Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair

AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)

black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

Issues​ ​and​ ​debates

Gender​ ​bias

Universality​- any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied
to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and culture bias
threaten​ ​the​ ​universality​ ​of​ ​finding​ ​in​ ​psychology.

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Gender bias- when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual
or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psychological research

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or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of
men​ ​or​ ​(usually)​ ​women.

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● Alpha bias- ​psychological theories that suggests that there are real and
enduring differences between the sexes. These may enhance or undervalue
members​ ​of​ ​either​ ​sex,​ ​typically​ ​undervaluing​ ​women.
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● Beta​ ​bias-​ ​theories​ ​that​ ​ignore​ ​or​ ​minimise​ ​differences​ ​between​ ​the​ ​sexes.
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Androcentrism- ​male-centred; when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male
standard​ ​(​ ​meaning​ ​that​ ​female​ ​behaviour​ ​is​ ​often​ ​judged​ ​as​ ​‘abnormal’​ ​or​ ​‘deficient’​ ​by
comparison.)
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implications​ ​of​ ​gender​ ​bias

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● Misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative

stereotypes​ ​of​ ​society​ ​regarding​ ​gender
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● Many​ ​occasions​ ​psychologist​ ​justify​ ​these​ ​stereotypes​ ​which​ ​harm​ ​women.

Sexism​ ​within​ ​research
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● Male dominated area so women are less likely to be able to investigate topics
concerning​ ​women.
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● Change in clinical side of psychology as 69% of registered psychologists in

2011​ ​in​ ​the​ ​US.
● Psychology​ ​guilty​ ​of​ ​supporting​ ​a​ ​form​ ​of​ ​institutional​ ​sexism.
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Reflexivity
○ Modern researchers beginning to recognise the effect their own assumptions
have​ ​their​ ​own​ ​work
○ Rather than seeing it as a bias they embrace it as a cultural and critical
aspect​ ​of​ ​the​ ​research​ ​process.
● Essentialism perspective- that the gender difference in question is inevitable and
‘fixed’​ ​in​ ​nature.
○ Valerie Walkerdine- reports how in the 1930s ‘scientific’ research revealed
how intellectual activity such as attending uni- would shrivel a woman’s
ovaries​ ​and​ ​harm​ ​her​ ​chances​ ​of​ ​giving​ ​birth!
■ Politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts’ creates
a​ ​‘double-​ ​standards’​ ​in​ ​the​ ​way​ ​behaviours​ ​are​ ​views​ ​in​ ​each​ ​sex.
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

Feminist​ ​psychology
○ Judith Worrell- have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered
to​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​gender​ ​bias​ ​in​ ​research.
○ Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely
participate​ ​in​ ​research.
○ Greater emphasis should be placed on collaborative research methods that
collect​ ​qualitative​ ​data​ ​opposed​ ​to​ ​numerical​ ​data.

Cultural​ ​bias

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Ethnocentrism- ​the belief that our cultural group is some how superior to another cultural
group.​ ​Where​ ​any​ ​behaviour​ ​that​ ​is​ ​different​ ​to​ ​is​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​inferior​ ​or​ ​underdeveloped.

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Cultural​ ​relativism
● The notion that psychologists discoveries in research derives from its meaning within

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the​ ​social​ ​context​ ​the​ ​research​ ​takes​ ​place
○ Zimbardo​ ​found​ ​obedience​ ​embedded​ ​in​ ​American​ ​culture
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○ The​ ​situation​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​their​ ​performance​ ​(demand​ ​characteristics)
● John​ ​berry-​ ​distinction​ ​between​ ​etic​ ​and​ ​emic​ ​approaches​ ​in​ ​the​ ​study​ ​of​ ​behaviour
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○ Etic​-​ ​look​ ​at​ ​behaviour​ ​from​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​culture
○ Emic​-​ ​functions​ ​within​ ​or​ ​inside​ ​certain​ ​cultures.
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Individualism​ ​and​ ​collectivism-

○ individualist​ ​=​ ​westernised--Value​ ​personal​ ​freedom​ ​and​ ​independence
s.

○ collectivist=​ ​india​ ​or​ ​china​ ​--​ ​independence​ ​and​ ​the​ ​needs​ ​of​ ​the​ ​group.
○ Lazy​ ​and​ ​simplistic​ ​distinction​ ​between​ ​cultures​ ​doesn’t​ ​apply.
○ Yohtaro Takano et al.- found 14/15 studies that compared US and Japan
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found​ ​no​ ​evidence​ ​of​ ​distinction​ ​between​ ​the​ ​cultures,

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Cultural​ ​relativism​ ​vs.​ ​universality

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○ Berry’s concept of imposed etics a reminder to psychologists of the culturally

specific​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​their​ ​work.
○ Not all psychology is ​culturally relative and that there is no such thing as
universal​ ​human​ ​behaviour.
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○ Ekman- basic facial expressions or emotions ( happiness or disgust) are

same​ ​all​ ​over​ ​the​ ​world.
○ Critics​ ​of​ ​the​ ​strange​ ​situation​​ ​say​ ​interactional​ ​synchrony​ ​are​ ​universal.
Unfamiliarity​ ​with​ ​research​ ​tradition
○ Western culture participants familiar with the general aims of scientific enquire
is​ ​assumed
○ Same knowledge and ‘faith’ may not extend to culture with different historical
experience​ ​of​ ​research
○ Demand characteristics ​may be exaggerated when working with the local
members​ ​of​ ​the​ ​population​ ​-​ ​Bond​ ​and​ ​Smith
■ Affecting​ ​validity​ ​of​ ​research
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

Operationalising​ ​of​ ​variables

○ Variables​ ​under​ ​review​ ​may​ ​not​ ​be​ ​experiences​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​way​ ​.
○ Facial expressions of emotion such as ‘aggression’ may give rise to quite
different behaviours within an indigenous population than they would in the
west
Challenging​ ​‘implicit’​ ​assumptions
○ Cross cultural research can challenge our typically western ways of thinking
and​ ​viewing​ ​the​ ​world.
○ Some knowledge and concept we take for granted are not shared by other
people around the world to promote a greater sensitivity to individual
differences​ ​and​ ​cultural​ ​relativism​ ​in​ ​the​ ​future.

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Free​ ​will​ ​and​ ​determinism

Free will- the idea that we can make choices concerning our thoughts and behaviours

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independently​ ​from​ ​biological​ ​and​ ​external​ ​factors.​ ​We​ ​are​ ​self-​ ​determining.
● Biological and external factors such as social norms might influence us, but we can
control​ ​or​ ​neglect​ ​there​ ​advances.
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Determinism- the view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or
external​ ​forces​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​the​ ​individual’s​ ​will​ ​to​ ​do​ ​something.
● Hard determinism- ​our behaviour is controlled by external and internal forces, we
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have​ ​NO​ ​free​ ​will

● Soft determinism- ​our behaviour is controlled by internal/ external forces but we can
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also exercise some control over our thoughts and behaviours. We can make rational/
conscious​ ​decisions.
Biological determinism- the belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic,
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hormonal,​ ​evolutionary)​ ​influences​ ​that​ ​we​ ​cannot​ ​control.

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Environmental determinism​- the belief that behaviour is caused by features of the

environment​ ​(such​ ​as​ ​systems​ ​of​ ​reward​ ​and​ ​punishment)​ ​that​ ​we​ ​cannot​ ​control.
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● Skinner​ ​argues​ ​free​ ​will​ ​is​ ​actually​ ​based​ ​in​ ​conditioning.

Psychic determinism- the belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that be
cannot​ ​control.
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● Freud
Scientific​ ​emphasis​ ​on​ ​causal​ ​explanations:
A basic principle of science is that every event has a cause and that causes can be
explained using general laws. Knowledge of causes and the formulation or laws are
important​ ​as​ ​they​ ​allow​ ​scientists​ ​to​ ​predict​ ​and​ ​control​ ​events​ ​in​ ​the​ ​future.

So in psychology, the lab experiment enables researchers to simulate the conditions of the
test tube and remove all other extraneous variables in an attempt to precisely control and
predict​ ​human​ ​behaviour.
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

The​ ​case​ ​for​ ​determinism

● Consistent​ ​with​ ​aims​ ​of​ ​science
○ Research is valued and has created development of treatments, therapies
and​ ​behavioural​ ​interventions​ ​that​ ​have​ ​benefited​ ​many
■ Such as psychotherapeutic drugs treatment in controlling and
managing​ ​schizophrenia.
The​ ​case​ ​against​ ​determinism
● It’s​ ​not​ ​consistent​ ​in​ ​the​ ​way​ ​our​ ​legal​ ​system​ ​operates.
● Offenders​ ​are​ ​held​ ​morally​ ​accountable​ ​for​ ​their​ ​actions.
● The​ ​approach​ ​is​ ​unfalsifiable.

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The​ ​case​ ​for​ ​free​ ​will
● Everyday experience shows that we are constantly exercising free will. Giving ​face

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validity​-​ ​it​ ​makes​ ​cognitive​ ​sense.
● People​ ​with​ ​internal​ ​locus​ ​of​ ​control​ ​ ​are​ ​more​ ​healthy,​ ​mentally.
○ Even if there is no free will positive thinking can impact on mind and

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behaviour
The​ ​case​ ​against​ ​free​ ​will
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● Neurological​ ​studies-​ ​has​ ​evidence​ ​against​ ​free​ ​will
○ Benjamin libet and Chung siong et al- found that brain activity determines the
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outcome​ ​of​ ​simple​ ​chores.
○ Research found that the activity related to whether to press a button with left
or right hand occurs in the brain 10s before participants report being
consciously​ ​aware.
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A​ ​compromise?
● Social​ ​learning​ ​theory:​​ ​adopt​ ​‘soft​ ​determinist’​ ​position.
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○ Bandura argued that although environmental factors in learning are key, we

are free to choose who or what to attend to and when to perform certain
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behaviours.
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Nature​ ​vs​ ​nurture

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The​ ​debate
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The​ ​debate​ ​is​ ​whether​ ​human​ ​behaviour​ ​is​ ​more​ ​influenced​ ​by​ i​ nnate​​ ​biological​ ​factors.​ ​Or
by​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​and​ ​the​ ​experience.
● Biological​ ​factors=​​ ​nature
○ rene​ ​descartes​ ​(NATIVIST)
■ argued​ ​that​ ​human​ ​characteristics​ ​and​ ​even​ ​some​ ​aspects​ ​of
knowledge​ ​are​ ​innate:​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of​ ​heredity.
● Heredity-​​ ​the​ ​genetic​ ​transmission​ ​mental​ ​and​ ​physical
characteristics​ ​from​ ​one​ ​generation​ ​to​ ​another.
● Environmental​ ​factors=​ ​nurture
○ John​ ​locke​ ​(EMPIRICIST)
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

● Argued​ ​that​ ​the​ ​mind​ ​is​ ​a​ ​blank​ ​slate​ ​at​ ​birth​ ​upon​ ​which​ ​learning​ ​and​ ​experience
writes:​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​(it​ ​later​ ​became​ ​an​ ​important​ ​feature​ ​of​ ​the
behaviourist​ ​approach)

The​ ​heritability​ ​coefficient-​​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​assess​ ​heredity.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​a​ ​numerical​ ​figure​ ​ranging​ ​from
0-1.0​ ​which​ ​indicated​ ​the​ ​extent​ ​to​ ​which​ ​a​ ​characteristic​ ​has​ ​a​ ​genetic​​ ​basis​ ​(1​ ​being
extremely​ ​determined)

Nurture
The​ ​concept​ ​of​ ​nurture​ ​and​ ​the​ ​environmental​ ​influences​ ​in​ ​psychology​ ​requires​ ​further
clarification​ ​as​ ​‘the​ ​environment’​ ​is​ ​such​ ​a​ ​broad​ ​and​ ​all-​ ​encompassing​ ​concept.

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● Richard​ ​lerner
○ Has​ ​identified​ ​different​ ​levels​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment-​ ​these​ ​may​ ​be​ ​defined​ ​by

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prenatal​ ​terms.

Relative​ ​importance​ ​to​ ​heredity​ ​and​ ​environment

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Lerner​ ​suggested​ ​that​ ​the​ ​environmental​ ​influence​ ​in​ ​a​ ​child’s​ ​life​ ​begins​ ​as​ ​soon​ ​as​ ​birth.
● The​ ​interactionist​ ​approach
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○ The​ ​idea​ ​that​ ​nature​ ​and​ ​nurture​ ​are​ ​linked​ ​to​ ​such​ ​an​ ​extent​ ​that​ ​it​ ​does​ ​not
make​ ​sense​ ​to​ ​separate​ ​the​ ​two
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■ So​ ​researchers​ ​study​ ​how​ ​they​ ​interact​ ​and​ ​influence​ ​each​ ​other.
● Diathesis​ ​stress​ ​model
○ Models​ ​of​ ​mental​ ​illness​ ​which​ ​emphasise​ ​the​ ​interaction​ ​of​ ​nature​ ​and
nurture​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​most​ ​persuasive.
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○ The​ ​DSM​ ​suggests​ ​that​ ​psychology​ ​is​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​biological/​ ​genetic
vulnerability,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​only​ ​expressed​ ​when​ ​paired​ ​with​ ​environmental​ ​or
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biological​ ​‘trigger’
■ Pikka​ ​et​ ​al-​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​adoptees​ ​most​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​get​ ​schizophrenia​ ​had
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relatives​ ​with​ ​a​ ​history​ ​of​ ​the​ ​disorder​ ​(vulnerability)​ ​and​ ​their
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relationship​ ​with​ ​their​ ​adoptive​ ​families​ ​is​ ​dysfunctional​ ​(the​ ​trigger)

● Epigenetics
○ The​ ​change​ ​in​ ​genetic​ ​activity​ ​without​ ​changing​ ​our​ ​genetic​ ​code.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​a
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process​ ​that​ ​happens​ ​throughout​ ​our​ ​life​ ​and​ ​is​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​interaction​ ​with​ ​the
environment.
○ Aspects​ ​of​ ​our​ ​lifestyle,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​events​ ​we​ ​encounter​ ​-​ ​from​ ​smoking​ ​and​ ​diet
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to​ ​pollution​ ​and​ ​war​ ​leave​ ​epigenetics​ ​‘marks’​ ​on​ ​our​ ​DNA.
○ These​ ​marks​ ​tell​ ​our​ ​bodies​ ​which​ ​genes​ ​to​ ​ignore​ ​and​ ​which​ ​to​ ​use,​ ​and​ ​in
turn,​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​the​ ​genetic​ ​codes​ ​of​ ​children​ ​and​ ​their​ ​children.
Implications​ ​of​ ​nativism​ ​and​ ​empiricism
● Nativists:​ ​anatomy=’destiny’​ ​in​ ​that​ ​our​ ​inherited​ ​genetic​ ​makeup​ ​determines​ ​our
characteristics​ ​and​ ​behaviour,​ ​whilst​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​has​ ​little​ ​input.
○ This​ ​extreme​ ​determinist​ ​stance​ ​has​ ​led​ ​to​ ​controversy​ ​such​ ​as​ ​that​ ​which
attempt​ ​to​ ​link​ ​race,​ ​genetics​ ​and​ ​intelligence​ ​on​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research
and​ ​application​ ​of​ ​eugenics​​ ​policies.
● Empiricists:​ ​any​ ​behaviour​ ​can​ ​be​ ​changed​ ​by​ ​altering​ ​environmental​ ​conditions.
Behaviour​ ​shaping​ ​ ​has​ ​had​ ​practical​ ​application​ ​in​ ​therapy.
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

○ Desirable​ ​behaviours​ ​are​ ​selectively​ ​reinforced​ ​and​ ​the​ ​undesirable

behaviours​ ​are​ ​punished​ ​and​ ​ignored.
○ This​ ​may​ ​lead​ ​one​ ​to​ ​advocate​ ​a​ ​model​ ​of​ ​society​ ​that​ ​controls​ ​and
manipulates​ ​its​ ​citizens​ ​using​ ​such​ ​techniques.
Shared​ ​and​ ​unshared​ ​environments
● Research​ ​trying​ ​to​ ​remove​ ​the​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​complicated​ ​by​ ​the​ ​fact
that​ ​siblings​ ​can​ ​grow​ ​up​ ​with​ ​totally​ ​different​ ​experiences.
○ Judy​ ​dunn​ ​and​ ​robert​ ​plomin--​ ​introduce​ ​the​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​unshared​ ​environments
■ Individual​ ​differences​ ​can​ ​affect​ ​the​ ​siblings​ ​experiences
● E.g.​ ​age/​ ​temperament
■ Monozygotic​ ​twins​ ​do​ ​not​ ​show​ ​perfect​ ​concordance​ ​rates​ ​=

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supporting​ ​the​ ​heredity​ ​and​ ​environment​ ​can’t​ ​be​ ​separated.

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Constructivism

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● The​ ​notion​ ​that​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​interact​ ​is​ ​elaborated​ ​by​ c ​ onstructivism.
People​ ​create​ ​their​ ​own​ ​‘nurture’​ ​by​ ​actively​ ​selecting​ ​environments​ ​that​ ​are
appropriate​ ​for​ ​their​ ​‘nature’. bl
● Thus​ ​a​ ​naturally​ ​aggressive​ ​child​ ​is​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​feel​ ​comfortable​ ​around​ ​children​ ​who
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show​ ​similar​ ​behaviours​ ​and​ ​will​ ​‘choose’​ ​their​ ​environment​ ​accordingly.

genotype​ ​-​ ​environment​ ​interaction

● Sandra​ ​scarr​ ​and​ ​Kathleen​ ​McCatney
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○ Put​ ​forward​ ​the​ ​theory​ ​of​ ​gene-environment​ ​interaction​ ​that​ ​includes​ ​three
types
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1. Passive​ ​interaction-​ ​ ​the​ ​parents’​ ​genes​ ​influence​ ​the​ ​way​ ​they​ ​treat​ ​their
children​​ ​(​ ​musically​ ​gifted​ ​parents​ ​will​ ​most​ ​likely​ ​play​ ​to​ ​their​ ​children​ ​and
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promote​ ​an​ ​engagement​ ​with​ ​music)

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2. Evocative​ ​interaction-​​ ​the​ ​child’s​ ​genes​ ​influence​ ​and​ ​shape​ ​the

environment​ ​in​ ​which​ ​they​ ​grow​ ​up​ ​(the​ ​musically​ ​talented​ ​child​ ​will​ ​be​ ​picked
for​ ​school​ ​concerts​ ​and​ ​given​ ​other​ ​special​ ​opportunities)
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3. Active​ ​interaction-​ ​the​ ​child​ ​creates​ ​its​ ​own​ ​environment​ ​through​ ​the​ ​people
and​ ​experiences​ ​it​ ​selects​ ​(​the​ ​child​ ​itself​ ​chooses​ ​similar,​ ​musically​ ​talented
friends,​ ​and​ ​seeks​ ​out​ ​musical​ ​experiences)
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● Supporting​ ​the​ ​idea​ ​that​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​relationship​ ​between​ ​nature​ ​and
nurture
Relationships​ ​to​ ​other​ ​debates
● A​ ​strong​ ​commitment​ ​to​ ​either​ ​nature​ ​or​ ​nurture​ ​position​ ​corresponds​ ​to​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in
hard​ ​determinism​.​ ​The​ ​nativist​ ​perspective​ ​would​ ​suggest​ ​that​ ​‘anatomy​ ​is​ ​destiny’
whilst​ ​empiricists​ ​argue​ ​that​ ​interaction​ ​with​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​all.
● This​ ​equates​ ​to​ ​biological​ ​determinism​ ​ ​and​ ​environmental​ ​determinism
respectively.

Holism​ ​and​ ​reductionism

Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

Holism-​ ​ ​an​ ​argument​ ​or​ ​theory​ ​which​ ​proposes​ ​that​ ​it​ ​only​ ​makes​ ​sense​ ​to​ ​study​ ​an​ ​invisible
system​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​its​ ​constituent​ ​parts.​ ​We​ ​must​ ​look​ ​at​ ​all​ ​the​ ​factors​ ​which​ ​cause​ ​a
situation,​ ​or​ ​behaviour​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​just​ ​the​ ​behaviour​ ​itself.

Reductionism-​ ​ ​the​ ​belief​ ​that​ ​human​ ​behaviour​ ​is​ ​best​ ​explained​ ​by​ ​breaking​ ​it​ ​down​ ​into
smaller​ ​constituent​ ​parts.​ ​Looking​ ​at​ ​each​ ​individual​ ​part​ ​separately​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​looking​ ​at
the​ ​whole​ ​picture​ ​together.

Levels​ ​of​ ​explanation​ ​in​ ​psychology

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Different​ ​ways​ ​of​ ​viewing​ ​the​ ​same​ ​phenomena​ ​in​ ​psychology--​ ​more​ ​reductionist​ ​than
others.
● OCD​ ​may​ ​be​ ​understood​ ​in​ ​a​ ​socio-cultural​ ​context​ ​as​ ​producing​ ​the​ ​behaviour

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Biological​ ​reductionism
A​ ​form​ ​of​ ​reductionism​ ​which​ ​attempts​ ​to​ ​explain​ ​social​ ​and​ ​psychological​ ​phenomena​ ​at​ ​a

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lower​ ​biological​ ​level​ ​(in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​activities​ ​of​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​hormones​ ​etc…)
● Based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​premise​ ​that​ ​we​ ​are​ ​biological​ ​organisms​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​psychological
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structures​ ​and​ ​processes.​ ​Thus,​ ​all​ ​behaviour​ ​is​ ​at​ ​some​ ​level​ ​biological​ ​and​ ​so​ ​can
be​ ​explained​ ​through​ ​neurochemical,​ ​neuropsychological,​ ​evolutionary​ ​and​ ​genetic
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influences.
○ The​ ​assumption​ ​made​ ​by​ ​the​ ​biological​ ​approach​ ​has​ ​been​ ​successfully
applied​ ​in​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​different​ ​topics
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■ Effects​ ​of​ ​psychoactive​ ​drugs​ ​on​ ​the​ ​brain​ ​have​ ​contributed​ ​much​ ​to
our​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​neural​ ​processes​ ​and​ ​the​ ​possible​ ​effects​ ​they
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may​ ​have​ ​on​ ​mental​ ​disorders​ ​such​ ​as;​ ​schizophrenia,​ ​depression

and​ ​OCD​ ​at​ ​a​ ​biological​ ​level.
Environmental​ ​(stimulus-​ ​response)​ ​reductionism
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● The​ ​behaviourist​ ​approach​ ​is​ ​built​ ​on​ ​environmental​ ​reductionism.​ ​Links​ ​are
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measurable​ ​if​ ​broken​ ​up​ ​into​ ​simple​ ​stimulus-​ ​response.

● Behaviourist​ ​approach​ ​ignores​ ​mental/​ ​cognitive​ ​processes​ ​of​ ​the​ ​mind​ ​that​ ​occur​ ​at
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psychological​ ​levels.

For​ ​holism
● Zimbardo’s​ ​Stanford​ ​Prison​ ​Experiment​ ​(SPE)
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○ The​ ​experiment​ ​couldn’t​ ​be​ ​understood​ ​by​ ​studying​ ​the​ ​participants​ ​as
individuals.​ ​It​ ​was​ ​the​ ​interactions​ ​between​ ​people​ ​and​ ​behaviour​ ​of​ ​the​ ​group
that​ ​was​ ​important.
● Holistic​ ​allow​ ​more​ ​complete​ ​and​ ​global​ ​understanding​ ​than​ ​reductionism.
Against​ ​holism
● Tend​ ​not​ ​to​ ​lend​ ​themselves​ ​to​ ​rigorous​ ​scientific​ ​testing​ ​and​ ​can​ ​become​ ​vague,
and​ ​speculate​ ​as​ ​they​ ​become​ ​more​ ​complex.
● They​ ​are​ ​criticised​ ​for​ ​its​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​empirical​ ​evidence,​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​a​ ​loose​ ​set​ ​of​ ​concepts.
○ depression=​ ​many​ ​factors​ ​but​ ​they​ ​cannot​ ​establish​ ​which​ ​is​ ​most​ ​influential
and​ ​which​ ​one​ ​to​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​in​ ​research.
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

For​ ​reductionism
● Basis​ ​of​ ​scientific​ ​research.​ ​To​ ​create​ ​operationalise​ ​variables​ ​it​ ​is​ ​necessary​ ​to
break​ ​target​ ​behaviours​ ​down​ ​into​ ​constituent​ ​parts.
● Possible​ ​to​ ​conduct​ ​experiments​ ​or​ ​record​ ​observations​ ​which​ ​create​ m ​ eaningful
and​ ​reliable​ ​data​.​ ​Giving​ ​the​ ​research​ ​greater​ ​credibility.

Against​ ​reductionism
● They​ ​over​ ​simplify​ ​complex​ ​phenomena​ ​which​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​lack​ ​of​ v ​ alidity
● Explanation​ ​that​ ​operate​ ​at​ ​the​ ​level​ ​of​ ​the​ ​gene,​ ​neurotransmitter​ ​or​ ​neuron​ ​do​ ​not
include​ ​an​ ​analysis​ ​of​ ​social​ ​context​ ​within​ ​which​ ​the​ ​behaviour​ ​occurs.​ ​Meaning​ ​that
not​ ​all​ ​factors​ ​are​ ​accounted​ ​for

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The​ ​interactionist​ ​approach

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Another​ ​alternative​ ​to​ ​reductionism,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​subtly​ ​different​ ​to​ ​holism,​ ​is​ ​the
interactionist​​ ​stance.​ ​Whereas​ ​holism​ ​is​ ​more​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​higher​ ​level​ ​explanations​ ​of
behaviour,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​behaviour​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​within​ ​a​ ​group,​ ​interactionism​ ​considers​ ​how

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different​ ​levels​ ​of​ ​explanation​ ​may​ ​combine​ ​and​ ​interact.

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Idiographic​ ​and​ ​nomothetic​ ​approach
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The​ ​idiographic​ ​approach
​ ​Attempts​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​an​ ​individual​ ​as​ ​a​ ​separate​ ​entity,​ ​each​ ​with​ ​their​ ​own
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experiences,​ ​motivations​ ​and​ ​values

● Usually​ ​produce​ ​qualitative​ ​data:​ ​case​ ​studies,​ ​unstructured​ ​interviews​ ​and​ ​self-
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report​ ​measures.
Examples​ ​of​ ​the​ ​idiographic​ ​approach
● The​ ​humanistic​ ​approach​ ​is​ ​probably​ ​the​ ​best​ ​example​ ​of​ ​the​ ​idiographic
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perspective.
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○ Rogers​ ​and​ ​Maslow​ ​took​ ​a​ ​phenomenological​ ​approach​ ​to​ ​the​ ​study​ ​of
human​ ​beings​ ​and​ ​were​ ​interested​ ​only​ ​in​ ​recording​ ​the​ ​conscious
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experience​ ​of​ ​the​ ​individual​ ​or​ ​‘self’.--​ ​they​ ​describe​ ​themselves​ ​as
anti-scientific,​ ​humanistic​ ​psychologists​ ​who​ ​are​ ​more​ ​concerned​ ​with
investigating​ ​unique​ ​experience​ ​on​ ​its​ ​own​ ​merits​ ​than​ ​producing​ ​general
laws​ ​of​ ​behaviour.
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The​ ​nomothetic​ ​approach

The​ ​main​ ​aim​ ​of​ ​the​ ​nomothetic​ ​approach​ ​is​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​general​ ​laws​ ​of​ ​human​ ​behaviour.
These​ ​provide​ ​a​ ​benchmark​ ​against​ ​which​ ​people​ ​can​ ​be​ ​compared,​ ​classified​ ​and
measured,​ ​and​ ​on​ ​the​ ​basis​ ​that​ ​likely​ ​future​ ​behaviour​ ​can​ ​be​ ​predicted​ ​and/or​ ​controlled.
● Regarded​ ​as​ ​scientific​ ​within​ ​psychology.
Examples​ ​of​ ​the​ ​nomothetic​ ​approach
● Mostly​ ​used​ ​with​ ​reductionist,​ ​determinist​ ​approaches​ ​and​ ​those​ ​which​ ​employ
scientific​ ​methods​ ​of​ ​investigation.​ ​Hypotheses​ ​are​ ​formulated,​ ​tested​ ​under
controlled​ ​conditions​ ​and​ ​findings​ ​are​ ​generated​ ​from​ ​large​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​people/
animals​ ​are​ ​analysed​ ​for​ ​their​ ​statistical​ ​significance.
○ Behaviourist
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

■ Skinner​ ​studied​ ​the​ ​responses​ ​of​ ​hundreds​ ​of​ ​rats​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​develop
laws​ ​about​ ​learning​ ​(operant​ ​conditioning)
○ Cognitive
■ They​ ​have​ ​been​ ​able​ ​to​ ​infer​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​process​ ​of​ ​the​ ​human
memory​ ​by​ ​measuring​ ​the​ ​performance​ ​of​ ​large​ ​samples​ ​of​ ​people​ ​in
lab​ ​tests.
○ Biological
■ Conduct​ ​brain​ ​scans​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​make​ ​generalisations​ ​about
localisation​ ​of​ ​function.

Strength​ ​of​ ​idiographic

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● Provides​ ​qualitative​ ​data/​ ​methods.​ ​Which​ ​allow​ ​insight​ ​for​ ​future​ ​research.
○ For​ ​example​ ​the​ ​case​ ​of​ ​HM​ ​and​ ​other​ ​brain​ ​damaged​ ​individuals,​ ​findings

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may​ ​reveal​ ​important​ ​insights​ ​about​ ​normal​ ​functioning​ ​which​ ​may​ ​contribute
to​ ​our​ ​overall​ ​understanding.
Against​ ​idiographic

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● Aren’t​ ​enough​ ​studies
○ Oedipus​ ​complex​ ​largely​ ​based​ ​on​ ​a​ ​detailed​ ​study​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​case,​ ​with​ ​little
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Hans.​ ​meaningful​ ​generalisations​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​made​ ​without​ ​further​ ​examples,
as​ ​there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​adequate​ ​baseline​ ​with​ ​which​ ​to​ ​compare​ ​behaviour.
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● They​ ​are​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​generalise.
Strength​ ​of​ ​nomothetic
● More​ ​scientific​ ​and​ ​easier​ ​to​ ​replicate
○ Such​ ​processes​ ​have​ ​allowed​ ​psychologists​ ​to​ ​establish​ ​norms​ ​of​ ​‘typical’
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behaviour.​ ​Giving​ ​the​ ​discipline​ ​of​ ​psychology​ ​greater​ ​scientific​ ​credibility.

Limitation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​nomothetic
s.

● Prediction​ ​control​ ​accused​ ​of​ ​‘losing​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​person’​ ​within​ ​psychology
○ Knowing​ ​that​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​1%​ ​lifetime​ ​risk​ ​of​ ​developing​ ​schizophrenia​ ​tells​ ​us
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little​ ​about​ ​what​ ​life​ ​is​ ​like​ ​for​ ​someone​ ​suffering​ ​with​ ​the​ ​disorder.
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○ This​ ​means​ ​that​ ​in​ ​the​ ​search​ ​for​ ​generalisability,​ ​the​ ​nomothetic​ ​approach
may​ ​sometimes​ ​overlook​ ​the​ ​richness​ ​of​ ​human​ ​experience.
Complementary​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​contradictory
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● Sometimes​ ​both​ ​approaches​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​together​ ​to​ ​establish​ ​a​ ​better​ ​more​ ​diverse
understanding​ ​of​ ​research​ ​and​ ​experiments​ ​within​ ​psychology.​ ​Creating​ ​rich​ ​and
credible​ ​data.
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Ethical​ ​implications​ ​of​ ​research​ ​studies​ ​and​ ​theory

Ethical​ ​implications
Ethical​ ​issues​ ​arrive​ ​when​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​conflict​ ​between​ ​psychology’s​ ​need​ ​to​ ​gain​ ​valid​ ​and
valuable​ ​research​ ​findings​ ​whilst​ ​preserving​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​and​ ​dignity​ ​of​ ​participants.
Therefore​ ​the​ ​ethical​ ​guidelines​ ​were​ ​established​ ​to​ ​help​ ​protect​ ​those​ ​involved.

Empirical​ ​implications--​ ​the​ ​impact​ ​that​ ​psychology​ ​research​ ​may​ ​have​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​rights
of​ ​other​ ​people​ ​especially​ ​participants.​ ​This​ ​includes,​ ​at​ ​a​ ​societal​ ​level,​ ​influencing​ ​public
policy​ ​and/or​ ​the​ ​way​ ​in​ ​which​ ​certain​ ​groups​ ​of​ ​people​ ​are​ ​regarded.
Clair​ ​Mealing-Ferris​ ​ ​IG:​ ​@studywithclair
AQA​ ​Psychology​ ​A2​ ​(new​ ​reformed​ ​linear​ ​A-level)
black=​ ​Outline​ ​Red=​ ​evaluation

Socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research

Social​ ​sensitivity--​ ​ ​Sieber​ ​and​ ​Stanley​ ​define​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research​ ​as,​ ​‘s​ tudies​ ​in
which​ ​there​ ​are​ ​potential​ ​consequences​ ​or​ ​implication,​ ​either​ ​directly​ ​for​ ​the​ ​participants​ ​in
the​ ​research​ ​or​ ​for​ ​the​ ​class​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​represented​ ​by​ ​the​ ​research’

Benefits​ ​of​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research

● Scarr​ ​argues​ ​that​ ​studies​ ​of​ ​underrepresented​ ​ ​groups​ ​and​ ​issues​ ​may​ ​promote​ ​a
greater​ ​sensitivity​ ​&​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​these.
○ This​ ​can​ ​help​ ​reduce​ ​prejudice​ ​and​ ​encourage​ ​acceptance.
● Socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research​ ​has​ ​benefitted​ ​society--​ ​for​ ​instance,​ ​research​ ​into

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(un)reliability​ ​of​ ​eyewitness​ ​testimony​ ​has​ ​reduced​ ​the​ ​risk​ ​of​ ​miscarriages​ ​of
justice​ ​within​ ​the​ ​legal​ ​system.​ ​This​ ​suggests​ ​that​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research​ ​may

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pay​ ​a​ ​valuable​ ​role​ ​in​ ​society.
Framing​ ​the​ ​question
● Sieber​ ​and​ ​stanley​ ​ ​say​ ​that​ ​the​ ​way​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a​ ​research​ ​question​ ​is​ ​phrased​ ​and

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investigated​ ​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​the​ ​way​ ​in​ ​which​ ​findings​ ​are​ ​interpreted.--​ ​ie.​ ​how
cross-cultural​ ​research​ ​may​ ​be​ ​affected​ ​by​ ​ethnocentrism​ ​on​ ​the​ ​part​ ​of​ ​researchers.
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● Researchers​ ​should​ ​approach​ ​their​ ​research​ ​with​ ​an​ ​‘open​ ​mind’​ ​and​ ​be​ ​prepared​ ​to
have​ ​their​ ​preconceptions​ ​challenged​ ​if​ ​they​ ​are​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​misrepresenting​ ​minority
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groups.
Who​ ​gains?
● Socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research​ ​has​ ​been​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the​ ​government​ ​and​ ​other​ ​institutions
to​ ​shape​ ​social​ ​policy,​ ​despite​ ​the​ ​sometimes​ ​dubious​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​its​ ​findings​ ​and
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without​ ​full​ ​consideration​ ​of​ ​the​ ​moderating​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​on
characteristics​ ​such​ ​as​ ​intelligence
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● Findings​ ​may​ ​be​ ​misused​ ​and/or​ ​abused​ ​e.g.​ ​research​ ​into​ ​subliminal​ ​messages​ ​and
manipulation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​public​ ​.
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Social​ ​control
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● In​ ​1920s​ ​USA​ ​the​ ​feeble-minded​ ​were​ ​sterilised​ ​-​ ​based​ ​on​ ​psychological​ ​research
on​ ​IQ​ ​e.g.​ ​Goddard.
● Scientific​ ​racism​ ​(Gould)​ ​is​ ​the​ ​outcome​ ​of​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research
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Costs​ ​and​ ​benefits

● Although​ ​socially​ ​sensitive​ ​research​ ​will​ ​be​ ​subject​ ​to​ ​scrutiny​ ​by​ ​an​ ​ethics
committee,​ ​the​ ​costs,​ ​benefits​ ​and​ ​wider​ ​implications​ ​of​ ​research​ ​may​ ​be​ ​very​ ​difficult
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to​ ​predict