1) Elemental (Spectrometric) Analysis

Elemental analysis is probably the most fundamental test in the oil analysis toolbox. Its history
goes back to the 1940s when it was used to determine the presence of wear metals such as
iron, lead and copper in diesel engine oils. In its present form, elemental analysis is used to
determine the concentrations of 15 to 25 different elements ranging from wear metals and
contaminants to oil additives. Unit of Measure is ppm
Elemental analysis sometimes referred to as elemental spectroscopy, or simply wear metal
analysis works on the principles of atomic emission spectroscopy (AES). Individual atoms within
the sample are excited using a high-energy source. The atoms absorb energy from the
excitation source and eventually emit light energy. By measuring the amount of light emitted
for various atoms such as iron, copper, zinc and sodium, the concentration of each atom can be
determined.
The two most common types of atomic emission spectroscopy are rotating disc electrode (RDE)
and inductively coupled plasma (ICP). Both of these methods have limitations in analyzing
particle sizes, with RDE limited to particles less than 8 to 10 microns and ICP limited to particles
less than 3 microns. They are useful for providing trend data.
An effective oil analysis report will provide reference data for the new oil so any amounts of
additive elements can be easily distinguished from those of contaminants. It is better to analyze
trends rather than focus on any specific measurement of elemental analysis data.
Unfortunately, depending on the wear mechanism and the severity of the problem, active
machine wear may generate particles that are greater than 10 microns in size, and will thus be
invisible to the AES instrument. For this reason, it is important in any oil analysis program to not
rely solely on AES data to determine active wear, but to include tests such as particle counting,
ferrous density analysis and patch microscopy to measure larger particles.

2) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy FTIR

FTIR is one of the most widely used tools in the oil analysis laboratory. Its value lies principally
in the fact that it is a purely instrument-based test.
it is relatively quick to perform and is capable of simultaneously detecting multiple parameters,
including water, fuel, glycol, oil oxidation, soot and certain additives such as ZDDP phenols. In
fact, at face value, it would appear to be the ideal to solution providing quick, inexpensive oil
analysis.
FTIR is based on the fundamental principles of molecular spectroscopy. The basic
principle behind it is that specific molecules absorb light energy at specific wavelengths, known
as their resonance frequencies, different types of molecules, such as the additive ZDDP and
water, or fuel and glycol absorb infrared light at different wavelengths. Therefore, it is possible
to determine the presence of different molecules in the sample with FTIR, simply by measuring
the absorption at different wavelengths, or wavenumber
An FTIR spectrometer works by taking a small quantity of sample and introducing it to the
infrared cell. The intensity of light transmitted through the sample is measured at each
wavenumber allowing the amount of light absorbed by the sample to be determined as the
difference between the intensity of light before and after the sample cell. This is known is the
infrared spectrum of the sample.
As most used oil samples are complex mixtures, including base oil molecules, additives, oil
degradation by-products, wear debris and contaminants, the infrared spectrum of a used oil
sample is typically complex, and can be difficult to interpret with any degree of certainty.
Despite this drawback, FTIR still has value in used oil analysis and is employed by the majority of
oil analysis labs as a screening tool.
The most common type of instrument used by oil analysis labs is called an attenuation cell FTIR
instrument
FTIR analysis of used oil samples is a three-stage process. The first stage is to record the FTIR
spectrum of a new oil sample to obtain a baseline FTIR trace. The second stage is to record the
same FTIR spectrum of the used oil sample. The third and final stage is to subtract the new oil
baseline, often referred to as the new oil reference from the used oil spectrum to obtain the
difference spectrum,
Introduced the concept of auto referencing to attempt to resolve this issue.

3) Particle Counting

Particle Counting is considered by many to be the single most important test for used oil
analysis. Particle count data is an invaluable part of any proactive condition-monitoring
program, from ensuring that abrasive bearing wear is minimized, to determining if a hydraulic
fluid is clean enough for reliable operation or evaluating the performance of a filter in the field,
particle counting offers a plethora of information for what is by comparison precious little
money.
Particle Counters Offer a Multitude of Uses and Benefits some of which are:
 Verifies filter performance
 Verifies pump condition
 Identifies high engine blowby conditions
 Identifies changing atmospheric contamination
 Troubleshoots and isolates problems
 Identifies the need for further analysis
 Verifies centrifuge performance
 Detects high corrosive wear
 Verifies bearing condition
 Identifies oil film failure problems
The most common unit of reporting fluid cleanliness is the ISO Code System. This convention is
covered under the ISO standard 4406:99. In this standard, the number of particles in three
different size categories, >4 mm, >6 mm and >14 mm are determined in one milliliter of
sample. Others standards include NAS 1638 and MIL-STD 1246C, as well as outdated standards
such as the SAE fluid cleanliness rating system. However, whichever method of reporting is
selected, the first step is to count the number of particles in a volume of fluid.
There are three basic methods to determine the absolute number of particles in a sample
1. Optical Microscopy
2. Automatic Optical Particle Counting
3. Pore Blockage Particle Counting

4) Base Number Vs Acid Number

Acid number and base number tests are similar but are used to interpret different lubricant and
contaminant-related questions. In an oil analysis test, the acid number is the concentration of
acid in the oil, while the base number is the reserve of alkalinity in the oil. Results are expressed
in terms of the volume of potassium hydroxide in milligrams required to neutralize the acids in
one gram of oil. Acid number testing is primarily performed on non-crankcase oils, while base
number testing is mainly for over-based crankcase oils.
An acid number that is too high or too low may be the result of oil oxidation, the presence of an
incorrect lubricant or additive depletion. A base number that is too low can indicate high engine
blow-by conditions (fuel, soot, etc.), the presence of an incorrect lubricant, internal leakage
contamination (glycol) or oil oxidation from extended oil drain intervals and/or extreme heat.
ASTM methods, including D664, D974, D2896 and D4739, are the current industry standard
methods for measuring the acid and base number. These titration-based methods are slow and
expensive to execute, require significant volumes of sample and solvent, and are prone to
interferences. The high cost and poor accuracy of these methods limit their usefulness and
application to routine oil monitoring.
The potential alternate means for determining acid number and base number are by using a
variety of partial least squares (PLS) direct-read Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) methods,
which estimate the acid and base number of used oils by directly measuring the spectrum of
undiluted oil.