University of Dhaka

Institute of Energy

Course Code: MRET-103

Course Name: Climatology

Assignment
on
1.Aerosols and its role in attenuation of incoming solar
radiation.

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Md. Rasel Islam Dr. Himangshu Ranjan Ghosh

Roll: MRET-06 Lecturer,
Institute of Energy Institute of Energy
University of Dhaka University of Dhaka
Batch: 07 Email: hrghosh@du.ac.bd

Date of submission: 24-02-2018

Abstract

This chapter provides an introduction to atmospheric aerosols by offering a

definition and discussing various ways of categorizing and characterizing
aerosols. The natural and anthropogenic sources of atmospheric aerosols are
reviewed and dis-cussed, leading to a description of their spatial distribution in
the atmosphere. The chapter also introduces qualitatively some aerosol
concepts, such as their chemical composition and size distribution, paving the
way for a more complete description in the following chapters. Some examples
are provided to illustrate how aerosols, despite being microscopic particles, can
manifest themselves in the atmosphere. Finally, the various pathways by which
aerosols impact the climate system are re-viewed, introducing a revised
categorization of aerosol–radiation, aerosol–cloud, aerosol–surface interactions
and its role in attenuation of solar radiation from the sun.

Keywords: Aerosol definition • Aerosol properties and characteristics •

Aerosols classification • Aerosol–radiation interactions •Climate Effects of
Aerosols and its roles in attenuation of solar radiation.

II
Contents
1.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Atmospheric Aerosols ...................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Definitions ........................................................................................................................ 2
2. Classifications of Aerosol and its Characteristics .............................................................. 6
2.1 Aerosol Particle Types and Characteristics ...................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Black Carbon ............................................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Biomass Burning Particles......................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Mineral Dust .............................................................................................................. 7
2.1.4 Sea-Salt Particle ......................................................................................................... 7
2.1.5 Organic Particles........................................................................................................ 7
2.1.6 Sulfate/Nitrate Aerosols (IPCC, 2013) ...................................................................... 7
2.1.7 Volcanic Particles ..................................................................................................... 7
2.1.8 Cloud Condensation Nucleii ...................................................................................... 8
3. Sources of Aerosols ............................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Aerosols of Natural Origin ............................................................................................... 9
3.1.1Marine Aerosols ....................................................................................................... 10
3.1.2Desert Dust ............................................................................................................... 11
3.1.3 Volcanic Aerosols.................................................................................................... 11
3.1.4Biogenic Aerosols..................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Human-Made Aerosol .................................................................................................... 13
3.2.1Biomass Burning Aerosols ....................................................................................... 13
3.2.2Aerosols from Fossil Fuel Combustion .................................................................... 14
3.2.3 Industrial Dust ......................................................................................................... 14
4. Measurement Aerosol .......................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Measuring aerosol concentrations .................................................................................. 15
4.2 The Removal of Aerosols............................................................................................... 16
4.3 Aerosols as Atmospheric Tracers ................................................................................... 16
5. Effects of Aerosols ............................................................................................................... 18
5.1 Climate Effects of Aerosols ........................................................................................... 18
5.2 Aerosols Role in Attenuation of Solar Radiation ........................................................... 20
5.Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 23
REFERENCES: ....................................................................................................................... 24

III
 List of Table

Fig. 1.1 Vegetation fire in the Alps on a cloudy day 3

Fig.1.2 Saharan dust event over the Alps. 3

Fig.1.3 Photographs of atmospheric aerosols collected on a filter. 4

Fig 3.1 :Schematic diagram illustrating role of atmospheric aerosols 10

in the atmosphere

Fig.3.2 Dispersion of volcanic aerosols 12

IV
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction:
Aerosol science studies the properties of particles suspended in air or other
gases, or even in vacuum, and the behavior of collections of such particles. A
collection of aerosol particles is referred to as an aerosol, although the particles
may be suspended in some other gaseous medium, not just air. The term Cosmo
sol is used for a collection of particles suspended in vacuum. Although attempts
to give a strict definition of aerosol have appeared from time to time, to date no
commonly acceptable and concise definition of an aerosol exists. In my opinion,
it is better not to make any attempts in this direction, especially because
intuitively it is clear what an aerosol is. For example, it is clear that birds or
airplanes are not aerosol particles. On the other hand, smoke from cigarettes,
fumes from chimneys, dust raised by the wind, and so on, are aerosols. Hence,
there are some essential features that allow us to distinguish between aerosols
and other objects suspended in the gas phase. There are at least two such
features: (i) aerosol particles can exist beyond the aerosol for a sufficiently long
time; and (ii) an aerosol can be described in terms of the concentration of
aerosol particles[1], or, better, the concentration field. From this point of view,
it is clear why birds are not aerosols. Interestingly, clouds are also not aerosols!
Of course, we can introduce the concentration of cloud droplets. But if we
isolate a cloud particle, it will immediately evaporate. The cloud creates a
specially designed environment inside it the humidity and the temperature fields
the conditions in which a water droplet does not evaporate during a long
time{3].

1.2 Atmospheric Aerosols

Aerosols are fine, airborne particles consisting at least in part of solid material.
Density of the basic materials of aerosols range from 1.0 g/cm3 (for soot) to 2.6
(for minerals). The ocean is a major source of natural aerosols. Air-sea
exchange of particulate matter contributes to the global cycles of carbon,
nitrogen, and sulfur aerosols, such as di-methyl sulfide (DMS) produced by
phytoplankton. Ocean water and sea salt are transferred to the atmosphere
through air bubbles at the sea surface. As this water evaporates, the salt is left
suspended in the atmosphere. Four other significant sources of aerosols are

1
terrestrial biomass burning, volcanic eruptions, windblown dust from arid and
semi-arid regions, and pollution from industrial emissions (Fig 1).

Clean continental air often contains less than 3,000 particles per cubic
centimetre (of which half are water-soluble), polluted continental air typically
50,000/cm3 (of which two-thirds are soot, and the rest mostly water-soluble).
Urban air typically contains 160,000/cm3, mostly soot, and only 20% is water-
soluble. Desert air has about 2,300/cm3 on average, almost all water-soluble.
Clean marine air generally has about 1,500/cm3, about all water-soluble. The
lowest sea-level values occur over the oceans near the subtropical highs
(600/cm3 on average, but occasionally below 300/cm3). Arctic air has about
6600/cm3 (including 5,300 soot) and on the Antarctic plateau only 43/cm3
occur (about all sulphate) (1). Fig 1.1 Main sources and types of aerosols that
affect climate.Concentrations of aerosols decrease about exponentially with
height, thus

N(z) = N(0) exp (-z/H)

where N(z) is the concentration at height z (km) above ground level. The scale
height H typically is 10 km for continental (incl desert) air in summer, 6 km for
urban air, 2 km for continental air in winter, and 1 km over the marine
subtropical high pressure regions. The higher values during the summer imply
more deep-tropospheric stirring of the aerosols by thunderstorms. In places with
a well-defined, long-lived inversion on top of a well-mixed planetary boundary
layer, the aerosol concentration tends to be homogenous in the PBL and perhaps
10x lower above the inversion.

Aerosols can be long-lived and therefore be advected over a long distance. Four
weeks of measurements of tropospheric aerosols at Mildura (in the Australian
state of Victoria) showed that some came from Africa, about eight days upwind,
and possibly South America, even further away. These aerosols may have come
from gases generated by forest fires (2).

1.3 Definitions
An aerosol is by definition a collection of solid or liquid particles in suspension
in a gas. Strictly speaking the term aerosol includes both the particles and the
suspending gas. In atmospheric sciences, it is usual however to use the term
aerosol in its plural form to refer to the ―aerosol particles‖ without the
atmosphere as the suspending gas[12]. We follow that convention in this book,
2
but occasionally refer to ―the aerosol‖ when we refer to atmospheric aerosols in
a generic way. Atmospheric scientists also like to differentiate cloud particles
from other types of particles in the atmosphere. For this reason we define
aerosols as solid or liquid particles in suspension in the atmosphere to the
exception of all hydrometeors (cloud droplets, ice crystals, raindrops,
snowflakes and grapple).

Aerosols are always present in the atmosphere but in extremely variable

concentrations. This is due to the very large heterogeneity in aerosol sources
and their relatively short residence time in the atmosphere (of the order of hours
to weeks). The vast majority of aerosols are not visible to the naked eye because
of their microscopic size but one can easily see the collective effect of aerosols
in the atmosphere as soon as their concentrations are large enough. For
example, a haze that reduces[3].

Fig. 1.1 Vegetation fire in the Alps on a cloudy day.

One can notice the bluish color of the smoke plume which contrasts with the
white color of clouds. The bluish color is due to the small aerosol size in the
smoke plume and their larger effectiveness at scattering radiation in the shorter
wavelengths of the visible spectrum. (Photograph by the author)[6].

3
 Fig.1.2 Saharan dust event over the Alps.

The snowpack has taken an orange colour due to the deposition of dust.
(Photograph taken in April 2002 by the author)

the atmospheric visibility and whitens the sky is nothing else than a collection
of aerosol particles that interact with solar radiation. A smoke plume is
composed of microscopic particles that stem from incomplete combustion of
carbonated fuels; these particles collectively darken the sky (see Fig. 1.1).
Aerosols can also be visible when they get deposited in great quantity on the
Earth‘s surface, as it is occasionally the case for Saharan dust particles (Fig.
1.2). Furthermore, one can ―see‖ aerosol particles one by one with the help of an
electron microscope as shown on Fig. 2.3. The large variety of sizes and shapes
among atmospheric aerosols is already striking from these photographs[4].

The amount and properties of aerosols are extremely variable in space and time.
This is why one is usually interested in characterizing a population of aerosols
rather than individual particles. The most important characteristics of an aerosol
population are the size distribution, chemical composition, and shape of the
particles. It is useful to classify aerosols in different categories according to
their properties. There are several possible classifications:

Fig. 1.3 Photographs of atmospheric aerosols collected on a filter.

Vegetal debris (left) and soot (black carbon) particle next to a mineral aggregate
(right). The white segments represent 1 and 5 µm, respectively.

1. Primary aerosols have been emitted into the atmosphere as particles. This
is the case of aerosols produced by the effect of the wind friction on an
oceanic or terrestrial surface and aerosols produced during an incomplete
4
 combustion. Secondary aerosols designate those particles that have not
been emitted directly in the particulate phase but come instead from the
condensation of atmospheric gas-phase species. These gas-phase species,
which can undergo a number of chemical transformations before they
condense, are called aerosol precursors[2]. The primary or secondary
origin of aerosols offers a first way to categorize the atmospheric aerosol.
The chemical composition of the aerosol usually provides a first idea as
to whether the aerosol is primary or secondary[3].
2. Aerosol properties vary spatially and some of these properties can vary
more or less systematically with the type of environment. One can thus
speak of urban aerosols, semi urban aerosols, continental aerosols,
desertic aerosols, marine aerosols, volcanic aerosols or stratospheric
aerosols. This is an imperfect categorization in that aerosols can be
transported a long way and are therefore not necessarily representative of
the location where they can be found[4]. It is for ex-ample possible to
observe marine aerosols above the continents and continental aerosols
above the ocean. When local effects dominate, it may be useful though to
refer to such aerosol types in a broad sense.
3. Aerosols can also be classified according to their origin. One can
distinguish natural from anthropogenic sources. Natural sources consist
of emissions from the ocean, soils, vegetation, fires, and volcanoes.
Anthropogenic sources are largely dominated by emissions from the
combustion of fossil fuels (i.e. coal and oil), biofuels (plant biomass
including wood, vegetable oils, animal waste), other fuels (e.g. peat), or
vegetation fires caused by humans. Industrial activities, transportation,
heating, or even domestic activities related to cooking in develop-ing
countries, are important sources of aerosols. Some industrial and
agricultural activities can also emit primary aerosols referred to as
industrial dust and arable dust, respectively[8].

None of these classifications can categorize fully and systematically the aerosol.
The different aerosol populations mix and interact with each other in the
atmosphere so that some of the terms and aerosol classes that we have just
introduced are somehow misuses of language.

5
Chapter 2
2. Classifications of Aerosol and its Characteristics
Particles larger than about 0.1 micrometer in diameter scatter most of their
incident solar radiation in the forward direction, and less back to space. The
larger the particle, the greater percentage of the light is scattered forward. The
larger particles thus contribute less to tropospheric cooling, as less light is
scattered back to space. Some types of particles, especially black carbon, are
primarily absorbers while other aerosols, especially sulfates and nitrates, are
primarily scattered[13].

2.1 Aerosol Particle Types and Characteristics

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are particles that can serve as condensation
points for water vapor, and thus lead to the formation of clouds which reflect
sunlight. The following material is drawn mostly from of the Fifth Assessment
Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [4]

2.1.1 Black Carbon

Black carbon and other absorbers of incoming solar radiation act to warm the
troposphere. These particles can also deposit on snow and ice, causing
absorption of incoming solar radiation, and re-radiation as heat, thereby melting
the snow/ice, leading to reduced albedo and further tropospheric warming.
Some additional material on black carbon is available from the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. For a comprehensive summary of black
carbon in the climate system, see [1].

2.1.2 Biomass Burning Particles

A variety of particle types, including black carbon, organic aerosols, sulfates
and nitrates, are subsumed in this category. These particles arise from fires,
some of which are natural and some are anthropogenic. Drought leads to
increased effects of both kinds, so that a climate effect can affect climate
forcing. In general these particles contribute to cooling the troposphere via
scattering, or by becoming CCN. However some of these particles (primarily
black carbon) absorb incoming solar radiation, thereby contributing to
tropospheric warming[2].

6
 2.1.3 Mineral Dust
Mineral dust can absorb and/or scatter incoming solar radiation. The scattering
seems to be dominant, so that the net effect on the troposphere is cooling.
Especially when the dust is blown out over an ocean so the reflection far
exceeds the background albedo of the underlying ocean surface[11].

2.1.4 Sea-Salt Particle

The oceans constitute the main source of sea-salt aerosols. They are estimated to
originate a very large amount of particulate matter per year, including the coarse
particles (having sizes a ≥ 2.5 μm), which are generally be transported over
short distances because of their rapid removal due to gravitational settling.
Abundance of sea-salt particles is second only to mineral dust in contributing to
the over-all global particulate mass content of the troposphere (Andreae and
Rosenfeld, 2008), in which hygroscopic salts, such as NaCl, KCl, CaSO 4, and
(NH4)2SO4.[9]

2.1.5 Organic Particles

Organic aerosols are a complex mixture of chemical compounds produced from
fossil fuel and biofuel burning and natural biogenic emissions. Organic aerosols
are emitted as primary aerosol particles or formed as secondary aerosol particles
from condensation of organic gases considered semi-volatile or having low
volatility. Although organic aerosols probably scatter more light than they
absorb (cooling effect), they can lead to the formation of ozone which is a
greenhouse gas (warming effect)[1].

2.1.6 Sulfate/Nitrate Aerosols [3]

These strongly scattering particles enhance tropospheric cooling. They may also
interact with naturally occurring sea-salt particles.

2.1.7 Volcanic Particles [12]

These aerosols are a mix of absorbing and scattering particles, with the
absorbers usually being large enough to fall out quickly so that the smaller ones
dominate. Sulfate aerosols are common and the scattering properties outweigh
the absorbing properties to produce a net cooling effect on the troposphere.
Particles from volcanoes can also be cloud condensation nuclei, enhancing their
cooling effect.

7
2.1.8 Cloud Condensation Nucleii [2]
While listed last here, this may be the most important category. Many are
naturally occurring but some anthropogenic aerosols may also act as
condensation points for water vapor. This may lead to the condensation of a
given amount of water on more nuclei, smaller droplets, and longer-lived clouds
as the smaller droplets will not fall out as fast as the larger ones. In all cases
CCN lead to tropospheric cooling that may be as important as all other aerosol
effects combined [2]

8
Chapter 3
3. Sources of Aerosols[15]
Aerosols are divided into two classes, namely primary aerosols and secondary
aerosols, according to the mechanisms of their origination. Primary aerosol
particles result, for example, from fragmentation processes or combustion, and
appear in the carrier gas as already well-shaped objects. Of course, their shape
can change because of a number of physico-chemical processes such as
humidification, gas – particle reactions, coagulation, and so on. Secondary
aerosol particles appear in the carrier gas from ‗‗nothing‘‘ as a result of gas-to-
particle conversion. For example, such aerosols regularly form in the Earth‘s
atmosphere and play a key role in a number of global processes such as the
formation of clouds. They serve as the centers for heterogeneous nucleation of
water vapor. No aerosols – no clouds! One can imagine how our planet would
look without secondary aerosol particles. Primary and secondary aerosols are
characterized by the size, shape, and chemical content of the aerosol particles.
As for the shape, one normally assumes that the particles are spheres. Of course,
this assumption is an idealization necessary for simplification of the
mathematical problems related to the behavior of aerosol particles. There are
very many aerosols comprising irregularly shaped particles. The non-sphericity
of particles creates many problems. There exist also agglomerates of particles,
which in some cases reveal fractal properties. We shall return to the methods for
their description later on.There are a number of classifications of particles with
respect to their size. For example, if the particles are much smaller than the
molecular mean free path, they are referred to as ‗‗fine‘‘ particles. This size
range stretches from 1 to 10 nm under normal conditions. But from the point of
view of aerosol optics, these particles are not small if the wavelength of the
incident light is comparable with their size. This is the reason why such very
convenient and commonly accepted classifications cannot compete with natural
classifications based on the comparison of the particle size with a characteristic
size that comes up each time when one solves a concrete physical problem.

3.1 Aerosols of Natural Origin[18]

Significant natural surface sources of primary aerosol particles include the
emission of sea spray, release of soil and rock debris (mineral dust) and

9
biogenic aerosols, emission of biomass burning smoke, and injection of
volcanic debris at tropospheric altitudes by violent eruptions.

Fig 3.1: Schematic diagram illustrating role of atmospheric aerosols in the

atmosphere

A negligible contribution to the overall atmospheric aerosol loading is also

given by space, in the form of cosmic aerosols, but these fine particles are
deemed to exert only a very weak influence on the aerosol characteristics of the
high-altitude atmospheric regions, where particle concentration is always very
low. Thus, cosmic rays do not substantially alter the air properties of the low
stratosphere and the human environment con-ditions observed in the
troposphere. The aforementioned primary mechanisms that generate the
different types of particles formed at the terrestrial surface are each
characterized by well-diversified morphological features, chemical composition,
optical properties, and deposition patterns. They are described in detail in the
following subsections.

3.1.1Marine Aerosols[17]
The wind friction at the ocean surface ejects fine particles of salty marine water
into the atmosphere. A fraction of the water evaporates, so that the
concentration of salt in the particle increases. This gives rise to sea salt particles
that are more or less hydrated according to the ambient humidity. Although
these particles are often called sea salt aerosols, this is yet another misuse of
language because these particles may also contain biological material and other
impurities. It is therefore more appropriate to refer to sea spray aerosols. Sea
spray aerosols cover sizes that range from typically 100 nanometers (nm) to
10
several tens of micrometers (μm). The largest particles fall back fairly quickly
to the ocean surface and are therefore of lesser climatic importance[7].

3.1.2Desert Dust[17]
The wind friction on continental surfaces can detach soil particles and suspend
them in the atmosphere. This is particularly the case in desert, arid, and semiarid
regions where the wind is not slowed down by the vegetation that is either
completely absent or fairly sparse. The emission of soil particles to the
atmosphere also requires reduced soil humidity so that cohesive forces between
soil particles are also reduced. As for sea spray aerosols, desert dust particles
span sizes that range from typically 100 nm to tens of μm. Larger particles can
also be lifted but they fall down quickly. Desert dust aerosols are also called
mineral dust or mineral aerosols. Emissions of desert dust depend very much on
environmental and meteorological conditions. They are sporadic in nature. A
photograph of a dust storm generated by an atmospheric gravity current known
as a hobnob. An episode of Saharan dust aerosols adverted above the Atlantic
Ocean over a period of three days[9].

3.1.3 Volcanic Aerosols[17]

Volcanoes can emit fragments of pulverized rocks and minerals, usually called
volcanic ash, during explosive eruptions. These particles have sizes typically
ranging from a micrometer to millimeters. Volcanic ash can be transported over
distances of a few hundreds to a few thousand kilometer‘s but being Micronics
particles they tend to fall down rapidly. Hence their climate effect is limited.
Volcanoes also emit sulphur-rich gases (in the form of sulphur dioxide, SO2,
and hydrogen sulphide, H2S) that get oxidized in the atmosphere to form
submicronic sulphate aerosols[6]. If these sulphur-containing gases are emitted
in the troposphere, the residence time of desert dust storm in 2004 at Agoufou
in Mali. These dust storms are known as haboobs in Africa but their names vary
according to the country

Dispersion of volcanic aerosols [16]

The dispersal of volcanic aerosols has a drastic effect on Earth's atmosphere.

Follow an eruption, large amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrochloric acid
(HCL) and ash are spewed into Earth's stratosphere. HCL, in most cases,
condenses with water vapor and is rained out of the volcanic cloud formation.
SO2 from the cloud is transformed into sulphuric acid, H2SO4. The sulphuric

11
acid quickly condenses, producing aersol particles which linger in the
atmosphere for long periods of time. The interaction of chemicals on the surface
of aerosols, known as heterogeneous chemistry, and the tendency of aerosols to
increase levels of chlorine gas react with nitrogen in the stratopshere, is a prime
contributor to stratospheric ozone destruction.

Fig.3.2 Dispersion of volcanic aerosols

Aerosols interact both directly and indirectly with the Earth's radiation budget
and climate. As a direct effect, the aerosols scatter sunlight directly back into
space. As an indirect effect, aerosols in the lower atmosphere can modify the
size of cloud particles, changing how the clouds reflect and absorb sunlight,
thereby affecting the Earth's energy budget. Aerosols also can act as sites for
chemical reactions to take place (heterogeneous chemistry). The most
significant of these reactions are those that lead to the destruction of
stratospheric ozone. During winter in the polar regions, aerosols grow to form
polar stratospheric clouds.

3.1.4Biogenic Aerosols[13]
The terrestrial biosphere is a source of primary biogenic aerosol particles
(abbreviated PBAP). They comprise plant and insect debris, pollen (a fine
powder produced by seed plants that contains the male gametes that serve for
reproduction), spores (a reproduction cell or organ from many plants and fungi),
bacteria and viruses. Once airborne, these particles can be transported by the
wind on varying distances depend-ing on their size. Debris are usually larger
than 100 μm, pollen, spores and large bacteria are generally in the range of 1–
100 μm, while small bacteria and viruses are generally smaller than 1 μm.
Seawater also can contain biological material, some of which is transferred to
sea spray aerosols during the emission process. This primary organic matter is
12
found preferentially in particles smaller than 200 nm in diameter (Leck and
Bigg 2008) and its amount has been found to depend on the biological activity
in ocean waters (Facchini et al. 2008). Terrestrial and marine ecosystems are
also an important source of aerosol precur-sors. Some species of phytoplankton
produce dimethylsulphide (DMS), a gaseous compound that is oxidized in the
atmosphere to form sulphur-containing aerosols. Plants and algae emit volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) that are oxidized in the atmosphere and condense
and contribute organic material to the atmospheric aerosol. These aerosols are
referred to as secondary biogenic aerosols. Their sizes are typically of the order
of a few tenths of a micrometer[9].

3.2 Human-Made Aerosol[17]

The third type of aerosol comes from human activities. While a large fraction of
human-made aerosols come in the form of smoke from burning tropical forests,
the major component comes in the form of sulfate aerosols created by the
burning of coal and oil. The concentration of human-made sulfate aerosols in
the atmosphere has grown rapidly since the start of the industrial revolution. At
current production levels, human-made sulfate aerosols are thought to outweigh
the naturally produced sulfate aerosols. The concentration of aerosols is highest
in the northern hemisphere where industrial activity is centered. The sulfate
aerosols absorb no sunlight but they reflect it, thereby reducing the amount of
sunlight reaching the Earth's surface. Sulfate aerosols are believed to survive in
the atmosphere for about 3-5 days. The sulfate aerosols also enter clouds where
they cause the number of cloud droplets to increase but make the droplet sizes
smaller[7]. The net effect is to make the clouds reflect more sunlight than they
would without the presence of the sulfate aerosols. Pollution from the stacks of
ships at sea has been seen to modify the low-lying clouds above them. These
changes in the cloud droplets, due to the sulfate aerosols from the ships, have
been seen in pictures from weather satellites as a track through a layer of clouds.
In addition to making the clouds more reflective, it is also believed that the
additional aerosols cause polluted clouds to last longer and reflect more sunlight
than non-polluted clouds.

3.2.1Biomass Burning Aerosols[13]

In biology, biomass refers to material produced by living organisms, but we
adjust the definition here to mean all biological (organic) material that comes
from the living world and can potentially burn (i.e. vegetation, dead wood,
animal dung, peat) while excluding so-called fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil) that
13
are formed on geological timescales. The burning of biomass generates primary
aerosols that stem from the incomplete combustion of the organic matter.
Biomass burning aerosols include organic carbon, that is associated with
hydrogen and oxygen atoms, and black carbon, where the carbon content is very
high. These aerosols are generally submicronic and are clearly visible in smoke
plumes (Fig. 2.1). The sources of biomass burning aerosols are both natural and
anthropogenic. The combustion of biomass also emits gaseous compounds, such
as volatile organic compounds and sulphur dioxide, which are aerosol
precursors[8].

3.2.2Aerosols from Fossil Fuel Combustion

The combustion of coal and oil derivatives also produces black carbon and
organic carbon, as well as sulphur dioxide that converts into sulphate aerosols.
These are essentially submicronic particles, that are also a source of air
pollution in developing and industrialized countries (Fig. 2.5). Air pollution due
to particles and gas-phase pollutants, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides, is
responsible for a wide range of adverse health and environmental effects.
Effects on human health include increased respiratory and cardio-vascular
diseases and associated mortality. Aerosols and acidic deposition are
responsible for damages on historical buildings[9].

3.2.3 Industrial Dust

The main anthropogenic sources of industrial dust are given by (i)
transportation vehicular traffic and dust from roads, (ii) coal and fuel
combustion in industrial processes, (iii) cement manufacturing, (iv) metallurgy,
and (v) waste incineration. Wind erosion of tilled land can contribute to yield
supplementary amounts of dust. In fact, three broad categories account in
general for nearly all of the potential fugitive emissions including mineral dust
and food agricultural products. Primary metals are also included in the first
category and have a considerable impact con-siderably on environmental
quality. Industrial dust has been widely monitored and regulated in developed
countries, verifying that such an impact of fugitive dust emissions is relatively
limited because they consist mostly of giant particles, which settle a short
distance from the source. Fugitive dust sources are most efficient in rural areas.
Relatively low nonindustrial fugitive dust emissions are caused by traffic
entrainment of dust from paved and unpaved roads, agricultural activities,
building construction, and fires[9].

14
Chaper 4
4.Measurement Aerosol
There are many surface stations that measure at least some component of
aerosols (their size, type, concentration). These measurements tend to be
biased by the local/regional industrial activities, vehicle transport, land surface
cover and soil type, and winds. There are only few stations that are truly
remote from sources of manmade aerosols, e.g. the Cape Grim Baseline Air
Pollution Station in Tasmania, or the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. In
short, in view of local sources, the high spatial/temporal variability of aerosols,
and the complexity of aerosol properties, aerosols are much under sampled to
really understand their distribution[7].

4.1 Measuring aerosol concentrations[8]

Aerosol could be sampled remotely, from satellite, but only indirectly, by means
of a combination of various wavelengths of upwelling radiation (7). Even then
numerous assumptions are required. At this time there is no satellite instrument
that is specifically designed to measure aerosol. There are two instruments that
can be used to estimate the spatial distribution of aerosol optical thickness, but
not their vertical profile. The optical thickness is an integrated amount, and in
the visible spectrum it is a measure of haziness. One satellite instrument is the
AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer). A combination of
spectral bands was used to estimate the global-mean aerosol optical thickness,
shown in Fig 2 (8). An optical thickness of 1 means that no radiation (in this
case light at 0.55 micron) directly penetrates through the atmosphere. The high
values at low latitudes (esp. around Africa) may be largely due to fires in
support of subsistence farming. The AVHRR-based technique performs poorly
over land because of the high variability of radiative properties of the land
surface. Even over the ocean the signal-to-noise ratio is not much more than
one. The other instrument is TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer).
TOMS data can be used to detect absorbing aerosols over land, but are
insensitive to aerosols located below 1 km, including the planetary boundary
layer in which most aerosols reside. More accurate aerosol measurements will
soon be taken by the MODIS instrument to be launched soon on the Terra
satellite. MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) will measure

15
global variations in aerosol optical thickness over land and oceans, as well as
global aerosol particle size distribution over oceans (as there is currently no
simple way to derive aerosol particle size distribution over land). The
algorithms for remote sensing of aerosols over oceans and land (MODIS
Aerosol Product) are very different from one another because of differences in
the spectral reflectance of water and land under the semi-transparent aerosol
layer. MODIS's objective is to provide a comprehensive series of high-
resolution global observations of the Earth's land, oceans, and atmosphere in the
visible and infrared regions of the spectrum in such a way as to view the entire
surface of the Earth every two days. MODIS will continue to take
measurements in spectral regions that have been and are currently being
measured by other satellite sensors, such as the AVHRR (9).

Recently (1998) the Global Aerosol Climatology Project was established to

obtain a better insight of aerosol concentrations and types, by means of satellite
and surface data, field experiments and numerical simulations. The movement
and chemical evolution of aerosols can be simulated by means of GCMs that
include cloud microphysics, but until recently these models have used crude
assumptions, and they could be initialized better by means of satellite-retrieved
data.

4.2 The Removal of Aerosols

It is believed that much of the removal of atmospheric aerosols occurs in the
vicinity of large weather systems and high altitude jet streams, where the
stratosphere and the lower atmosphere become intertwined and exchange air
with each other. In such regions, many pollutant gases in the troposphere can be
injected in the stratosphere, affecting the chemistry of the stratosphere.
Likewise, in such regions, the ozone in the stratosphere is brought down to the
lower atmosphere where it reacts with the pollutant rich air, possibly forming
new types of pollution aerosols[4].

4.3 Aerosols as Atmospheric Tracers

Aerosol measurements can also be used as tracers to study how the Earth's
atmosphere moves. Because aerosols change their characteristics very slowly,
they make much better tracers for atmospheric motions than a chemical species
that may vary its concentration through chemical reactions. Aerosols have been
used to study the dynamics of the polar regions, stratospheric transport from
low to high latitudes, and the exchange of air between the troposphere and
16
stratosphere. NASA's ongoing Atmospheric Effects of Aviation Project (AEAP)
has measured emissions from the engines of several commercial and research
aircraft. Jet engine emissions have been shown to affect the concentrations of
atmospheric water vapor and aerosols, and they may affect how clouds form and
the concentrations of atmospheric ozone. Few actual measurements of their
effects have been made, however, In the spring of 1996, the Subsonic Aircraft
Contrail and Cloud Effects Special Study (SUCCESS) focused on subsonic
aircraft contrails and the impact of the aerosols in those contrails on cirrus
clouds and atmospheric chemistry. Researchers have determined that aircraft
contrails can prolong the presence of high altitude cirrus clouds while also
decreasing the size of the ice crystals that make up the clouds.Studies like
SUCCESS and AEAP will be ongoing as scientists continue to try to understand
how aerosols affect our atmosphere and climate [2].

17
Chapter 5
5. Effects of Aerosols[7]
The additional reflection caused by pollution aerosols is expected to have an
effect on the climate comparable in magnitude to that of increasing
concentrations of atmospheric gases. The effect of the aerosols, however, will
be opposite to the effect of the increasing atmospheric trace gases - cooling
instead of warming the atmosphere. The warming effect of the greenhouse gases
is expected to take place everywhere, but the cooling effect of the pollution
aerosols will be somewhat regionally dependent, near and downwind of
industrial areas. No one knows what the outcome will be of atmospheric
warming in some regions and cooling in others. Climate models are still too
primitive to provide reliable insight into the possible outcome. Current
observations of the buildup are available only for a few locations around the
globe and these observations are fragmentary. Understanding how much sulfur-
based pollution is present in the atmosphere is important for understanding the
effectiveness of current sulfur dioxide pollution control strategies.

5.1 Climate Effects of Aerosols

1. They scatter and absorb solar radiation. Backscattering of solar radiation
towards space results in a reduction of incoming solar radiation at the Earth‘s
surface, a loss of energy and a cooling of the climate system. Absorption of
solar radiation [7].

2. The term cloud radiative effect is preferred to the more usual term of cloud
radiative forcing because clouds do not exert a climate forcing as defined[7].

3. The term ―net‖ refers here to energy gained by the surface–atmosphere

system. Aerosol–radiation interactions and aerosol–cloud–radiation interactions
and how they relate to the original terminology is accompanied by a heating
within the aerosol layer, but also by a reduction of incoming solar radiation at
the Earth‘s surface. Such effects occur preferentially, but not uniquely, in clear
sky conditions. These processes have traditionally been called the aerosol direct
effect but the more precise term of aerosol–radiation interactions is preferred in
this book[7].

18
4. The absorption of solar radiation by aerosols modifies the vertical
temperature profile. This impacts the relative humidity, atmospheric stability,
and therefore cloud formation. This effect has traditionally been called the
aerosol semi-direct effect, but it can also be seen as a rapid adjustment of the
atmospheric state that follows aerosol–radiation interactions[7].

5. Aerosols serve as cloud condensation nuclei in liquid water clouds, thus

exerting a partial control of cloud microphysical and optical properties. An
increase in the concentration of aerosols leads to an increase in the
concentration of cloud condensation nuclei, and generally to an increase in the
concentration of cloud droplets. For a fixed cloud liquid water content, this is
accompanied by a reduction in the cloud droplet size and an increase in the
cloud reflectivity. Altogether this leads to less solar energy absorbed and a
cooling of the climate system. This effect has been traditionally called the
aerosol first indirect effect, but we use here the more general term of aerosol–
cloud interactions that includes this and related effects[7].

6. The modification of cloud microphysical properties is expected to have an

impact on cloud evolution, in particular in terms of the ability of clouds to
generate droplets that are large enough to initiate precipitation. This effect is
traditionally called the aerosol second indirect effect, but is viewed here as a
rapid adjustment (or a series of rapid adjustments) that stem from the role of
aerosols as cloud condensation nuclei[7].

7. Aerosols can impact the properties of mixed-phased and ice clouds, in

particular through their role as ice nuclei. This has been referred to in the past as
yet another indirect effect of aerosols, or a glaciation effect. It is also part of
aerosol–cloud interactions.

8. Absorbing aerosols may deposit onto snow and ice surfaces, thus making
these surfaces less reflective (i.e. more absorbing). This contributes to warm the
surface and thus the climate system. This effect is known as the aerosol on snow
effect but can be categorized as part of aerosol–radiation interactions or
aerosol–surface interactions in our new terminology[7].

9. Finally, aerosols also interact with vegetation through changes in incoming

solar radiation, fraction of diffuse radiation and as a source of nutrients. These
are other contributions to aerosol–surface interactions.

19
These multiple effects can be grouped into three main types of interactions:
aerosol–radiation interactions (including the direct effect, the semi-direct effect
and the aerosol on snow effect), aerosol–cloud interactions (including the first
and second aerosol effect and the glaciation effect), and aerosol–surface
interactions (effects on snow and vegetation). We follow this classification and
dis-cuss aerosol radiative effects of aerosol–cloud interactions in Chap. 9.
However it is now necessary to introduce a number of concepts and tools to
study and quantify the effects of aerosols on climate[7].

5.2 Aerosols Role in Attenuation of Solar Radiation

Aerosols play an important role in the global climate balance, and therefore they
could be important in climate change. Natural variations of aerosols, especially
due to episodic large eruptions of volcanoes, such as Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, are
recognized as a significant climate forcing, that is, a factor that alters the Earth's
radiation balance and thus tends to cause a global temperature change. In
addition, there are several ways in which humans are altering atmospheric
aerosols, not only near the ground (e.g. industrial emissions) but as high as the
lower stratosphere (where they are continuously emitted by aircraft), and thus
possibly affecting climate (e.g. through contrails) (9).

Aerosols force climate in two ways (8):

Direct Radiative Forcing: the scattering of solar radiation and the

absorption/emission of terrestrial radiation.

Indirect Radiative Forcing: mainly by effects of aerosols on cloud properties.

(A minor indirect effect involves the heterogeneous chemistry of greenhouse
gases: these gases may react at the surface of an aerosol and therefore change
radiative properties.)

Greenhouse gases have a well-understood effect on the global radiative balance

and surface temperatures, their concentration has little variability (except water
vapour and ozone), and their long-term trends are well-known. Therefore, there
is much confidence in the greenhouse gas component of the anticipated climate
change during the next few decades. However climate forcings due to aerosols
are not determined well, especially the indirect radiative forcing. Indeed,
aerosols are one of the greatest sources of uncertainty in interpretation of
climate change of the past century and in projection of future climate change.

20
The effect of aerosols on clouds is highly speculative. The theory is that the
more aerosol, the smaller the cloud droplets tend to be, and clouds with more
but smaller drops have a higher albedo. This would increase the planetary
albedo, i.e. have a cooling effect. Twomey (5) proposed the first step in this
theory, by showing empirically that the mean droplet mass in a cloud decreases
in proportion with the number concentration of aerosols (N). In other words, the
mean droplet radius (r) is proportional to: r ~ N-0.33 So if the aerosol
concentration increases by 30% = 0.3), the droplet radius decreases by
10%, and for the same total cloud water content, the number of droplets will
increase by 30%. While this relation has been corroborated surprisingly well in
various field experiments, it is uncertain whether the cloud water content will be
conserved. And the radiative forcing of clouds depends strongly on the heights
of their bases and tops, which are unknown. Also, a variation in the drop size of
a cloud will affect the way in which the cloud will evolve, produce rain or
evaporate. In some circumstances aerosols may create clouds where none
existed before, because they act as cloud condensation nuclei. Satellite imagery
over ocean areas prone to stratus clouds (especially over high-pressure regions
and/or low sea surface temperatures) reveal that ships often trigger lines of
stratus along their track[14]. These 'ship tracks' increase the albedo and cause
net cooling. Another example is the production of DMS by phytoplankton (3).
Some of this DMS seeps into the atmosphere where the sulphate aerosol
enhances cloud formation. Accurate measurements at Cape Grim in northwest
Tasmania have shown that DMS is the main agent of the nucleation of clouds
over the southern oceans (6). The surface waters within the large ocean gyres
are generally depleted of nutrients, especially iron. An experiment has shown
that the seeding of iron dramatically increases the DMS production in the ocean.
The fractions of aerosols that are manmade, biogenic, volcanic, or soil-based,
and the chemical reactions of some aerosols, are poorly understood. The
inclusion of the ice phase adds an extra step of complexity. In short, the effect
of aerosols on clouds and thus on climate is very uncertain.

The climate forcing of greenhouse gases, aerosols, and other variants, is

commonly expressed in terms of the resulting net change to the radiation
balance, expressed in W m-2. What really matters of course is how much
warming or cooling a variant bears. For instance, the net warming of the Earth's

21
atmosphere (as compared to an atmosphere without greenhouse gases, aerosols
or clouds) is 33K at the surface (from -18 C to +15 C, Section 2.8). The reason
for the use of radiation units rather than temperature units is that the effect of
some perturbation (such as a volcanic eruption) on surface temperatures
involves a cornucopia of complex feedback effects, such as atmospheric and
ocean circulations. The radiative forcing is more 'raw', and allows more direct
comparisons, e.g. between general circulation models (GCMs). The aerosol
concentrations depend on the wind, the land surface conditions (vegetation
cover), sea surface temperature, and other climate factors. During an Ice Age
the aerosol types and distributions were very different from those during an
interglacial. It is possible that aerosol acts as a positive feedback in enhancing
the difference between glacials and interglacials. For instance, during a glacial,
the stronger winds over denuded periglacial plains might pick up more dust,
contributing to a higher planetary albedo, maintaining the cold. In other words,
climate and aerosol are inter-related in a complex way.

22
Chapter 6
5.Conclusion
Aerosol science does not belong to the group of sciences that are based on
one equation or principle, like, for example, classical mechanics (Newton‘s
equation),quantum mechanics (Schrodinger‘s equation), classical
electrodynamics (Maxwell‘s equations), and so on. Rather, aerosol science
applies the results and methods adopted from all other sciences. In particular,
Newton‘s equation applies in aerosol mechanics, Maxwell‘s equations are
used in the theory of light scattering by aerosols, quantum-mechanical
approaches are needed for studying the structure of small clusters, and even
quantum field ideas have been used in aerosol science the theory of gelation,
the derivation of Mie theory from quantum principles [99], and the study of
inelastic electromagnetic processes on aerosol particles [100].This rather
speckled structure of aerosol science makes it difficult to write a review
enveloping all branches of aerosol science. Here I have restricted myself to
the problems of kinetics of aerosols[14].

23
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