = Rs. 45, 29
800
Rs. 7, 37 776

NET ANNUAL INCOME

Net annual income = total annual receipt - total annual expenditure

= Rs. 52,67,576 - Rs. 45, 29 800

= Rs. 7,37,776.

Net income/bird = Rs. 14.18/-

EXERCISE 11: CONSERVATION OF INDIGENOUS GERMPLASM

Advantages of rearing indigenous birds over exotic birds

 Acceptability of the coloured desi bird by the landless labourers or marginal
farmers.
 Use of broodiness for hatching the chicks.
 Capability of self-defense from predators due to its alertness, light body weight
longer shank length, camouflagic characters and aggressiveness.
 Can thrive well under adverse environments like poor housing, poor management
and poor feeding.
 Indigenous birds are comparatively disease resistant to protozoon and ecto-
parasites.
 Have better adaptability to extreme climatic conditions prevailing in the country.
 They are comparatively hardier and need less health care than exotic birds.
 The meat from native fowl has significantly higher amino acid contents (arginine
and lysine) than meat from exotic birds and is widely preferred especially
because of their pigmentation, taste, leanness and suitability for special dishes
and often fetches higher prices.
 The brown-shelled eggs of native fowl are rich in threonine and valine than farm
eggs, have good flavour and fetch premium price.

NATIVE BREEDS AS RESERVOIR OF MAJOR GENES

 Great variability is observed in morphological characteristics of the native birds

 With respect to body weight three variants have been distinguished i.e. dwarf,
normal and heavy body weights
 Plumage pigmentation tends mainly towards blackish and brownish colours
showing extended and pied colourations
 Plumage distribution is mainly normal with special forms such as crest, naked
neck, frizzle type appear sporadically
 The comb is single but rose, pea and walnut are also found
 The shank and skin are also frequently pigmented showing green and blue
variants. In addition to this melanin deposition in skin, meat, internal organs
and bones in some breeds (e.g. Kadakanath) are also encountered. Some of
these variants are due to the presence of major morphological marker genes,
which increases the adaptability of these breeds to tropical climatic
environments

CONSERVATION PROTOCOLS

 The best scientifically based example for the preservation of living birds is by
maintaining a control stock of each known indigenous chicken, ducks etc. But
this could lead to contra selection or lack of selection for the characteristics
which are important in a primitive environment.
 There are three conservation protocols
oNon-pedigreed natural mating on floor reared birds
oPedigreed random mating in caged birds
oStorage of tissue culture and DNA
 NON-PEDIGREED NATURAL MATING ON FLOOR REARED
BIRDS

 Under the non-pedigreed natural mating many pure lines have been maintained.
The oldest has been kept for nearly 34 generations.
 Under this method about 200 chicks per lines are hatched yearly in each
generation.
 Half the males are discarded at random at 15 weeks of age. Only females with
gross defects are rejected.
 The chosen males are kept as a bachelor flock and only some are kept with
females. Information and data must be maintained in these flocks.
 The constraints for the system are shortage of funds, staff and facilities.

PEDIGREED RANDOM MATING IN CAGE FLOCKS

 In the pedigreed random mating there is an effective reduction in inbreeding and

genetic drift when compared to non pedigreed natural mating and hence this is
preferred.
 Each breed will be maintained on hundred sires and dam families in each
generation from one pair maintained in individual cages.
 Six progenies (three of each sex) of each family will be hatched and wing banded
for identification.
 A total of six hundred chicks will be hatched for each breed and the birds will be
raised up to 60 to 65 weeks of age.
 In the next generation the male of the first family will be mated with the female of
the second family and so on to avoid breeding.
 All breeding by pedigreed artificial insemination matings of full and half sibs are
avoided.

STORAGE OF TISSUE CULTURE AND DNA

 The use of new biotechnology techniques in preservation of poultry genetic

resource holds great interest.
 The major advantages that we need not maintain living population of birds which
is costly.
 This can be done by
o Freezing of chicken, duck and turkey semen
o Embryos can be cultured exovo and stored
o Somatic cells and DNA can be harvested and stored. For this, fibro blast
tissue cultures from the pericardial sack tissue were used. Blood samples
were frozen temporarily and then subjected to DNA extraction

TROPICAL RELEVANT GENES IN LOCAL FOWL (HORST, 1988)

Gene Nature of Direct effect Side effect
Inheritance
dw (dwarf) Sex linked, Reduction in body Reduced metabolism,
recessive, size 10-30% improved fitness and
multiple allelic disease tolerance
Na (Naked neck) Incomplete Loss of Neck Improved ability for
dominant feathers, convection, Improved
Reduction of adult fitness
secondary feathers
F (Frizzle) Incomplete Curling of feathers, Improved ability for
dominant reduced feathering convection
h (Silky) Recessive Lack of hamuli on Improved ability for
the barbules, convection
delicate shaft, long
barbs at the
contour feathers
K (Slow feathring) Dominant, sex Delay of feathering Reduced protein
linked, multiple requirement, reduced fat
allelic deposition during juvenile
life, increased heat loss
during early growth,
delayed immune response
mechanism
id (Non Inhibitor Recessive, sex Dermal melanin Improved ability for
of dermal linked, multiple deposition on skin radiation from shank and
melanin) allelic and shank skin
Fm Dominant with Melanin deposition Protection of skin against
(Fibromelenosis) multifactorial on all over body, UV radiation, improved
modifiers muscles and radiation from the skin,
nerves, tendons, increased pack cell volume
mesentery and and plasma protein
blood vessel walls
EXERCISE 12: SCAVENGING, BACKYARD AND SEMI
INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF REARING POULTRY

Introduction

 Poultry housing serves two majorfunctions – first, it permits to organize and

concentrate the flock in a manageable unit and secondly to provide a physical
micro and macro environment which is conducive for optimal egg and meat
production
 Rural poultry is also an important element in diversifying agricultural
production and increasing household food security. The village chickens
provided readily harvestable animal protein to rural households
 Egg dishes and chicken meat cook faster than pulses and red meat and therefore
use less fuelwood. Housing in modern poultry is an important input,
accounting for a major component of the initial capital investment
 In modern poultry enterprises, the structures are constructed and designed in
consideration of bird welfare and efficiency of production. Housing in rural
poultry is at a rudimentary stage. Where housing is provided to village
chickens, the houses are made with locally available materials such as wood,
mud bricks, sugarcane stems, bamboo and cereal stovers

FREE RANGE OR SCAVENGING SYSTEM

 Free range poultry farming consists of poultry permitted to roam freely instead of
being contained in any manner. Free range chicken must have daytime access
to open-air runs during at least half of their life
 The chickens are given access to an outdoor range during the daytime and at
night they have temporary shelter. In India many of birds shelter on trees only
birds with their young chicks are given some shelter or are provided cover
using with a big bamboo basket
 Free-range chickens grow more slowly than intensive chickens
Poultry are raised on pasture, enabling the poultry to move around, forage for
their natural diet and live in cleaner conditions than those in batteries
 The manure from free range poultry can be used to benefit crops
Although there is a reduced growth rate, the opportunities for natural behavior
such as pecking, scratching, foraging exercise outdoors, as well as fresh air and
daylight are a benefit to the scavenging bird. They grow slower and have
opportunities for exercise. Free-range chickens have better leg and heart health
and a much higher quality of life
 Excess heat, cold or damp can have a harmful effect on the birds and their
productivity. Diseases are common and the animals are vulnerable to
 predators, studies have shown that some birds have better scavenging ability
than others. A group of 15 chickens produce 1.0 to 1.2 kg manure per day.
These aspects directly or indirectly contribute to village economy

SCAVENGING FEED RESOURCE BASE

 It is important to monitor the quantity of scavengeable feed available seasonwise

in a village to assess the gap between resources accessible to the birds and their
actual requirement to provide feed through supplementation
 SFRB is defined as the total amount of food items available to all scavenging
birds in a given area. It depends on the number of households, the type of food
crops grown, and their crop cultivating and crop processing methods as well as
on the climatic conditions that determine the rate of deposition of the food
items
 If the biomass of the flock exceeds carrying capacity of SFRB, some birds in the
population, particularly the weaker ones will die. On the other hand survival
will be more when SFRB is more than the requirement of flock
 Seasonal fluctuations in the SFRB occur due to periods of fallow or flooding,
cultivation, harvesting and processing. The land area available for scavenging
and the distance a flock can travel to scavenge will depend on flock size, feed
availability, population density, agricultural activities, predators etc. If the
capacity of SFRB and seasonal variations are known, efficient strategies for
better scavenging, feed resource availability can be evolved
 The SFRB includes termites, snails, worms, insects, grain from sowing,
harvesting by-products, seeds, grass, fodder tree leaves, water-plants and
unconventional feed materials. The crop contents can be utilized to determine
the metabolizable energy and protein components of scavenging feed
resources. The anticipated reduction in SFRB can be determined and
accordingly appropriate nutrients can be supplemented

BACKYARD REARING

 As the name indicates the birds are reared in the backyard of the homestead.
Here, there is an area that is fenced either with Bamboo, Mud wall, thorn bushes
etc. and birds forage within this area
 Backyard rearing is mostly seen in villages but some houses in the urban areas
also rear chicken in the backyard. The birds are provided with lots of kitchen
waste and food leftovers
 They scavenge and eat termites, ants, earthworm and insects.During the dry
seasons, the birds are provided with rice bran or wheat bran mixed with the rice
starch and other vegetables. The eggs are laid within the boundary and birds are
more safe from predators than those that are out in the range. These birds are
provided with shelters that protect them from predators and from inclement
weather. If the farmers are close to the city, the birds are even provided with a
balanced feed along with the scavenging material
 During dry seasons, the birds are handfed and provided with feed or bye products
 of grains, greens etc. and many of the upgraded birds are used for backyard
rearing

SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM

 This system is adopted where the amount of free space available is limited, but it
is necessary to allow birds @ 10-20 square meters per bird of outside run.
Wherever possible, this space should be divided giving a run on either side of the
house of 5-10 square meters. This system is used more in ducks and in turkeys. In
the semi intensive system of rearing, feed and water are placed in the outside run
or yard
 The floor in the run can be cemented with addition of litter over the cemented
floor or it could just be a sand floor. The run is fenced by using wire, bamboo or
any other local material. The birds are droved to the pen during dusk, and they
are well protected during the night. At daytime the birds are let out into the yard
or run and stay there till the evening
 The yard and the pen must be cleaned regularly once the birds are out of them. In
ducks the birds are kept in the pen till all the eggs are laid and then sent out into
the yard
 Under the semi-intensive system of rearing birds are provided with feed and
clean potable water. The feed could be a well balance mash or pellet, or it could
be the remains of household waste, vegetable waste mixed with some cheap
grains and by products of grains

EXERCISE 13: NEWLY DEVELOPED BREEDS FOR RURAL

FARMING

Essential characteristics - Newly developed breeds

 Colour of the bird

 Morphology and temperament of the bird
 Productivity of the birds
 Disease resistance
 Tropical adaptability
 Self Propagation

COLOUR, MORPHOLOGY AND TEMPERAMENT OF THE BIRD

Colour of the bird

 People in rural areas have a strong liking for coloured birds, since coloured birds
 can camouflage and escape from the predators Better immunocompetence has
been reported for coloured birds in comparison to white plumage

Morphology and temperament of the bird

 A lighter bird with long shank and strong wings has a greater chance of escaping
from predators by fast running and flying till they reach a safer place. If possible
the birds should have an aggressive behavior, which may act as deterrent to some
extent

DISEASE RESISTANCE, ADAPTABILITY AND SELF

PROPAGATION

Productivity of the birds

 A lighter bird will be able to cover a larger area to scavenge for nutrient that are
not easily available.

Disease resistance

 The birds to be used in the scavenging must have the better immunocompetence
as there is lack of availability of good quality food and drinking water and they
have to roam into dirty surroundings in search of food. In addition,
appropriate prophylactic measures are not possible in remote areas.

Tropical adaptability

 Tropical oriented major genes might be desirable for better productivity in

tropical environment of the country.
 It would be a desirable proposition to incorporate such gene in new developed
birds for scavenging.

Self Propagation

 Self propagating capacity is essential requirement for the scavenging bird as it

might not be possible always to get the replacement chicks from the hatchery
for the remote areas and also due to financial constraints for weaker sections.
 The characteristics of broodiness will be essential to achieve this objective.
 Improved native breeds or a cross of native breed with exotic would be a good
proposition for the ideal replacement of native scavenging chicken. Thus native
germplasm may play vital role in improvement of rural poultry production

DEVELOPMENT OF SCAVENGING CHICKEN AT CARI,

IZATNAGAR WITH NATIVE FOWL BASE
  Four types of high yielding germplasm suitable for backyard production have
been developed with four different native fowl base especially suitable for
different climatic regions of the country at Central Avian Research Institute,
Izatnagar
 These birds have combination of 50% native and 50% exotic blood and possess
other characteristic essentials for backyard / scavenging poultry production
 Phenotypically these birds look like their original native breed with two or three
times increased egg production with bigger egg weight, better tropical
adaptability and disease resistance along with capability of bearing the stress of
poor feeding and management

CARI NlRBHEEK AND CARI SHYAMA

Cari nirbheek

 It is cross of Indian native breed Aseel with Cari Red. Birds are active, larger in
built, pugnacious in nature with high stamina and majestic gait. They are able
to save themselves from their predators due to its fighting characters and
activeness and are adapted to all climatic zones of the country

Cari shyama

 It is cross of Kadakanath breed of Indian native chicken with Cari Red.

Birds have plumage of various colours dominated by black.
 The skin, beak, shank, toes and soles are dark gray colour.
 The peculiarity of this bird is that most of the internal organs
show the
characteristics black pigmentation. Varying degree of blackish colouration is
also found in skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain and bone
marrow.
 The black colour of muscles and tissues is due to deposition of melanin pigment,
which causes increase in protein, and decrease of fat and muscle fiber

UPCARI AND HITCARI

Upcari

 Indian native chicken with Frizzle plumage has been crossed with Cari Red for
development of UPCARI birds These multicoloured birds have single comb and
medium body size.
 Presence of Frizzle plumage helps in fast heat dissipation due to which birds are
better adapted to tropical climate especially for arid zones

Hitcari

 Indian native chicken with Naked neck plumage has been crossed with Cari Red
for development of HITCARI birds which are adapted to tropical climate
 specially for hot and humid coastal region of the country. These multicoloured
birds have single as well as pea comb and birds are larger in built

PERFORMANCE OF ECONOMIC TRAITS UNDER FARM AND

FARMERS DOOR
Trait CARI CARI UPCARI HITCARI
NIRBHEEK SHYAMA
Farm Field Farm Field Farm Field Farm Field
Body weights of 1350 1290 1120 1080 1285 1184 1320 1280
pullets at 20 weeks
(g)
Age at sexual maturity 176 174 170 167 165 165 178 172
(days)
Annual egg 198 166 210 178 220 182 200 174
production (number)
Egg weight at 40 54 53 53 52.5 60 58 61 59
weeks (g)
Fertility (%) 88 85 90 92
Hatchability FES (%) 81 82 84 81

A
Age at sexual maturity

:
Age at sexual maturity - It can be measured either as age at first egg (or) age at 5
percent egg production. Sexual maturity is the duration (number of days) between
the date of hatch and the date of first egg laid or date of 5% egg production as the
case may be.

Alektorophobia

:
Alektorophobia is an intense, irrational fear of chickens. The alektorophobic
individual may fear that chickens are unsanitary and that they may be contaminated
as a result of contact with them.

Alektorophobia derived from the Greek word “alektor”, meaning rooster and
“phobos” meaning fear.
Automation

:
Automation - A process or system which operates by mechanical or electronic
means which replaces the human organs of effort and decision
B
Bantam

:
A miniature chicken, about one-fourth to one-half the size of a regular-sized chicken

Bantam Standard

:
A book published by the American Bantam Association describing each of the
bantam breeds recognized by that organization

Beak

:
The hard, protruding portion of a bird's mouth, consisting of an upper beak and a
lower beak

Bloom

:
An invisible protective coating on an egg that helps keep bacteria out of it

Broiler/Fryer

:
Broiler/Fryer - Immature young chicken of either sex with tender meated, soft,
pliable, smooth textured skin and flexible breast bone cartilage of about 6 weeks of
age suitable for either broiling/frying

Brood

:
Brood - A group of (baby) chicks from one hatch

Brooder

:
Brooder - A metallic/wooden equipment used for artificial brooding of young chicks
by supplying the necessary heat
 B
Broodiness

:
Broodiness - Is a condition in which females stop laying and show tendency for
nesting. It is an ideal character for the propagation of species in wild conditions, but
highly undesirable for domesticated species for economic purposes
C
Cages

:
Cages - A system of housing poultry made up of steel and welded wire netting in
horizontal, stepped or vertical configuration usually in two or three tiers. Californian
(or) Battery Cages

Candling

:
Candling - Is the process of visual examination of an intact egg against a light
emerging through an aperture to determine the interior quality, shell soundness or
stage of embryonic development

Caruncle

:
Brightly coloured growths on the throat region of turkeys and the face of muscovy ducks

Clutch

:
Clutch - Eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days without a break are referred to as
“Clutch”

Coccidiostat

:
A chemical compound added to the feed or drinking water to control coccidiosis by
stopping growth of coccidia

Comb

:
Comb - A fleshy protuberance on the top of the fowl‟s head varying in size and
shape
Croiler

:
Croiler - Is a colour feathered broiler. It is not a hybrid; but developed from crosses
of Dark Cornish, New Hampshire, Barred Plymouth Rock and Sussex breeds. They
are having attractive colour feathers, resembling that of non-descriptive desi
(native) birds.

Croiler varieties available in Indian Market:

(a) Nandanam Chicken II

(b) Raja II

(c) Krishi-Bro

Crop

:
An enlargement of the gullet where food is stored and prepared for digestion. It is
located at the base of the neck, and bulges with feed after the bird has eaten

Culling

:
Culling - The elimination of unproductive or undesirable birds which when judged
from their physical characteristics are found to lack the qualities for which they were
reared, whether it may be for egg production, table purposes or for show; an
important and continuous operation for profitable poultry farming.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (Next)

Debeaking/Beak trimming

Debeaking/Beak trimming - It is an Anti-vice measure. Removal of a portion of the upper

mandible in order to reduce the risk of cannibalism and to improve feed efficiency/curtail
feed wastage. During debeaking, a part of upper and lower mandible (beak) is removed
using an electrically operated cauterizing blade having a temperature of about 1500oF

Deep litter
:

Deep litter - Intensive type of rearing birds on floor covered with bedding material for the
birds like wood shavings, groundnut hulls, paddy husk etc

Delouse

Delouse - To eradicate lice from bird

Desifowl

Fowl indigenous to India; Not a pure breed. Exhibits great variation in size, shape,
colour and conformation. Best mother and ideal sitter (Broody in nature).

Disinfectant

A compound used to kill disease-producing organism. It is usually applied to

inanimate (Non- living) objects

Disinfection

Disinfection - Is the process/method of reducing the amount of infection in flocks after an

outbreak or when carrier exists. This is accomplished by mechanical, physical or chemical
means

Downtime

Downtime - Period between disposal/removal of one batch and introduction of new batch of
birds in the shed. It is the period of time between two batches when the house is
depopulated, disinfected, kept closed and empty

Ear lobe
:

Fleshy patch of skin below ear. It may be red, white, blue, or purple, depending upon the
breed of chicken

Eaves

Eaves - The point at which the roof project out from the side of the building

Egg tooth

Egg tooth - Small horny protrusion on the tip of chick‟s beak used to pip the egg shell when
hatching. It drops off soon after chicks hatches out of egg

E
Emaciated

:
A severe loss of weight
F
Feather follicle

:
Feather follicle - The sac or cavity having the feather root on the skin from which
feather grows in birds

Feed Efficiency

:
Feed Efficiency - This is an index of efficiency in terms of kilograms of feed
consumed per kilogram of weight gained or per dozen eggs or per kilogram of eggs
laid

Follicle

:
Thin, highly vascular ovarian tissue containing the growing ovum

Free Range

:
"Free Range" means eggs produced from laying chickens that are "cage free" or
have access to a suitable outdoors environment

Fumigation

:
Fumigation - A method of disinfection using disinfecting gases especially
Formaldehyde gas. Normally used in hatcheries and in poultry farms where there is
a severe disease problem
G
Grit

:
The hard, insoluble materials fed to birds to provide a grinding material in the
gizzard

Gullet or Oesophagus

:
The tubular structure leading from the mouth to the glandular stomach
H
Hackle

:
Plumage on the side and rear of the neck of fowl

Hock

:
The joint of the leg between the lower thigh and shank
H
Horizontal transmission

:
Spread of infection from bird to bird by direct or indirect contact

Hover

:
Hover - An equipment with incandescent bulbs for heating element to keep chicks
warm
I
Immunity
:
A condition of being able to resist a particular disease, by preventing the
development of that disease-producing organism

Incubation

 Is the act of bringing an egg to hatching i.e providing suitable warmth,

humidity and turning movement to facilitate growth and development of
hatching of an egg (or)
 Is the structural changes of the egg and the truly amazing changes that take
place within it as the embryo develops into a chick in the short span of 21
days (chicken).

Incubation period

:
Incubation period - Is the period between setting and hatching out of eggs which
vary from species to species

Incubator

 A machine developed to provide the proper environment for the

development of the fertile egg and embryo into a chick or poult.
 A closed chamber designed to provide the required heat, humidity, turning
and fresh air supply for hatching eggs.
 Simulating the broody mother hen.

L
Layers

:
Layers - A mature female fowl which has been kept for egg-laying purpose (21-72
weeks of age) especially those are in current production
M
Mandible

:
The upper or lower bony portion of the beak
Molt/moult

:
To shed old feathers and regrow new ones
N
Nest Box

:
Nest Box- Boxes provided for layer or breeder hens inside their house to lay eggs
O
Oil sac or Uropygial gland

:
Large oil gland on the back at the base of the tail - used to preen or condition the
feathers

Oviposition

:
Oviposition - The act (or) process of laying (expelling) of a fully developed egg
through the cloaca

Ovulation

:
Ovulation - Is the process of release of mature ovum from the ovary which will enter
into the oviduct for further processing
P
Pause in laying

Any cessation of egg laying for a period of 7days or more is called pause. Winter
pause is common in temperate countries. However, in tropical countries like India,
pause is common in summer or immediately thereafter due to hot and humid
climates . Environmental as well as genetic factors can produce pause. Stress and
diseases induce pause.

Pecking order

:
The social ranking of a group of chickens

Photo period
:
Photo period - A period of illumination by both natural and artificial means

Pipping

:
Pipping - The act of pecking the shell and shell membranes by the chick in order to
break the shell and hatch out of the shell

Plumage

:
The feathers making up the outer covering of fowls

Poultry

:
Poultry - Although the term poultry is very often used as synonymous to chicken, it
includes a number of avian species such as chicken, duck, turkey, quail, geese,
guinea fowl etc. that are domesticated for economic (egg or meat) purpose

Poultry Science

Is the study of principles and practices involved in the production and marketing of
poultry and poultry products.
P
Primaries

:
The long, stiff flight feathers at the outer tip of the wing
R
Rales

:
Abnormal respiratory sounds

Ration

:
The food allowed to an animal or bird for 24 hours. A balanced ration provides all
the nutrients required to nourish an animal for 24 hours.
S
Sanitizer

:
A preparation capable of reducing the number of bacteria present. When added to
water, it is called a „water sanitizer’

Secondaries

:
The large wing feathers adjacent to the body, visible when the wing is folded or
extended

Shank

:
The part of a bird's leg between the foot and the hock

Snood

:
Snood - A fleshy protuberance hanging from the base of the beak in Turkeys, which
is well developed in males than females
T
Tom

:
An adult male turkey (also referred to as a 'gobbler')

Torticollis

:
Twisted or wry neck
V
Vaccine

:
A preparation of micro-organisms (killed or living) which when given to the bird
produces or increases immunity against specific disease
V
Vertical transmission

:
Spread of an organism (usually virus) from hen to chick through the egg
Virulence

:
The level at which a disease-causing organism is able to cause a disease
W
Water sanitizer

:
A preparation of capable of reducing number of bacteria in water to a safe level

Wattles

:
The flap of skin under the chin of a chicken or turkey

Wing clipping

A procedure in which the primary wing feathers of one wing are cut to prevent flight

X
Xanthophylls

:
The yellow pigments found in leaves, grasses and green plants that are added as
pigment to avian skin as well as providing the yellow colour of egg yolks
Y
Yolk

The round yellow mass upon which the genetic material of the female (and male if
the egg is fertilized) is located and that provides nutrients for the developing
embryo

Yolk sac

:
The membrane that surrounds the yolk in the incubating egg
Z
Zoonosis

:
 A disease transmissible from an animal to a human (plural = zoonoses)

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Fill up the blanks:
1. The orientation of a poultry house in tropical climate should be
____________ .
2. Egg stays here for longest duration in ___________ part of the oviduct.
3. Orpington and Ancona belongs to _____________ and _______________
class respectively.
4. Popular Indian game breed of chicken is ____________.
5. The act of shedding of feathers by a hen is referred to as ____________.
6. Broiler chicks are reared as ____________ chicks without doing any sexing
at day-old.
7. _________________ and _______________ are popular egg-type ducks.
8. _________________and _______________ are the two most important
environmental factors that influence hatchability of eggs in the incubator
9. The process of release of mature ovum from Graffian follicle is known as
_____________.
10. Male goose is known as ___________.
11. Brooding temperature of chick during first week is ___ oF.
12. A normal egg will have a shape index of ___.
13. Fresh egg will have a specific gravity of ___.
14. Floor space requirement for layers reared under deep litter system is
_______________ per bird and cage space allowance is ___________ per bird.
15. Per capita consumption of eggs and meat in India are _________________
and ______________ respectively.
16. In egg holding room the hatching eggs should be stored at a temperature of
_________oC and maintained at _________% relative humidity.
17. Incubation period for chicken egg is _________ days and for duck egg is
________ days.
18. Layers normally require ___________kg. feed to produce a dozen eggs.

19. The act of laying of an egg by a hen is referred to as ________________.

20. Popular Indian game breed of chicken is ____________ .
21. _______________is the longest portion in the oviduct.
22. Floor space requirement per bird for broiler is _______________ per bird
and layer is ___________ per bird on deep litter.
23. Incubation period for Japanese quail egg is _________ days and for turkey
egg is _________ days.
24. Layers normally require ___________kg. feed to produce one kg eggs.
25. Young one of Guinea fowl is called _____________.
26. High Prolactin level in layers causes _______________ in chicken.
27. Dipping is done to get rid of _________________.
28. _____________ vaccine is given in the hatchery and RDVF vaccine is given
on the _______ day.
29. Brooder chicks and layers are provided a floor space of ______________
and ______________sq.ft./ bird in a deep litter house.
30. Popular egg-type chicken breed is _____________.
Choose the correct answer
The binomial nomenclature for Ostrich is
(a) Struthio camelus (b) Gallus domesticus
(c) Anser anser (d) Numida meleagris
Roof type which keeps poultry house cooler during summer is
(a) Asbestos (b) Mangalore tiles
(c) Aluminium (d) Thatch roofing
Incubation period for Emu eggs is
(a) 28 days (b) 42 days
(c) 52 days (d) 35 days
Rhode Island Red is a breed belonging to
(a) Asiatic class (b) American class
(c) English class (d) Mediterranean class
Age at which Japanese quail attains sexual maturity is
(a) 16-18 weeks (b) 20-24 weeks
(c) 7-8 weeks (d) 10-12
Shell is secreted in this portion of the oviduct
(a) Uterus (b) Isthmus
(c) Infundibulum (d) Magnum
Fumigation of hatching eggs received at the hatchery is done with this
concentration
(a) 1X (b) 3X (c) 5X (d) 2X
Average daily feed consumption by a layer hen is
(a) 110-120g (b) 80-90g
(c) 90-95g (d) 65-75g
Rancidity of oils can be prevented by incorporation of
(a) Anti-oxidants (b) Pellet binders
(c) Toxin binders (d) Probiotics
Floor space requirement per broiler in deep litter system is
(a) 2 sq.ft (b) 1 sq.ft
(c) 0.25 sq.ft (d) None
Broodiness is due to
(a) FSH (b) LH
(c) Prolactin (d) Oxytocin
Ideal temperature in the Hatcher compartment is
(a) 98.5-99oF (b) 95-96oF
(c) 100-101oF (d) 86-87oF
The best feed efficiency we achieve in broilers at present is
(a) 3.0 (b) 1.0
(c) 2.5 (d) 1.8
During growing period, number of hours natural light required is
(a) 16 hours (b) 12 hours
(c) 18 hours (d) 24 hours
During laying period, duration of light required for optimal egg production is
(a) 16 hours (b) 12 hours
(c) 18 hours (d) 24 hours
The incubation temperature in the Setter is
a. 35-36oC c. 37-38oC
b. 36oC od. 40oC
The following breed has Black coloration in the skeletal muscles, tendons and
brain
a) Chittagong c) Aseel
b) Kadaknath d) Busra
The phallus is well developed in
a) Duck c) Chicken
b) Turkey d) Japanese quail
A normal eggshell will have
a) 100 pores c) 1000 to1500 pores
b) 500 to 1000 pores d) 8,000 to 10,000 pores
For every 1% drop in the oxygen level from 21%, the hatchability will drop by
a) 1% c) 5%
b) 3% d) 7%
The incubation period for Muscovy duck is
a) 20-21 days c) 32-35 days
b) 19 days d) 40 days
Litter moisture in the broiler house should be
a) 15-20% c) 25 - 30%
b) 20-25% d) 30-35%
The binomial nomenclature for Duck is
(a) Struthio camelus (b) Anas platyrynchos
(c) Anser anser (d) Numida meleagris
The binomial nomenclature for Japanese quail is
(a) Coturnix coturnix japonica (b) Anas platyrynchos
(c) Anser anser (d) Numida meleagris
No. of chromosomes present in Chicken are
(a) 80 (b) 78
(c) 82 (d) 76
No. of chromosomes present in Japanese quail are
(a) 80 (b) 78
(c) 82 (d) 76
Feathers are moulted first from
(a) Neck (b) Breast (c) Abdomen (d) Head
Hatchability becomes zero when CO2 level in the incubator is at
a) 10% c) 15%
b) 5% d) 0%
Write true or false 1. Zoological name for duck is ()
Anser anser
2. Feed efficiency in broilers is ()
less than 2.0 at market age
3. During summer, feed intake ()
of chicken will become less
or decreased
4. The egg holding capacity of ()
setter and hatcher are the
same
5. Hen housed egg production ()
does not take into account
day to day mortality among
hens
6. Male Japanese quail have ()
heavier body size than
females
7. Too early maturity of pullets ()
results in small sized eggs
8. Broiler finisher mash should ()
contain 23% crude protein
9. Adult Male duck is known as ()
drake
10. Huddling of chicks indicate ()
inadequate brooder
temperature
11. As age advances, the dietary ()
protein requirement level of
birds increases
12. Chicken has 39 pairs of ()
chromosomes
13. Strutting behaviour is ()
normally observed in male
turkeys
14. Artificial insemination ()
 improves fertility in turkeys
15. Mediterranean breeds of ()
birds mostly lay white
shelled eggs
16. Ducks lay eggs during ()
night/early morning
17. Dipping of birds helps to ()
remove ectoparasites
18. Young one of Guinea fowl is ()
known as keet
19. Debeaking is regularly done in broilers ()
20. Coccidiosis is a major problem in birds ()
reared under deep litter system