Affective Variables in Second

Language Performance

Leesa Sadasivan “Affective variables in the esl performance of learners

in Kerala” Thesis. Department of English, University of Calicut, 2002
 Chapter I1

Affective Variables in Second Language Performance

2.1.Introduction

The process of learning a second language i s one that calls

for a total commitment f r o m the learner. A total physical,

intellectual and emotional response i s necessary to successfully

send and receive linguistic messages. Language i s inextricably

bound up with virtually every aspect of human behaviour. It i s

therefore difficult t o isolate the component parts of second language

acquisition; it is even more difficult to treat one of those

components-the affective domain-without reference to other

domains. Nevertheless, i t i s possible to speak of affective or

emotional factors in second language learning with some degree of

precision, as long as that precision presupposes the inter-

relationship of the dynamics of human behaviour. Human behaviour

in general i s dominated by emotion and the affective domain is

crucial in governing a person's success in second language learning.

We must acknowledge that while all the optimal cognitive factors

may be operating, the learner can fail because of an affective block.

These days there i s an increasing awareness of the necessity to

examine the human personality t o find answers to perplexing

problems in language learning. Research studies by Gardner and

Lambert ( A t t i t u d e and M o t i v a t i o n ) , Lukamani ( M o t i v a t i o n ) and

Guiora, e t al. ( T h e effects; Empathy and Second language l e a r n i n g )

have, on a theoretical level, provided insights into the role of the

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affective domain in language learning. It appears that unsuccessful

language learning can be attributed largely to affective blocks of

various kinds. Affective factors include a large number of variables,

starting from the self-centric factors t o the exterior world of social

interactions and interpersonal communications. T h e following are

the major factors, which constitute the affective domain in language

learning.

2.2.Self-centric o r Ego centric Factors

It i s rather easy t c claim that cognitive and affective

endeavour will fail without a certain amount of self-confidence,

knowledge of t h e self and belief in one's own capability f o r that

endeavour. Every normal human child is born with certain optimal

innate abilities that are either enhanced or reduced by the conditions

of the environment in which he i s placed. In the process of

development, the human child becomes aware of his physical

boundaries and i s able t o distinguish himself from the objective

world around him. The development of personality means the

development of a person's concept of self, acceptance of self and

reflection of self on others a s seen in the interaction between self

and others.

2.2.1.Self-esteem

The most important knowledge of the world is perhaps the

kncwledge of t h e 'self' as the ' s e l f ' i s the c e n t r e of the universe f o r

an individual. T h e whole world pivots round the ' s e l f 7 and i s

understood, appreciated and conditioned by the attitude of the

 46

'self'. Therefore, our comprehension of the universe originates

from the knowledge of the 'self'-'self-centric'.

A major factor related to the thinking and feeling human

organism i s his 'ego'. T h e self-knowledge, self-esteem and self-

confidence of the language learner could have everything to do with

success in learning a language. Guiora, et al. ( E m p a t h y and second

language l e a r n i n g ) proposed the notion of "language ego" to refer

to the very personal, egoistic nature of second language learning.

Any language learning process that results in meaningful learning

for communication involves some degree of identity conflict

regardless of the age and motivation of the learner. The very

definition of communication implies a process of revealing one's

self to andther. Break down in communication often results from a

person's unwillingness to be 'honest' in revealing his self. A strong

language ego is thus conceivably positively correlated with success

in second language learning. According t o Ausubel ( E d u c a t i o n a l

P s y c h o l o g y ) , one of the key factors contributing to motivation for

any task i s a basic ego-enhancement drive: a person diligently

strives f o r those things that tend t o build o r restore self-esteem.

Research on ego-enhancement further defines how t o appeal to ego-

enhancement and how to incorporate ego-enhancing variables into

methods and materials f o r language teaching.

Malinowski ( T h e Problem o f M e a n i n g ) has noted that all of us

have a need f o r phatic communion-defining ourselves and finding

acceptance in expressing that self in relation to others. Personality

development universally involves the growth of a person's concept

of self, acceptance of self and reflection of self as seen in the

interaction of self and others.

The worth that persons place upon themselves i s commonly

referred to as self-esteem. People derive a sense of self-esteem from

the accumulation of experiences with themselves and with others

and the assessment of the external world around them. Global self-

esteem i s general and relatively stable in adults. Specific self-

esteem refers t o one's appraisal of one's self in certain life

situations like social interaction and varies depending upon the

situation. Task self-esteem relates to particular tasks within specific

situations. In t h e context of second language learning, global self-

esteem refers to the classroom situation in general, specific self-

esteem to second language acquisition itself and task self-esteem

to one's self-evaluation of a particular aspect of the process

speaking, writing or even a special kind of classroom exercise.

Brodkey and Shore ( S t u d e n t P e r s o n a l i t y ) and Gardner and Lambert

( A t t i t u d e a n d M o t i v a t i o n ) included measures of self-esteem in their

studies of success in language learning and concluded that self-

esteem i s an important variable in second language acquisition.

2.2.2.Eelf-actualisation

Self-actualisation persons are human beings in their fullest

capacity and communicating in a second language means

communicating one's self in countless ways in t h e fullest capacity.

Some highly sophisticated methods of language teaching have failed

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t o d e v e l o p c o m m u n i c a t i v e n e s s in t h e l e a r n e r b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e

overlooked the importance of spontaneity and creativity in

successfully sending and interpreting linguistic messages with

variations.

Successful communication in a language may mean

spontaneous and creative expression in sending out linguistic

m e s s a g e s a n d an i m p u l s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i n c o m i n g m e s s a g e s .

A second language learner with self-actualisation as the target can

a c h i e v e a f a i r a m o u n t of c r e a t i v i t y i n t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h i s i s t h e

highest s t a g e of s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i s a t t a i n e d a t an a d v a n c e d level

of s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g .

2.2.3.Inhibition

All human b e i n g s , in t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m s e l v e s ,

build s e t s of d e f e n c e s t o p r o t e c t t h e e g o . C h i l d r e n d o not h a v e

inhibition but as they grow up, they learn to differentiate

t h e m s e l v e s f r o m o t h e r s a n d s e a r c h f o r self-identity. In a d o l e s c e n c e ,

there occur physical, emotional and cognitive changes giving rise to

a s y s t e m of a f f e c t i v e t r a i t s a n d t h e y d e v e l o p m o u n t i n g d e f e n s i v e

i n h i b i t i o n t o w a r d off f e e l i n g s t h a t c h a l l e n g e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m . An

adult second language learner develops such inhibition towards a

s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , a s h e i s a p p r e h e n s i v e of l o s i n g h i s s e l f - e s t e e m

when r e q u i r e d t o t a k e on a n e w i d e n t i t y in t h e p r o c e s s .

S o m e persons-those with higher self-esteem and ego

strength-are more able to withstand threats to their

e x i s t e n c e a n d t h u s t h e i r d e f e n c e s a r e lower. T h o s e with
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weaker self-esteem maintain walls of inhibition to

p r o t e c t a w e a k o r f r a g i l e e g o o r a l a c k of self-

c o n f i d e n c e i n a s i t u a t i o n o r task. ( B r o w n l 6 )

Meaningful l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e s s o m e d e g r e e of

i d e n t i t y c o n f l i c t a n d an a d a p t i v e l a n g u a g e e g o e n a b l e s t h e l e a r n e r t o

lower the inhibitions that may impede success.

G u i o r a , e t a l . ( E m p a t h y and second language l e a r n i n g ) h a s

p r o d u c e d o n e of t h e f e w s t u d i e s on i n h i b i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o s e c o n d

language learning. G u i o r a d e s i g n e d an e x p e r i m e n t u s i n g s m a l l

q u a n t i t i e s of a l c o h o l t o i n d u c e t e m p o r a r y s t a t e s of l e s s than normal

i n h i b i t i o n in an e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p of s u b j e c t s . P e r f o r m a n c e of t h e

a l c o h o l - i n d u c e d s u b j e c t s on a pronunciation t e s t in Thai was

s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of a c o n t r o l group. G u i o r a

c o n c l u d e d that a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e t w e e n i n h i b i t i o n a n d

a b i l i t y in s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . T h e r e w e r e s o m e s e r i o u s l a p s e s in h i s

c o n c l u s i o n : a l c o h o l may l o w e r i n h i b i t i o n s b u t a l c o h o l a l s o t e n d s t o

a f f e c t m u s c u l a r t e n s i o n , a n d t h e l a t t e r m a y h a v e been a m o r e

i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r than t h e f o r m e r i n t h e s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e of

alcohol-induced subjects. The works of Curran (Counseling

L e a r n i n g ) , B e g i n ( E v a l u a t i v e and Emotional F a c t o r s ) a n d L a F o r g e

(Community language) are excellent attempts to demonstrate the

n o t i o n t h a t i n h i b i t i o n m a y b e o n e of t h e key o b s t a c l e s t o a n y

learning that necessitates communication or interaction with another

person.
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Steps have been initiated in second language teaching

methodology to reduce inhibition a n d Curran's counselling learning

and community language learning are the most popular and

successful products of this e n d e a v o u r where the learners take part in

language learning activity in an a t m o s p h e r e f r e e f r o m inhibition

(Counseling L e a r n i n g ) .

2.2.4. Mistakes

That l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e m a k i n g of mistakes i s

common knowledge. A l e a r n e r tests his language a b i l i t y by trial and

e r r o r and progress can b e achieved only by learning f r o m mistakes.

If a l e a r n e r never ventures t o use t h e target l a n g u a g e until he is

absolutely certain of its correctness, then he would never

communicate productively. M i s t a k e s pose both internal and external

threats. Internally, when t h e l e a r n e r c o m m i t s a m i s t a k e , his critical

self will b e in conflict with his performing self and h e becomes

critical of his own mistakes. Externally, the l e a r n e r perceives o t h e r s

e x e r c i s i n g their judgement on him a n d his m i s t a k e s . Earl S t e v i c k

(Memory, Meaning and M e t h o d ) s p o k e of l a n g u a g e learning as

involving a number of f o r m s of alienation-alienation between the

critical self and performing s e l f , between t h e n a t i v e c u l t u r e and t h e

target c u l t u r e , between t h e learner and the t e a c h e r and between the

learner and his fellow learners-which arise f r o m the defences built

by t h e learner. T h e s e d e f e n c e s d o not f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g , rather

inhibit learning and t h e i r removal promotes l a n g u a g e learning,

which i n v o l v e s s e l f - e x p o s u r e t o a c e r t a i n degree.
2.3.Transactional Factors

We are 'social animals' whose identity is an integral part of

the way we interpret others' responses to us. Language provides us

with the means of making the transactions necessary for shaping this

identity.

Many of the language teaching methods have failed to achieve

their goal because they have either overlooked this social nature of

language or have considered socially oriented problems in language

learning as a matter of acculturation

Empathy, ego permeability and imitation are crucial in

transactional affectivity and deserve serious attention, as they are

responsible in bringing about successful communication. With the

recent emphasis on 'communicative competence', these factors have

greater relevance today. To define the term communicative

competence it i s essential to take into account the findings of

developmental psychology regarding the development of first

language communicative competence. T h e ability to adapt one's

communication develops at a later age and i t develops at a slower

pace than linguistic competence. T h i s means that all persons are

not equally communicatively competent although they are

linguistically and socio-linguistically competent (Pramanik 26-28).

The competence to adapt one's language to ever changing

interpersonal communication does not depend merely on o n e ' s

knowledge of appropriate socio-cultural rules of a language but also

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on one's ability to judge t h e perspective of the other person

involved in the speech situation.

2.3.1.Empathy

Guiora (1972) defines empathy as:

[. . .] a process of comprehending in which a

temporary fusion of self-object boundaries, as in the

earliest pattern of object relation, permits an

immediate emotional apprehension of the affective

experience of another, this sensing being used by

the cognitive function to gain understanding of the

others. ( C o n s t r u c t Validity 142)

Empathy i s the process of putting yourself into someone else's

shoes, of reaching beyond the self and understanding and feeling

what another person is understanding and feeling. It i s probably the

major factor in the harmonious CO-existence of individuals in

society. Language i s one of t h e primary means of empathizing.

Psychclogists generally agree that there are two necessary aspects

of the development and exercising of empathy: first, a self-

awareness and self-knowledge of one's own feelings, and second,

identification with another person o r persons (Hogan, Development

of a n e m p a t h y s c a l e ) .

In fact, empathy i s a pre requisite f o r successfully receiving,

interpreting and sending linguistic messages. Brown ( A f f e c t i v e

f a c t o r s ) makes i t clear when he says:

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Communication requires a sophisticated degree of

empathy. In o r d e r t o c o m m u n i c a t e effective1.y o n e needs

t o be a b l e t o understand the o t h e r person's a f f e c t i v e and

c o g n i t i v e s t a t e s ; communication breaks down when f a l s e

presumptions a r e made about the o t h e r person's s t a t e .

T h u s , a high d e g r e e of e m p a t h y i s predictive of s u c c e s s in

second language learning. G u i o r a , e t al. ( E m p a t h y and second

l a n g u a g e ) s u g g e s t s that ego-permeability i s i n d u c i b l e which i s

encouraging f o r a l a n g u a g e teacher. If an adult second language

l e a r n e r can have s u c c e s s in assuming c h i l d l i k e e g o s t a t e s , there

exists greater ego-permeability and a w i d e s c o p e f o r empathic

communication.

Any communicative act i n v o l v e s certain knowledge about the

structure of t h e l a n g u a g e and t h e ability t o m a k e c o r r e c t judgements

about the emotional s t a t e of the participants in the communication.

In o r d e r t o make c o r r e c t a s s u m p t i o n s about the emotional s t a t e of

another person, o n e h a s t o s u r m o u n t one's e g o b o u n d a r i e s , o r in

Guiora's term, o n e has t o p e r m e a t e e g o b o u n d a r i e s s o as t o send and

r e c e i v e linguistic m e s s a g e s clearly.

In second l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g t h e p r o b l e m of e m p a t h y i s m o r e

complex as t h e learner-speaker h a s t o make c o r r e c t assumptions in a

language in which he i s i n s e c u r e . T h e learner-hearer attempting t o

comprehend a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e f i n d s that h i s own affective and

cognitive s t a t e i s misjudged by t h e o t h e r person r e s u l t i n g in

. communication breakdown. Curran's (Counseling Learning)

community language learning i s a brilliant e x a m p l e of building up

empathy i n t o s e c o n d l a n g u a g e methodology.

2.3.2.Imitation

M i l l e r and Dollard's ( S o c i a l L e a r n i n g a n d I m i t a t i o n ) classic

work on imitation integrated the concept of imitation into a

behaviouristic f r a m e w o r k and presented t h e problem as a major

issue f o r l e a r n i n g theorists. A u s u b e l ' s ( E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology)

study of t h e school performance of "satellizers" ( t h o s e who tend to

attract i m i t a t o r s ) a n d "non satellizers" (usually i m i t a t o r s of and

dependents upon s u p e r o r d i n a t e f i g u r e s ) f o u n d important differences

between t h e t w o types of individuals.

2.4.Personality Variables

Attention has been d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s certain personality

variables, which a r e relatively s t a b l e t h a t affect successful language

learning.

2.4.1.Field dependencelindependence

T h i s r e f e r s t o t h e way individuals p e r c e i v e and organise

their world. Field dependent i n d i v i d u a l s tend to view their world as

a total c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t o b e i n f l u e n c e d by the whole f i e l d , w h i l e

field independent individuals can separate parts of their

environments f r o m the total f i e l d . Brown has suggested that this

f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s a merger of cognitive and a f f e c t i v e variables

(Development of F i r s t L a n g u a g e 231-244). According t o Witkin, e t

al. field d e p e n d e n t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e s e n s i t i v e a n d f o u n d t o b e
outgoing and gregarious. But field independent people are self-

sufficient and tend to be more successful second language learners

as they are able t o separate t h e language stimuli required to be

learned from the total context while the field dependent ones tend to

be distracted by the total learning environment (1127-45).

2.4.2.Sociability

Chastian (Affective a n d ability f a c t o r s ) obtained significant

positive correlations between sociability and second language

learning. Valette (Some reflections) found that young children who

were "quick to learn a second language were the talkative, outgoing,

easily adaptable and eager to express themselvesV(92). Smart, et al.

found that "social spontaneity differentiated over achievers from

average achievers." Over achievers were lower in social spontaneity

than average achievers. "They d o not enjoy social activities, prefer

not t o be in crowds do not spend their f r e e time at social functions,

seldom take t h e initiative at social gatherings, work better by

themselves and prefer to work aloneW(419).

2.4.3.Anxiety

Naiman, e t al. (The G o o d L a n g u a g e L e a r n e r ) demonstrates

that learners with high levels of anxiety are less successful in

learning second languages than more relaxed learners. Krashen

(Second L a n g u a g e Acquisition) and Rivers (The Psychologist)

consider anxiety as a potent deterrent to second language

achievement. Learners who become anxious in the second language-

learning context will be less successful than those who do not. T h e

construct of anxiety need not b e general but instead specific to the

language-learning context and it is this component that tends to

interfere with language learning.

Personality may also influence the effectiveness of

instruction. With regard to performance in second language, Krashen

(The Monitor m o d e l ) suggested that extrovert learners are likely t o

under use the Monitor-the knowledge the learner uses to

consciously edit his errors-and introverts t o overuse it. In general,

however, the relationship between personality and learning styles i s

very speculative and i t i s not c l e a r what type of personality will or

will not benefit from formal instruction.

2.4.4.Extroversion and Introversion

Introversion refers to the tendency of an individual to

withdraw from social interaction and be preoccupied with inner

thoughts and feelings. Extroversion i s the tendency to be outgoing

and interested in people and things in the environment. This cult of

extroversion is carried over to the language classroom and an

amiable, talkative personality tends t o be held up as axiomatically

desirable and ideal from the standpoint of mental hygiene.

Educational psychologists tend to agree that a learner's

extroversion and introversion may be a grossly misleading index of

social adjustment (Ausubel 413). It i s indicated that this variable

has a strong basis on the cultural background and that the socio-

linguistic expectations of that culture could significantly change

such judgements.
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A person may behave in an extroverted manner in order to

protect his own ego, as extroverted behaviour signifies defensive

barriers and high ego boundaries. T h e introverted, quieter, more

reserved person may show high empathy-an intuitive understanding

and appreciation of others-and be more reserved in the outward and

overt expressions of empathy.

It i s interesting t o note the findings of the studies concluded

in the same year 1975, contradicting each other. Pramanik presents

the results of the study of Naiman, Frohlich and Stern and that of

Chastain. The former found no significant correlation between

scores on an extroversion/introversion scale and performance on

listening comprehension or imitation task and the latter concluded

that the reserved/outgoing does seem to be a significant factor in

course grade (32). Two years later Hamayan (Affective f a c t o r s )

administered HSPQ (The junior-senior High School Personality

Questionnaire) t o students learning French a s a second language.

The questionnaire was designed to assess fourteen persenality

dimensions that included personality traits such a s reserved-warm

hearted and shy-adventurous. Learning a second language i s more

effective when the language i s practised and a s shy students may be

less likely t o practice i t , they will attain less proficiency even i n

reading.

Extroverts are better second language learners due to other

considerations. First, students who are branded introverts by

teachers are not necessarily so, considering their cultural variations.

Covertly, t h e y m a y be m o r e o p e n t o s h a r e a n d c o m p r e h e n d a l t h o u g h

a p p a r e n t l y t h e y a p p e a r t o be i n t r o v e r t s . S e c o n d , e x t r o v e r s i o n m a y b e

a technique to protect a fragile ego. Introverts, though they appear

r e s e r v e d a n d u n a s s u m i n g , m a y d i s p l a y an i n t u i t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

a n d a p p r e h e n s i o n of o t h e r s . T h i r d , e x t r o v e r s i o n m a y b e p r e d i c t i v e of

s u c c e s s i n t h e s p e a k i n g of a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e b u t n o t in t h e o t h e r

skills like listening, reading and writing.

2.5.Psychological Variables

2.5.1.Reflective/Impulsive

Psychological variables include basic personality tendencies

t o w a r d s i m p u l s i v i t y a n d r e f l e c t i v i t y and d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e t o

which a person t e n d s t o m a k e e i t h e r a q u i c k o r g a m b l i n g ( i m p u l s i v e )

g u e s s a t an a n s w e r t o a p r o b l e m o r a s l o w e r , m o r e c a l c u l a t e d

( r e f l e c t i v e ) d e c i s i o n . I t has been f o u n d t h a t l e a r n e r s w h o a r e

c o n c e p t u a l l y r e f l e c t i v e tend t o m a k e f e w e r e r r o r s in r e a d i n g than t h e

i m p u l s i v e l e a r n e r s ( K a g a n , Reflection-impulsivity) b u t t h e i m p u l s i v e

ones may be faster readers. D o r o n in a s t u d y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t

r e f l e c t i v e s t u d e n t s w e r e s l o w e r and m o r e a c c u r a t e than i m p u l s i v e

students (Reflectivity-impulsivity). Those with impulsive

p e r s o n a l i t i e s g o t h r o u g h a n u m b e r of r a p i d t r a n s i t i o n s of s e m i -

g r a m m a t i c a l s t a g e s of i n t e r l a n g u a g e , w h i l e r e f l e c t i v e l e a r n e r s tend

to remain longer at a particular stage with larger leaps from stage to

stage.
 Aggression can be defined a s "a sequence of behaviour the

goal of which [. . .] i s injury of the person toward whom i t i s

directed" (Dollard, et al. F r u s t r a t i o n a n d Aggression). Freud's early

theory of aggression maintained that i t is a "primordial reaction" to

frustration (A G e n e r a l Introduction). Aggression could be a central

factor determining motivation and foreign language teaching

methods may capitalize on aggressive behaviour, as aggressive

determination to complete a lesson will bring resolution.

"Let us say that given motivation, i t i s inevitable that a

human being will learn a second language if he i s exposed to the

language data" (Corder 164). Despite the slipperiness of this

concept, i t i s recognised that motivation, whether instrumental or

integrative (Gardner and Lambert, Attitude a n d Motivation) or

whether global, situational or task-oriented (Brown, Affective

f a c t o r s ) or whether part of the act of communication itself (Mac

Namara, Nurseries), is a determining factor in second language

development. It i s argued that the explicit knowledge derived from

consciousness-raising may not b e automatised unless the learner i s

disposed to spend the energy and extra time that i s required to affect

this transfer. Fossilisation occurs when the learner i s not so

disposed. Thus the overall effectiveness of formal instruction may

depend not only on the learner's preparedness t o invest effort in

consciousness rising but also in his preparedness to practise until

'automaticity' is achieved.

T h e studies of Kelly ( C e n t u r i e s of Language Teaching) and

Savignon (Communicative Competence) failed to reveal any

significant correlation between motivation and achievement or

between attitude and achievement but the studies of Spolsky

( L i n g u i s t i c and language p e d a g o g y ) , Gardner and Lambert ( A t t i t u d e

and M o t i v a t i o n ) found a positive correlation between motivation and

second language learning. Motivation i s commonly thought of as an

inner drive, impulse, emotion or d e s i r e that moves one t o a

particular action. Humans universally have needs o r drives that are

innate, yet their intensity is environmentally conditioned. Six

desires or needs of human organisms have been identified by

Ausubel (368-379), which under gird the construct of motivation.

These needs appear to capture t h e essence of t h e general categories

of needs and are especially relevant t o second language learning.

(1) The need f o r Exploration, f o r seeing 'the other s i d e of the

mountain', f o r probing the unknown (2) T h e need f o r Manipulation,

for operating on the environment and causing change ( 3 ) T h e need

for Activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental

(4) T h e need f o r Stimulation, the need to b e stimulated by the

environment, by other people o r by i d e a s , thoughts and feelings

(5) The need f o r Knowledge, the need t o process and internalise the

results of exploration, manipulation, activity and stimulation, t o

resolve contradictions, t o quest f o r solutions t o problems and f o r

self-consistent systems of knowledge (6) Finally, the need f o r Ego-

enhancement, f o r the self to be known and to be accepted and

approved of by others.

Motivation, as the fulfilment of needs, i s closely connected

to behaviouristic reinforcement theory. Certain needs when

satisfactorily met cause reinforcement. Learning a new language

enhances one's ego and the ego-enhancement i s in itself an internal

reinforcer of the desired behaviour.

Motivation i s an inner drive or stimulus, which, like self-

esteem, can be global, situational o r task-oriented. Learning a new

language requires some of all three levels of motivation. A learner

may possess high 'global' motivation but low 'task' motivation to

perform well in a particular aspect of the language.

Gardner and Lambert (Attitude and Motivation) have

conducted extensive studies of motivation in second language

learning. Two different types of motivation have been identified-

instrumental and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation

refers to the learning of a language a s a means of attaining

instrumental goals such a s furthering a career, reading technical,

material and translations etc. An integrative motive i s employed

when a learner wishes t o integrate himself with in t h e culture of the

second language group, t o identify him with and become part of the

society. A learner with instrumental motivation will be interested in

learning the second language up to the point where his specific

instrumental goals are satisfied. For instance, during travel the

 l e a r n e r c a n m a n a g e t o a c h i e v e his g o a l s with a very low level of

p r o f i c i e n c y in t h e s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . M a n y of L a m b e r t ' s studies

(Attitude and Motivation) and of Spolsky's (Linguistic and

Language p e d a g o g y ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n t e g r a t i v e m o t i v a t i o n i s an

important requirement for successful language learning.

According to Schumann:

T h e m o t i v a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with p r o f i c i e n c y

in t h e s e c o n d l a n g u a g e s e e m s t o v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

s e t t i n g . An i n t e g r a t i v e m o t i v a t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e m o r e

e f f e c t i v e i n s e t t i n g s w h e r e i t i s n e i t h e r n e c e s s a r y n o r an

a c c e p t e d f a c t of life that the second language is

acquired. Such conditions obtain in the United States

with r e g a r d t o l e a r n i n g l a n g u a g e s such a s F r e n c h ,

German or Italian. On the other hand, in settings such as

Iran a n d S a u d i A r a b i a , l e a r n e r s m a y h a v e very l i t t l e

integrative motivation to acquire English, but they may

h a v e a g r e a t d e a l of i n s t r u m e n t a l m o t i v a t i o n t o l e a r n t h e

l a n g u a g e i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o d e a l with E n g l i s h -

speaking technical advisors, educators and businessmen.

( A c c u l t u r a t i o n Model 168)

Gardner (Social Psychology 54) gives a schematic

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o n c e p t of m o t i v a t i o n a s i t r e l a t e s t o s e c o n d

language acquisition Fig.3.

 Attitude towards

learning French

Motivational Goal : Learning French

4
intensity i s important t o me

because. . .

Fig.3

The four elements, viz., attitudes toward learning the

language, desire, motivational intensity and goal are illustrated

here. Goal here refers to the ultimate objective of the language

study, the reason for learning the language and is shown to be

assessed in terms of completion of the statement 'Learning French i s

important to me because [. . .l' Gardner refers t o the categories of

reasons as 'orientations'.

This representation differentiates between orientation and

motivation. Orientation i s the various reasons f o r learning a second

language. Motivation refers to a complex of three characteristics,

which may o r may not be related to a particular orientation. These

characteristics are attitudes towards learning the language, desire to

learn the language, and motivational intensity.

In the Indian scenario, learning English has become an

accepted f a c t of life, a lingua franca i n the country, though there i s

a variation in degree of i t s acceptability in different parts. T h e

instrumentallintegrative construct helps us t o grasp the process of

leaning a second language, but there is no single best means of

learning a second language and the two types of motivation are not

mutually exclusive. The student's interest in a second language and

their motives f o r second language learning in different settings has

to be studied. It has to be examined how to motivate students in a

situation where social motivation i s conspicuously absent. To some,

motivation i s a goal-directed behaviour. Without a clear perception

of the long-term goal, the learner may not be well motivated to

continue the complex task of second language learning. If o n e i s

motivated to read and to write without fluency in speech o r accuracy

in listening, then one's language learning i s f a r f r o m being

complete.

2.6.1.Psychological views of Motivation

2.6.1.1.Drive

T h e study of motivation was long dominated by the

concept of drive. For psychologists like Hull and Thorndike

(Weiner, Theories of Motivation) this was energy directed towards a

given goal. Drive i s directly related t o need. Man i s driven to learn

because learning gives him rewards such as approval and tokens of

success, which are associated with his need. But the drive theory

does not hold good in connection with human learning. T h e drive to

act i s reduced if the need i s reduced; therefore giving rewards

reduce learning instead of increasing it. Human learners often have

well defined aims and objectives and the learning part of a language

may increase motivational strength and the learner may want to

learn the rest.

2.6.1.2. Need for Achievement

The learner's estimate of the value of the task to him and the

chances of succeeding are vital components of motivation. The

strength of the need f o r achievement i s the result of two tendencies,

motivation towards success and motivation towards the avoidance of

failure.

2.7.Attitude

Attitude refers to the psychological process that determines an

individual's behaviour. Allport ( T h e historical b a c k g r o u n d ) defines

attitude as "a mental and neural state of readiness organized through

experience exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the

individual's response to all objects o r situations with which i t i s

associated" (10). The role of attitude in second language learning i s

no exception to i t as the positive attitude of a learner provides

imperatives f o r an individual's response to all objects or situations,

which are associated with the process of second language learning.

The terms 'attitude' and 'motivation' are interchangeable as i s

evident in the coinage of terms l i k e attitudinal motivation o r

motivational attitude.

Attitudes, l i k e all other aspects of the development of

cognition and affect in human beings, develop e a r l y in childhood

and are the result of parental and peer attitudes, contact with people

who are 'different' and interacting affective factors in the human

experience. Such attitudes form a part of one's perception of self, of

others and of the culture in which one i s living.

 66

Gardner and Lambert's ( A t t i t u d e and Motivation) e x t e n s i v e

studies reveal that the most i m p o r t a n t aspect of a t t i t u d e i s group-

s p e c i f i c , t h e a t t i t u d e that the l e a r n e r has towards the members of the

cultural g r o u p whose l a n g u a g e h e i s learning.

John O l l e r and h i s c o l l e a g u e s ( O l l e r and P e r k i n s , Intelligence;

Chihara and Oller, Attitudes and Attained Proficiency in EFL; Oller,

Baca and Vigil, Attitudes and Attained Proficiency in ESL)

conducted studies on the relationship between attitudes and

language success. In t h e 1977 s t u d y by O l l e r ( A t t i t u d e s and Attained

Proficiency in E S L ) which was a i m e d at s t u d y i n g t h e relevance of

the a t t i t u d e of n a t i v e s p e a k e r s of C h i n e s e i n the United S t a t e s t o

their proficiency in English a s a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e i t was f o u n d that

there was a n e g a t i v e correlation between t h e i r d e s i r e t o s t a y in the

United S t a t e s and attainment of proficiency i n E S L . The Chinese

s t u d e n t s d i d not l i k e t o s t a y in the U.S., yet they performed well in

E S L . A s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r benefits f r o m positive attitudes

whereas n e g a t i v e attitudes d e c r e a s e his motivation leading to

unsuccessful attainment of proficiency. E v e r y l e a r n e r has both

positive and n e g a t i v e attitudes and t h e negative attitudes can b e

changed by e x p o s u r e t o reality and e n c o u n t e r s with actual persons

from other cultures. Negative attitudes emerge from undue

ethnocentrism that can be d i s p e l l e d through realistic understanding

of the o t h e r c u l t u r e . In his discussion on attitudinal aspects of

second language learning, Spolsky ( L i n g u i s t i c and Language

pedagogy) c o m m e n t s "in a t y p i c a l l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g situation there

are a number of people whose attitudes to each other can be

insignificant; the learner, the teacher, the learner's peers and

parents, and the speakers of the language" (273).

Attitudes toward learning a second language have been found

to relate to other factors, for instance, sex differences have been

obtained on attitudes toward learning the second language. Girls

tend to demonstrate significantly more positive attitudes than boys

(Burstall, F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g ; Gardner and Smythe, S e c o n d L a n g u a g e

a c q u i s i t i o n ; Jones, A t t i t u d e s : a p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; A t t i t u d e s ,

a further investigation). Attitudes toward learning a second

language have been found t o b e independent of intelligence and

language aptitude.

Interaction with the target language community produces

positive attitudes towards the language. Contact between the learner

groups and native speakers of the language through excursion

programme are found to foster positive attitudinal effects (Cziko

and Lambert 14-29). T h e notion that "nothing succeeds like success"

(Burstall 1 7 ) suggests that students who achieve a high level of

proficiency in the second language experience rewards and

consequently develop favourable attitudes.

He confirms that attitude is not necessarily something very

stable but varies depending upon the achievement levels at various

stages of the language course.

[. . .] that the acquisition of foreign language skills

and the development of attitudes towards foreign

 language learning during the later years may be

powerfully influenced by t h e learner's initial and

formative experience of success or failure in the

language learning situation. (17)

Psychologists agree that new attitudes can be formed in the

learner and here the language teacher can play a pivotal role.

Negative attitudes formed by false stereotyping and undue

ethnocentrism can be changed by exposure t o reality. A learner,

who i s well informed about the speaker's of target language, i s

apparently less inclined t o build negative attitudes. Attitudes d o not

have a one-way channel from t h e learner to others but there are all

possibilities of an interrelationship between the attitudes and

success or failure in t h e second language learning.

2.8.Potential roles of the parent

The role of the learner's peers and parents i s of great

importance. Carroll has emphasized the importance of parent's

involvement in the language activity of the child:

T h e greater the parents use of the foreign language

in the home, the higher were the mean scores of the

students. Thus o n e reason why some students reach

high levels of attainment in a foreign language i s

that they have home environments that are

favourable to this, either because the students are

better motivated t o learn o r because they have better

 69

opportunities to learn. (Foreign Language

Proficiency 1 3 8 )

G a r d n e r ( A t t i t u d e s and M o t i v a t i o n ) d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t w o

p o t e n t i a l r o l e s of t h e parent. T h e a c t i v e r o l e , when t h e y e n c o u r a g e

the learner to d o well, monitors the learner's language learning

p e r f o r m a n c e and when t h e y r e i n f o r c e t h e i r s u c c e s s . The passive

r o l e , which i s s u b t l e r , i n v o l v e s t h e p a r e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e

second language community. Parents with positive attitudes towards

the community would serve to support integrative motives and

p a r e n t s w i t h n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s w o u l d i n h i b i t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of

positive attitudes even when they actively promote second language

achievement. Such parents with negative orientation towards the

second language community will encourage their wards, monitor

t h e i r p r o g r e s s a n d r e i n f o r c e t h e i r s u c c e s s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , in o t h e r

contexts, they express negative opinions about the community, thus

developing similar attitudes in their children.

2.9.Aptitude

Language learning requires a specific aptitude o r talent for

t h e a c t i v i t y that e v e r y b o d y d o e s n o t p o s s e s s , an e a r f o r l a n g u a g e s .

Aptitude refers to a disposition to b e able to do something well.

Carroll (Learning Theory) argues that language aptitude

comprises four abilities. 'Phonetic coding' is considered the most

i m p o r t a n t a n d i s d e f i n e d a s t h e a b i l i t y t o both c o d e a n d a s s i m i l a t e

p h o n e t i c m a t e r i a l a n d h o l d i t i n memory. ' G r a m m a t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y '

i s t h e a w a r e n e s s a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n s of g r a m m a t i c a l
 70

elements in one's own language. 'Memory ability' i s the capacity to

remember large amounts of material. 'Inductive language learning

ability' involves the general reasoning ability to induce patterns of

language from primary data.

There i s ample evidence t o suggest that there i s an association

between language aptitude and the degree of proficiency i n second

language. Language aptitude i s important in second language

learning because the abilities assessed operate a s mediators in the

learning process. Carroll ( L e a r n i n g T h e o r y ) considers both nature

and nurture as contributors to language aptitude though i t i s

difficult to disentangle contributions from the two.

2.10.Socio-Cultural Factors

T h e human being i s a social animal and the chief mechanism

for maintaining the bonds of society is language. Each language

reflects and interacts with the particular society with which the

language i s associated. T h e process of second language learning

involves an interaction with a new society and a linguistic and extra

-linguistic understanding of that speech community. It demands

flexibility and openness to new language norms and norms of social

behaviour.

Culture, i.e., the context within which persons e x i s t , think,

feel and relate t o others, i s the collective identity of which each of

us i s a part. Larson and Smalley described culture as a 'blue print'

which guides the behaviour of people in a community

and i s incubated in family life. It governs our behaviour

 in groups, makes us sensitive to matters of status and

helps us to know what others expect of us and what will

happen if we do not live up to their expectations.

Culture helps us to know how f a r we can go as

individuals and what our responsibility i s to the group.

Different cultures are the underlying structures that

make Round Community round and Square Community

square. (39)

Culture establishes f o r each person a context of cognitive and

affective behaviour, but we perceive reality strictly within the

context of our culture. "The meaningful universe in which each

human being exists is not a universal reality, but a category of

reaijty consisting of selectively organised features considered

significant by the society in which he lives" (Condon 17).

Social typing i s natural and inevitable to organize life

systematically but when these are based on prejudices like racial

and cultural superiority, they become ethnic stereotypes. T h e cross-

cultural hurdles in second language learning can be removed by a

realistic understanding of t h e other c u l t u r e as something that,

although different from one's own, i s to be respected and valued.

Once students recognize the subjective, socially constructed nature

of reality, they will be in a much better position to understand the

target language and culture.

2.11.Socio-Economic Factors

Positive attitudes towards learning English language and

high scores in tests were consistently associated with high socio-

economic status. This can be attributed to the environment to which

the students are subjected because the students belonging to higher

socio-economic status receive more parental support when they

approach new learning experiences than those with parents in lower

status. Socio-economic background also determines the type of

schools they attend. T h e students of e l i t e English medium schools

acquired English a s a second language t o a great extent because

their school and home environments are more conducive to the

process of acquisition. But the students in the rural Malayalam

medium schools have lesser or in some cases hardly any

environment background helpful to the acquisition of the language.

As Street, et al. says,

[. . .] large schools produce higher acquisition because

they have more facilities than small schools and attract

better prepared teachers and are located in areas of more

educational opportunities. (156)

The students belonging t o the upper strata of society can

afford t o g o to expensive English medium schools where there are

more facilities f o r learning English and also have a favourable

atmosphere at home. The monthly income of parents, their

educational qualifications and occupation determine the socio-

economic status of the student. According to Morrison and

MC Iyntyre, "Most of the influence upon individuals during

c h i l d h o o d c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d a s b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h o m e o r with

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c e n v i r o n m e n t " (14).

2.12.The Social Psychology of Second Language Learning

S c h u m a n n ( T h e Acculturation Model 2 9 ) a r g u e s that t h e t w o

g r o u p s of v a r i a b l e s , s o c i a l f a c t o r s a n d a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s , c l u s t e r i n t o

a s i n g l e v a r i a b l e that i s t h e m a j o r c a u s a l v a r i a b l e in s e c o n d

language learning-acculturation. Acculturation i s the social and

p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e l e a r n e r with t h e target l a n g u a g e

group. A n y l e a r n e r c a n b e p l a c e d on a c o n t i n u u m t h a t r a n g e s f r o m

social and psychological distance to social and psychological

p r o x i m i t y with t h e s p e a k e r of t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e l e a r n e r

will a c q u i r e t h e s e c o n d l a n g u a g e o n l y t o t h e d e g r e e that he

acculturates.

Affective variables relate to language learning by individuals.

An i n d i v i d u a l m a y l e a r n u n d e r s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h a r e n o t

favourable for second language learning and may not learn under

social conditions that appear t o be favourable. The psychological

variables influencing acculturation and hence second language

learning are affective in nature and include language shock, culture

shock, ego permeability and ethnocentrism.

2.12.1.Language Shock

Stengel (On learning) points out that learners are

a p p r e h e n s i v e t o s p e a k in a n e w l a n g u a g e f o r f e a r of b e c o m i n g a

laughing stock. Further they fear whether their words actually

reflect their ideas. While using a second language in which they are

much less proficient, they lose an important source of "narcissistic

gratification" which i s provided while using their native language

(Schumann, Acculturation Model 32).

2.12.2.Culture Shock

Culture shock can be defined a s anxiety resulting from the

disorientations encountered upon entering a new culture. Activities

that were routine in his native country require a great deal of energy

in the new environment. This situation can cause disorientations,

stress, anxiety and fear. The resulting mental state can produce a

powerful syndrome of rejection, which diverts energy and attention

from the second language learner. T h e learner i s unlikely to make an

effort to become bilingual.

2.12.3.Culture Stress

Schumann feels that the extreme symptoms of culture

shock may pass relatively quickly, as ways of coping with the new

environment are learned, but more subtle problems may persist and

produce stress that can last longer (Acculturation Model 30).

Larson and Smalley (Becoming Bilingual) recognise this

phenomenon as "Culture Stress" which centres on questions of

identity. This prevents second language learning and causes

frustration in the learner. They start rejecting t h e task and "Culture

shock and culture stress can induce a whole syndrome of rejections

which diverts attention and energy from learning the second

language" (Smalley, Culture Shock 18).

2.12.4.Ego Permeability

Guiora developed the notion of 'lango e g o ' (qtd. in Schumann,

The Acculturation Model 3 5 ) as parallel t o the Freudian construct,

body ego. In the course of general ego development, the child

acquires a sense of the boundaries of his language- the sounds,

words, syntax and morphology of his language become objectified

and develop firm outlines and boundaries. In the early

developmental stages, language ego boundaries are permeable, but

later they become fixed and rigid.

2.12.5.Ethnocentrism

This i s the tendency to view one's own community as superior

and other groups as inferior. T h e authoritarian personality is

ethnocentric (Stern 380). Machiavellianism i s the individual's

tendency to manipulate others. 'Anomie7 refers t o the loss of an

unconscious acceptance of society, a s i t i s , a concept that has been

widened t o express the feeling of dissatisfaction with one's role in

society. The 'anomic7 individual, because of his critical attitude to

his own society, i s open t o the demands of a different language and

culture; therefore anomie is a positive predictor of language

achievement.

2.13.Teacher's Competence

Principles are abstractions, which have to be actualised a s

techniques in the particular circumstances of different classrooms.

The teaching task i s t o see that the techniques used are effective in

promoting learning objectives. Teaching, then, can b e conceived of

as a research activity whereby experimental techniques of

instructions are designed, with provision made f o r adjustments to

validate the principle with the utility of the technique. But teachers

have extra commitments and cannot just assume the role of the

researcher and use students a s experimental subjects with detached

interest to satisfy an intellectual curiosity. The teachers induce

learning and the techniques used work to that end. In effect,

teachers become intervening variables i n their own experiments,

their research applied in the very process of enquiry and directly

accountable in terms of practical pay-off (Widdowson 2 - 3 ) .

The fact that English i s taught in India, a s in several other

parts of the world, by non-native speakers of the language may seem

to b e a disadvantage, since the t e a c h e r ' s own linguistic competence

i s limited o r deficient i n relation to native speaker's competence,

and the learner's acquisition will consequently be based on samples

of language which are deviant in some respects.

For natural language use, the old, time-honoured authority

structure of teacher and student relations has to be broken down and

a relationship of acceptance and equality established for which the

teachers must be prepared. Natural language use will come only

when barriers are broken down, barriers such as pride in status and

superior knowledge on one side a n d defensive attempts to please and

hide one's weaknesses and one's real feelings on the other.

2.13. J.,Teaching Aids

The teaching aids used in most colleges in Kerala are the

same-blackboard, chalk, paper and pencil. T h e use of projectors

might facilitate the learning process but are not provided. The

classrooms are admittedly austere in nature but i t i s misleading to

think of the quality of language pedagogy a s being independent of

either the range e f the teaching aids used or the technological

sophistication of those aids. T h e essential condition f o r language

learning is effort at meaningful exchange between language knower

and language learners.

2.14.Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia i s one of a number of recent educational

movements that promise great results if we use the human

brainpower within us. According to the Bulgarian psychologist

Georgi Lozanov (qtd. in Krashan, Principles and Practice 1 5 8 - 6 0 )

that people are capable of learning much more than they g i v e

themse!ves credit for. Drawing on insights from Soviet

psychological research on extra sensory perception and from Yoga,

Lozanov created a method f o r learning that capitalizes on relaxed

states of mind f o r maximum retention of material. Music i s central

to his method. Students sit i n soft, comfortable seats in relaxed

states of consciousness and are encouraged to be as childlike a s

possible, yielding all authority t o the teacher.

In applications of Suggestopedia to foreign language learning,

Lozanov and his followers experimented with the presentation of

 78

vocabulary, readings, dialogue, role-plays, drama and a variety of

other typical classroom activities. At the beginning of the session,

all conversation stops f o r a minute o r two and the teacher listens to

the music coming from tape-recorder. He waits and listens to

several passages in order to e n t e r into the mood of the music and

then begins t o read and recite t h e new text, his voice modulated in

harmony with the musical phrases. T h e students follow the text in

their textbooks where each lesson i s translated into the mother

tongue. Between each session music i s played and at the end, the

students silently leave the room. They are not given any homework

but asked to read the lesson cursorily before going t o bed and also

in the morning. Lozanov reported astounding results with

suggestopedia but the practicality of using t h e method i s an issue

the teachers will have to face.

2.15.Age

Another variable often invoked is age. Lenneberg

(Biological F o u n d a t i o n s ) proposed a neurolinguistic explanation to

the age variable. As a result of lateralisation, language-learning

functions become specialised in the left hemisphere in most learners

that affects the operation of t h e 'Language Acquisition Device.'

Thus, after about the age of twelve, the learners resort to alternative

strategies in language learning. T h i s neurolinguistic explanation

has been challenged and now the general agreement is that adults

are neurolinguistically capable of learning a second language in

much the same way as children (Ellis 141).

 Children's eventual superiority in second language learning

can be attributed to the a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s . According t o the Critical

Period Hypothesis, the affective f i l t e r increases in strength at

around puberty and this prevents successful processing of input.

Children have comparatively low f i l t e r that facilitates the proper

infiltratian of data leading to speedy acquisition of language.

Second language learning scenario i s undergoing transitional

changes in viewpoints about the process of learning.

The views held by linguists and psycholinguists about

language learning h a v e shifted radically during the last

ten years. Language learning i s now seen as involving

the development of a rule-governed, but creative process

whereby the learner comes to formulate and modify a

series of hypotheses about the rules governing the

language to which h e i s exposed. (Hamayan, et al. 25)

The shift in theoretical views concerning developmental

psycholinguistics has led to better understanding of the process of

language learning. It has acknowledged that there are similarities

between second language learning and first language acquisition.

The strategies involved in second language learning may be

essentially tile s a m e as those t h a t characterise the acquisition of the

mother tongue. This focuses t h e attention of t h e researches on the

exposure t o the language the learner receives in the environment.

T h e more the learner i s exposed t o the language, the more he i s

e x p e c t e d t o learn i t s u c c e s s f u l l y . As in t h e c a s e of f i r s t l a n g u a g e

acquisition, the second language learner also needs to be involved in

c o n v e r s a t i o n in m e a n i n g f u l s i t u a t i o n s .

T h e l e a r n e r n e e d s o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o r e c e i v e t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l of

exposure that might activate the learning process. For instance,

U s e of E n g l i s h b y p a r e n t s , f r e q u e n c y of u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e a t

home among the family members, etc.

Use of E n g l i s h b y p e e r s - o p p o r t u n i t y t o h e a r and . u s e t h e

l a n g u a g e w i t h h i s f r i e n d s w h o a r e p r o f i c i e n t in t h e l a n g u a g e .

The learner gets further exposure through the media, listening

to radio programmes, television programmes, watching movies,

reading books, news paper and journals and through the practical

u t i l i s a t i o n of t h e l a n g u a g e i n t h e f o r m of f i l l i n g a p p I i c a t i o n s a n d

writing letters.

E x p o s u r e i n t e r a c t s with t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s of t h e l e a r n e r s a n d

the learner who i s socially and economically well placed gets

f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n s f o r e f f e c t i v e t r a n s a c t i o n s in t h e l a n g u a g e .

K r a s h e n s u b s t a n t i a t e s h i s I n p u t H y p o t h e s i s w i t h t h e e f f e c t of

e x p o s u r e t o a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e learner-"humans a c q u i r e l a n g u a g e i n

only one way-by understanding messages or by receiving

' c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input"' ( T h e Input H y p o t h e s i s 2 ) . K r a s h e n h e r e

asserts that it is not mere exposure that is effective but exposure to

t h e r i g h t k i n d of i n p u t . T h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s of e x p o s u r e a s e c o n d

langllagc l e a r n e r r e c e i v e s in a n o r m a l l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a r e

r e p r e s e n t e d i n Fig.4.
 Exposure to English

l
in the class room outside the classroom

teachers peers textbooks home outside home

7
parents siblings media extra

films

Affective variables assume a significant role in language learning

because language learning i s an emotional activity involving the

individual learner. The emotional status of the learner controls o r

enhances the learning procedure. Though some of these variables

are considered to be innate and stable, studies reveal that successful

language learning can materialize if the multifarious pre-

dispositions of the learner are diverted t o a positive and potential

learning programme.