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Constructibility of Regular n-Gons

Ebony Ann Harvey


2007; revised with xy-pic in 2010

Abstract
Regular n-gons are constructible with a straightedge and compass
when the field extension of constructible elements over the field of Ra-
tional numbers is a power of 2. Using field theory we can understand
how the degree of the minimal cyclotomic polynomial, whose roots are
the primitive nth roots of unity, relates to the field extension. Then,
Galois theory will give us the link between the subgroups of automor-
phisms and the subfields of the extension fields, enabling us explicitly
find the quadratic extension field.

1 Introduction
Given a straightedge1 and a compass what regular n-gons can one construct?
The answer may surprise you, but only some n-gons2 can be constructed. For
example, we can construct an 8-gon, but we cannot construct a 7-gon. It is
possible to construct certain n-gons where n is a prime number, i.e., n =
3, 5, 17,3 but not when n = 19. These and other questions on constructibility
intrigued mathematicians for centuries until German mathematician Carl
Friedrich Gauss 4 formulated a proof to the constructibility of a regular 17-
gon based of the properties of certain polynomial equations we will discuss.
To understand why some n-gons are constructible and other n-gons are not,
1
A ruler without unit markings.
2
Polygons with n-number vertices of equal angles and n-number of sides of equal length.
3
Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria had given constructions for the regular
triangle, square, regular pentagon, etc.
4
1777-1885; contributed to many mathematical and scientific fields.

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it is necessary to translate the geometric constructions into algebraic terms.
Then we will apply field theory and Galois theory to understand what is
happening algebraically. In the final step we will translate the algebra back
to geometry and make constructions for ourselves.

2 Geometric and Algebraic Picture of n-Gons


Let us inscribe the n-gon in the unit circle, defined as x2 + y 2 = 1, on the
complex plane so that both have center at the origin (0,0) as shown below.

C ...
P2 = (x2 , y2 )

P1 = (x1 , y1 )

(0, 0) Pn = (1, 0)

Pn−1 = (xn−1 , yn−1 )

The vertices of the n-gon lie on the circumference of the unit circle and are of
equal distance apart with a vertex at point (1,0). The remaining n−1 vertices
are represented in Cartesian5 coordinates by (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xn−1 , yn−1 ),
labeled counterclockwise from (xn , yn )=(1,0). If we can construct the points
Pk = (xk , yk ) where k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, then we can construct the corre-
sponding n-gon. It will be more beneficial to represent the vertices via polar
coordinates because then we can think of dividing the unit circle into n slices
5
French mathematician René Descartes’s (1596-1650) invention of Cartesian coordi-
nates revolutionized mathematics by providing a link Euclidean geometry and algebra.

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of equal√size6 . In general, given a non-zero complex number z = a + bi ∈ C,
let r = a2 + b2 be the distance of z from the origin and let θ be the angle
formed by z and the x-axis. Then by Euler’s formula7

z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ), r > 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

Over C there are n distinct solutions8 to the equation xn = 1, the points we


choose as the vertices Pk . Given that r = 1 we have the elements
2kπ 2kπ
Pk = e2πki/n = cos + i sin , for k = 1, 2 . . . , n.
n n
We will use the greek letter “zeta” ζnk instead of Pk when referring to the
k th vertex of a particular n-gon in polar coordinates. This is only to be in
agreement with the notation that is already well recognized. For all k,
 2kπ 2kπ n
(ζnk )n = cos + i sin = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ = 1 + i · 0 = 1.
n n
This equality is given by De Moivre’s formula9 and leads us to the following
definition.

Definition The collection {ζn , ζn2 , . . . , ζnn−1 , 1} is called the nth roots of unity
in C because they are the roots, x ∈ C, of the polynomial equation xn = 1.

This is not just some arbitrary set of values. The nth roots of unity have
a particular structure and valuable properties that we will repeatedly use.
Here we state the two fundamental properties.
6
The notion of measuring the length of a chord for an angle had been used since antiq-
uity but the present day conception was formalized by Belgian mathematician Grégoire
de Saint-Vincent (1584-1667) and Italian mathematician Bonaventura Cavalieri indepen-
dently.
7
Swiss mathematician and physicist Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) made important dis-
coveries in diverse fields of science. This particular formula shows the relationship between
the complex exponential function and trigonometric functions.
8
This is a nontrivial fact and is consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Using the language that will be introduced later, we are essentially saying that every
polynomial over the reals splits completely over the complex numbers.
9
French mathematician Abraham de Moivre’s (1667-1754) claim to fame. He proved
this for all n ∈ N and Euler proved it for all n ∈ R using Euler’s formula.

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1. A group is a pair–a set and an operation–such that the set is closed
under the operation and satisfies three properties called group axioms.
These axioms state that there must be (i) a unique identity element,
(ii) every element must have a unique inverse, and (iii) the elements are
associative. This may seem a little abstract, but here is the punch line:
the nth roots of unity form a group under the operation multiplication.
We denote this group by the greek letter “mu” and write µn . The
identity element is 1 and the inverse of ζnk is ζn−k . The reader should
check the following statements and associativity:

If (ζnk )n = 1 then (ζn−k )n = 1. Further, if (ζnj )n = 1 then (ζnk ζnj )n = 1

2. The group µn is cyclic. This means that at least one element can
generate every other element in the group by taking successive powers.
This element is ζnk for k relatively prime to n, i.e. gcd(k, n) = 1.
Generators are called primitive nth roots of unity. For all d dividing
n, dth roots of unity are nth roots of unity. This notion agrees with
our geometric intuition because the vertices of the triangle are also
vertices of the hexagon and both are vertices of the dodecagon, etc.
Algebraically, the proof is simple: ζdn = (ζdd )n/d = 1. Therefore, we
have the subgroup µd 6 µn for all d|n.

We will talk more about this group later; however, now that you have a
geometric and algebraic sense of what we would like to discuss, we will move
on to how the straightedge and compass are used.

2.1 Rules of Construction


With the straightedge and compass we are allowed four types of operations:

1. Connect two given points by a straight line

2. Find the point of intersection of two straight lines

3. Draw a circle of given radius and center

4. Find the point(s) of intersection of a straight line and a circle or the


points of intersection of two circles.

We can use these four operations to make increasingly large fields of numbers.

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2.2 Constructing A Tower of Fields
2.2.1 The Natural Numbers, N and the Integers, Z
Given a line ` make an arbitrary point on it and call the point a = 0. Make
a circle with the center at a and label the intersection on the right as b = 1.
Draw a circle with center at b with radius the length of the segment ab. Label
the rightmost intersection of this circle and ` as c = 2. Continuing in this
manner we can construct the set of natural numbers. Similarly, we can build
points to the left of a = 0 to designate negatives and construct the set of
integers as shown.

d = −1
• •a = 0 •b = 1 •c = 2 · · · • `

It follows immediately that we can build the Cartesian plane and consider
coordinate points (x, y) with integer coefficients.

2.2.2 Operations and the Rational Numbers, Q


Since the lengths a, b ∈ Z are constructible, we can perform the binary
operations of addition and subtraction, a ± b, multiplication, ab, and division
a/b, the latter two via similar triangles. Par consequence, we construct the
field of rational numbers Q = {p/q | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0}.


c
c 1
1
b

a
a/b

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If c ∈ Q is given, construct c as follows: draw a circle with diameter 1+c
and erect the perpendicular
√ to the diameter as shown above. The length of
the perpendicular is c and this length is not necessarily in Q. The collection
of elements that can be obtained from a finite sequence of these operations is
called the field of constructible elements and this field is a proper subfield of
C. We will denote this field by K and describe tit in more detail later. Two
famous straightedge and compass problems that were proven to be impossible
to do because certain values could not be constructed. The first problem
known as “squaring the circle” calls for the construction of a square with the
same area as a given circle. The second problem called “doubling the cube”
asks for a cube with twice the volume of a given√ cube.√ There constructions
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are impossible because they require the values π and 2 respectively which
we will see cannot be constructed with a ruler and compass. Below we will
classify the field of constructible elements more precisely.

2.2.3 The Tower


Above we mentioned that the field of constructible elements K is strictly
larger than Q but a proper subset of C.

Definition The field K is said to be an extension field of Q. This is inter-


changeably denoted by Q ⊂ K, K/Q (read “K over Q”) or by the diagram
below
K

The notation emphasizes that Q is a subfield of K and may be called the


base field. To reiterate, a point (x, y) becomes constructible if the lengths x
and y lie in the field of constructible elements, i.e. x, y ∈ K. The question is,
“Which points lie in K and hence are constructible?” To answer we consider
the algebra of the straightedge and compass constructions.

2.3 Field Extensions


By operation 1 under the rules of construction, the straight line connecting
two points will be defined algebraically by the linear equation (y − y1 ) =

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m(x − x1 ) where m = (y2 − y1 )/(x2 − x1 ) in some field, F . By operation 2,
the point of intersection of two lines in F is a solution in the same field F
ax + by − c = a0 x + b0 y − c0
(a − a0 )x + (b − b0 )y = (c + c0 ).
By operation 3, circles with center (h, k) and radius r are defined by the
quadratic equation (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 with h, k, r ∈ F . And by
operation 4, the intersection between a line and circle, we solve the linear
equation for y and substitute into the quadratic equation
ax + by = c ⇒ y = mx + C
(x − h) + ((mx + C) − k)2 = r2 .
2

The result is an equation that is quadratic in terms of x and linear in terms


of y. The intersection of two circles yields an equation that is linear
2x(h0 − h) + 2y(k 0 − k) = r2 − h2 − k 2 − r02 + h02 + k 02 .
Thus, the four operations with straightedge and compass produce elements
in a field that is at most what is called a quadratic extension of Q. In other
words, the field of constructible elements K is the smallest field extension of Q
that is closed under square root and complex conjugation. Given any a ∈ Q
we can take successive
√ square roots and that element will be constructible.
The number 2 is a solution to the cubic equation x3 − 2 and cannot be
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computed with square roots and hence not constructible. The number π’s
transcendence over Q means that it cannot be computed from some rational
number by addition, subtraction, multiplication, p division, or square roots–

the only tools that we have. But a number like 23 + −6 is constructible.
Field extensions have a property called the degree of the field extension.
We will make a formal definition for the degree in the next section but we
foreshadow now what is to come for motivation. It is a fact of field theory
that extension degrees are multiplicative in towers and if the extension degree
factors the field can be factored into subfields. For example if F ⊆ L ⊆ K
are field extensions then the degree of K/F is equal to the degree of K/L
times the degree of L/F . The take away for us is that quadratic extensions
have degree equal to 2. For straightedge and compass constructions, since
we can make at most a quadratic extension, the degree of a field extension
containing some constructible elements over the field of rational numbers Q
must be a power of two, 2m .

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2.4 Degree and Dimension
We now know that a is constructible if and only if there is a tower of fields
Q ⊂ K1 ⊂ K2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Km such that a ∈ Km and the degree of each field
extension is 2. Let us formally define degree and relate the degree of the
field extension to the nth roots of unity and the polynomial equation xn = 1.
Denote the field of rational numbers plus the nth roots of unity by Q(ζn ),
which is read as “Q adjoined ζn ”. We can consider Q(ζn ) as a Q-vector space
by simply considering the action of any a ∈ Q on Q(ζn ) as multiplication in
Q(ζn ) by a. This leads us to our next definition.
Definition The degree of a field extension K/F , denoted [K : F ], is the
dimension of K as a vector space over F , [K : F ] = dimF K
Linear Algebra tells us that the dimension of a finite vector space is the
cardinality of any basis. Therefore we seek to find a basis for Q(ζn ) as a
vector space over Q to find the degree of the extension. Before stating the
theorem we make a definition.
Definition A nonzero, nonconstant polynomial p(x) ∈ Q[x] is irreducible if
and only if given any factorization, say p(x) = m(x)n(x), either m(x) or n(x)
is a nonzero constant polynomial.
Theorem 1 Let p(x) ∈ Q[x] be an irreducible polynomial of degree d over
field Q such that p(x) has a root in Q(ζn ) be as above. Let x ≡ x mod p(x).
Then the elements 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 are a basis for Q(ζn ) as a vector space
over Q and the degree of the extension is d, i.e. [Q(ζn ) : Q] = d.
Proof We must show the elements 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 form a spanning set
and are linearly independent. Let a(x) ∈ Q[x] be any nonzero polynomial.
Dividing a(x) by p(x) we obtain:
a(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x) q(x), r(x) ∈ Q[x] with deg r(x) < d.
Note a(x) ≡ r(x) mod p(x), thus a(x) is congruent to a polynomial with
degree less than d. This means that a(x) can be written as a linear combi-
nation of the elements 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 . Hence, 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 span Q(ζn )
as a vector space over Q. We must show that these elements are linearly in-
dependent in Q(ζn ). Suppose the elements 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 are not linearly
independent. Then there is a linear combination
b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bd−1 xd−1 = 0

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in Q(ζn ) with b0 , b1 , . . . , bd−1 ∈ Q, not all 0. This is equivalent to

b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bd−1 xd−1 ≡ 0 mod p(x)

meaning
p(x) divides b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bd−1 xd−1
in Q[x]. But this is a contradiction, because p(x), being degree d, cannot
divide a polynomial that has degree less than d. Thus 1, x, x2 , . . . , xd−1 are
a basis for Q(ζn )/Q and [Q(ζn ) : Q] = d.


Theorem 1 says that if we find a polynomial that is irreducible over the


rationals with roots in some extension field, then we can determine the degree
of the extension field–it is simply the degree of the irreducible polynomial
satisfying the above of minimal degree. We call this the minimal polynomial
because among all nonzero polynomials with the required roots we take the
one of smallest degree. The polynomial xn − 1 is not irreducible over Q(ζn )
because x−1 can always be factored out. But there will be an irreducible part
and the degree of that polynomial will be the degree of the field extension.

2.5 Galois Theory


Translating straightedge and compass constructions to the language of field
theory gave complete answers to the possibility of impossibility of certain
constructions as we have seen. We now introduce Galois theory to later
understand the relationship between the field Q(ζn )/Q and any intermediate
fields, Kj , that may exist. Évariste Galois (1811-1832) was a young French
mathematician whose work was not seen as significant or profound until
many years after his death. His most famous contribution was proving the
there was no explicit formula for finding the solutions of a general quintic
polynomial as there is for quadratic, cubic and quartic polynomials. We
will introduce just enough field theory to state the Fundamental Theorem
of Galois Theory which shows a relationship between fields and groups. For
further reading and a complete treatment see [2].

2.5.1 The Basics


Throughout these sections let K be a field.

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Definition A map, σ, that preserves addition and multiplication of K with
itself is called an automorphism of K. This means that given x, y ∈ K,

σ(x + y) = σ(x) + σ(y)


σ(xy) = σ(x)σ(y)

The collection of automorphisms of K is denoted Aut(K). An automorphism


σ ∈Aut(K) is said to fix an element x ∈ K if σ(x) = x. If F is a subfield of
K then σ is said to fix the field F if σ(x) = x for all x ∈ F .

Any field has at least one automorphism called the trivial automorphism,
denoted by 1. For any automorphism σ(1) = 1 and σ(0) = 0. The set
Aut(K) is a group under the operation composition of functions.

Definition Let K/F be an extension field. Define Aut(K/F ) to be the group


of automorphisms of K which fix F . The group Aut(K/F ) is a subgroup of
Aut(K).

Given a subgroup H ⊂ Aut(K) the fixed field of H is the set of all elements
x ∈ K such that all elements of H fix x.

Definition Suppose that the number of automorphisms in Aut(K/F ) is


equal to the degree of the field extension K/F , i.e. |Aut(K/F )|=[K : F ].
Then K/F is a called a Galois extension or equivalently K is said to be
Galois over F . If this is the case the group of automorphisms Aut(K/F ) is
called the Galois group of K/F , and denoted Gal(K/F ).

Definition A field extension K/F is called a called a splitting field for the
polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x] if it is the smallest field containing the roots, x ∈ C
of p(x). This means that p(x) factors–or splits–as a product of linear factors
in the larger field K[x].

Corollary 1 Let p(x) ∈ F [x] be a polynomial with no repeated roots. If K/F


is the splitting field of p(x), meaning p(x) can be factored completely into its
distinct linear components, then K/F is Galois.

Now we present the Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory.

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2.5.2 The Fundamental Theorem
Theorem 2 Let K/F be a Galois extension with Galois group G = Gal(K/F ).
There is a 1-1 correspondence between the subgroups of G and the interme-
diary fields of K/F . A subgroup H ⊂ G maps to the fixed field of H and the
inverse maps the intermediary field L ⊂ K to the subgroup Aut(K/L).

We will not prove this result as we have not introduced enough material
to do so; we only introduced enough to understand the statement of the
theorem and use it later. Invoking this theorem will allow us to you both
group and field knowledge and observations to understand the fields we need
for construction.
Above we denoted the field containing the nth roots of unity as Q(ζn ). By
definition Q(ζn ) is a splitting field for f (x) = xn − 1. We constructed it to be
so! The polynomial f (x) = xn − 1 has n distinct roots, i.e. the nth roots of
unity, thus by the corollary, the field extension Q(ζn )/Q is a Galois extension
with some Galois group G = Gal (Q(ζn )/Q). Each automorphism σ ∈ G is
determined by its actions on ζn . Since a primitive nth root of unity must map
to another primitive root10 define σa (ζn ) = ζna , for a ∈ Z/nZ, gcd(a, n) = 1.
The Galois group G consists of all these σa . This gives the following group
isomorphism:

(Z/nZ)× →
˜ G
a 7→ σa .

The Euler totient function φ(n) computes the number of elements a less than
n, satisfying gcd(a, n) = 1. Therefore the number of elements in G is φ(n)
which allows us to conclude that [Q(ζn ) : Q] = φ(n) as well. Earlier we
said that n was not the degree of this field extension because the polynomial
xn − 1 was not irreducible over Q. The polynomial that is irreducible is the
polynomial with degree φ(n), called the cyclotomic polynomial.
10
The Galois group permutes the roots of f (x). The group action is both transitive and
faithful.

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2.6 The Cyclotomic Polynomial
Definition The nth cyclotomic polynomial Φn (x) ∈ C[x] is the polynomial
whose roots are the primitive nth roots of unity:
Y Y
Φn (x) = (x − ζn ) = (x − ζna ).
ζn primitive 1≤a<n
(a,n)=1

Note that we are just saying the same thing in two ways with the equality to
really emphasize the fact that primitive roots of unity occur precisely when
the power is relatively prime to n.

Theorem 3 The nth cyclotomic polynomial Φn (x) has degree φ(n) where
φ(n) = |(Z/nZ)× |. That is, the number of elements a ∈ Z/nZ such that
gcd(a, n) = 1.

Proof The roots of the polynomial xn − 1 are the nth roots of unity, so we
have the factorization Y
xn − 1 = (x − ζ).
ζ∈µn

Grouping together the linear factors of xn − 1 where ζ is a primitive dth root


of unity for all d dividing n we obtain
 
Y Y
xn − 1 = (x − ζ)


d|n ζ primitive
∈µd

where the inside product is Φd (x) by definition. This implies


Y
xn − 1 = Φd (x)
d|n
P
and we see by comparison that the degree n = d|n φ(d). Thus the degree
of the cyclotomic polynomial Φn (x) is the number of units in n.


Now we have a polynomial of the required degree with the required roots.
We move now to show that the polynomial has rational coefficients and is
irreducible as required.

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Theorem 4 The cyclotomic polynomial Φn (x) is an irreducible monic poly-
nomial in Z[x] of degree φ(n).
Proof Suppose that Φn (x) is not irreducible. Then we have a nontrivial
factorization
Φn (x) = f (x)g(x) with f (x), g(x) monic in Z[x].
Take f (x) to be an irreducible factor of Φn (x) because every polynomial can
be written as the product of irreducible polynomial factors. Let ζn be a
primitive nth root of unity which is a root of f (x), making f (x) the minimal
polynomial for ζn over Q. Let p be any prime that does not divide n. From
above we know that ζnp is again a primitive nth root of unity and a root of
either f (x) or g(x).
Suppose g(ζnp ) = 0. Then ζn is a root of g(xp ) and since f (x) is the
minimal polynomial for ζn , f (x) must divide g(xp ) in Z[x]:
g(xp ) = f (x)h(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x].
If we reduce this equation mod p, we obtain
g(xp ) = f (x)h(x) in Fp [x]
where Fp denotes a finite field of p elements, like Z/pZ for example. By a
theorem of field theory11 ,
g(xp ) = (g(x))p
and using this substitution we get
(g(x))p = f (x)h(x) in Fp [x].
Thus, f (x) and g(x) have a factor in common in Fp [x]. From Φn (x) =
f (x)g(x) we see by reducing mod p that Φn (x) = f (x)g(x), and so from
above it follows that Φn (x) ∈ Fp [x] has a multiple root–the factor f (x) and
ḡ(x) had in common. But then xn − 1 would have a multiple root in Fp since
Φn (x) divides it. This is a contradiction since xn − 1 has n distinct roots.
Hence ζnp must be a root of f (x) (we assumed it was a root of g(x)).
Thus, ζna is a root of f (x) for every integer a relatively prime to n. Write
a = p1 p2 · · · pk as a product of (not necessarily distinct) primes not dividing
n so that ζ p1 is a root of f (x), (ζ p1 )px is a root of f (x), etc. But this means
that every primitive nth root of unity is a root of f (x), so f (x) has degree
φ(n). Therefore, f (x) = Φn (x), and Φn (x) is irreducible.
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Uses the Frobenius automorphism of F, a 7→ ap .

13


An awesome consequence of this section is that we have a recursive for-


mula for computing Φn (x) for any n:

Φ1 (x) = x − 1
x2 − 1
Φ2 (x) = =x+1
Φ1 (x)
x3 − 1
Φ3 (x) = = x2 + x + 1
Φ1 (x)
x4 − 1
Φ4 (x) = = x2 + 1
Φ1 (x)Φ2 (x)
..
.

Note that for the special case n = p, p prime we have the polynomial
xp − 1
Φp (x) = = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1.
Φ1 (x)

Given any n-gon we will simply consider the nth roots of unity and their
splitting field Q(ζn )/Q. If the degree of the extension, i.e. φ(n), is a power
of 2, then that n-gon is constructible with a straightedge and compass. When
φ(n) is computed, one sees that n can be written as n = 2k p1 · · · pl where the
pi are distinct odd primes such that pi − 1 is a power of 2. Primes with this
r
characteristic are called Fermat primes and have the form pi = 22 + 1 for
some nonnegative integer r. The first four Fermat primes are

21 + 1 = 3, 22 + 1 = 5, 24 + 1 = 17, 28 + 1 = 257.

Take note, 23 2+1 is not prime and it is not known if there are infinitely many
Fermat primes [2]. This information allows us to completely characterize
constructible n-gons.

Theorem 5 (Constructible n−Gons) The regular n-gon can be constructed


by straightedge and compass if and only if n = 2k p1 · · · pl is the product of a
power of 2 and distinct Fermat primes.

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3 Constructing n-gons
3.1 The triangle and square
The equilateral triangle is the simplest polygon defined when n = 3. The
vertices are the values ζ3k = exp(2πki/3) for k = 1, 2, 3 because these are the
roots of the equation x3 = 1. Consider the field extension Q(ζ3 )/Q which
contains the 3rd roots of unity. Theorem 1 and Theorem 4 tell us the degree of
the extension is the degree of the minimal polynomial Φ3 (x). By the formula

x3 − 1 x3 − 1
Φ3 (x) = = = x2 + x + 1
Φ1 (x) x−1

is a degree two polynomial. This polynomial is irreducible by definition so


[Q(ζ3 ) : Q] = 2 is a power of 2; thus, we know the triangle is constructible.
Using the quadratic formula we find that the complex roots of x2 + x + 1
are √ √
−1 + 3i 2 −1 − 3i
ζ3 = and ζ3 = .
2 2
This tells us that the real part of both P1 , P2 lie on the line x = −1/2.
Construct the unit circle along with the x-axis and y-axis. Note this will
most often be our given first step.

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Now construct a unit circle using (−1, 0) as the center. Draw a perpendicular
bisector at the midpoint of the segment (-1,0) to (0, 0), where the unit circles
meet as shown.

Now simply connect the segments to build the triangle


3
P1 = (− 12 , 2
i)

P3 = (1, 0)


3
P2 = (− 12 , − 2
i)

Constructing the square is a trivial matter. All one must do is draw the

16
four segments connecting the x- and y-axis in a diamond as seen below.

P1 = (0, i)

P2 = (−1, 0) P4 = (1, 0)

P3 = (0, −i)

However, we will still show that the calculations of the field extension and
minimal polynomial agree with the work above. The four vertices are the
roots to the equation x4 − 1, thus taking one primitive fourth root of unity
ζ4 we again consider the degree of the extension Q(ζ4 )/Q. The minimal
polynomial is the degree 2 polynomial

x4 − 1
Φ4 (x) = = x2 + 1
Φ1 (x)Φ2 (x)

which is irreducible over Q. The roots are ±i which we can easily construct.

3.2 The hexagon, octagon and more


Given that we are able to bisect angles with a straightedge and compass once
a particular n-gon is constructed we may immediately construct the 2n-gon,
4n-gon, 8n-gon, etc. by bisecting the previous n-gon’s angles as shown.

17
From above work given n = 3 we can further construct the regular hexagon,
dodecagon, 24-gon, 48-gon, 96-gon etc. For n = 4 we get the octagon, 16-gon,
32-gon, 64-gon, 128-gon and the list goes on.

3.3 The pentagon


Here is where our computations get more interesting and we must be more
refined with our techniques. The vertices of the pentagon or 5-gon satisfy
x5 = 1. The minimal polynomial for the extension Q(ζ5 )/Q is

Φ5 (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.

This tells us that [Q(ζ5 ) : Q] = 4. Four is a power of 2, so the 5-gon is a


constructible n-gon. Recall from above that the degree of any field extension
is multiplicative in towers. The degree of this field extension can be factored,
4 = 2 × 2, into two quadratic extensions thus there is an intermediate field
L satisfying

Q(ζ5 )
|2
L
|2
Q

We would like to determine what the subfield L is.

3.3.1 The group µ5


Each ζnk is a primitive 5th root of unity (why?) thus any one root can generate
the others. Recall that we defined automorphisms σa of the Galois group
G = Gal (Q(ζ5 )/Q) by σa (ζn ) = ζna . The five roots are
2πi 4πi 6πi 8πi
ζ5 = e 5 , ζ52 = e 5 , ζ53 = e 5 , ζ54 = e 5 , ζ55 = 1.

We can “rewrite” the polynomial equation Φ5 (x) = x4 + x3 + x3 + x + 1 as

ζ54 + ζ53 + ζ52 + ζ5 + 1 = 0. (1)

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Now, for a = (Z/5Z)× , σa (ζ5k ) = ζnak . When a = 1 each point maps to itself,
so σ1 is the trivial automorphism and we will denote it by 1. Checking how
σ2 , σ3 and σ4 map elements:
σ2 (1) = 1 σ3 (1) = 1 σ4 (1) = 1
σ2 (ζ5 ) = ζ52 σ3 (ζ5 ) = ζ53 σ4 (ζ5 ) = ζ54
σ2 (ζ52 ) = ζ54 σ3 (ζ52 ) = ζ5 σ4 (ζ52 ) = ζ53
σ2 (ζ53 ) = ζ5 σ3 (ζ53 ) = ζ54 σ4 (ζ53 ) = ζ52
σ2 (ζ54 ) = ζ53 σ3 (ζ54 ) = ζ52 σ4 (ζ54 ) = ζ5
we see the automorphisms permute the roots as expected. According to the
fundamental theorem the subfield L corresponds to a subgroup H ⊂ G which
has two elements because [L : Q] = 2. One of these elements is the trivial
automorphism, but the other is to be determined. Since G ∼ = (Z/5Z)× we
will look at this cyclic group to gather information about G. The cyclic group
(Z/5Z)× is generated by 2,
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 3, 24 = 1.
There are three subgroups: {1},{4, 1}, and {2, 4, 3, 1}. The first because
one is trivial and the second because powers of four will either look like
one or look like four modulo 5 and the last because it is the whole group.
Translating this information back to G we find that the nontrivial subgroup
is H = {1, σ4 }, and H corresponds to L.
The elements of H must fix the elements of the field L. Let x ∈ L write
x as the linear combination of the basis elements x = ζ5 + ζ54 . Then x is fixed
by σ4 ,
σ4 (x) = σ4 (ζ5 ) + σ4 (ζ54 )
= ζ54 + ζ5
=x
showing x is indeed an element of the subfield, L. Looking at equation
1 above, it is possible to show a relation between the minimal polynomial
Φ5 (x) and the minimal polynomial for L/Q.
1=1
x = ζ5 + ζ54
x2 = (ζ5 + ζ54 )2 = ζ52 + 2 + ζ53
x2 + x − 1 = ζ52 + 2 + ζ53 + ζ5 + ζ54 − 1 = 0

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The minimal polynomial for L/Q is x2 + x − 1. One can check that this poly-
nomial is irreducible by the rational root test. Using the quadratic equation
the roots of this polynomial are

1± 5
x= .
2

These values reside
√ in the field L( D) where D = b2 − 4c. Thus the subfield
L is the field Q( 5) and the tower is,

Q(ζ5 )
|2

Q( 5)
|2
Q

3.3.2 Explicit Construction


The complex number C = cos θ + i sin θ has multiplicative inverse, C −1 =
cos θ−i sin θ, since the product of the two is CC −1 = cos2 θ+sin2 θ = 1. Note
that C + C −1 = 2 cos θ is a real number. Instead of determining the complex
root of unity ζ5 = cos 2π/5 + i sin 2π/5, we can determine the real-valued
combinations of roots
ζ5 + ζ5−1 = 2 cos 2π/5
which will be much easier. Let η0 = ζ5 + ζ54 and η1 = ζ52 + ζ53 . Minor
calculation shows that η0 and η1 add up to -1 and have the product 1, and
thus are the roots of the minimal polynomial

x2 + (η0 + η1 )x + (η0 η1 ) = x2 + x − 1 = 0.

Using the quadratic formula we obtain,


√ √
−1 + 5 −1 − 5
η0 = , η1 = .
2 2
Using algebra and geometry one can now construct a regular 5-gon. Con-
struct the unit circle and plane as above then draw the midpoint of `. Draw

20
the line segment from the midpoint to 1 and then bisect the angle. Where
the angle bisector crosses the x-axis is the value η0 .

η0

Construct the perpendicular bisector to the x-axis at η0 and where this line
and the unit circle meet is ζ5 and ζ54 .

ζ5

ζ54

21

Since η0 = 2 cos 2π/5 we have cos θ = (± 5 − 1)/4 which gives sin θ =
p √
(± 10 ± 2 5)/4 giving the cartesian coordinates of the pentagon.
√ √ 
5−1 10+2 5
P1 = 4
, 4

 √ √ 
5−1 10−2 5
P2 = − 4
, 4

P5 = (1, 0)

 √ √ 
P3 = − 5−1
4
, − 10−2 5
4

√ √ 
5−1 10−2 5
P4 = 4
, 4

As mentioned before by bisecting angles repeatedly, the construction of the


decagon, 20-gon, 40-gon, etc. soon follow.

3.4 Impossible Constructions


In the introduction we mentioned that the heptagon (n=7) and the nonagon
(n=9) are impossible constructions and now we are able to explain why.
First consider the case for n = 7. The cyclotomic polynomial Φ7 (x) =
x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 is a degree six polynomial which means that

22
the field extension Q(ζ7 )/Q has two possibilities for towers
Q(ζ7 ) Q(ζ7 )
3 2

L or L
2 3

Q Q
because the degrees are multiplicative. Either way, one of the extensions is
not quadratic and therefore the elements in that field cannot be constructed
by straightedge and compass.
Similarly, when n = 9,
x9 − 1 x9 − 1 x9 − 1
Φ9 = = 2
= 3 = x6 + x3 + 1
Φ1 Φ3 (x − 1)(x + x + 1) x −1
a degree six polynomial which again means that the values needed do not lie
in the constructible field. Some other n-gons that are not constructible with
a compass and straightedge are n = 11, 13, 14, , 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25 . . . . As
we mentioned the discovery of the constructibility of the 17-gon was a break
through for the field and we introduce the algebra for that construction now.

3.5 Gauss’s 17-gon


Let ζ = ζ17 . The field extension Q(ζ)/Q is degree 16. The tower of subfields
Li = LHi and the corresponding subgroups Hi ⊂ Gal (Q(ζ)/Q) is
Q(ζ) ←→ {1}
2

L3 ←→ H3
2

L2 ←→ H2
2

L1 ←→ H1
2

Q ←→ Gal (Q(ζ)/Q) .

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Let us first consider L1 and H1 . The index of the subgroups [G : H1 ] = 2 and
the automorphism σ2 generates this subgroup H1 . Starting with ζ successive
applications of σ2 yields,

ζ, ζ 2 , ζ 4 , ζ 8 , ζ 16 , ζ 15 , ζ 13 , ζ 9

and the remaining eight roots of unity are obtained in the sequence

ζ 3 , ζ 6 , ζ 12 , ζ 7 , ζ 14 , ζ 11 , ζ 5 , ζ 10 .

Define the values, called periods, η0 and η1 as

η0 = ζ + ζ 2 + ζ 4 + ζ 8 + ζ 9 + ζ 13 + ζ 15 + ζ 16
η1 = ζ 3 + ζ 5 + ζ 6 + ζ 7 + ζ 10 + ζ 11 + ζ 12 + ζ 14 .

First, note that η0 , η1 are real numbers because a root and its inverse are
added together, canceling the imaginary part. This is the same technique we
used when n = 5 above. Second, we have η0 + η1 = −1. To see this consider
Φ17 (x). Next, the product η0 η1 = −4. Putting this together we see that η0
and η1 are the roots of x2 − (η0 + η1 )x + η0 η1 = 0 which is to say η0 and η1
satisfy x2 + x − 4 = 0.
Starting with ζ make a sequence of fourth powers then do the same for
ζ 3 . Essentially, this means taking the alternating values as they appear in
the sequences above and make the following periods

η00 = ζ + ζ 4 + ζ 13 + ζ 16 η20 = ζ 3 + ζ 5 + ζ 12 + ζ 14
η10 = ζ 2 + ζ 8 + ζ 9 + ζ 15 η30 = ζ 6 + ζ 7 + ζ 10 + ζ 11 .

Here again each ηi0 is a real number and one can check that η00 η10 = η20 η30 = −1.
Therefore η00 , η10 are roots to the equation x2 − η0 x − 1 = 0 and η20 , η30 are roots
to the equation x2 − η1 x − 1 = 0.
Take the last two periods as

η000 = ζ + ζ 16 and η100 = ζ 4 + ζ 13 .

These are real numbers that satisfy the equation x2 −η00 x+η20 = 0. The reader

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should now verify that the fundamental theorem gives the correspondence

Q(ζ) ←→ {1}
2

Q(ζ + ζ 16 ) ←→ hσ16 i
2

Q(ζ + ζ 4 + ζ 13 + ζ 16 ) ←→ hσ4 i
2

Q (ζ + ζ 2 + ζ 4 + ζ 8 + ζ 9 + ζ 13 + ζ 15 + ζ 16 ) ←→ hσ2 i
2

Q ←→ Gal (Q(ζ)/Q)

with each subgroup Hi index 2 over Hi+1 and defined by the generator.
The successive subgroups being index 2 reflects the fact that the periods
for Hi satisfy a quadratic equation whose coefficients involve periods for
Hi+1 . Given the minimal polynomials which are all quadratic we can compute
explicit values for all the values of η with care to choose the correct square
root given that η000 = 2 cos 2π/17 and η100 = 2 cos 8π/17. We omit writing all
of the values but show a couple below:

17 − 1
η0 =
2r

2 √
q
0 η 0 η 0 17 − 1 1
η0 = + 1+ = + 34 − 2 17.
2 4 4 4
For instructions on how to construct the 17-gon see [1] or [2]. Now one is
a few constructions away from the 34-gon, 51-gon, 54-gon, 85-gon, even the
255-gon and 257-gon!

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References
[1] L.E. Dickson. Monographs on Topics of Mathematics Relevant to the
Elementary Field, chapter VIII Constructions with Ruler and Compass;
Regular Polygons, pages 351–386. Longmans, Green and Co., 1911.

[2] David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote. Abstract Algebra. John Wiley
& Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ, third edition, 2004.

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