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CCB 4023

PLANT DESIGN II

DESIGN OF STYRENE MONOMER PLANT

GROUP 7
CHONG LI FENG 18038
CHOO EE HUEY 18510
GOVINASH A/L VISVANATHAN 17907
KHOBAIB AHMED AL-AWADHI 16570

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT


UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

JANUARY 2017
CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

CCB 4023 (Plant Design II)


PLANT DESIGN PROJECT
JANUARY SEMESTER (2017)

DESIGN OF STYRENE MONOMER PLANT

GROUP 7

CHONG LI FENG 18038


CHOO EE HUEY 18510
GOVINASH A/L VISVANATHAN 17907
KHOBAIB AHMED AL-AWADHI 16579

APPROVED BY,

___________________
(DR. LAM MAN KEE)
DATE:

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT


UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
ACKNOWLEDEGMENT

Upon the completion of Plant Design Project which lasted for 28 weeks, the group
members of Group 7 are indebted to many wonderful individuals whom have been very patient
and kind in imparting knowledge and guidance which are crucial for the completion of this
project. We would like to record our gratitude to these individuals for their contributions and
assistances.

First and foremost, we would like to extend our gratitude to the Chemical Engineering
Department of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for providing us a platform to engage in this
project course as a channel to improve our prowess and skills pertaining to our undergraduate
studies in Chemical Engineering throughout these four years. The assignation of students
encompassing different major of studies enables us to share and integrate our field of expertise
thus acquiring knowledge from each other throughout the implementation of this project.

We would also like to dedicate our gratitude to our kind supervisor, Dr Lam Man Kee
for his wonderful support, guidances as well as advices given to us throughout these 28 weeks.
Numerous share of insights on various aspects to be taken note of and to be accessed for this
project to become feasible have been shared to us thorough the discussions with Dr Lam. He
has been imparting us the techniques required to tackle the design phases involved in this
design project including conceptual design of the chemical process flow, mass and energy
balance and heat integration., implementation of control strategies, safety analysis, waste
minimization and economic evaluations.

In addition, we would also like to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to
the course coordinators, Dr. Sekhar Bhattacharjee (PDP I) and Dr Oh Pei Ching (PDP II) for
organizing informative adjunct lectures for the students in order to expose us to the pivotal
knowledge and useful tips needed in conceptually designing a plant.

Last but not least, our heartfelt gratitude goes to the members of Group 7 whom have
been showing high commitment towards the assigned tasks throughout the implementation of
this design project. Credits should also be given to all other colleagues from other groups as
we often discuss with each other when we met difficulties in completing certain parts of the
project especially the simulation part.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Chemical Engineering students of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS are obligated


to engage in a plant design project during their final undergraduate year in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of. Chemical Engineering. The primary
objective of the plant design project allocated for September Semester 2016 is to elaborate on
the design of an integrated benzene alkylation and dehydrogenation plant for the production of
styrene using benzene and ethylene as the feedstock. The plant design developed must possess
high economic viability in which the cost needed for the plant start-up should not exceed the
RM500 million of budget given in accordance to the problem statement of this design project.
The most feasible process route to produce styrene is determined and steps involved in
designing an integrated styrene plant encompassing the development of process flowsheet,
HYSYS simulation to acquire mass and energy balances, calculations of heat integration,
implementation of control strategies, safety analysis, waste minimization and economic
evaluations.are followed subsequently. Hence, the purpose of writing this report is to document
and present the tasks completed by Group 7 throughout the 28 weeks of Plant Design Project I
and II. This project is entitled the design of styrene plant.

Chapter 1 provides an overview of this project whereby the background study, problem
statement, objectives and scope of project are explained under this section.

Chapter 2 gives details of the latest information on feed and product properties, market
analysis as well as the site feasibility study. Summary of potential hazards including the case
studies of previous incidents associated with the styrene production plants is also included in
this chapter. Three different plant sites are accessed from various criteria in which a weighted
analysis based on factors affecting the selection of site location is conducted prior to making
the decision in order to evaluate the feasibility of the potential site locations in several
important aspects including supply of raw materials, availability of utilities as well as the land
price. Telok Kalong Industrial Zone at Kerteh, Terrenganu is chosen as the location for this
project since it has the highest preferred percentage at 81% indicating that it possesses more
desirable characteristics compared to the other two locations. Subsequently, the plant is
targeted to produce 231975.15 Metric ton of styrene per annum. The table below shows the
targeted annual capacity of raw materials (ethylene and benzene) and main product (styrene).

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Chapter 3 elaborates on the conceptual design and synthesis of the project. The design
chosen for this project is an integration of Lummus/UOP EBOneTM liquid phase alkylation
which involves the usage of zeolite catalyst and Fina/Badger dehydrogenation. The overall
process involves multiple unit operations including reactors, heat exchangers, 3-phase
separator and distillation columns. HYSYS simulation software and manual engineering
calculations is used to execute the designing phase of this project. Besides, software simulation
results and economic analysis are included in this chapter. The heat integration study through
the application of pinch analysis technique is also explained here. The analysis is conducted to
enhance the optimization of energy usage in the plant designed through the substitution of
heaters and coolers required for heating and cooling purposes with heat exchangers. A total of
48.48% reduction of utility is attained through the heat integration performed. The PFD after
heat integration along with the complete description on the process flow is also included in this
chapter.

Chapter 4 discusses on the process control and instrumentation on the major and minor
equipment constituting the styrene monomer production plant. The fundamental concepts
pertaining to the control strategies are explained in this chapter followed by detailed
justifications of the control strategy regulating every equipment involved in this project.
including the major equipment namely distillation column and packed bed reactor as well as
minor equipment such as heater, cooler and mixer. The implementation of control strategy for
respective equipment is illustrated in the process and instrumentation diagram. The PID is done
in accordance with the PETRONAS Technical Standard with appropriate symbols and
numbering of process equipment.

Chapter 5 deliberates about the safety and loss prevention strategy implementation with
great emphasizing on the HAZOP study. Local safety regulations and design guidelines are
also included in this section. HAZOP study of three selected study nodes is performed whereby
the potential causes and consequences associated with the deviation of the parameters studied
as well as recommended safeguard actions to avoid the deviations are listed out in the HAZOP
worksheets. The three nodes selected for this study are summarized in the table below:

Chapter 6 elaborates on the development of waste water treatment strategy which aims
to fulfil the ethical and statutory requirements as well as ensuring the appropriate regulation
limit is met. This is to ensure the potential risks brought upon by the disposal of wastes is
minimized prior to its release into the environment. The identification and classification of the

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primary waste and its nature are carried out in this chapter. In addition, block flow diagram
showcasing the primary equipment constituting the treatment system as well as the sequencing
of waste treatment process is included in this chapter.

Finally, Chapter 7 discusses on the process economics evaluation and the cost
estimation of major and minor equipment to calculate the overall cost required for the styrene
monomer production plant start-up and normal operation. This chapter deliberates on the total
annual expenditure encompassing the direct operating cost as well as indirect operating cost of
the plant. Profitability analysis including the computation of rate of return (ROR) and payback
period are performed to access the overall plant profitability. The payback period of 3 years
indicates that the styrene monomer project is indeed technically feasible and economically
attractive.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDEGMENT ........................................................................................................ i

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .....................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................xvii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of Design Project .................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Scope of Work............................................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 5

2.1 Overview of Feed and Product Properties................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Feed ...................................................................................................................... 5

2.1.2 Product ............................................................................................................... 10

2.1.3 Usage of Styrene ................................................................................................ 15

2.2 Market Analysis ........................................................................................................ 18

2.2.1 Production of Benzene as Feedstock ................................................................. 18

2.2.2 Production of Ethylene as Feedstock ................................................................. 19

2.2.3 Global Styrene Supply and Demand .................................................................. 20

2.2.4 Global Styrene Demand by Region ................................................................... 22

2.2.5 Global Styrene Production Capacity .................................................................. 23

2.2.6 Global Styrene and Raw Materials Prices ......................................................... 24

2.3 Site Location ............................................................................................................ 25

2.3.1 Supply of Raw Materials ................................................................................... 25

2.3.2 Transport Facilities ............................................................................................ 26

2.3.3 Availability of Utilities ...................................................................................... 26

2.3.4 Manpower Availability ...................................................................................... 26

2.3.5 Effluent Disposal and Waste Management ........................................................ 27


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2.3.6 Climatic and Atmospheric Conditions ............................................................... 27

2.3.7 Government Policy, Tax and Regulation ........................................................... 27

2.3.8 Political Conditions............................................................................................ 27

2.3.9 Distance from Local Community....................................................................... 28

2.3.10 Future Plant Expansion Project .......................................................................... 28

2.3.11 Price of Land ...................................................................................................... 28

2.3.12 Justification for Selection of Plant Location ...................................................... 29

2.4 Styrene Production Plant Previous Accidents .......................................................... 33

2.4.1 Styrene Plant Explosion in Bayport, Texas ....................................................... 33

2.4.2 Thermal Hazards in Styrene Monomer Plant at Taiwan .................................... 34

2.4.3 Styrene Release in Cincinnati, Ohio USA ......................................................... 35

2.4.4 Asahi Styrene plant explosion in Mizushima, Japan ......................................... 37

2.4.5 Ignition of Leaked Gas from Polystyrene Plant in Ibaragi, Japan ..................... 37

2.4.6 Polystyrene Reactor Runaway at a Monsanto Plant in Ville-de-LaSalle, Québec


............................................................................................................................ 37

CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS ........................ 37

3.1 Conceptual Design Procedure ................................................................................... 37

3.2 Process Operating Mode ........................................................................................... 38

3.2.1 Conclusion on the Operating Mode ................................................................... 40

3.3 Input-Output Structure .............................................................................................. 41

3.4 Reactor Design and Reactor Network Synthesis....................................................... 42

3.4.1 Batch Reactor ("Chemical Reactors," 2013; Coker, 2001) ................................ 42

3.4.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTRs)("Mixing in Chemical Reactors,"


2016) ............................................................................................................................ 43

3.4.3 Tubular Plug Flow Reactor (Kocamemi; "Plug Flow Reactors (PFRs),") ..... 44

3.4.4 Fixed Bed Reactor ("Chemical Reactors," 2013; de Haan, 2015; Fogler, 2010)
............................................................................................................................ 44

3.4.5 Justifications of Feasible Reactors ..................................................................... 45

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3.5 Process Screening ...................................................................................................... 52

3.5.1 Alkylation .......................................................................................................... 52

3.5.2 Dehydrogenation ................................................................................................ 61

3.5.3 Process Route Chosen Analysis ......................................................................... 69

3.6 Separation System Synthesis ..................................................................................... 70

3.6.1 Alkylation .......................................................................................................... 70

3.6.2 Dehydrogenation ................................................................................................ 72

3.7 Heat Intergration ....................................................................................................... 76

3.7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 76

3.7.2 Energy Optimization through Pinch Analysis .................................................. 76

3.7.3 Minimum Temperature Difference (Tmin) ..................................................... 77

3.7.4 Stream Identification and Summary of Thermal Data ...................................... 78

3.7.5 Pinch Design Analysis ....................................................................................... 79

3.7.5.1 Temperature Interval Heat Balances (Table Algorithm.................................. 79

3.7.6 Grid Diagram – Heat Exchanger Network......................................................... 83

3.7.7 Comparison of Utilities Consumption ............................................................... 84

3.8 Process Flowsheeting ............................................................................................... 85

3.8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 85

3.8.2 Process Description ........................................................................................... 85

3.8.3 Process Flowsheet .............................................................................................. 88

CHAPTER 4: INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL.................................................. 90

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 90

4.2 Concept of Process Control and Instrumentation ...................................................... 91

4.3 Control Strategies ...................................................................................................... 92

4.3.1 Feedback Control ............................................................................................... 92

4.3.2 Feedforward Control .......................................................................................... 92

4.3.3 Cascade Control ................................................................................................. 92

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4.3.4 Ratio Control...................................................................................................... 93

4.4 Implementation of Control Strategies ....................................................................... 93

4.4.1 Major Equipment ............................................................................................... 93

4.4.2 Minor Equipment ............................................................................................. 100

CHAPTER 5: SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION ...................................................... 109

5.1 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP).............................................................. 109

5.2 HAZOP Principles................................................................................................... 109

5.3 HAZOP Methodology ............................................................................................. 110

5.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP).............................................................. 112

5.5 Plant Layout ............................................................................................................ 125

5.5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 125

5.5.2 Plant Layout Consideration Factors ................................................................. 125

5.5.3 Inherent Safety ................................................................................................. 126

5.5.4 Codes of Practice and Industry Guidance for Plant Layout ............................. 129

5.6 Plant Layout Justification ........................................................................................ 131

CHAPTER 6: WASTE TREATMENT ............................................................................. 134

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 134

6.2 Laws and Regulation Limits ................................................................................... 134

6.2.1 Gaseous Waste Limit ....................................................................................... 135

6.2.2 Liquid Waste Limit .......................................................................................... 135

6.2.3 Solid Waste Limit ............................................................................................ 136

6.3 Waste Identification ................................................................................................ 137

6.4 Waste Treatment Strategy ....................................................................................... 137

6.4.1 Waste Gas Treatment ....................................................................................... 137

6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................................... 138

6.4.3 Solid Waste Processing and Handling ............................................................. 142

CHAPTER 7: PROCESS ECONOMICS & COST ESTIMATION ............................... 144

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7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 144

7.2 Economic Potential Analysis ................................................................................. 145

7.2.1 Utility Cost ....................................................................................................... 147

7.3 Capital Investment................................................................................................... 150

7.3.1 Capital Investment Estimation ......................................................................... 150

7.3.2 Purchased Equipment....................................................................................... 150

7.3.3 Fixed Capital Investment ................................................................................. 161

7.3.4 Working Capital ............................................................................................... 162

7.3.5 Total Capital Investment .................................................................................. 162

7.4 Annual Operating Expenditure (OPEX) ................................................................. 163

7.4.1 Fixed Operating Cost ....................................................................................... 163

7.4.2 Variable Operating Cost .................................................................................. 166

7.4.3 General Expenses (Indirect Operating Cost) ................................................... 168

7.5 Estimation of Total Revenue ................................................................................... 169

7.6 Profitability Analysis............................................................................................... 170

7.6.1 Start-up Period ................................................................................................. 170

7.6.2 Depreciation ..................................................................................................... 171

7.6.3 Tabulation of Net Present Worth (NPW)......................................................... 171

7.6.4 Cumulative Cash Flow ..................................................................................... 172

7.6.5 Payback Period................................................................................................. 173

7.6.6 Rate of Return (ROR) ...................................................................................... 173

7.6.7 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) ............................................ 174

7.7 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 176

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................ 178

8.1 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 178

8.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 180

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 181

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APPENDIX I: HYSYS MAIN FLOWSHEET .................................................................. 187

APPENDIX II: HYSYS MATERIAL STREAMS DATA ............................................... 188

APPENDIX III: BENZENE MSDS .................................................................................... 193

APPENDIX IV: ETHYLENE MSDS ................................................................................. 199

APPENDIX V: STYRENE MSDS ...................................................................................... 205

APPENDIX VI: ETHYLBENZENE MSDS ...................................................................... 210

APPENDIX VII: TOLUENE MSDS .................................................................................. 215

APPENDIX IX: P&ID ......................................................................................................... 221

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1.1 a: Physical Constants of Benzene 6

Table 2.1.1 b: Physical Constants of Ethylene 9

Table 2.1.2 a: Physical Constants of Ethylbenzene 11

Table 2.1.2 b: Physical Constants of Diethylbenzene 12

Table 2.1.2 c: Physical Constants of Styrene 14

Table 2.1.2 d: Uses of Styrene 15

Table 2.2.6 a: Prices of Benzene and Ethylene by Region (2016) 24

Table 2.2.6 b: Prices of Styrene by Region (2016) 24

Table 2.3.12 a: Plant Location Justification 29

Table 2.3.12 b: Weightage Table of Plant Location 32

Table 2.4.2: Thermal Explosion Accidents related to Styrene Monomer and its 35
derivatives
Table 3.2 a: Limiting Conditions of Reactor Functionin 39

Table 3.2 b: Comparisons between Batch and Continuous Process 39

Table 3.4.5: Comparisons between Fluidized Bed Reactor and Fixed Bed Reactor 46

Table 3.5.1: Comparisons between Alkylation Process Shortlisted 58

Table 3.5.2: Comparisons between Dehydrogenation Process Shortlisted 66

Table 3.6.1: Properties Table of Alkylation Product Stream 70

Table 3.6.2 a: Properties Table of Dehydrogenation Product Stream 73

Table 3.6.2 b: Antoine Constant 75

Table 3.6.2 c: Relative Volatility 75

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Table 3.7.3: Optimum Tmin for Different Industries 77

Table 3.7.4: Stream Data for Heat Integration Process 88

Table 3.7.7: Percentage of Heat Reduction After Heat Integration 84

Table 4.3.3.2 c: Relative Volatility 93

Table 4.4.1.1: Control System Strategy of Alkylation Reactor 96

Table 4.4.1.2: Control System Strategy of Dehydrogenation Reactor 98

Table 4.4.1.3: Control System Strategy of Distillation Column 101

Table 4.4.2.1: Control System Strategy of Heat Exchanger 102

Table 4.4.2.2: Control System Strategy of Heater 103

Table 4.4.2.3: Control System Strategy of Cooler 104

Table 4.4.2.4: Control System Strategy of 3 Phase Separator 106

Table 4.4.2.5: Control System Strategy of Pump 107

Table 4.4.2.6: Control System Strategy of Compressor 118

Table 4.4.2.7: Control System Strategy of Mixer 109

Table 4.4.2.8: Control System Strategy of Splitter 110

Table 5.2: HAZOP Guide Words 112

Table 5.3: HAZOP Parameters 112

Table 6.2.1: Gaseous waste limit abiding Environmental Quality (Clean Air) 138

Regulation 1978

Table 6.2.2: Acceptable Conditions of Sewage Discharge for Standards A and B 139

Table 6.3: Categories of Scheduled Waste 139

Table 6.3 a: Composition in 3-Phase Separator 139

Table 6.3 b: Components in Stream 36 and 37 from 3-phase separator 140

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Table 6.4.2: Water Treatment stages 141

Table 7.2 a: Consumption of Raw Materials 145

Table 7.2 b: Total Cost of Raw Materials 146

Table 7.2 c: Production of Styrene and By-product 146

Table 7.2 d: Estimated Production of Styrene and By-product 147

Table 7.2.1 a: Tariff Rates for High Voltage Industries 147

Table 7.2.1 b: Summary of GTE plant Utilities Energy Consumption 147

Table 7.2.1 c: Summary of GTE plant Utilities Energy Consumption 148

Table 7.2.1 d: Summary of Economic Potential for Styrene Monomer Production 149

Plant

Table 7.3.2 a: Material Factor for Distillation Column 151

Table 7.3.2 b: Material Factor for Distillation Column 151

Table 7.3.2 c: Cost of Distillation Columns 151

Table 7.3.2 d: Material Factors of Shell & Tubes Heat Exchanger 152

Table 7.3.2 e: Correction Factors for Shell & Tubes Heat Exchanger 152

Table 7.3.2 f: Cost of Heat Exchangers 153

Table 7.3.2 g: Material Factors of Cooler 153

Table 7.3.2 h: Correction Factors for Cooler 153

Table 7.3.2 i: Cost of Coolers 154

Table 7.3.2 j: Material Factors of Heater 154

Table 7.3.2 k: Correction Factors for Heater 154

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Table 7.3.2 l: Cost of Heaters 155

Table 7.3.2 m: Correction Factor for Compressor 155

Table 7.3.2 n: Cost of Compressors 155

Table 7.3.2 o: Material Factors for PBR 156

Table 7.3.2 p: Total Cost of PBR 156

Table 7.3.2 q: Correction Factors for Pump 157

Table 7.3.2 r: Cost of Pumps 157

Table 7.3.2 s: Cost Factor for Mixer 158

Table 7.3.2 t: Cost of Mixers 158

Table 7.3.2 u: Cost Factor for Splitter 159

Table 7.3.2 v: Cost of Splitters 159

Table 7.3.2 w: Cost of Storage Tanks 160

Table 7.3.2 x: Purchased Cost Equipment 160

Table 7.3.3 a: Typical Factors of CAPEX’s Direct Cost Items 161

Table 7.3.3 b: Typical Factors of CAPEX’s Indirect Cost Items 162

Table 7.4.1: Fixed Operating Cost 166

Table 7.4.2 a: Cost of raw materials 167

Table 7.4.2 b: Variable operating cost 168

Table 7.4.3: General expenses 168

Table 7.5: Total Revenue 169

Table 7.6.1: Cost estimation of start-up period 170

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Table 7.6.4: Cumulative Cash Flow 172

Table 7.6.7: Discounted Cash Flow 175

Table 7.4.5 a: Correction Factor for Compressor 157

Table 7.4.5 b: Cost of Compressors 157

Table 7.4.6 a: Material Factors for PBR 158

Table 7.4.6 b: Total Cost of PBR 158

Table 7.4.7 a: Correction Factors for Pump 159

Table 7.4.7 a: Cost of Pumps 159

Table 7.4.9 a: Cost Factor for Mixer 160

Table 7.4.9 b: Cost of Mixers 160

Table 7.4.9 a: Cost Factor for Splitter 161

Table 7.4.9 b: Cost of Splitters 161

Table 7.4.10 a: Cost of Storage Tanks 162

Table 7.4.10 b: Purchased Cost Equipment 162

Table 7.5.1 a: Typical factors of CAPEX’s direct cost items 163

Table 7.5.1 b: Typical factors of CAPEX’s indirect cost items 164

Table 7.5.4: Fixed operating cost 167

Table 7.5.5.1: Cost of raw materials 168

Table 7.5.5.4: Variable operating cost 170

Table 7.5.6: General expenses 170

Table 7.6: Total Revenue 171

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Table 7.7.1: Cost estimation of start-up period 172

Table 7.7.4: Cumulative Cash Flow 174

Table 7.7.7: Discounted Cash Flow 177

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1.1 a: Benzene’s bonds Positioning 5

Figure 2.1.1 b: Kekule Structures 5

Figure 2.1.1c: Resonant Structure of Benzene 6

Figure 2.1.1 d: Ethylene Structure 8

Figure 2.1.1 e: Ethylene Positioning 8

Figure 2.2.1: Benzene Production Country 18

Figure 2.2.2 a: Ethylene Production Capacity by Country 19

Figure 2.2.2 b: Ethylene Capacity by Region 19

Figure 2.2.3 a: Global Styrene Demand by Derivative Product 20

Figure 2.2.3 b: Global Styrene Demand by Region 20

Figure 2.2.4: Global Styrenic Polymer Consumption Growth by Region 23

Figure 2.2.5 a: Global Styrene Supply and Demand over 2009 to 2015 23

Figure 2.2.5 b: World Styrene Production by Region 23

Figure 2.2.5 c: World Styrene Production 23

Figure 2.4.1 a: A simplified process of ethyl benzene column 33

Figure 2.4.1 b: Explosion in Bayport styrene plant 34

Figure 2.4.3 Explosion in Bayport styrene plant 36

Figure 3.1: Onion Model 37

Figure 3.4.1: Batch Reactor 43

Figure 3.4.2: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors 43

Figure 3.4.3: Tubular Plug Flow Reactor 44

Figure 3.4.4: Fix Bed Reactor 45

Figure 3.5.1.1: Block Diagram of Lummus/UOP EBOneTM Process 53

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Figure 3.5.1.2: Block Diagram of Mobil-Badger Process 55

Figure 3.5.1.3: Block Diagram of Friedel-Crafts/Alcar Process 57

Figure 3.5.2.1: Block Diagram of Adiabatic Liquid Phase Dehydrogenation Process 62

Figure 3.5.2.2: Block Diagram of Oxidative Dehydrogenation Process 64

Figure 3.5.2.3: Block Diagram of Fina/Badger Process 65

Figure 3.6.1: Alternative Sequences for the Separation of Three-components 71

Mixture

Figure 3.6.2 Alternative Sequences for the Separation of Four-components Mixture 73

Figure 3.7.5.1: Problem Table Algorithm 79

Figure 3.7.5.2 a: Heat Cascade 80

Figure 3.7.5.2 b: Problem Table Cascade 80

Figure 3.7.5.3: Composite Curve 81

Figure 3.7.5.4: Grand Composite Curve 82

Figure 3.7.6 Grid Diagram showing Heat Exchanger Network 83

Figure 3.8.3.1: PFD before Heat Integration 88

Figure 3.8.3.2: PFD after Heat Integration 90

Figure 4.2: Block Diagram of a Process Control Loop 93

Figure 4.4.1.1: Control Strategy of Alkylation Reactor 97

Figure 4.4.1.2: Control Strategy of Dehydrogenation Reactor 98

Figure 4.4.1.3: Control Strategy of Distillation Column 101

Figure 4.4.2.1: Control Strategy of Heat Exchanger 103

Figure 4.4.2.2: Control Strategy of Heater 104

Figure 4.4.2.3: Control Strategy of Cooler 105

Figure 4.4.2.4: Control Strategy of 3 Phase Separator 106

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Figure 4.4.2.5: Control Strategy of Pump 107

Figure 4.4.2.6: Control Strategy of Compressor 108

Figure 4.4.2.7: Control Strategy of Mixer 109

Figure 4.4.2.8: Control Strategy of Splitter 110

Figure 5.3: HAZOP Methodology 113

Figure 5.4 a: Node 1 114

Figure 5.4 b: Node 2 121

Figure 5.4 c: Node 3 118

Figure 5.6: Plant Layout 134

Figure 6.4.1: Treatment of gas wastes in gas scrubber 140

Figure 6.4.2.4: Proposed wastewater treatment strategy for styrene plant 144

Figure 7.6.5: Graph of Payback Period 173

Figure 7.6.7: Cumulative Cash Flow Plot at Discounted Rates 174

Figure 7.7 a: Enthalpy intervals in composite curves 177

Figure 7.7 b: Capital energy trade off 177

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Design Project

As a Chemical Engineering student of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, students are


required to participate in a plant design project throughout their two semesters in the final
undergraduate year. A total of six credit hours is assigned to the course quantitatively whereby
students will be receiving the academic credit and subsequently earn transcript recognition after
completing the course. This Plant Design Project (PDP) comprises of two sections which are
PDP 1 and PDP 2. The main outcome expected from PDP 1 is the development of process
flowsheet for the assigned production process. Plant capacity calculations as well as the mass
and energy balance for the entire plant through the utilization of HYSYS software need to be
performed by the students. Besides, calculations of heat integration and preliminary economic
analysis are required prior to the completion of process flowsheeting of PDP I. On the other
hand, PDP II consists of equipment designing, implementation of process control, safety
analysis, waste minimization and economic evaluations. The entire PDP will then be finalized
for submission. The completion of PDP requires students to recall, integrate and apply the
knowledge acquired during the past semesters to come out with a proper design of the process
plant.

The project sets out the requirements to design a styrene monomer plant based on the
capital cost of RM500 million allocated to bring the plant to a commercially operable status.
Styrene possesses great importance in the production of products used in our daily lives
attributed to its strong and durable mechanical properties. With that, it is a significant
commodity chemical manufactured globally through a few feasible ways which include
dehydrogenation process of ethylbenzene which is accountable for 90% of the current styrene
production, oxidation process of ethyl benzene and toluene alkylation process with methanol.
The project will be designed based on the concept of an integrated alkylation and
dehydrogenation plant whereby an integration of Lummus/UOP EBOneTM liquid phase
alkylation which involves the usage of zeolite catalyst and Fina/Badger dehydrogenation is
selected as the most feasible route for this design project.

1
1.2 Problem Statement

Students are required to fulfill the task of designing a styrene monomer plant which
integrates both benzene alkylation and dehydrogenation sections to produce styrene of desired
purity. The following points should be considered when designing the plant:

a) The operation of the styrene monomer plant should be economically viable whereby
the overall desirability of the plant in financial terms can be justified. The design of
plant should be within the RM500 million budget set. The costs to be incurred during
the startup of the plant should not exceed the budget.
b) The styrene monomer plant should be optimally located in order to maximize the
benefits of the chosen location to the plant and to serve the needs and objectives of the
plant such as adequate access to raw materials, transportation systems and utilities. The
location of the plant should be determined and justified based on applicable aspects.
c) The energy efficiency of styrene monomer plant should be assessed and improved
through the implementation of energy-saving measures in areas with huge energy
consumption such as process heating. The applicable measures include the practice of
heat integration.
d) The materials consumed in the production of styrene should be recovered and recycled
to increase the overall conversion of the reaction. Recycling of materials would reduce
the amount of waste generated by the plant and subsequently lessen the disposal costs
needed to process the waste resulting in a more economical overall operation.
e) All the operations of styrene monomer plant should comply with local health, safety
and environmental laws. Several assorted and complex factors such as health, safety,
environment, and technical issues need to be evaluated during the design stage to reduce
the hazard potential of the plant.

In addition, the price of the feedstock and products which will be utilized later in the
design project should be based on the current market price in year 2017. The styrene monomer
plant is projected to run for 20 years with 330 operating days per annum, which is equivalent
to 7920 hours per year, allowing 30 days for plant shutdown or any maintenance works. Thus,
the economic study will be performed thoroughly to cater to its targeted production capacity.

2
1.3 Objectives

The primary objectives to be achieved towards the end of Plant Design Project (PDP) 1 include:

a) To determine the optimal location for the construction of plant


b) To identify and select the most feasible process route to produce styrene monomer
c) To develop process flow diagram (PFD) and piping and instrumentation diagram
(P&ID) diagram of the plant
d) To determine the capacity of styrene monomer plant relevant to the budget given
e) To perform conceptual design of a styrene monomer plant confined to RM500 million
budget through hierarchical approach
f) To perform calculations of mass and energy balances
g) To produce styrene monomer of high purity
h) To conduct heat integration as to minimize the consumption of energy in the plant
i) To implement process control of the plant equipment
j) To design an environmentally sustainable styrene monomer plant.
k) To perform economic evaluation of the plant to access its economic feasibility

1.4 Scope of Work

The scope of this plant design project includes the following:

a) Conduct literature study on the market supply and demand of styrene monomer and
viable process routes for styrene production, environmental aspects as well as safety
aspects of the materials involved in the styrene production.
b) Determine a location which is most favorable for the construction of styrene monomer
plant with legitimate justifications.
c) Perform technologies review of several feasible routes for producing styrene monomer
followed by selection of the best process route to maximize the styrene production.
d) Develop process flow diagram (PFD) of the plant.
e) Perform material balance calculations of the selected route using Excel spreadsheet and
HYSYS software to justify the calculations.
f) Conduct heat integration by using HINT software.
g) Implement process control and instrumentation on the plant equipment.
h) Perform process economics evaluation of the proposed styrene monomer plant.

3
i) Develop waste water treatment strategy of the plant.
j) Conduct HAZOP analysis of 3 selected nodes of the plant.

4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Feed and Product Properties

2.1.1 Feed

A) Benzene

Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon acquired from either the fractional
distillation of crude oil or through the catalytic reforming process of gasoline. Benzene (C6H6)
is a clear, volatile, toxic and highly flammable liquid. It is mainly used in the industry for
solvents in paints, thinners etc.

Physical properties:

Structure: Benzene is made up of a regular hexagon-shaped carbon skeleton in which


the H-C-C and C-C-C bonds are positioned at an angle of 120° between each other. It is a
hybrid formed equally from two Kekule structures.

Figure 2.1.1 a: Benzene’s bonds Positioning

Figure 2.1.1 b: Kekule Structures

5
Benzene is a highly unsaturated molecule. Its highly unsaturated characteristic
compared to alkenes comprising of carbon-carbon double bond and alkynes consisting of
carbon-carbon triple bond is attributed to the 1:1 carbon to hydrogen ratio. The high
unsaturation property of benzene is exhibited through the presence of smoky flame when it is
burned.

Resonance: Benzene possesses great extent of thermal stability. It is capable of


absorbing greater amount of energy than that forecasted by Kekule’s formula when it
undergoes decomposition to form carbon and hydrogen. This is due to the assumption whereby
the charges are distributed evenly in the resonant structure intermediate of benzene (Galinski).

Figure 2.1.1c: Resonant Structures of Benzene.

Table 2.1.1 a: Physical Constants of Benzene

Physical Constants of Benzene


Formula C6H6
Molecular structure

Molecular Weight (g/mole) 78.11


Other name Benzol
Phene
Phenyl hydride
Appearance Colourless
Odour Aromatic
Boiling point, ᵒC 80.08
Melting point, ᵒC 5.5

6
Physical Constants of Benzene
Flash point, ᵒC -11
Auto ignition temperature, ᵒC 498
Critical temperature, ᵒC 289
Vapour pressure, mmHg (20ᵒC) 75
Relative vapour density (air=1) 2.8
Relative density, g/cm3 0.87
(water=1)
Solubility in water, g/L (25ᵒC) 1.8
Heat of formation, liquid 49.2
kJ/mole
Heat of combustion, kcal/ mole 726.1
Heat of vaporization, kcal/ mole 33.83
Heat of Fusion, kJ/mol 9.9 at 5.42 °C

Chemical properties

Benzene tends to undergo substitution reactions more than addition reactions. It does
not exhibit behaviors like what typical unsaturated carbons do in which it does not has high
tendency to undergo addition reactions like other compounds containing double bonds. This is
due to the high possibility of disruptions which will be brought upon by the addition reactions
to the entire cloud of delocalized electrons.

The product would lose its stability if addition reaction takes place since resonance
energy will need to be supplied to compound. Benzene is more likely to participate in
substitution reactions in order to maintain the arene ring. Example of the substitution reactions
include the reaction between benzene and bromine gas.

B) Ethylene

Ethylene is generally acquired from natural sources. Anthropogenic sources are the
secondary sources of ethylene whereby the release of anthropogenic usually takes place from
the burning of hydrocarbon and biomass. Ethylene (C2H4) is a colorless gas that has a sweet
odor and taste. It is easily ignited and catch on flames. It is commonly used in the chemical
industry as raw material to be utilized for chemicals manufacturing, as well as for the synthesis
of resins and petrochemicals (INCHEM).

7
Physical properties

Structure: Ethylene is a non-polar molecule which exhibits high solubility in non-polar


solvents. On the other hands, it is not soluble in polar solvents for example water. The reactive
site of ethylene is situated at the double bond of the compound. Ethylene is made up of covalent
bonds which are formed from the sharing of valence electrons between two adjacent atoms. It
is comprised of two carbons atoms with the presence of double bond in between the two atoms.
These carbon atoms are bonded to two hydrogen atoms respectively (Ausetute). Thus, each
carbon atom has a total of three bonds bonded to it, resulting in an sp2 hybridization. The carbon
atom is required to hybridize three of its outer orbitals. The sp2 hybridization enables the carbon
atoms to exhibit a trigonal planar structure. The atoms are positioned at an angle of 120°
between each other.

Figure 2.1.1 d: Ethylene Structure

Figure 2.1.1 e: Ethylene Positioning

Chemical properties

Ethylene is subjected to various addition reactions across the double bonds which
include the addition reactions with chlorine, bromine, water, hydrogen, hydrogen bromide as
well as hydrogen chloride. These reactions are attributed to the high unsaturation of ethylene.

8
The double bonds in ethylene undergo transformation to form single bonds through the addition
of atoms or functional groups during addition reactions.

Addition reactions can be categorized into halogenation and addition polymerization.


Halogenation addition reactions take place between an ethylene and a halogen. On the other
hand, addition polymerization results when the ethylene molecules are added to form a long
chain. Besides, ethylene can readily undergo oxidation reaction and combustion reaction.

Table 2.1.1 b: Physical Constants of Ethylene

Physical Constants of Ethylene


Formula C2H4
Molecular structure

Molecular Weight (g/mol) 28.054


Other name Ethene
Appearance Colourless gas
Odour Sweet
Boiling point, ᵒC -104
Melting point, ᵒC -169.2
Flash point, ᵒF -213
Auto ignition temperature, ᵒC 450
Critical temperature, ᵒC 9.2
Vapour pressure, kPa (15ᵒC) 8100
Relative vapour density (air=1) 0.978
Relative density, g/cm3 0.00118
(water=1)
Solubility in water, mg/L (25ᵒC) 131
Heat of combustion, J/kg -471.94 X 105
Heat of vaporization, J/kg 4.832 X 105
Heat of Fusion, kJ/kg 119.45

9
2.1.2 Product

A) Ethylbenzene

Ethylbenzene produced commercially has more than 99.7% purity. It is produced in


bulk quantities through a closed continuous process involving the alkylation reaction of
benzene with ethylene catalyzed by either zeolite or aluminum chloride catalyst. Small amount
of ethylbenzene also occurs in the crude oil, in refinery streams blended in gasoline fuels and
in products acquired from the reforming of oil fractions. It is generally used as precursor in the
manufacture of synthetic polymers. Besides, it is an essential component constituting the
aviation and automotive fuels.

Physical properties

Ethylbenzene exists in the form of clear and colorless liquid at room temperature. It
possesses low solubility in water but exhibit high miscibility with organic solvents which
include hexane, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform and toluene. It gives off odor similarly
to what is released by benzene. Besides, it tends to undergo evaporation at room temperature.
It exhibits high flammability due to its heavy vapors compared to air, thus inducing the
possibility of the occurrence of flash back when it travels to any source of ignition.

Chemical properties

Ethylbenzene behaves similarly to the aromatic compounds and thus possessing


homologous properties with aromatic compounds. It undergoes reaction with bromine or
chlorine in gaseous phase under the condition of high temperature or the presence of light,
resulting in halogenethyl and halogenethylbenzenes compound. The mechanism involved in
the reaction possesses a free-radical nature. The reactions with halogens also occur in liquid
phase producing ring-substituted adducts. Besides, ethylbenzene also undergo nitration process
in which mono-, di- and tri- substituted derivatives will be produced following the reactions.

10
Table 2.1.2 a: Physical Constants of Ethylbenzene

Physical Constants of Ethylbenzene


Formula C8H10
Molecular structure

Molecular Weight (g/mole) 106.17


Other name Ethylbenzol; Phenylethane:
alpha-Methyltoluene; EB

Appearance Colourless
Odour Aromatic
Boiling point, ᵒC 136.2
Melting point, ᵒC −95
Flash point, ᵒC 19-23
Auto ignition temperature, ᵒC 428 – 435
Critical temperature, ᵒC 343.05
Vapour pressure, Pa (10ᵒC) 500
Relative vapour density (air=1) 3.7
Solubility in water, kg/m3 (25ᵒC) 0.17 kg/m3
Heat of formation, kJ/mol -12.5
Heat of combustion, J/kg -413.5 X 105
Heat of vaporization, J/kmol 4.8 X 107
Heat of Fusion, Kcal/mole 86.47 into j g -1

11
B) Diethylbenzene

Diethylbenzene is generally applied as solvent in closed systems. Besides, it is used as


an intermediate used in the production of other organic compounds and subsequently resulting
in finished products which include cross-linking agents, curing agents and engineering plastics.

Physical properties

Diethylbenzene has the physical state of liquid at 15℃ and 1 atm. It appears to be clear
colourless to light yellow and has volatile nature. It emits similar odor to what is released by
aromatic compound which include benzene and toluene since it possesses homologous
characteristics as what are possessed by those compounds. It has smaller density compared to
water and thus does not dissolve in water. The vapors of diethylbenzene is heavier than air.

Chemical properties

Diethylbenzene exhibits stability when dissolved in alkaline, acidic or neutral solution.


In other words, it is not readily biodegradable in these solutions. It does not exhibit reactivity
with water or other common materials. It is subjected to vigorous reactions which could result
in explosions when in contact with strong oxidizing agents. Besides, diethylbenzenes can
undergo exothermic reactions with diazo compounds as well as bases. Substitution reactions
involving diethylbenzene which takes place at the benzene nucleus occurs through Friedel-
Crafts reaction, nitration, sulfonation and halogenation (Cheremisinoff, 1999).

Table 2.1.2 b: Physical Constants of Diethylbenzene

Physical Constants of Diethylbenzene


Formula C10H14
Molecular structure

Molecular Weight (g/mole) 134.222


Other name -

12
Physical Constants of Diethylbenzene
Appearance Liquid
Odour Aromatic
Boiling point, ᵒC 183.7
Melting point, ᵒC −42.83
Flash point, ᵒC 55
Auto ignition temperature, ᵒC 430
Critical temperature, K 657.90
Vapour pressure, mm Hg (25 deg 1.03
C)
Relative vapour density (air=1) 3.7
Solubility in water, mg/l (25ᵒC) 24.8
Heat of formation, kJ/mol -72.84
Heat of combustion, J/kg -5863.08
Heat of vaporization, J/kmol 5.5 X 107
Heat of Fusion, Kcal/mole 86.47 into j g -1

C) Styrene

Styrene is generally a synthetic chemical. It is a liquid hydrocarbon which possesses


high tendency of undergoing polymerization process whereby styrene molecules will be linked
together in long chains. It is widely used to manufacture polystyrene plastics and resins, as well
as other types of synthetic rubbers and specialty plastics. Besides, it is employed in the
production of copolymers including styrene-butadiene rubber and styrene acrylonitrile. The
usage of styrene will be further explained in the table summarized as below:

Physical properties

Styrene is an oily liquid which appears to be colourless and has a sweet smell. It tends
to undergo evaporation easily. Styrene is commonly combined with other chemicals, causing
it to emit sharp as well as unpleasant smell. It is not soluble in water. However, it can dissolve
easily in some other liquids including acetone, carbon disulfide, alcohol and ether.

Chemical properties

Styrene does not exhibit compatibility with strong acids, oxidisers, aluminium chloride
and peroxides. It is of great dangers to expose styrene to oxidants, heat or flame. Besides, it

13
will undergo vigorous reactions with oleum, chlorosulfonic acid, oxidizing materials and alkali
metal-graphite. It might undergo polymerization if exposed to any contaminations or heat in
which flames will be emitted. Styrene commonly contains an inhibitor.

Table 2.1.2 c: Physical Constants of Styrene


Physical Constants of Styrene
Formula C6H5 CH = CH2
`Molecular structure

Molecular Weight (g/mole) 104.152


Other name Ethenylbenzene,
Vinvylbenzene,
Styrol
Appearance Colourless to yellow oily liquid
Odour Aromatic
Boiling point, ᵒC 145
Melting point, ᵒC -30.65
Flash point, ᵒC 34.4
Auto ignition temperature, ᵒC 490
Critical temperature, ᵒC 373
Vapour pressure, kPa (20ᵒC) 0.67
Relative vapour density (air=1) 3.6
Relative density, g/cm3 0.91
(water=1)
Solubility in water, g/L (25ᵒC) 0.3
Heat of formation, liquid 35.22
kacal/mole
Heat of combustion, kcal/mole -1018.83
Heat of vaporization, kJ/mol 42.5

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2.1.3 Usage of Styrene

According to global styrene demand in year 2013, styrene is primarily used for the
production of polystyrene plastics and resins (59%), followed by styrene co-polymers (20.6%)
which include acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene and styrene-acrylonitrile (Assadi, Mahkam, &
Tajrezaiy, 2007). Styrene butadiene latex and styrene butadiene rubber made up 4.8% of the
global demand respectively.

Table 2.1.2 d: Uses of Styrene

Application Descriptions

Polystyrene (PS)  Polystyrene is generally produced through bulk-continuous


polymerization process of styrene monomer whereas
expandable polystyrene is produced through suspension
polymerization process.
 It is highly processable whereby the design and conversion
process is very simple and flexible. It is rigid, stiff, transparent
and possesses low water absorbability
 Polystyrene is often used in manufacturing a diversity of
consumer products especially in the food service industry such
as foamed cups and disposable utensils. It is used in
commercial packaging.

Styrene Butadiene  SBL possesses high elasticity, good resistance to water, alkali
Latex (SBL) and acid outstanding chemical stability and good low
temperature properties.
 SBL is primarily used in the paper processing and glass
processing industry. It also can be applied in fiber processing
for carpet backing and used as paint or adhesive.

15
Application Descriptions

Styrene Butadiene  SBR is a mixture produced from the copolymerization of


Rubber(SBR) styrene and butadiene and is developed to replace natural
rubber since it possesses better abrasion resistant properties.
 It is widely used in the automobile industry to produce truck
and car tires. Other applications include manufacture of
belting, waterproof materials as well as materials which are
waterproof.

Expandable  EPS is a cell insulation manufactured using expandable


Polystyrene (EPS) polystyrene, a stiff cellular plastic carrying an expansion agent.
There are three transformation stages involved in producing
EPS which are pre-expansion, intermediate maturing and
stabilization and finally expansion and final molding.
 It possesses several desirable characteristics including constant
thermal resistance, high durability, good insulation and
chemically inertness. It is widely used in the two distinct
categories which are packaging and construction applications
such as walls, roofings and foundations. It is the most favorable
option to contain any heavy products of high value attributed
to its excellent chemical and compressive resistance.

Acrylonitrile-  ABS undergoes polymerization through the emulsion process


butadiene Styrene specifically known as continuous mass polymerization,
(ABS) resulting in two-phase plastic systems. The thermoplastic
property of ABS enables it to be easily recycled to produce
another ABS plastic.
 ABS manifests a combination of desirable properties attributed
to the combination of three monomers types namely butadiene,
acrylonitrile and styrene whereby they collectively contribute
to high impact resistance, excellent dimensional stability, good
stiffness and machinability properties of ABS. Besides, ABS
can be produced at a relatively low cost.

16
Application Descriptions

 It is commonly used in automotive applications, power tool


applications, building and construction industry, consumer
electronics as household items(Campo).

Styrene-  SAN is a thermoplastic material manifesting improved


acrylonitrile (SAN) resistance towards stress cracking produced from the
copolymerization between monomers styrene and acrylonitrile.
 It exhibits outstanding chemical resistance and heat resistance,
excellent dimensional stability, superior mechanical strength
and hardness and is highly compatible with grafted
acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene powders ("Styrenics Resin
Properties and Applications GPPS (General Purpose
Polystyrene),").
 SAN is generally used in a diversity of end-uses including
instrument panels, housewares, medical applications,
electronic appliances and automotive goods (IHS, 2016).

Unsaturated  UP resins are composite product formed from the reaction


Polyester Resins between the resinous polymer and styrene ("UP Resins &
(UP resins) You,")
 It has high strength-to-weight ratio, outstanding electrical
insulating property, high resistance to chemicals and good
temperature resistance. It is typically used in two distinct
categories of applications which are reinforced and
unreinforced. Reinforced applications are evident in the boat-
manufacturing sector particularly the construction of leisure
boats, building panels and corrosion-resistant pipes. Non-
reinforced applications are bowling balls, sinks and coatings.

17
2.2 Market Analysis

2.2.1 Production of Benzene as Feedstock

Figure 2.2.1: Benzene Production Country

Benzene is typically used as intermediate to produce many applications in our daily


lives. In year 2012, global benzene production reaches 57.54 million tonnes per year. The
increase of usage of benzene in pygas production and gasoline is the factor of the continuous
rising of global benzene production capacity, whilst one of the major driving force of benzene
demand is the styrene production industry. Global benzene capacity is expected to rise steadily
especially in Asia Pacific region. Asia Pacific drives the global benzene market as it accounts
for more than 50% of the global production capacity. However, Malaysia is not the main
benzene production country as the benzene production capacity is around 775 thousand mt/year.

As illustrated in Figure 2.2.1, China, U.S, Japan, South Korea, and Germany have
accounted for around 65% of the global benzene output. Most of the trading countries like
North America and U.S. need to rely on benzene imports to meet their market demand whilst
some countries like Asia, Africa and Europe have emerged into crucial exporting foundations
for benzene. It is estimated that the annual demand growth of benzene will maintain at 4% in
the coming years which would be supported by the demand growth of derivatives especially
styrene.

18
2.2.2 Production of Ethylene as Feedstock

Figure 2.2.2 a: Ethylene Production Figure 2.2.2 b: Ethylene Capacity by Region

Capacity by Country

Ethylene has been known as key building block in many petrochemical industries.
Ethylene has seen with its largest expansion in history to reach 155.9 million tonnes with
annual growth rate of 4% in year 2012. The new rising capacity mainly comes from Asia
particularly in China where it achieved a growth rate of nearly 14% per year. Another new
rising capacity has been witnessed from Gulf Cooperation (GCC) countries which has
accounted for 15% of annual growth rate. There are four main petrochemical companies in
Malaysia which are producing for ethylene: (i) Titan Petchem (M) Sdn. Bhd., (ii) Ethylene
Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., (iii) Optimal Olfins (M) Sdn. Bhd, and (iv) Idemitsy SM Malaysia Sdn.
Bhd. The production capacity of ethylene Malaysia is around 1.63mt/year.

19
2.2.3 Global Styrene Supply and Demand

Figure 2.2.3 a: Global Styrene Demand by Figure 2.2.3 b: Global Styrene Demand by
Derivative Product (IHS Markit,2015) Region (IHS Markit,2015)

Styrene market is highly diversified with a wide range of applications in numerous


sectors. Owing to the diversified styrene market, the industries have involved in the production
of various types styrene-based products across a wide range of applications including
construction, automotive and packaging. The major markets of styrene products are
polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN), styrene-
butadiene rubber (SBR) and so on. According to Merchant Research & Consulting, Ltd., the
growth in the automotive and construction industries is expected to drive global styrene market.

Among the styrene products, polystyrene is the driving force of the styrene
consumption globally as the largest styrene derivative product as shown in Figure 2.2.3 a. In
year 2014, around 37% of styrene has been used as general-purpose polystyrene (GPPS)
production according to Trinseo (2014) and IHS Markit (2015). However, polystyrene
consumption has come across with some challenges along with the turnaround of substitutes
for examples polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in terms of performance and
cost perspective.

20
Around 22% of styrene has been used to produce expandable polystyrene (EPS).
Styrene consumption into production for EPS is doing better with the driving demand in
construction industry used as insulation and concrete form due to its higher efficiency standards.
Based on Plastemart, EPS usage is increasing in both remedial work on existing buildings and
new buildings. EPS grow at an average rate of 5% per year over 2008 to 2015. Overall EPS
demand is less likely to be influenced by global economic issue as EPS is being increasingly
employed in construction industries as concrete forms and insulation with its higher quality
standards and properties.

Styrene consumption for ABS resins is forecast with annual growth rates of 3.6% in the
next five years. ABS as the third largest styrene derivative has been employed in a lot of end
user applications for example appliances, transportation, construction, and electronics. Overall,
styrene consumption is expected to stay relatively constant at an average rate of 1.6% per year
from 2014 to 2019.

The downturn in global styrene demand and excess supply have strike styrene market
in early 2013. The developed market regions such as Europe, North America, and Japan face
some challenges due to declination of demand and rationalization of styrene capacity.
Meanwhile the developing market regions in Asia Pacific are observed with higher demand as
compared to Western regions. Asia Pacific has led the global styrene market as the largest
consumer due to its repaid growth in infrastructure industry.

21
2.2.4 Global Styrene Demand by Region

Figure 2.2.4: Global Styrene Polymer Consumption Growth by Region (IHS Markit, 2015)

As a region, China is driving styrene market and contributing to the global demand
growth in these recent years whilst the declination of demand is observed in other developed
regions for example Europe and North America. Generally, general-purpose polystyrene
(GPPS) has the largest market in most of the regions. However, expandable polystyrene (EPS)
is the largest demand segment in China and Western Europe according to IHS Markit (2015).

Expandable polystyrene (EPS) is the second-largest styrene derivative followed by


general-purpose polystyrene (GPPS). However, the demand growth of EPS in 2014 especially
China and Europe is slowing due to excess global capacity, dropping of producer profitability
and higher raw material prices has marked global EPS market.

Middle East and Africa are observed to be the fastest growing region with a
consumption rate of 12% per year over 2014 to 2019. Even though China is growing at a slower
rate but China is forecast to account for 33% of global styrene demand in 2019 whilst the
Northeast Asia is forecast with relative flat growth rate of styrene demand. Due to the rising in
raw materials prices and declination of polystyrene demand in Europe, United States and Japan,
the growth rate is expected to be flat in the coming five years.

22
2.2.5 Global Styrene Production Capacity

Figure 2.2.5 a: Global Styrene Supply and Demand over 2009 to 2015 (Merchant Research &
Consulting Ltd., 2013)

Based on survey from Merchant Research & Consulting Ltd. (2013), global styrene
capacity reached 32.7 million tonnes per year in 2012. The global production of styrene is
increasing especially in the emerging regions in Asia Pacific along with its demand, whilst the
developed region for examples in Europe and North America has been observed with
declination of styrene production over recent years. Due to the low operating rates in Asia
Pacific especially China, Asia Pacific holds around 50% of the global styrene capacity. Major
styrene production countries in Europe can be found in Germany, France, Benelux, Spain and
Italy whilst the major styrene production countries in Asia include Japan, China, Korea and
Malaysia. The main monomer plant in Malaysia is Idemitsu SM Malaysia where the styrene
production plant has a production capacity of 240000 mt/year.

Figure 2.2.5 b: World Styrene Production Figure 2.2.5 c: World Styrene Production
by Region

23
2.2.6 Global Styrene and Raw Materials Prices

According to Platts Global Aromatic Pricing Analysis (2016), global styrene, benzene
and ethylene prices can be summarized in Table 2.2.6 a and Table 2.2.6 b.

Table 2.2.6 a: Prices of Benzene and Ethylene by Region (Platts Global Aromatic Pricing
Analysis ,2016)

Prices
Region
Benzene Ethylene

Asia $639.00/mt $900/mt

Europe $675.50/mt $940/mt

U.S $660.00/mt $609.00/mt

Table 2.2.6 b: Prices of Styrene by Region (Platts Global Aromatic Pricing Analysis ,2016)

Region Prices

Asia $1010.00/mt

Europe $1200.00/mt

U.S $1002/mt

24
2.3 Site Location

The plant location plays a pivotal role in the initial development of the plant as well as
the profitability of the project in the long run. Plant location decision would significantly affect
the fixed and variable costs of the plants. There are several factors which need to be taken into
considerations when determining the optimal plant location which include:

 Supply of raw materials


 Transport facilities
 Availability of utilities
 Availability of manpower
 Climatic and atmospheric conditions
 Political conditions
 Price of land
 Government policy and regulation
 Future plant expansion prospect
 Distance from local community
 Disposal and waste management

2.3.1 Supply of Raw Materials

The supply of raw materials is the biggest factor affecting the selection of any industrial
locations. For a styrene plant, large volumes of benzene and ethylene needs to be processed to
produce styrene. It is best that the plant is built near plants producing benzene and ethylene in
order to reduce the expenses spent on the transportation of raw materials. The availability of
benzene and ethylene within economical distance would enable easier operation and
maintenance of styrene monomer plant.

25
2.3.2 Transport Facilities

It is ideal that the plant should be located near to the major modes of transport including
rail, road, seaport and air transport. This will benefit the plant in terms of its accessibility in
importing raw materials from the supplier as well as exporting products to the market. Rail
transport is frequently used as it is cheaper for long-distance transport whereas road transport
is highly demanded for local distributions from central warehouse to small and medium-sized
enterprises sectors. Sea transportation will benefit the plant economically as styrene product
can be exported via tankers to be purchased by the global market. Air transport provides a
convenient mean of travel to all personnel of the plant.

2.3.3 Availability of Utilities

Utilities mainly consist of these 2 factors.

Water

Water utilities are required for cooling the plant as well as steam generation. The plant should
be located near to vast water supplies such as seas, lakes or rivers.

Electricity

Power is needed to ensure that all the equipment including turbines and heat exchangers will
be able to run smoothly and continuously without any interruptions.

2.3.4 Manpower Availability

An adequate supply of labour with various skills is needed to ensure the smooth
operation, management and maintenance of the plant. Skilled labours can be brought from
outside of the plant site but at the same time unskilled local labours can be trained and
developed through various training programs to operate the plant. The suitability of labours to
be recruited should be accessed in accordance to the local trade union restrictive practices.

26
2.3.5 Effluent Disposal and Waste Management

Effective effluent disposal is a must to ensure that the surrounding environment will
not be biologically or chemically disrupted by the plant construction. Permissible levels of
effluent and waste discharge should be taken into considerations when designing the plant.
Proper authorities should be consulted to decide the standards to be fulfilled. For that, it is
necessary that the plant built has the facilities such as disposal system to manage the waste as
well as effluent being discharged to prevent harm to the environment.

2.3.6 Climatic and Atmospheric Conditions

Humidity and temperature have significant effects on a chemical plant. Plant locations
with adverse climatic conditions would encounter a huge barrier in terms of increasing cost. At
low temperatures, a high degree of insulation supplied by heating equipment is needed to
maintain an ideal temperature of the plant operation. High temperatures and excessive humidity
pose serious safety problems to the plant as the threat of fire and explosion will be subsequently
high.

2.3.7 Government Policy, Tax and Regulation

Different areas have different policies, tax and regulation which need to be obeyed to
avoid any legal infringements with local authorities. Regulations regarding environmental are
highly sensitive and need to be stringently adhered too.Furthermore, government funded grants,
tax redemptions as well as other benefits are often provided to direct new investments in certain
locations in order to boost and grow the surrounding area. All these should be considered when
selecting the optimal plant location.

2.3.8 Political Conditions

A stable political situation is essential for the growth of the industry and subsequently
the plant. Political stability creates confidence among potential as well as current stakeholders
of the company whereby their decisions to venture into the industry subjected to risks will be
further consolidated with the political stability. The continuous support from the government
system ensures that the plant will be able to optimize all their productions.

27
2.3.9 Distance from Local Community

A chemical plant possesses high potential of danger and risk to the surrounding. The
proposed plant should be accepted by the surrounding community and is constructed within
appropriate distance from the local community. High consideration needs to be given in
ensuring that the plant is built in a safe location so it does not impose any additional risks to
the community.

2.3.10 Future Plant Expansion Project

Future developments of the plant should be considered. As the years’ progress, the plant
operations would have peaked and stabilized. The plant management can look forward to
expand the current plant or even expand into a different chemical industry to further boost the
profitability of the plant. Hence, it is better that the area of the plant is more than adequate to
further accommodate any future expansion of the plant.

2.3.11 Price of Land

As per in Minding the Bottomline (Online), the land price of industrial area in Kerteh,
Terengganu is RM15 per square foot whereas the land of industrial area Gebeng, Pahang is
priced at RM18 per square foot (Gebeng Industrial Estate, 2012). On the other hand, according
to Property Guru (Online), the land price of Pasir Gudang, Johor is RM75 per square foot.

28
2.3.12 Justification for Selection of Plant Location

Malaysia is a country which is highly involved in the industrial sector. They are certain
locations that have been gazetted by the government as Petrochemical Zones. For this project
we have identified three (3) potential locations that we considered suitable to design and build
a styrene plant. These potential locations are:

 Telok Kalong Industrial Zone, Kertih, Terengganu


 Gebeng Industrial Estate, Gebeng, Pahang
 Pasir Gudang – Tanjung Langsat, Johor

Based on the criteria specified below, data for each location has been gathered and
analyzed as well as evaluated to determine the best possible location for the plant. The analysis
is as tabulated below:

Table 2.3.12 a: Plant Location Justifications

Criteria Kerteh, Gebeng, Pahang Pasir Gudang,


Terengganu Johor

1 Supply of Raw PETRONAS PETRONAS PETRONAS Pasir


Materials Petrochemicals, BASF Gebeng Gudang Styrene
Kerteh (Able to (Able to supply Plant. (Able to
supply benzene and benzene only) supply ethylene
ethylene) only)

2 Transport Facilities Land – Land – Land –

 East Coast  East Coast  North, South


Highway, Highway Highway,
 KTMB rail  KTMB rail
services Sea port – services

Sea port –  Kuantan port Sea port –

 Kerteh Port, Airport –  Johor Port,


 Kuantan Port.  Tanjong
 Not available
Pelepas Port
 Tanjung
Langsat Port

29
Criteria Kerteh, Gebeng, Pahang Pasir Gudang,
Terengganu Johor

Airport – Airport –

 Sultan Mahmud  Senai


Airport International
Airport

3 Availability of Water – Water – Water –


Utilities
 Kemaman  Semambu  Syarikat Air
Treatment Water Johor
Water Plant Treatment
 Syarikat Air Plant Electricity –
Terrenganu
Electricity –  TNB
Electricity –
 TNB
 Tenaga Nasional
Berhad (TNB)
 Paka Power
Plant

4 Availability of  Malaysians  Malaysians  Malaysians


Manpower Specialist Specialist Specialist
 Foreign  Foreign
Specialist Specialist

5 Disposal and Waste Effluent and waste Effluent and Effluent and waste
Management treatment and waste treatment treatment and
management need to and management management need
be provided need to be to be provided
provided

6 Climatic Conditions Avg. Temperature Avg. Temperature Avg. Temperature


–26.5 ° C –26.5 ° C –27.1 ° C

Avg. Rainfall – Avg. Rainfall – Avg. Rainfall –


2895 mm 2846 mm 2695 mm

30
Criteria Kerteh, Gebeng, Pahang Pasir Gudang,
Terengganu Johor

7 Government Policy 25% Corporate tax 25% Corporate 25% Corporate tax
and Regulation tax

8 Political Conditions Stable Stable Stable

9 Distance from Local 10 KM 13 KM 5 KM


community

10 Future Plant Possible due to the Possible due to Possible due to the
Expansion Prospect abundance of the abundance of abundance of
industrial land industrial land industrial land

11 Price (RM) PSF (per RM 15 RM 18 RM 75


square foot) (based
on current market
value)

31
In order to determine the best plant location, each of the following factors stated in the
table above is quantified from the scale of 1 to 5. (5 = Excellent, 4 = Good, 3 = Average 2 =
Poor and 1 = Very Poor) Thus, the preferred plant location is shown in the table below:

Table 2.3.12 b: Weightage Table of Plant Location

Criteria Kerteh, Gebeng, Pahang Pasir Gudang,


Terengganu Johor

1 Supply of Raw 5 3 1
Materials

2 Transport Facilities 5 4 5

3 Availability of Utilities 5 4 4

4 Disposal and waste 1 1 1


management

5 Climatic Conditions 5 5 5

6 Man power availability 5 4 5

7 Government policy and 3 3 3


regulation

8 Political Conditions 5 5 5

9 Future Plant Expansion 5 5 5


Prospect

10 Distance from Local 4 5 2


community

11 Price (RM) PSF (per 5 4 2


square foot)

Total 48/55 43/55 35/55


81% Preferred 78% Preferred 63% Preferred

RANKING 1 2 3

Based on the analysis and discussion shown below, it can be concluded that Telok
Kalong Industrial Zone at Kerteh, Terrenganu will be the most suitable location for the
styrene plant since it has the highest preferred percentage at 81%.

32
2.4 Styrene Production Plant Previous Accidents

Chemical industry has led to a revolution along with hazardous and complex processes.
Chemical plant facilities are usually designed with multiple barriers to minimize the occurrence
of accidents for example loss of containment which can lead to severe explosion upon ignition.
Therefore, it is utmost important and essential that these accidents and risks are to be identified
to prevent it from occurring. The case studies listed in the following indicate the hazards which
are associated with styrene monomer production plants. The examples in which the
implementation of appropriate safety management principles could have been done to hinder
the occurrence of these incidents are also illustrated through the following case studies.

2.4.1 Styrene Plant Explosion in Bayport, Texas

On June 11, 2003, an explosion happened at a styrene plant in Bayport, Texas. The
explosion occurred in the natural gas-fired ethyl benzene reboiler. The reboiler used in the plant
is a natural gas fired heater which is used for ethyl benzene recovery distillation column. Figure
2.4.1 a shows the simplified process flow of ethyl benzene column where the explosion occurs.
The incident occurred when one operator intended to adjust the air damper and registers in
order to stabilize the flame and the excess oxygen content. Fire flared up in two sections namely
the inlet header as well as in the radiant section after the heater housing ruptured. As the ethyl
benzene was unceasingly fed to the fire from the return piping connected to the ethyl benzene
column and subsequently fueling its combustion thus causing the fire to last for three-and-one-
half hours. The event was reported with no fatality and personnel injuries.

Figure 2.4.1 a: Simplified Process of Ethyl Benzene Column

33
Accident Investigation
Before the accidents occur, an operator detected the instability complications of the
flame in the gas fired reboiler. Therefore, the operator tried to adjust the airflow to the burners
and oxygen content to stabilize the flame in the furnace. While the operator was making the
adjustment, a puff sound was heard along with the explosion in the furnace. The pressure built
from the explosion had caused the reboiler to burst and fire erupted in the radiant section.

Individuals specialized in the discipline of gas-fired equipment were gathered to form


the investigation team and subsequently to diagnose and determine the pivotal causes leading
to the occurrence of the incidents. Several types of evidences encompassing positional
evidences, overheated evidences and corrosion evidences are preserved, gathered and recorded.
Positional evidences enable the discovery of how the explosion is initiated as well as the initial
release position of ethyl benzene whereas the colour scale in the overheated evidences would
indicate the temperature intensity reached during the fire event, thus allowing the origin of the
fire to be known. Figure 2.4.1 b shows the explosion scene at the plant.

Figure 2.4.1 b: Explosion in Bayport Styrene Plant

2.4.2 Thermal Hazards in Styrene Monomer Plant at Taiwan

Across the year 1994 to 2001, various thermal explosion incidents occurred in various
Styrene plants across Taiwan. Based on the investigation report, the main cause of the accidents
happened in Taiwan styrene related plant was due to exothermic property of styrene in heated

34
tank under approximately 50˚C. The table below shows the summary of styrene plant related
thermal explosion accidents in Taiwan.

Table 2.4.2: Thermal Explosion Accidents Related to Styrene Monomer and its
Derivatives

2.4.3 Styrene Release in Cincinnati, Ohio USA

There was a styrene escape incident in Cincinnati, Ohio USA on the 28th of August
2015 around 5 pm local time. A tank vehicle containing styrene experienced rupture and thus
causing the gaseous styrene to disperse into the air. The tank contained about 90,000 liters of
styrene. The nearby residential population within a radius of 800 meters around vehicle tank
was ordered to evacuate following the leakage of styrene. No injuries or death was reported in
this incident.

Accident Investigation

From the investigation, the reason for styrene leakage from the tank vehicle is due to
the opening of safety valve. The investigation team hypothesized that there was an increase in
internal pressure as the safety valve will only open when there is an increase in internal pressure.
Therefore, it is assumed that an exothermic reaction was taking place inside the tank.

Polymerization of styrene to polystyrene is a common exothermic reaction in the case


of styrene. In most cases, 4-tertiary-buty-catechol (TBC), a type of stabilizer is added to prevent
polymerization during the transport and storage of styrene. For the stabilizer to work, a certain
concentration of oxygen needs to be present in the solution. Failure in the fulfillment of this
condition in which the stabilizer is absent will result in the polymerization of styrene with

35
oxygen which may lead to the formation of benzaldehyde, styrene-oxygen copolymer and
formaldehyde.

According to reports generated following the accident investigation, the tank has been
stationary for a long period of time (approximately 9 months) thus leading to the
polymerization reaction which then caused the rise in pressure and subsequently release of
styrene from the tank vehicle.

Accident Prevention

Periodical maintenance of the tank needs to be ensured to prevent accidents such as this
to happen. Personnel need to ensure that the stabilizer 4 – TBC is added to the styrene to ensure
stabilization of styrene and to prevent any styrene polymerization which will lead to a build of
pressure. An amount of 10-15 ppm TBC stabilizer is recommended to impede the
polymerization reaction up to roughly 3 months period. Besides, oxygen concentration of
minimum 10 ppm is necessary and 15-20 ppm is the optimal concentration to slow down the
consumption of TBC. The consumption rate of TBC varies according to the concentration of
oxygen, rust, humidity, temperature as well as the impurities present in the tank.

Figure 2.4.3: Explosion in Bayport Styrene Plant

36
2.4.4 Asahi Styrene plant explosion in Mizushima, Japan

On the 8th of May 1998, a styrene plant belonging to Asahi Chemical Industry was shut
down due to an explosion and fire which damaged the plants incinerators. The plant capacity
was about 120 000 tonne a year. Due to this, the plant is expected to be closed for close to 2
months for repair work to be carried out. No injuries or deaths was reported.

2.4.5 Ignition of Leaked Gas from Polystyrene Plant in Ibaragi, Japan

There was a fire incident at a polystyrene production plant in Japan. Power failure is
the pivotal cause leading to the occurrence of this incident. This is because the agitator of a
polymerization reactor as well as the supply of cooling water are ceased by the power failure.
This then led to a halt in the supply of polymerization inhibitor and the reaction ran away. The
gas of styrene polymerization is released into the atmosphere through a vent piping. The
discharge gas was ignited causing the electric cable nearby to catch fire.

2.4.6 Polystyrene Reactor Runaway at a Monsanto Plant in Ville-de-LaSalle, Québec

Explosions resulting from thermal runaway took place in the polystyrene reactor. The
thermal runaway was due to the occurrence of bulk styrene polymerization. This
polymerization reaction brought adverse effects to the reactor in which it maintained and
regulated an extremely high viscous reaction medium with polymer formation and gathered
heat of reaction, thus facilitating the occurrence of runaway reaction. High exothermic
characteristic of the process had further complicated the heat control problem of the reaction.
The problem of over-pressurization aroused in the reaction vessel following the gas generation
which occurred rapidly.

37
CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS

3.1 Conceptual Design Procedure

Figure 3.1: Onion Model ("The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design,")

The conceptual process design of the synthesis of styrene through alkylation and
dehydrogenation is developed in accordance to the onion model shown in the figure above. The
pivotal concept involved in the onion model is the development of design in a systematic layer
by layer method. The model highlights the sequential and hierarchal nature of the process
design. The design process is initiated through the selection of reactor to convert raw materials
into products. This is followed by the synthesis of separation and recycle system whereby the
reactor effluent consisting of unreacted feed materials, products and byproducts will be
separated and recycled to achieve desired product. Design of heat exchanger network follows
next to fulfill the overall heat-recovery requirements. Failure of heat-recovery network to
provide the necessary heating and cooling duties calls for the provision of external utilities
system including cooling water and steam ("The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design,")

Onion model requires the utilization of information available at that stage to


make the most ideal decision. The addition of equipment to the overall process design is only
permitted if the decision can be vindicated based on the information available thus developing
37
and establishing an irreducible structure comprising of essential features from the technical and
economic perspectives ("The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design,").

3.2 Process Operating Mode

Chemical reactor is an essential equipment in which chemical reactions are contained


and confined in. It is the place in which the raw materials are converted to desired products. As
per the onion model illustrated in the previous section, chemical reactor design is a step of
utmost importance in the overall design of a process. Proper chemical reactor design would
ensure high efficiency of the reaction, favoring formation of more desired products and
subsequently enhancing the yield and purity of products without compromising on the
economic aspects. Several factors are taken into considerations when designing of chemical
reactors including the mode of operation in which it can either be in isothermal or adiabatic
conditions, phases category present in the reactor and reactor geometry (shape and arrangement)
(Nanda, 2008).

The reactors selected should be able to fulfill the needs imposed by the reaction
mechanisms, rate expressions as well as the production capacity. The required degree of
conversion is also a crucial factor to be considered in reactor selection since it would impose
effects on the cost of the separation of reaction mixture besides the economics needed to return
the unconverted reactant back into the reaction. In addition, parameters such as the size of
reactor and reaction rate constant need to be established in selecting the most appropriate
chemical reactor (Nanda, 2008). The chemical reactors can be categorized into the following:

 Batch, continuous or semi-batch determined by the desired mode of operation of reactor.

 Isothermal, adiabatic or counter/co current determined by the desired mode of operation


of reactor.

 Heterogeneous or homogenous determined by the type of phases present in the reactor.

They can also be sorted into stirred tank reactor, tubular reactor, fixed bed reactor or fluidized
bed reactor.

38
Table 3.2 a: Limiting Conditions of Reactor Functioning (Davis & Davis, 2003)

Event Limiting Conditions

Mass exchange Batch Flow

Heat exchange Isothermal Adiabatic

Mechanical variables Constant volume Constant pressure

Residence time Unique Exponential distribution

Space-time behavior Transient Stationary

The basis of categorizing and defining the ideal conditions in order to properly measure
the rate of reaction can be formulated by making several clarifications regarding the operation
of chemical reactors. The possibilities are shown in the table above. The ideal reactors will be
determined in the context of the conditions restraining the chemical reactor operation.

The common traits of the major process routes considered for most of the processes are
either batch or continuous. The table below shows the comparisons between batch and
continuous process.

Table 3.2 b: Comparisons between Batch and Continuous Process (Sarghini)

Aspects/Process Batch Continuous

Process Reaction is initiated once the raw Reaction progresses through the
Methodology materials are added to the reactor and continuous flow of process
they progress towards completion reactants into the tank reactor
after going through the separation while the reactor effluents flow
and purification stages resulting in out of the other end.
desired end products at the end of the
reaction.

Production Rate Ideal for the production of small Best suited for large quantities
quantities of higher values products production of lower margin
and has been extensively applied in a products.
final scale-up of an industrial plant.
The size of process equipment
needed increases as the production
rate increases, giving rise to the
complications involved in moving

39
products from equipment to
equipment.

Reaction Best suited for multi-steps reaction Ideal for single-step reaction that
takes place quickly

Reactants Reactant feed can be in any physical Reactant feed is confined to the
states fluidized form type

Controllability The control system applied in batch The control system of continuous
process is complicated. Efficient process is relatively simple
scheduling is needed since the same compared to in batch process.
equipment will be utilized in varying
unit operations to produce different
products.

Cost Requires significant amount of Cost-saving in terms of the


investment in the land as well as the investment needed for the land
plant installations. and installation of plant.

Residence Time Long residence time for the reactant Short residence time for the
feed reactant feed

Variability of Manufacture of products with narrow Manufacture of products with


Product Quality specifications and more consistent varying quality
quality

3.2.1 Conclusion on the Operating Mode

In this project, it is required to design a styrene monomer plant capable of meeting the
targeted production capacity, 279.42 kmol/hr. The mass production of styrene monomer is to
fulfill the demand for styrene monomer in various applications pertaining to the monomer. To
achieve that, styrene monomers produced must be highly purified. Thus, standard and high
consistency product quality is of utmost importance. Besides, proper economic measure is
needed to decrease the capital cost involved in setting up the plant. The establishment of good
and sustainable economic strategy whereby the adaptation of cost reduction methods without
compromising the quality of products produced is necessary for the optimum of the plant.

Based on the justifications above, continuous process is selected since the process
route favors large throughput. It offers more specified product quality since there are
continuous or periodic testing of product quality conducted allowing only small quantities of
off-specification products to be produced (Sarghini). Besides, it is more economically viable

40
compared to batch process. Less capital cost is needed due to fixed product slate and
standardized equipment (Nanda, 2008).

3.3 Input-Output Structure

There are a few guidelines to be adhered to when determining the input-output structure
of the flow sheet to achieve 99% recovery and retrieval of valuable materials (Yu). The
guidelines to be taken into considerations include:

i. Purification of Feeds

 Feed streams need to undergo purification prior to their ingress in the process.
Appropriate design of separation system would reduce the process cost possibly
incurred by large amount of inert and impurities present in the process stream.

 Impurities found in gas feed stream need to be processed.

 Feed stream needs to be processed through the separation system if the impurity
present in liquid feed stream is either a product/by-product.

 Feed impurities present abundantly and are chemically reactive need to eliminated
to decrease the loss of raw material and to deter the formation of by-products.

 Feed stream needs to be processed if the impurities are present in the form of
azeotrope with the reactant.

 Feed impurities which would impair and inhibit the activities of catalyst leading to
catalyst poisoning need to be removed.

ii. Recover or Recycle Reversible By-products

Recycle of reversible by-product requires equipment in the entire recycle loop to be oversized.
With that, equilibrium flow of the reversible by-product can be taken in and accommodated.

41
iii. Gas Recycle and Purge

 A gas recycle and purge stream need to be utilized when a light reactant or light
feed impurity has lower boiling point than propylene since these components cannot
undergo condensation at high pressure with cooling water. Gas recycle and purge
stream would be a more feasible and economical option compared to recycle of
liquid reactant (Yu).

 Recycling of materials which are of lesser worth compared to the organic materials
used in the process is redundant since these components are generally used in excess
to drive the complete conversion of other reactants.

 The number of product streams in vapor-liquid processes need to be forecasted


through the categorization of components with close boiling points and identical
exit target destination (Yu) .

3.4 Reactor Design and Reactor Network Synthesis

Chemical reactions play an essential role in any industries particularly the chemical
industry (Nanda, 2008). These chemical reactions occur in vessels known as chemical reactors
which are constructed based on the chemical engineering aspects. Selection of the most
appropriate reactor best suited for the desired process is especially important to enhance as well
as maximize the yield of reactions in the reactors. Reactors can be categorized into two types
namely batch and continuous. Continuous reactors can be further categorized into continuously
stirred reactor (CSTR), tubular plug flow reactor (PFR), fixed bed reactor and fluid bed reactor.

3.4.1 Batch Reactor ("Chemical Reactors," 2013; Coker, 2001)

The assumption made regarding the functioning of batch reactors is that the chemical
reaction is instantaneously charged and undergo perfect homogenization/mixing in the
chemical reactor. Batch reactors which are well mixed do not have any mass inflow or outflow.
The total amount of flow into and out of the system is not affected despite the change in the
amount of individual components in the chemical reactor due to the reaction that takes place.
The chemical reaction is assumed to be an isothermal operation. Besides, the density of the
fluid is presumed to be constant. The reactors are commonly applied in laboratory and

42
industrial scale with the size of reactor and reactants amount being the significant difference
between both operating scales. They are ideal for industrial productions of a range of products
with different reactants involved. The illustration of a batch reactor is shown in the figure below.

Figure 3.4.1: Batch Reactor ("Chemical Reactors," 2013)

3.4.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTRs)("Mixing in Chemical


Reactors," 2016)

In Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTRs), the fluid particles are not subjected to
time dependence. They are independent of the concentration, temperature and rate of reaction
in the reactor. These particles are uniformly dispersed among the volume fluid particles right
after they enter into the reactor. This results in the identical concentration of the outflow
material and the concentration of material at any points in the reactor. Besides, the temperature
of the exit stream would be equivalent to the particles in the reactor.

Figure 3.4.2: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors ("Mixing in Chemical Reactors," 2016)

43
3.4.3 Tubular Plug Flow Reactor (Kocamemi; "Plug Flow Reactors
(PFRs),")

Tubular plug flow reactor functions similarly to CSTR in which it is also a steady state
operation. It is primarily used for gas phase reactions. The reactor is constructed as one long
cylindrical pipe or a lot of short reactors built in a tube bank. There is negligible longitudinal
dispersion in the reactor and radial variation in the rate of reaction is absent. The consumption
of reactants happens as they travel down the length of the reactor. This explains why the
reactant concentration varies in the axial direction of the reactor. Subsequently, the value of
the rate of reaction will differ axially since it is directly correlated to the reactant concentration.
The reactant which may be gases or liquids travel down the reactor at high velocities and thus
deterring the occurrence of diffusion back into the reactor as well as back mixing conditions.
This plug flow profile will be able to prevent side reactions from taking place and enhance the
product yield. The rate of reaction is highest at the inlet of the cylindrical pipe and reduces
gradually when the reactant flow down the reactor since there is reduction in the concentration
of the reactant. The reactants ’condition remain unchanged at any point in the reactor with
respect to time.

Figure 3.4.3: Tubular Plug Flow Reactor ("Plug Flow Reactors (PFRs),")

3.4.4 Fixed Bed Reactor ("Chemical Reactors," 2013; de Haan, 2015;


Fogler, 2010)

Fixed bed reactor is ideal for catalyzed fluid-solid heterogeneous reactions. The
reactions take place on the surface of the solid catalysts which are positioned in the
configuration of tiny pellets, thus resulting in a fixed bed of catalyst in the reactor. The catalyst

44
pellets are stationary in which they do not shift with respect to a form reference frame. The rate
of reaction of the heterogeneous system is determined by the mass of the solid catalyst since
the mass itself is a crucial determinant of the rate at which the desired product is formed. The
catalytic reaction will be initiated by the transport of reactants as well as their energy from the
bulk fluid to the surface of catalyst pellets followed by their movement into the porous surface
of the pellets. The process of adsorption then commences along with the chemical reaction at
the catalytic site of the catalyst. Desorption of desired products take place after that in which
the products will move from the interior of the catalyst to the exterior surface. Finally, products
will be transported back into the bulk fluid.

Figure 3.4.4: Fixed Bed Reactor (de Haan, 2015)

3.4.5 Justifications of Feasible Reactors

Selection of the most feasible reactor to maximize the process efficiency is one of the
essential parts in designing a reactor. There are many conventional types of reactor such
as:batch reactor. PFR, PBR and CSTR as mentioned earlier. Analysis and assessment of a few
aspects of the reactors including design and scaling difficulty, construction and operational cost,
conversion rate, advantages and disadvantages are needed in selecting the reactor best suited
for the process (Nanda, 2008). In this project, the production process of styrene is divided into
two primary sections namely the alkylation process and dehydrogenation process. The reactors
which are taken into account in selecting the best reactor for respective process are Fluidized
Bed Reactor and Fixed Bed Reactor since both processes involve catalyst based reactions. The
table below depicts the comparisons between both types of reactors.

45
Table 3.4.5: Comparisons between Fluidized Bed Reactor and Fixed Bed Reactor (Catalano,
Wozniak, & Kaplan) (Catalano, Wozniak, Kaplan, & Plegue)

Aspect Fluidized Bed Reactor Fixed Bed Reactor

Heat Distribution Easier heat transfer across (to Difficult heat transfer across (to
and from) reactor and from) reactor

Size of Particle Broad distributions of particle Invariable and uniform


size

Design and Scaling  Complications involved in Easy


Difficulty the prediction of complex
mass flow mechanism

 Larger size of reactor is


required compared to fixed
bed reactor

Construction and Higher Lower


Operational Cost

Conversion Rate Lower due to the rapid mixing Higher due to increased contacts
mechanism between catalyst and reactants

Supply and Removal  High heat exchange  Supply/ removal of reaction


of Heat efficiency due to the heat required through the
extensive mixing in all flow of heating fluid/
direction attributed to the generation of steam on the
fluidized state of mass of shell side of the reactor.
catalyst
 Low heat exchange
 Removal of heat through efficiency
internal cooling coil

Catalyst Pellet Sizes 10-300 microns 1 - 5 mm

Replacement of Easy Difficult


Catalyst

Suitability for  Suitable for heterogeneous  Suitable for reactions at high


Heterogeneous catalytic reactions which pressures and temperatures
Catalytic Reactions require large amounts of heat
 Suitable for catalyst which
transfer (input or output)
undergo slow deactivation
 Suitable for catalyst which
undergo slow deactivation

46
Direction of Flow Upward flow of fluid to be Downward flow of reactants by
Motion reacted gravity

Applications  Catalytic cracking process  Catalytic reactions

 Oxidation process  Small scale commercial


reactions
 Roasting process

 Coking process

Advantages  High heat transfer rates  Works effectively under


high temperatures and
 Allows high heat input and
pressure conditions
output
 Operates on a continuous
 Capable of transporting large
mode
number of solids during
reaction processes  Higher degree of contact
between the reactant and
 Simple and easy catalyst
catalyst compared to in
replacement and
other reactors.
regeneration.
 Higher product formation
due to more contact between
the catalyst and reactants.

 Requires low operating cost


and cheap maintenance fee

 The quality of products can


be easily controlled

Disadvantages  Can only be used with  Poor temperature control


particles which are less than resulting in undesirable
300𝜇𝑚 thermal gradient

 Cannot be used with catalyst  Poor heat transfer rates


solids which are not capable
 Difficulty in servicing and
of free-flowing.
maintenance of reactors
 High pressure loss
 Deactivation of catalyst if
 Possibility of the occurrence the heat released from
of reactor wall erosion exothermic reaction is not
dissipated from the reactor

47
3.4.5.1 Alkylation Process

i) Phase of Operation:

Liquid phase reaction

ii) Reaction Properties:

1. Reaction catalyzed by zeolite catalyst

2. Adiabatic reaction

3. Exothermic reaction

From the reaction properties listed above, it is desirable to have reactors capable of
containing reactions which are exothermic to an extent without the occurrence of overheating
incidents. Good temperature control of the exothermic reactions would prevent any runaway
reactions, reactor overpressurisation and subsequently the loss of containment. Besides, there
must be sufficient contact between the reactant and the catalyst in order to ensure the
completion of reaction. This is attainable through the selection of reactor which is able to
provide good mixing. The reactors considered in the selection of the most optimal reactor for
liquid phase alkylation process of benzene and ethylene are fluidized bed reactor and fixed bed
reactor.

Alkylation reaction is a solid catalyst based reaction. The catalysts used in the reaction
are zeolites, which are crystalline solid structures comprised of oxygen, silicon and aluminum.
From the comparisons between fluidized bed reactor and fixed bed reactor shown in the table
above, fixed bed reactor is selected for the alkylation process. This is due to the higher
conversion of reactants to the desired products per unit mass of catalyst when fixed bed reactor
is used to contain the reaction compared to fluidized bed reactor ("Fixed-Bed Catalytic
Reactors,"). Besides, it can work efficiently at high temperatures and pressure. This
characteristic fulfills the need of an alkylation reactor which can contain highly exothermic
reaction without causing any runaway reactions.

In addition, fixed bed reactor triumphed over fluidized bed reactor in terms of degree of
contact between the reactant and catalyst. Fixed bed reactor maximizes the reactant/catalyst

48
contact since all the reactions take place within the catalyst particles. The rate of the catalytic
process will be effectively and economically viable provided that the number of reactive sites
per unit reactor volume should enable the product to be formed at the rate of 1mol/L.hour
("Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors,"). Fixed bed reactor also requires lower operating cost and
maintenance fee compared to fluidized bed reactor thus justifying the choice of fixed bed
reactor from economic perspectives.

Moreover, fixed bed reactor is not confined to any catalyst particle size whereas fluidized
bed reactor can only be used with catalyst particle size of less than 300𝜇𝑚. Fixed bed reactor
is suitabe for usage with catalyst particles which are able to flow freely. Thus, it is unsuitable
for application in alkylation reaction since zeolite catalysts catalyzing the reaction are
crystalline structure arranged in a regular fashion with singular or several pore sizes in which
these pore sizes have their own molecular dimensions (Norb).

49
3.4.5.2 Dehydrogenation Process

i) Phase of Operation:

Vapour phase reaction

ii) Reaction Properties:

1. Adiabatic reaction

2. Reaction catalyzed by zeolite catalyst

3. Operates under vacuum (below atmospheric pressure)

4. Endothermic reaction

From the reaction properties listed above, the selection of reactor which is able to provide
excellent temperature control of the reaction is of utmost importance due to the endothermic
nature of the reaction. Good temperature control would decrease the formation of by-product
as well as hampering the catalyst degradation. Since it is a catalyzed reaction, it is desirable to
maximize the contact surface area between the catalyst and the reactant in order to ensure
higher conversion of reactant. Thus, the reactor selected need to be capable of good mixing to
attain complete conversion of reactant and achieve higher yield of desired products. The
reactors considered in the selection of the most optimal reactor for vapour phase
dehydrogenation process of ethylbenzene are fluidized bed reactor and fixed bed reactor.

Dehydrogenation reaction involves the participation of a solid catalyst to increase the


rate of reaction. The solid catalyst used in the reaction are zeolite catalyst. Packed bed reactor
has significantly better performance than fluidized bed reactor in terms of conversion of
reactants to desired products and selectivity of the desired reaction. Higher rate of reaction can
be attained by using packed bed reactor since there are more contacts between the reactant and
the catalyst. On the other hand, the high degree of mixing of fluidized bed reactor has caused
non-uniform residence time in the reactor thus leading to lower conversion of reactants
compared to packed bed reactor ("Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors,").

50
The higher complications involved in the design of fluidized bed reactor resulting from
the complex mass flow and heat flow mechanism also made fixed bed reactor a better choice
for dehydrogenation reaction. Larger size of fluidized bed reactor compared to packed bed
reactor is often required for the same operation scale. Subsequently, higher pumping power is
needed to fulfill the higher fluid velocity in fluidized bed reactor. Thus, higher operating and
maintenance cost is required for a viable fluidized bed reactor system. Moreover, there are
higher degree of complications involved in the scale-up of fluidized bed reactor since scale-up
problems generally arise from scale-dependency of the fluid dynamic phenomena as well as
the properties of mass and heat transfer ("Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors,").

Since dehydrogenation process is an endothermic reaction, excellent temperature


control is especially important in order to ensure uniform temperature distribution in the reactor
which will in turn increase the rate of reaction. Fluidized bed reactor has better performance in
this aspect compared to fixed bed reactor since it is able to eliminate hot spots formed in the
reactor during dehydrogenation reactions. On the other hand, fixed bed reactor has poor
temperature control which lead to uneven distribution of temperature and results in undesirable
thermal gradients and formation of hot spots in the reactor. This problem can be resolved by
reducing the tube-to-particle diameter ratio in the packed bed reactor. This method would
ensure sufficient heat supply from the reactor wall to the reactants. Besides, multitubular
reactor can be used with catalyst packed inside the tubes. The reaction heat required can be
supplied through the flow of heating fluid through the shell side of the reactor. Multitubular
reactor is also capable of high heat transfer rate since it has large surface area to enable rapid
heat transfer per unit volume.

In conclusion, fixed bed reactor is chosen over fluidized bed reactor since it possesses
more advantages over fluidized bed reactor in terms of conversion and selectivity and is found
to be more suited for dehydrogenation reaction.

51
3.5 Process Screening

There are three process routes shortlisted for the alkylation and dehydrogenation
process respectively to produce styrene monomer. These routes are accessed based on several
criteria. The detailed descriptions of each process route and their respective advantages and
disadvantages are listed in the following section. The most feasible route is selected through
the scoring system. Subsequently, process flow diagram (PFD), mass and energy balance, and
heat integration of the selected process route will be done.

3.5.1 Alkylation

3.5.1.1 Lummus/UOP EBOneTM Process (MacDonald, Roda, &


Beresford, 2005)

i) Introduction

Lummus/UOP EBOneTM process is a liquid phase alkylation process which utilizes a


zeolite catalyst in both the alkylation and transalkylation reactors to enhance the rate of reaction.
Special materials to construct the internal section of the reactors, piping as well as in other parts
involved in the process are not needed. A few patents have been created for this type of
alkylation reaction to present including Lummus/UOP EBOneTM process which is
commercialized in year 1989. Lummus/UOP EBOneTM is found to possess the most advantages
and benefits compared to others (MacDonald et al., 2005).

ii) Description

Lummus/UOP EBOneTM process needs an alkylator and a transalkylator to contain the


alkylation reaction and transalkylation reaction respectively. The diagram below shows the
block diagram of the process. As the diagram manifests, the major reaction occurs in the
alkylation part whereby the alkylation reaction progresses in the presence of a fixed bed of
zeolite catalyst in the reactor. Alkylation process involves the reaction between ethylene and
benzene in which both of the reactants will react to form the desired products, ethylbenzene as
well as other undesired products. The top product of the alkylation reactor flows to the benzene
column. The removal and subsequent recycle of excess or unseparated benzenes back to the

52
alkylation reactor took place in the column. This recycled benzene stream is combined together
with fresh benzene stream for further alkylation process in the alkylation reactor.

The bottoms coming out from the benzene column proceed to the ethylbenzene column.
In this column, the separation of ethylbenzene from any other undesired products is carried out.
The ethylbenzene distillate cleared of any unwanted products is then sent to the storage. On the
other hand, the bottoms of benzene column are directed to the poly-ethylbenzene column in
which the distillate coming out from this column undergo condensation and are sent back to
the traansalkylation reactor together with the recycled benzene stream.

For the transalkyation part, the products formed from side reactions namely
diethylbenzenes and polyethylbenzenes undergo reaction in the presence of fixed bed of zeolite
catalysts in order to produce higher amount of desired products, ethylbenzenes. Subsequently,
the distillate of transalkylation reactor is mixed together with the distillate coming out from the
alkylation reactor in which it repeats the same process loop as mentioned previously. The
bottom products of polyethylbenzenes column is comprised of tar substances with high
viscosity. These tar materials of little to no values are disposed as wastes (MacDonald et al.,
2005).

Figure 3.5.1.1: Block Diagram of Lummus/UOP EBOneTM Process (MacDonald et al., 2005)

53
3.5.1.2 Mobil-Badger Process (MacDonald et al., 2005)

i) Introduction

The practice of gas phase zeolite catalyst alkylation process started since 1940. However,
the process it is not widely applied compared to liquid phase alkylation process as liquid phase
aluminum chloride based alkylation technology is considered more superior and possesses
more advantages than gas phase alkylation process at that time. The development and
establishment of Mobil-Badger ethylbenzene process around 1970’s represents the state of art
in vapour phase alkylation technology.

ii) Description

The typical operating conditions for the alkylation reactor are approximately 400 – 450
℃ and 2 – 3 MPa respectively. The operating conditions for this type of alkylation process are
higher in comparison with those of liquid phase alkylation process. Subsequent increase in the
risk and operational cost is required to meet the higher operating conditions. Approximately
99% or more of net heat input of the alkylation process as well as the exothermic heat of
reaction as steam can be recovered at the operating temperature.

Gas phase zeolite catalyst alkylation reaction section is comprised of two multibed
reactors arranged in parallel sequence, a fired heater and equipment for heat recovery purpose.
The occurrence of transalkylation and alkylation reaction simultaneously in a single reactor is
made possible by the catalyst which is capable of high activity throughout the reaction. The
catalyst used in this process is subjected to deactivation at a slow rate resulting from coke
formation and it need to be regenerated periodically (every two to four weeks). Regeneration
usually consumes about 36 hours. Thus, two reactors in parallel are operated at the same time
in order to ensure uninterrupted and steady-state production of desired products in which one
of the reactors is on stream whereas the other one is regenerated (MacDonald et al., 2005).

The effluent from the reactors is fed to the distillation section in the form hot vapor. This
hot vapor stream serves as the source of heat to be utilized for the first distillation column. The
recovery of most of the unreacted benzene is done in the first distillation column. Any
unreacted benzene is recycled back to the reactor for further alkylation reactions. Ethylbenzene

54
products formed from the reaction between ethylene and benzene are taken as overhead
products from the second distillation column. The bottom products from this column are then
fed to the last distillation column in which separation of alkylbenzenes and polyalkylbenzenes
from heavy non- recyclable residues is carried out. The residue stream which possesses low
viscosity is comprised of diphenylmethane and diphenylethane. These substances are burned
as fuel after that (MacDonald et al., 2005) .

Figure 3.5.1.2: Block Diagram of Mobil-Badger Process (MacDonald et al., 2005)

55
3.5.1.3 Friedel-Crafts/Alcar Process

i) Introduction

Friedel-Crafts liquid phase alkylation processes catalyzed by aluminum chloride acid


catalyst to obtain ethylbenzene have been widely applied since 1930s. Several patents
associated with this technology are developed by different companies including BASP,
Monsanto, Dow Chemical and Shell Chemical. Monsanto process is the most technically
advanced and modern commercially licensed liquid phase aluminum chloride catalyst
alkylation process. This type of alkylation process can produce almost stoichiometric yield of
ethylbenzene as the desired products.

ii) Description (MacDonald et al., 2005)

Friedel-Crafts liquid phase alkylation process in the presence of aluminum chloride


takes place in the liquid phase and has an exothermic nature. There are three phases which are
present in the alkylation reactor including ethylene gas, a liquid catalyst complex phase and
aromatic liquid. The general operating conditions (temperature and pressure) for both the
alkylation and transalkylation processes are 420-470 K and 70-150 psig respectively. In
addition, this process has 1.5 – 2.5 benzene/ethylene ratio which is comparably smaller
compared to that of other types of alkylation processes. This low benzene/ethylene ratio
enables optimum yield of ethylbenzene. The entire process is initiated through the injection of
𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 in the form of fine particles into the alkylation reactor where ethylbenzene is produced.
These undesired products are converted to ethylbenzene to enhance the feed conversion. A
single reactor is utilized to alkylate benzene and transalkylate polyalkylbenzenes since the
reaction takes place close to the thermodynamic equilibrium.

The effluent in the form of liquid phase coming out from the reactors undergoes cooling
and is discharged into the settler. The decantation of heavy catalyst phase from organic liquid
phase took place in the settler. Subsequently, the heavy catalyst phase is recycled. Dissolved
𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 catalyst is removed from the organic phase through water and caustic soda washing
method. The aqueous phase obtained from the treatment steps is neutralized followed by the
recovery of the aqueous phase as aluminum hydroxide sludge and aluminum chloride solution.

56
Generally, three distillation columns are utilized to purify the ethyl benzene products.
The recovery of most of the unreacted benzene as an overhead distillate is done in the first
distillation column. Separation of ethylbenzene from heavier polyalkylated substances are
carried out in the second distillation column. The bottom products from the second column are
then fed to the last distillation column in which separation of polyalkylbenzenes from non-
recyclable high molecular mass residues is carried out. The residue (flux oil) stream is
comprised of polycyclic aromatics. These aromatics are burned as fuel after that. Both the
recycled benzene and fresh benzene stream should be dried before being fed to the reactor since
alkylation mixture only permits containment of small amounts of water as water reduces the
activity of catalyst. Dehydration of benzene is attained in another separate column.

Figure 3.5.1.3: Block Diagram of Friedel-Crafts/Alcar Process (MacDonald et al., 2005)

57
Table 3.5.1: Comparisons between Alkylation Process Shortlisted

Process/Properties Lummus/UOP EBOneTM Liquid Friedel-Crafts/Alcar Liquid Phase Mobil-Badger Vapour Phase Zeolite
Phase Zeolite Alkylation Aluminum Chloride Alkylation Alkylation

Operating 3447 kPa 483– 1034 kPa 2000 – 2999 psig


Pressure

Operating 723 – 873 K 420 – 470 K 673 – 723 K


Temperature

Product Purity 99.95 99.9 99.97

Conversion 99.9% 100% 99%

Catalyst Zeolite Aluminum Chloride Zeolite

Number of Major 5 7 5
Equipment

Advantages i. Use of zeolite catalyst is safer i. Liquid phase alkylation in the i. Use of zeolite catalyst is safer
environmentally and eliminates presence of aluminium chloride is a environmentally and eliminates the
the need for the disposal of fast reaction. issue correlated to the waste
aqueous catalyst residue. disposal of aqueous catalyst
ii. The reaction requires low B/E
residue.
ii. Use of zeolite catalyst contained alkylator feed ratios to produce
in fixed beds minimizes the optimum yield of ethylbenzene. ii. Use of zeolite catalyst removes the
operational costs since continuous need to install waste treatment and
iii. The reaction produces almost
removal of catalyst is not needed. catalyst recovery equipment since
stoichiometric yields of
there is no aqueous waste produced
iii. Low operating temperature of the ethylbenzene
from the process.
process enables reduction in the
energy costs and allows the

58
application of carbon steel instead iv. The reaction allows a single reactor iii. Vapor phase design allows both
of stainless steel as the to alkylate benzene and alkylation and transalkylation
construction material. transalkylate polyalkylbenzenes reaction to occur simultaneously in
since it takes place near to a single reactor.
iv. Low operating temperature of the
thermodynamic equilibrium.
process leads to significant
improvement in the yield of
ethylbenzene via reduction in the
formation of byproducts.
v. The reaction requires low B/E
alkylator feed ratios.

vi. Zeolite catalyst has long operating


length and requires regeneration
only once a year.

vii. Infrequent catalyst regeneration


allows the usage of only one
alkylation reactor.

Disadvantages Does not have disadvantages i. Use of aluminium chloride catalyst i. The operating conditions of this
corrodes the operating equipment process are higher compared to
and pipings of the process. those of the liquid phase alkylation
process.
ii. Use of aluminium chloride catalyst
increases the operation cost since ii. High operating temperature of this
the injection and removal of the process leads to high extent of
catalyst from the process need to be isomerization as well as
carried out on a continuous basis. deactivation of catalysts

59
iii. The corrosive nature of aluminium iii. The reaction requires high B/E
chloride catalyst requires the alkylator feed ratios and thus the
replacement of major equipment operational cost required to retrieve
pieces on regular schedule. and recycle the excess benzene is
higher.
iv. Aluminium chloride used in the
process has hazardous nature and iv. Catalyst regeneration needs to be
causes significant harms to the carried out once for every 2 months
environment. up to slightly more than 1 year with
respect to the operating conditions
v. High cost is needed to ensure that
of the plant.
the storage and disposal of
aluminium chloride catalyst are v. The regeneration of catalyst might
carried out properly. require an additional equipment
piece depending on the design of
the plant.

From the comparisons between the three alkylation processes in the table above, liquid phase zeolite alkylation process route is selected.
This is because the process offers the most desirable economic benefits since the usage of zeolite catalyst contained in fixed beds eliminates the
need for frequent regeneration and thus reduces the overall operational cost. Besides, energy cost-saving is made possible with the low operating
temperature of the process. In addition, this process is the most feasible route from the environmental sustainability perspective since zeolite
catalyst does not have hazardous nature. in the yield of ethylbenzene via reduction in the formation of byproducts.

60
3.5.2 Dehydrogenation

3.5.2.1 Lummus/UOP Classic SM Dehydrogenation

i) Introduction (Jiao et al., 2015)

Lummus/UOP Classic SMTM dehydrogenation technology was commissioned in


1972 and is widely applied to produce styrene. Approximately 43 plants worldwide
manufacture styrene by utilizing this technology which account for the cumulative styrene
production of 8.3 million per year.

ii) Description (Jiao et al., 2015; "Lummus/UOP Classic SMTM Process," 2004; Woodle)

The block diagram of a typical Lummus/UOP Classic SMTM dehydrogenation


process is shown below. The feedstock, ethylbenzene as well as recycled ethylbenzene stream
are combined with steam prior to entering the dehydrogenation reaction section of the plant
where ethylbenzene undergoes dehydrogenation to produce styrene. The effluent coming out
from the reactor undergoes condensation and is separated into three components namely
process condensate, a dehydrogenated mixture and off-gas. The process condensate is cleared
of any organics matter and subsequently recycled to be used within the plant itself whereas the
dehydrogenated mixture comprised of unreacted ethylbenzene, styrene and byproducts
including toluene and benzene is fed to the distillation section. On the other hand, the off-gas
stream made up primarily of hydrogen is compressed and processed through the off gas
recovery section to be utilized as fuel gas in the steam superheater.

The major steam is superheated and is utilized to reheat the reactor mixture for the
second dehydrogenator in which the reaction mixture undergoes reheating process in an
interchanger installed in the vessel shell of second dehydrogenator. The steam which is cooled
following the reheating process is reheated in the steam superheater before being fed to the first
dehydrogenator again. The reactor effluent undergoes cooling process in waste heat exchangers
before undergoing final cooling and condensing process. Superheating of ethylbenzene and the
primary steam is carried out through the initial waste heat recovery phase whereas the
subsequent recovery phases aim to produce steam at varying pressures (intermediate pressure
and low pressure).

61
There are four distillation columns in the distillation section of Lummus/UOP Classic
SMTM dehydrogenation process. Splitting of ethylbenzene and components which are lighter
from styrene is carried out in the first distillation column under vacuum operating conditions
in order to reduce the temperature and the formation of polymer. Besides, polymer formation
is further hindered through the addition of polymerization inhibitors to the bottom part of the
column.

Overhead products coming out from EB/SM splitter then enters the ethylbenzene
recovery column. The bottom stream of ethylbenzene column is recycled back to the
dehydrogenation section of the plant. Subsequently, the overhead stream of recovery column
which is comprised of benzene and toluene byproducts is fed to the benzene/toluene splitter.
The benzene stream obtained from this column is typically recycled as feed to the upstream
ethylbenzene plant. On the other hand, the bottom stream of this column enters the styrene
monomer finishing column which is operating under vacuum conditions as well. Styrene is
purified in the column through the elimination of high molecular weight residual tars. The
injection of tertiary-butyl catechol (TBC) into the styrene monomer to hinder polymer
formation.

Figure 3.5.2.1: Block Diagram of Adiabatic Liquid Phase Dehydrogenation Process


("Lummus/UOP Classic SMTM Process," 2004)

62
3.5.2.2 Lummus/UOP Smart SM Dehydrogenation

i) Introduction (Woodle)

Lummus/UOP Smart SM dehydrogenation process is an integration of both adiabatic


dehydrogenation technology and oxidative reheat technology. Specially designed UOP reactors
which contains two concentric catalyst zones are utilized in this process to attain the desired
dehydrogenation and oxidation reactions. The first commercialization of this process was at
Mitsubishi chemical plant in Japan.

ii) Description

The oxidization of hydrogen across noble metal containing catalyst takes place in the
first zone of oxidative reheat section of the reactor. The direct combustion of hydrogen
eliminates the need for any interstage reheaters since the combustion process itself is able to
supply the reaction heat in order to reheat the reaction mixture. The reheated reaction mixture
is then fed into the second zone in which the catalytic dehydrogenation reaction of
ethylbenzene takes place (Woodle).

Ethylbenzene feedstock undergoes catalytic dehydrogenation in the presence of steam


in the reactor system. The operating conditions favoring the occurrence of the dehydrogenation
reaction are low pressure and deep vacuum. Byproducts including toluene, benzene and light
compounds are formed following the reaction. The waste heat of reactor effluent is recovered
in two ways which are through heat exchange with combined feed and producing steam utilized
in this process. The off-gas stream is compressed and processed through the off gas recovery
section to be utilized as fuel gas in the steam superheater. The process condensate as well as
the off gas recovery section enter the separator to enable the separation of hydrocarbon and
water phases. On the other hand, the dehydrogenated mixture comprised of unreacted
ethylbenzene, styrene and byproducts including toluene and benzene is fed to the distillation
section.

The distillation section of Lummus/UOP Smart SM dehydrogenation process is the


same as that of Lummus/UOP Classic SMTM dehydrogenation process.

63
Figure 3.5.2.2: Block Diagram of Oxidative Dehydrogenation Process (Woodle)

3.5.2.3 Fina/ Badger Dehydrogenation

i) Introduction

Fina/ Badger Dehydrogenation was first established in the 1960s by the Badger
Company. The first large scale operation of this process was in Seadrift, TX in Japan operated
by Union Carbide Corporation. This process has advanced through many generations and are
now widely used for producing styrene.

ii) Description (Woodle)

The block diagram of a typical Fina/Badger dehydrogenation process is shown below.


Fresh feedstock, ethylbenzene as well as recycled ethylbenzene stream are combined with
steam and fed to the dehydrogenation reaction section of the plant consisting of primary and
secondary dehydrogenation reactors. The effluent coming out from the reactor undergoes
condensation and is separated into three components namely process condensate, hydrocarbon
and vent gas. The process condensate is cleared of any organics matter and subsequently
recycled to be used as feed water for the generation of steam whereas the hydrocarbon portion

64
is fed to the distillation section for further purifications. On the other hand, the vent gas stream
made up primarily of hydrogen is utilized as fuel gas.

Heat is recovered from the effluent stream of primary dehydrogenation reactor. The
steam is primarily superheated and it is utilized to reheat the reaction mixture for the second
dehydrogenation reactor. The steam coming out from the reheater is cooled and thus it
undergoes superheating again in the steam superheater. The steam is then fed to the primary
dehydrogenation reactor. The effluent coming out from the reactor then undergoes cooling in
the heat exchangers which heat the ethylbenzene stream and steam feed to the reactors and
produce steam.

The distillation section of Fina/ Badger dehydrogenation consists of three distillation


columns. The splitting of benzene and toluene byproducts from the styrene product and
unreacted ethylbenzene is carried out in the first distillation column. Typically, the mixture
containing benzene and toluene is sent to an integrated ethylbenzene plant whereby it
undergoes further fractionation. The benzene by-product is eventually consumed and utilized
in the ethylbenzene unit and the toluene becomes a by-product stream from the ethylbenzene
plant. Moving on, the unreacted ethylbenzene is recycled back to the dehydrogenation reactor
in the second distillation column, also known as ethylbenzene recovery column. The bottom
stream coming out from the recovery column then enters the finishing column whereby the
styrene is purified through the elimination of any heavy products.

Figure 3.5.2.3: Block Diagram of Fina/Badger Proces (Woodle)


65
Table 3.5.2: Comparisons between Dehydrogenation Process Shortlisted

Process/Properties Lummus/UOP Classic SM Lummus/UOP Smart SM Fina/ Badger Dehydrogenation


Adiabatic Liquid Phase Oxidative Dehydrogenation
Dehydrogenation

Operating Pressure ≤39996.71 Pa ≤39996.71 Pa ≤39996.71 Pa

Operating 803 – 993 K 803 – 993 K 803 – 993 K


Temperature

Product Purity 99.85 99.85 99.97

Conversion 69% 80% 65-70%

Catalyst Potassium Promoted Iron Catalyst  Potassium Promoted Iron Potassium Promoted Iron Catalyst
Catalyst

 OC-5 (Hydrogen Oxidation


Catalyst)

Number of Major 8 8 7
Equipment

Advantages viii. The non-compressive i. This process eliminates the iv. The heat from effluent stream
azeotropic heat recovery of this need for interstage heaters at of first reactor is recovered in
process makes it a more inlet to each stage to supply this process whereby it is
economically viable option the necessary reaction heat. reheated using a heat
compared to other exchanger to generate high
ii. The elimination of interstage
dehydrogenation processes. pressure steam, thus reducing
heaters leads to the reduction

66
Process/Properties Lummus/UOP Classic SM Lummus/UOP Smart SM Fina/ Badger Dehydrogenation
Adiabatic Liquid Phase Oxidative Dehydrogenation
Dehydrogenation

ix. High conversion of of superheated steam the superheated steam


ethylbenzene (up to 69%) per requirements. requirements.
pass is attainable with the
iii. High conversion of v. The reheating of exit stream
process.
ethylbenzene (up to 80%) per from first reactor enables the
x. High overall selectivity to pass is attainable with the saving of overall steam cost.
ethylbenzene is attainable with process.
the process.
iv. This process allows the
xi. Low operating cost is required reaction equilibrium to be
for this process since the shifted towards the favorable
conversion to desired products direction through the removal
is high and subsequent less of hydrogen byproducts,
recycle of ethylbenzene is allowing higher ethylbenzene
required. conversion.

xii. The pressure drop in this


process is relatively low which
allows the reactor to operate at
high vacuum condition

Disadvantages i. High molar stream to i. Lower overall selectivity to Does not have disadvantages
hydrocarbon ratio is required ethylbenzene due to the
for the process. consumption of oxygen and
possible formation of CO

67
Process/Properties Lummus/UOP Classic SM Lummus/UOP Smart SM Fina/ Badger Dehydrogenation
Adiabatic Liquid Phase Oxidative Dehydrogenation
Dehydrogenation

ii. Higher steam temperatures are during the dehydrogenation


needed to fulfill the heat process.
requirement of the reaction.
ii. The possible conversion of
iii. The heat of reaction needed is ethylbenzene to CO might
supplied at the inlet to each affects the availability of
stage through interstage heaters. oxygen for the
dehydrogenation process.

iii. Incomplete conversion of


oxygen in the process might
results in the formation of a
highly exothermic mixture
with explosion risks.

From the comparisons between the three dehydrogenation processes in the table above, Fina/ Badger dehydrogenation process route is
selected. This is because the process is more economically viable compared to the other two processes since the superheated steam requirements
is minimized through the recovery of heat liberated from effluent stream from first reactor for the production of high pressure steam. This leads to
the reduction of overall steam cost and subsequently the overall operational process cost.

68
3.5.3 Process Route Chosen Analysis

3.5.3.1 Production Capacity

The capacity of this plant is estimated using the six-tenths factor method as recommended
by Sari (2014). This method is relevant to the evaluation of plant capacity for this project since
fixed capital cost data is readily available. This method is applicable when the cost of a given unit
with certain capacity is known. Subsequently, the cost required for an equivalent unit with X times
the capacity of the given unit can be estimated. The cost of the equivalent unit is presumed to be
roughly X0.6 times the cost required for the initial unit.

Conversion of allocated budget to USD

1 𝑈𝑆𝐷
500 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑌𝑅× = 119.05 𝑈𝑆𝐷
4.2 𝑀𝑌𝑅

Application of six-tenths factor method

𝑐 0.6
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑎 (𝑐𝑏) (1)
𝑎

𝑐𝑏 0.6
119.05 = 125 ( )
250,000

𝑐𝑏 0.6
0.95 = ( )
250,000
1 𝑐𝑏
0.950.6 =
250,000

𝑐𝑏
0.92 =
250,000

𝑐𝑏 = 230483.05 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

69
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Conversion of capacity to ℎ𝑟

230483.05 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 103 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙


× × × ×
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 330 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 104.15 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 279.42 𝑠𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑒
ℎ𝑟

3.6 Separation System Synthesis

3.6.1 Alkylation

The separation system of the product stream containing benzene, ethyl benzene and
diethylbenzene takes place after the alkylation and transalkylation process. The product stream
will proceed through two distillation columns for purification purpose. The properties of benzene,
ethyl benzene and diethylbenzene that enter the separation system are listed in the table below.

Table 3.6.1: Properties Table of Alkylation Product Stream

Component Mole Fraction Boiling Point (℃)

Benzene 0.6824 80.08

Ethyl Benzene 0.2601 136.20

Diethylbenzene 0.0575 183.70

Heuristic method is one of the approaches to determine the sequence for a simple, non-
integrated distillation column. Several proposed sequences for the separation of three component
mixture are depicted in the figure below. The best sequence for the separation system will be
chosen through the heuristic approach.

70
B

B/EB, DEB EB

EB/DEB

B, EB, DEB DEB


DEB

B, EB/DEB B
B/EB
EB

Figure 3.6.1: Alternative Sequences for the Separation of Three-components Mixture

The best sequence order for the separation of B, EB, DEB is selected through the four heuristics
listed in the following:

Heuristic 1: The separation whereby the relative volatility of the key components is close to unity
or which exhibit azeotropic behavior need to be carried out in the absence of non -key components.
This indicates that the most difficult separation should be conducted last.

Volatility is correlated to the tendency of a substance to evaporate in which a substance with high
boiling point is known to have low volatility and vice versa. On the other hand, azeotropic behavior
is exhibited when a mixture of two or more liquid substances whose proportions cannot be adjusted
by simple distillation. The difference between the boiling points of EB and DEB is smaller
compared that between B and EB. Thus, the proposed order of sequence is:

Heuristic 2: The separation which follows the sequencing of removing the lightest components
alone one by one in column overheads should be carried out. This indicates that direct sequence
should be favored.

71
A heavier component has higher boiling point whereas a lighter component has low boiling point.
In accordance to this heuristic, B is the lightest component and DEB is the heaviest component.
Thus, the proposed order of sequence is:

Heuristic 3: The removal of component comprising a large fraction of the feed should be carried
out first.

According to table 4.3.3.1, B has the highest mole fraction followed by EB and DEB. Thus, the
proposed order of sequence is:

Heuristic 4: The separation which favors equimolar splits between the top and bottom products in
individual columns should be carried out. In accordance to this heuristic, the proposed order of
sequence is:

Based on the four heuristics discussed above, the most favorable separation sequence is:

B, EB, DEB B, EB/DEB B/EB

3.6.2 Dehydrogenation

The separation system of the product stream containing benzene, ethyl benzene,
diethylbenzene. toluene and styrene takes place after the dehydrogenation process. The product
stream will proceed through two distillation columns for purification purpose. The properties of
benzene, ethyl benzene, diethylbenzene, toluene and styrene that enter the separation system are
listed in the table below.

72
Table 3.6.2 a: Properties Table of Dehydrogenation Product Stream

Component Mole Flow Boiling Point (℃)

Benzene 26.3231 80.08

Ethyl Benzene 93.2392 136.20

Diethylbenzene 0.0119 183.70

Toluene 17.2427 110.6

Styrene 286.5659 145

Heuristic method is one of the approaches to determine the sequence for a simple, non-
integrated distillation column. Several proposed sequences for the separation of five component
mixture are depicted in the figure below. The best sequence for the separation system will be
chosen through the heuristic approach.

EB/ST, DEB ST/DEB

T/EB, ST, DEB EB, ST/DEB EB/ST

T, EB/ST, DEB T/EB ST/DEB


B/T, EB, ST, DEB
T, EB, ST/DEB T, EB/ST T/EB

T/EB, ST EB/ST
B, T/EB, ST, DEB B/T EB/ST, DEB ST/DEB

EB, ST/DEB EB/ST


B, T, EB, ST, DEB
B, T/EB B/T ST/DEB
B, T, EB/ST, DEB
B/T, EB T/EB ST/DEB

B, T/EB, ST B/T EB/ST


B, T, EB, ST/DEB B/T, EB, ST T/EB, ST EB/ST
T, EB/ST T/EB
B, T, EB/ST
B/T, EB T/EB
B, T/EB B/T

Figure 3.6.2: Alternative Sequences for the Separation of Four-components Mixture

73
Heuristic 1: The easiest separation should be carried out first. This indicates that the separation
which requires the least number of trays and reflux should be performed first and leave the most
difficult separation to the last.

Separation of ethylbenzene and styrene need to be performed last since it is the most difficult
separation among all. Thus, separating sequencing route 3 is eliminated.

Heuristic 2: The components should be removed one by one as overhead products when neither
the relative volatility nor the feed concentration vary widely.

This heuristic rule indicates that it is less desirable to remove the bottom product first. Thus,
separation sequencing route 4 is eliminated.

Heuristic 3: The splits should be sequenced in the order of decreasing concentration in the feed
when the concentrations in the feed vary widely but the relative volatilities do not.

According to Table 4.3.3.2 , the concentration of ethylbenzene is significantly higher than of


benzene and toluene. Thus, separation sequencing route 1 is eliminated.

Heuristic 4: The splits should be sequenced in the order of decreasing volatility when the adjacent
ordered components in the feed vary widely in terms of relative volatility.

Vapor pressure of respective components are computed using Equation 2, Antoine equation which
are shown in Table 4.3.3.2 c.

𝐵
Antoine Equation: log10 𝑃 = 𝐴 − 𝑇+𝐶 (2)

Where P = in mm Hg, T = ℃, A, B and C = Antoine Constant

74
Table 3.6.2 b: Antoine Constant

Components A B C Tmin (℃) Tmax (℃)

Benzene 6.90565 1211.033 220.790 -16 104

Toluene 6.95719 1344.800 219.482 6 136

Ethyl Benzene 6.95719 1424.255 213.206 26 163

Styrene 6.95710 1445.580 209.440 32 187

Diethylbenzene 7.00360 1575.310 200.960 63 213

Table 3.6.2 c: Relative Volatility

Components Vapor Pressure (mmHg) at 80℃ Relative Volatility

Benzene 17.80 4.41


1.52
Toluene 11.75 2.91
1.44
Ethyl Benzene 8.16 2.02
1.15
Styrene 7.12 1.76
1.76
Diethylbenzene 4.04 1.00

Since the adjacent ordered components, EB/ST and DEB/ST wary widely in relative volatility, the
splits are sequenced according to decreasing volatility of each component:

B T EB Styrene DEB

Based on the four heuristics discussed above, the most favorable separation sequence is:

B, T, EB, ST, DEB B, T/EB, ST, DEB B/T EB/ST, DEB ST/DEB
ST/DEB

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3.7 Heat Intergration

3.7.1 Introduction

In any plants, high energy consumption as well as excessive heat generation is one the
major factors contributing to the increased operating cost of the plant. The minimization of process
and utility wastes need to be accessed following the separation and recycle system of the plant. It
is necessary to perform heat integration calculation and studies for the enhancement of energy
utilization during the cooling and heating process to produce a highly energy efficient plant which
is both cost effective and environment friendly (Chaves, López, Zapata, Robayo, & Niño, 2015).

The reduction of the energy costs of a chemical process can be performed through the
application of pinch analysis heat integration method. Pinch analysis involves reutilizing the
available heat energy from the process instead of using external utilities and thus maximizing the
energy consumed during the cooling and heating process to its full potential. Three important data
is needed to perform the pinch analysis namely source temperature, target temperature as well as
heat load.

3.7.2 Energy Optimization through Pinch Analysis

The purpose of the Pinch Technology or Pinch Analysis is to design a heat exchanger
network which requires the usage of minimum utility based on the minimum temperature
difference. The construction of composite curves, table algorithm and grand composite curve are
the common methods applied to compute the amount of energy that can be recovered through the
pinch design analysis.

The procedures involved in the pinch analysis are summarized as below:


i) Identify streams involved in temperature change
ii) Extract relevant thermal data of the streams: Tin, Tout,T, H and mCP from simulation
results
iii) Use appropriate Tmin value

76
iv) Calculate corrected temperatures: Tin shifted and Tout shifted.
a. For hot streams: T shifted = T - ½  Tmin
b. For cold streams: T shifted = T + ½  Tmin
v) Determine minimum heating requirements QH min, minimum cooling requirement, QC
min and pinch temperature, Tpinch from the heat cascade
vi) Develop a Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) or grid diagram to perform pinch matches.
The streams are paired through the Maximum Energy Recovery ( MER) method:
a. Above pinch, CPc > CPH
b. Below pinch, CPH > CPc
vii) Calculate he utility consumption and area of heat exchanger
viii) Comparison of utilities consumption and area before and after MER to determine
efficiency.

3.7.3 Minimum Temperature Difference (Tmin)

Minimum Temperature Difference is the driving force for transfer of heat. High Tmin
corresponds to less heat transfer area but uses higher utility and vice versa. Tmin varies according
to the application in different industries as shown in the table below:

Table 3.7.3: Optimum Tmin for Different Industries (Chaves, López, Zapata, Robayo, & Niño,
2015)

Industries Optimum Tmin

Oil Refining 20-40 ºC

Petrochemical and Chemical 10-20 ºC

Low Temperature Process 3-5 ºC

The temperature constraint, Δ𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 has been fixed to be 10 ºC in the analysis.

77
3.7.4 Stream Identification and Summary of Thermal Data

Stream is described as any flows which needs cooling or heating without undergoing any
changes in the flow rate and composition. The information required to compute the heating and
cooling requirements in a typical heat exchanger network synthesis problem includes:

 Flow rate of individual stream


 Inlet and outlet temperature of individual stream
 Heat capacity of individual stream

Table 3.7.4: Stream Data for Heat Integration Process

Heat mcp
Stream Description Type T1 (C) T2 (C) H (kW)
type (kW/C)
1 Reactor Inlet Cold Sensible 69.48 172.53 5140.9 49.88743
Reactor
2 Effluent Hot Sensible 258.81 180 -4899.1 62.16343
3 Reactor Inlet Cold Sensible 152 175 388.1 16.87391
4 Steam Cold Sensible 200 700 27674.7 55.3494
5 Reactor Inlet Cold Sensible 434.8 650 22830.8 106.0911
Reactor
6 Effluent Cold Sensible 560.6 650 9788.5 109.4911
Reactor
7 Effluent Hot Latent 619.1 619.1 40 236.154

78
3.7.5 Pinch Design Analysis

3.7.5.1 Temperature Interval Heat Balances (Table Algorithm)

Figure 3.7.5.1: Problem Table Algorithm

79
3.7.5.2 Heat Cascade

Figure 3.7.5.2 b: Problem Table Cascade

From the heat cascade obtained from HINT as shown in


Figure 5.2, the pinch point is located at 565.60°C. whereby H =
0 kW since there is no energy transfer. Hence, the hot pinch
temperature and cold pinch temperature are 560.60K and
570.60K respectively after adjusting the temperature according
to the temperature constraint fixed. No heat transfer is allowed
across the pinch in order to hinder the heat transfer penalty
leading to increased consumption of utilities. The minimum
heating utility and cooling utility are QHmin = 15535.3 kW and
QCmin = 91368.4 kW respectively.

Figure 3.7.5.2 a: Heat Cascade

80
3.7.5.3 Composite Curve

Q
H

Qc

Figure 3.7.5.3: Composite Curve

Composite curves are constructed from the heat cascade diagram. Hot composite curve is
known as a heat source whereas the cold composite curve is known as the cold source. In the hot
composite curve, heat is recovered and transferred to the cold composite curve. The overlap area
in composite curve enables the calculation of total heat exchanger area needed. From Figure 5.5.3,
no heat transfer occurs between the two curves since the hot streams having higher temperature
than the cold streams. It is also observed that no overlap happens between the curves. This means
that no heat can be recovered thus no heat can be integrated between the two stream unless heat
exchangers are incorporated.

81
3.7.5.4 Grand Composite Curve

Q
H

PINC
H

B
Qc

Figure 3.7.5.4: Grand Composite Curve

The grand composite curve indicates the difference between the heat available from the
process hot streams and the heat needed by the process cold streams, relative to the pinch, at a
given shifted temperature. Point A represents QH whereas point B represents QC. It is shown that
heat utility 𝑄𝐻 =15535.3 kW is needed at 705K or 431.85℃. Thus, medium pressure steam (MPH)
is proposed to satisfy the utilities consumption needed. On the other hand, the cooling utility 𝑄𝐶 =
91368.4 kW and it is small and thus cooling water can be used to meet the cold utilities needed at
room temperature.

82
3.7.6 Grid Diagram – Heat Exchanger Network

Figure 3.7.6: Grid Diagram showing Heat Exchanger Network

Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) methods are applied when performing the pairing of
hot and cold streams. The following guidelines are followed when pairing any two streams:

 Cp cold > Cp hot for area above the pinch


 Cp hot > Cp cold for area below the pinch

In addition, there are several rules of thumb to be taken into consideration when performing
the design of heat exchanger network:

 Pairing done must not violate the minimum temperature of 10 °C.


 No heat is transferred across the pinch
 Hot utilities must be added above the pinch

83
 Cold utilities must be added below the pinch

Heat Exchanger Network Diagram shown in the figure above depicts the heat transfer
operations simulated in HINT software which involves the pairing of two streams to enable heat
transfer from the hot stream to the cold stream. Hot streams run in the direction from left to right
to undergo cooling from the source temperature to the target temperature. On the other hand, cold
streams run from right to the left. The presence of heat exchangers which serve to transfer heat
between hot and cold streams are designated as vertical lines coupling two circles on the two
matched streams

From the diagram, it is identified that 7 heat exchangers are required to enhance the energy
recovery through pairing of streams to enable reduced consumption of utilities. In addition, the
heating or cooling of respective streams to attain the desired target temperature is performed by
the utilities comprising of 3 heaters above pinch and 3 coolers below pinch. The total amount of
hot utility required is 15535.1 𝑘𝑊 whereas the total amount of cold utility needed is 91366.9 𝑘𝑊.
The value of maximum energy recovery (MER) is obtained by the addition of all the heat transfer
taking place in 7 heat exchangers following the pairing between streams which amounts to a total
of 50287.78 𝑘𝑊.

3.7.7 Comparison of Utilities Consumption

The amount of the utilities needed before and after heat integration can be summarized in
the table below:

Table 3.7.7: Percentage of Heat Reduction After Heat Integration

Utility Before Heat After Heat Difference Percentage


Integration (kW) Integration (kW) (Kw) Reduction of
Utility (%)

Hot 65823 15535.1 50287.9 76.4

Cold 141656.1 91366.9 50289.2 35.5

Total 207479.1 106902 100577.1 48.48

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3.8 Process Flowsheeting

3.8.1 Introduction

A process flow diagram is a diagram which is generally utilized in chemical and process
engineering to depict the relationship between major equipment of a plant facility. Generally, a
typical process flow diagram of a single unit process comprises of:

 Major equipment
 Process piping
 Primary bypass and recycle streams
 Process stream names
 Operational data
 Control valves and other primary valves

3.8.2 Process Description

3.8.2.1 Alkylation

Fresh benzene and polymer-grade ethylene are the raw material for alkylation process. The
fresh benzene which is fed to the system via Stream 1 has typical purity of 99.99 wt% is assumed
to be at room temperature and standard pressure which is 25°C and 1 atm respectively. The
pressure of the stream is increased to 4000kPa by compressor. Pure ethylene is generally
transported via Stream 2 in pipelines at pressures ranging between 4000 to 100000 kPa. The lower
limit of 4000 kPa is chosen in order to refrain from the critical pressure. Since the operation is
below critical conditions, ethylene feed is assumed to be at 25°C to avoid the formation of liquid
ethylene (Ng, Sharma, & Rangaiah, 2016). Cold shot cooling is employed whereby the ethylene
feed is split across two alkylation reactor beds arranged in series.

Gas phase of ethylene dissolves in benzene stream and is combined with a recycle stream
(Stream 20) containing unreacted benzene and a small amount of ethyl benzene. The combined
stream is heated prior to entering the first alkylation reactor since the alkylation operating
temperature generally ranges between 170 and 270°C. It is then fed to the first alkylation reactor
(Stream 6) at 172.5 °C followed by second alkylation reactor (Stream 8) in which all of the ethylene
85
in the feed is assumed to react in both of the reactors to form ethylbenzene. Interstage cooling is
carried out using a cooler to cool down the outlet stream of first alkylation reactor to approximately
180°C before entering the second alkylation reactor. The outlet stream via Stream 10 from second
alkylation reactor is fed to the first distillation column (benzene column). A high purity benzene
stream (Stream 12) is removed from the top of the column and recycled back to the alkylation
reactor via Stream 20 whereby the recycled benzene stream is combined with fresh benzene stream
to undergo alkylation reaction in the alkylation reactors. Benzene is also recycled back to the
transalkylation reactor via Stream 22.

The bottoms (Stream 13) coming out from the benzene column is sent to the second
distillation column (ethylbenzene column). In this column, high-purity ethyl benzene is produced
in the top stream (Stream 23) and diethyl benzene in the bottom (Stream 14). The ethyl benzene
stream is then fed to the dehydrogenation section. On the other hand, diethyl benzene bottom
stream is recycled back to the transalkylation reactor together with the recycled benzene stream.

For the transalkyation part, the recycled stream from ethylbenzene column containing
products formed from the side reactions namely diethylbenzenes undergo reaction with the
recycled benzene to produce more ethylbenzenes. Subsequently, the distillate of transalkylation
reactor via Stream 18 is mixed together with the distillate (Stream 10) coming out from the
alkylation reactor in which it repeats the same process loop as mentioned previously.

3.8.2.2 Dehydrogenation

Ethylbenzene will undergo dehydrogenation process to produce styrene and hydrogen.


Fresh ethylbenzene from alkylation system (Stream 23) and recycled ethylbenzene (Stream 41)
are combined with superheated steam into a mixer via Stream 29. The stream is heated to 650°C
at 95kPa and fed into reactor via Stream 30 to lower the partial pressure of ethylbenzene and
increase conversion. The reaction is endothermic and reversible. The reactor is operated under
atmospheric pressure to favour forward reaction. Styrene, unreacted ethylbenzene and other
byproducts (Stream 31) are coming out from the first reactor are heated to same temperature to
650°C (Stream 32) and fed into second reactor. The stream consists of styrene, unreacted
ethybenzene and byproducts (Stream 33) leaving the second reactor are cooled down to 40°C.

86
The cooled outlet flow from reactor is sent to three phase separator mainly to separate the
CO2, and H2 via Stream 36 and discharged the water via Stream 37. Steam 36 which consists of
CO2 and H2 will be sent under storage. The water discharged will be recycled to reuse as
superheated steam for dehydrogenation process. The crude styrene from the dehydrogenation
process is then sent to distillation column (T-103) to remove benzene and toluene from distillate
via Stream 39. Toluene will be sent under storage for sale. The bottom stream consisted styrene
and ethylbenzene leaving the first distillation column is sent to second distillation column (T-104)
via Stream 38. Ethylbenzene is separated in this column and recycled back to the reactors while
styrene product is coming out from the bottom of the column.

87
3.8.3 Process Flowsheet

3.8.3.1 Process Flow Diagram (Before Heat Integration)

Figure 3.8.3.1: PFD before Heat Integration

88
3.8.3.2 Process Flow Diagram (After Heat Integration)

FIGURE 3.8.3.2: PFD after Heat Integration

89
CHAPTER 4: INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

4.1 Introduction

Process control can be described as a system or practice of regulating the process variables
by controlling the final control element. It is vital to the surveillance of processes with complex
technicality and automated operation in the chemical industry. The application of process control
safeguards the plant operation by ensuring the stability of the value of process variables through
the measurement and control of process variables and the elimination of external disturbances.
Besides, the alteration of process variables in accordance to an optimizing function is made
possible with process control. In addition, continuous operation of processes at optimum condition
while fulfilling the desired specifications of plant quality standards can be attained through proper
process control. The goals of establishing a control system design for this styrene monomer plant
include:

i. To ensure safety and reliability of the plant operation


The design of process control and instrumentation system enables the vital process
variables such as temperature and pressure to be regulated within the safety limits. The
presence of pressure relief valve in the process control and instrumentation system deter
the occurrence of overpressure conditions during normal plant operation by going to its
fail-safe position when there are any instrument air failures.

ii. To maintain the production rate of styrene monomers


The targeted production capacity of end products, styrene monomers at 231975.15 metric
ton/year can be achieved through a well-designed process control and instrumentation
system. The regulation of the flow rate of feed streams enables complete conversion of
reactants in both alkylation and dehydrogenation processes.

iii. To reduce the variability in the end products


The desired product composition specification of styrene monomers is achievable through
the regulation of the flowrate of feed streams to maintain proper feed ratio into the process.
The optimization of operating conditions for the reaction and separation processes in the

90
alkylation and dehydrogenation sections produces styrene monomers end products with
high targeted purity.

iv. To maximize the economic sustainability of plant operation in long terms.


The objective of process control and instrumentation system can be focused on maximizing
the profits of the plant operation when the quality and safety requirements are fulfilled. The
consumption of utilities can be minimized and damage of equipment constituting the plant
can be prevented through proper control of the operating conditions within the safety
design limit.

4.2 Concept of Process Control and Instrumentation

Generally, a process control loops is made up of three major elements namely sensors,
controller, and final control element. The basis of process control system for plant unit operation
involves the measurement of real-time information pertaining to the process variable (controlled
variable) by sensors or also known as transmitters. The information obtained will then be processed,
computed, and compared with the targeted set point value by the controller which will then
generate a control decision for the system. Lastly, the control decision generated will be executed
by the final control element or control valve to get rid of the disturbances whereby the manipulated
variables will be adjusted accordingly. The adjustments will affect the controlled variable direct
or indirectly.

Figure 4.2: Block Diagram of a Process Control Loop

91
4.3 Control Strategies

4.3.1 Feedback Control

This type of process control strategy exhibits versatility in which corrective actions will be
taken by controller to control the disturbances to the process parameters to maintain process output
at desired conditions. Comparison between the measured value of output variable and the
predetermined set point is made enabling the difference between both values to be known. The
controller will then proceed to eliminate the offset based on the calculated error by adjusting the
value of the manipulated variable accordingly to attain the targeted results. There is time lag issue
pertaining to the application of feedback control system in which the control system only responds
to any upsets of the process output will not be immediately recognized and only can be detected
at certain period following the changing of process input. Thus, feedback control strategy is not
suited for the application with frequent disturbances.

4.3.2 Feedforward Control

The basis of this type of process control strategy lies in both the measurement of change in
process variable and the anticipation of disturbance variable which would affect the process.
Subsequently, corrective actions of another input variable will be taken before disturbances cause
upset to the process. This control system unlike feedback controls strategy, depends on the
knowledge associated with the measurements of process variables and counteracting the change
before error takes place in the process loop. The application of feedforward control loops possesses
the advantage of deterring the occurrence of large disturbances in the process output over other
kind of control strategy. Despite that, this type of control strategy does not reflect all the potential
disturbances in the process input.

4.3.3 Cascade Control

Cascade control strategy involves employing two or more feedback controllers in the
control system in which one serves as the master controller while another controller acts as the
slave controller. The basis of this control loop lies in nesting a control loop in another loop and

92
aims to monitor two controlled variables simultaneously. Cascade control is especially vital for
applications in which the final control element exhibits non-linear performance and normally used
to regulate processes with slow thermodynamic. Output signal is generated by the master (primary)
controller to act as the set point to the slave (secondary) controller. Subsequently, slave controller
applies its control efforts to the secondary process. Similarly, the secondary process variable
generated by the secondary process will be utilized as the control efforts for primary process.

4.3.4 Ratio Control

Ratio control strategy is considered as a unique type of feedforward control. The principal
objective of using ratio control strategy in a system is to ensure that the flow rates of two or more
process variables is maintained at the same proportion to each other if the value of both variables
keep vary. Ratio control is best suited for flow-based applications whereby the nuance of flow here
encompasses any form of energy or mass transfer and is especially functional in cases where the
manipulated variable scales directly with the feed rate entering the process. In ratio control, the
uncontrolled flow is known as the wild flow whereas the flow controlled by the ratio controller is
called the controlled flow. Both of the flows are affixed in a specific ratio, R = u / d, where u and
d are both physical variables.

4.4 Implementation of Control Strategies

4.4.1 Major Equipment

4.4.1.1 Alkylation & Transalkylation Reactors

Temperature Control

The liquid phase alkylation of benzene with ethylene which takes place in the packed bed
reactor is an exothermic reaction. Thus, temperature control of reactor is vital in order to ensure
the elimination of heat of reaction from the reactor thus sustaining the optimum reaction
temperature. With that, the flow rate of cooling water entering the reactor is manipulated to tackle
the change in temperature resulting from the reaction as to maintain the temperature at the
predetermined set point and to hinder the occurrence of reactor thermal runaways. Both of the

93
alkylation reactors are equipped with temperature transmitter which is responsible of transmitting
signals to the temperature controller through feedback control mechanism. In feedback control
mechanism, the signal is delivered to the controller to increase the flow rate of cooling water in
cases where the temperature of the reactor exceeds the set point and vice versa.

Level Control

Since the alkylation reaction of benzene with ethylene takes place in the liquid phase, it is
of utmost importance to regulate the level of liquid in the reactor to prevent overflow thus
improving the safety of the entire plant operation. The application of feedforward control strategy
enables real time information pertaining to the liquid level in the reactor to be detected, processed
into signal by the level transmitter and delivered to the level indicator controller to act accordingly
to maintain the liquid in reactor at the optimum level by adjusting the flow rate of the outlet product
stream. Unlike feedback control mechanism, feedforward control mechanism makes the regulation
of inputs a focus of attention where the disturbance (flow rate of inlet feed stream) is detected
directly and the effect of the disturbance is cancelled out directly through an appropriate control
action of the flow rate of the outlet product stream.

Table 4.4.1.1: Control System Strategy of Alkylation Reactor


Control Controlled Manipulated
Unit Control Strategy
Objective Variable Variable
To maintain the
Temperature in Flow rate of cooling
temperature of the Feedback control
R-101A the reactor water into the reactor
reactor
R-101B
R-102 To maintain the
Level of reactants Flow rate of the Feedforward
level of liquid in
in the reactor outlet product stream control
the reactor

94
Figure 4.4.1.1: Control Strategy of Alkylation Reactor

4.4.1.2 Dehydrogenation Reactor

Pressure Control

Since the dehydrogenation process of ethylbenzene takes place in the gas phase, it is of
utmost importance to regulate the pressure of gas in the reactor to prevent overpressure thus
improving the safety of the entire plant operation. The application of feedback control strategy
enables real time information pertaining to the gas pressure level in the reactor to be detected,
processed into signal by the pressure transmitter and delivered to the pressure indicator controller.
When the pressure transmitter detects high pressure, the signal will send to the pressure controller
to open the pressure relieve valve to lower down the pressure and vice versa.

Level Control

It is extremely important to regulate the level of liquid in the dehydrogenation reactor


despite that dehydrogenation is a homogenous gas phase reaction. The installation of level control
system with feedforward control strategy aims to compensate for the absence of mixer regulating
the flow of liquid inlet stream prior to the entering the reactor. This is to ensure that there is no
change in temperature or pressure due to the presence of excess liquid in the reactor since constant-
95
volume conditions tend to exist for an ideal gas phase reaction like dehydrogenation of ethyl
benzene. The application of feedforward control strategy enables real time information pertaining
to the liquid level in the reactor to be detected, processed into signal by the level transmitter and
delivered to the level indicator controller to act accordingly to maintain the liquid in reactor at the
optimum level by adjusting the flow rate of the inlet feed stream.

Table 4.4.1.2: Control System Strategy of Dehydrogenation Reactor


Unit Control Objective Controlled Manipulated Control Strategy
Variable Variable
R-103A To maintain the Pressure in the Pressure relieve Feedforward
R-103B pressure in the reactor valve (PRV)
reactor opening
To maintain the Level of reactants in Flow rate of the Feedforward
level of liquid in the reactor inlet feed stream
the reactor

Figure 4.4.1.2: Control Strategy of Dehydrogenation Reactor

4.4.1.3 Distillation Column

Pressure Control
The pressure of distillation column is regulated through the manipulation of the flow rate
of cooling water entering the overhead condenser which serves to condense the vapors. Feedback
control strategy is implemented to control the pressure. Pressure transmitter detects information
96
pertaining to the pressure of the distillation column and delivers signal to the pressure indicator
controller for subsequent actions. When the pressure transmitter detects pressure lower than the
predetermined set point, the pressure control valve will be driven to open wider in order to allow
higher flow rate of cooling water to flow into the condenser. Hence, this drives the formation of
more liquid vapors which subsequently raises the pressure in the condenser. With that, the pressure
in the distillation column can be raised back to the set point since the liquid vapors generated from
the distillation column increases with the increase in cooling water flow rate.

Level Control
The level of distillation column is regulated through the manipulation of the flow rate of the
bottom stream. The implementation of control strategy enables the liquid level in the distillation
column to be taken into consideration whereby the flow rate of bottom stream adjusted in accordance
to the error deviation arising from the difference between predetermined set point and the measured
value of flow rate to meet the desired output response. The valve controlling the bottom flow is driven
to open more when the liquid level in the distillation column rises above the set point. On the other
hand, the valve closes when the level of liquid in the distillation column returns to the desired operating
level.
The regulation of the liquid level in the reflux drum is also carried out through the feedback
control strategy. In this control strategy, the level of liquid in the reflux drum is taken into consideration
in which the signal pertaining to the liquid level is detected by the level transmitter and sent to the level
controller for subsequent actions. The control valve regulating the flowrate of distillate is driven to
open to allow the excess liquid in the reflux drum to flow out if the liquid level rises above the desired
set point and vice versa.

Temperature Control
The temperature control of the distillation column namely the control of the feed inlet
temperature and that of the reboiler is crucial as it provides the optimum temperature profile across
the column and regulates the purity of the products. The poor control of the column temperature
results in the induction of upset processes in the column whereby high temperature drives the
formation of excessive heavy vapours rising up the tower and leads to the emergence of off-spec
side stream products while low column temperature causes liquid starvation across the trays.
Temperature control at the overhead section of distillation column is regulated through feedback

97
strategy whereas that at the bottom section of the column is performed through cascade control
strategy.
In feedback control strategy, the signal pertaining to the overhead temperature is
detected and delivered to the temperature controller via the temperature transmitter. Increased flow
of vapours to the top leads to higher temperature at the overhead section of distillation column.
Thus, the valve controlling the reflux stream is driven to open more to allow more reflux flow back
to the column when the temperature level in the distillation column rises above the set point. This
is because increased reflux flow will lead to the condensation of additional vapours in the
distillation column and increase liquid flow into the reflux drum where subsequently, the
temperature in the overhead section will be reduced back to the set temperature. On the other hand,
the valve closes when the temperature of the distillation column is below the set point. This is to
prevent the vapour flowing to the top of the column from being condensed by the reflux flow.

At the bottom section of the distillation column, there are two controllers namely
the temperature controller and flow controller employed in the cascade control system in which
the output of temperature controller drives the set point of level controller. Both controllers use
the standard PID algorithm. During start-up, the temperature controller (primary) performs
comparison between the temperature of the inlet feed and the set point and gives off maximum
output. The output generated by the inlet feed temperature controller is utilized to set the maximum
set point on the reboiler inlet stream flow controller (secondary) in the cascade structure. This
indicates that the output of the primary controller is equivalent to the set point of the secondary
controller. The set point on the flow controller is then compared to the flowrate of steam entering
the reboiler giving maximum flow output. The increase in the steam flow into the reboiler results
in the increase in the heat input which will then leads to higher vapourisation rate in the reboiler
and subsequent higher bottom temperature. Subsequently, the amount of vapour flow in the
column as well as the column temperature increased. Thus, the output of the secondary flow
controller decreases as the temperature of the inlet feed rises towards the predetermined set point.

98
Table 4.4.1.3: Control System Strategy of Distillation Column
Controlled Manipulated
Unit Control Objective Control Strategy
Variable Variable
Flow rate of
To control pressure Pressure in
cooling water enter Feedback
in column column
the condenser
To control level in Level in Flowrate of bottom
Feedback
column column stream
T-101 To control level in Level in the Flowrate of the
T-102 Feedback
reflux drum reflux drum distillate
T-103
T-104 To control overhead
Temperature Flowrate of the
temperature of the Feedback
in the column reflux stream
column

To control bottom Flowrate of the


Temperature
temperature of the steam entering the Cascade
in the column
column reboiler

Figure 4.4.1.3: Control Strategy of Distillation Column

99
4.4.2 Minor Equipment

4.4.2.1 Heat Exchanger

Temperature Control

Heat exchanger allows the integration of heat between hot streams and cold streams to
achieve the targeted temperature. The transfer of thermal energy is maximized and regulated by
manipulating the flow rate of inlet cold process stream through the heat exchanger. Feedback
control strategy is implemented whereby the information pertaining to the outlet hot process stream
temperature is detected and sent via temperature transmitter to the temperature indicator controller.
Subsequently, the flow rate of cooling fluid process stream through the heat exchanger will be
increased or decreased accordingly to accommodate for the difference between the predetermined
set point and the measured temperature of the outlet process stream. The opening of the valve
manipulating the flow rate of cooling process stream will be higher in cases where the temperature
of the outlet process stream exceeds the set point and vice versa.

Table 4.4.2.1: Control System Strategy of Heat Exchanger


Control Controlled Manipulated Control
Unit
Objective Variable Variable Strategy
HE-101
HE-102
To control the
HE-103 Outlet process Flow rate of
temperature of Feedback
HE-104 stream cooling fluid
outlet process control
HE-105 temperature stream
stream
HE-106
HE-107

100
Figure 4.4.2.1: Control Strategy of Heat Exchanger

4.4.2.2 Heater
Temperature Control
Similarly, heater allows the exchange of heat from the hot stream to cold stream through
the manipulation of hot water stream flow rate in order to attain the desired temperature. The
application of feedback control strategy enables the information associated with the controlled
variable, temperature of the outlet process stream to be measured and subsequently sent back to
the temperature indicator controller to be compared with the predetermined set point. The
difference computed serves as an indicator of which the valve opening will be manipulated
depending on the error value. Higher flow rate of hot water stream will be allowed through the
valve in cases where the error value is higher to raise/lower the temperature of the outlet process
stream to the targeted temperature since there is bigger thermal heat gap to be fulfilled by the hot
water stream.

Table 4.4.2.2: Control System Strategy of Heater


Controlled Manipulated Control
Unit Control Objective
Variable Variable Strategy
H-101 To control the Outlet process
Flow rate of steam Feedback
H-102 temperature of outlet stream
stream control
H-103 process stream temperature

101
Figure 4.4.2.2: Control Strategy of Heater

4.4.2.3 Cooler

Temperature Control

Cooler functions similarly like heater in which the flow rate of liquid refrigerant is
manipulated to ensure the outlet process stream temperature is maintained at the predetermined set
point. The construction of feedback control strategy enables the temperature of the outlet process
stream to be detected and sent to the temperature indicator controller via the temperature
transmitter. Subsequently, the control system will act accordingly based on the difference between
the set point and the outlet process stream temperature. The flow rate of liquid refrigerant will be
increased in cases whereby the temperature of the outlet process stream exceeds the targeted
temperature and vice versa.

Table 4.4.2.3: Control System Strategy of Cooler


Controlled Manipulated Control
Unit Control Objective
Variable Variable Strategy
C-101 To maintain the Outlet process
Flow rate of Feedback
C-102 temperature of outlet stream
liquid refrigerant control
C-103 process stream temperature

102
Figure 4.4.2.3: Control Strategy of Cooler

4.4.2.4 3 Phase Separator


Level Control
The effluent entering the 3 phase separator will be separated into three phases. The flow of
liquid (oil and water) over weirs in the separator necessitates the installation of level transmitter
and level controller in order to regulate the level of liquid in the separator. Feedforward control
strategy is applied in the separator in which the deviation of the liquid level in the separator from
the predetermined set point will be delivered to the controller constituting of a simple displacer
float on a spring via transmitter. The level valve opens to allow excess liquid to flow out of the
separator when the liquid level in the separator rises above the set point. On the other hand, the
level valve closes when the level of liquid in the separator returns to the desired operating level. 3
phase separator are equipped with two level controllers whereby a level controller which operates
the oil dump valve is used to regulate the level of oil overflowing the oil weir into the oil bucket
while another level controller which operates the water dump valve is used to control the level of
water flows under the oil bucket followed by over a water weir respectively.

Pressure Control

The presence of gas in 3 phase separator makes the installation of feedforward control
strategy vital in order to control tbe pressure of gas in the separator. The feedforward control

103
strategy consists of a pressure controller mounted on the outlet gas piping, a pressure transmitter
and a pressure control valve. Information pertaining to the pressure of gas in the separator is
delivered to the pressure controller via the pressure transmitter. The signal is then compared with
the predetermined set point to compute the error value. The pressure control valve is driven to
open or close based on the error value in which it gradually opens wider when the pressure of gas
in the separator increases above the set point and closes when the pressure decreases below the set
point.

Table 4.4.2.4: Control System Strategy of 3 Phase Separator


Controlled Manipulated Type of
Unit Control Objective
Variable Variable Control
To control the level of Level of water in Flow rate of outlet
Feedforward
water in separator separator water stream
To control the level of Level of oil in Flow rate of outlet
V-101 Feedforward
oil in separator separator oil stream
To control the Pressure in Pressure of outlet
Feedforward
pressure in separator separator product stream

Figure 4.4.2.4: Control Strategy of 3 Phase Separator

104
4.4.2.5 Pump

Discharge Pressure Control

The pump of the system is equipped with a feedback control strategy as to raise and
maintain the pressure of discharge flow at the predetermined set point by controlling the motor
speed of pump. When the flow transmitter detects high discharge pressure, the signal will be sent
to the pressure sensor in the pump. Subsequently, the speed of the pump decreases in order to make
the pressure lower. On the other hand, the speed of the pump increases when low discharge
pressure is detected. The installation of check valve on the pump discharge flowline avoids the
pump from the sudden flow stoppage events which cause the reversal of flow when the pump is
not in operation or is in an upset condition.

Table 4.4.2.5: Control System Strategy of Pump


Controlled Manipulated
Unit Control Objective Control Strategy
Variable Variable
P-101/S
P-102/S To control the Discharge
P-103/S discharge stream stream Speed of pump Feedback
P-104/S pressure pressure
P-105/S

Figure 4.4.2.5: Control Strategy of Pump

105
4.4.2.6 Compressor

Discharge Pressure Control

Compressors are generally utilized to raise the pressure of a gaseous stream. In this project,
the compressor is used to increase the pressure of the ethylene gas stream prior to entering the
alkylation reactor. It is equipped with feedback control system to regulate and maintain the
pressure of the outlet stream at the desired set point. In feedback control system, signal pertaining
to the real-time outlet stream pressure is detected and sent by the pressure transmitter to the
pressure controller which regulates the motor speed of the compressor. The compressor’s motor
speed is increased to allow higher flow rate of inlet gas stream into the compressor when the outlet
stream pressure goes below the set point. This is due to the increased rotation speed of the
compressor’s motor driven by the increased flow rate of inlet which subsequently the pressure of
the outlet stream. On the other hand, the motor speed of compressor is reduced to restrict the
amount of gas stream entering the compressor thus reducing the outlet stream pressure in cases
where the outlet stream pressure rises beyond the desired operating pressure.

Table 4.4.2.6: Control System Strategy of Compressor


Control Controlled Manipulated
Unit Control Strategy
Objective Variable Variable
To control
CP-101 the discharge Discharge
Inlet gas flow rate Feedback
stream stream pressure
pressure

Figure 4.4.2.6: Control Strategy of Compressor

106
4.4.2.7 Mixer

Discharge Flowrate Control

Mixer is generally used to govern the blending of two or more streams into a single stream
and is used to regulate the addition of solids, liquids or air. The flowrate of mixer discharge stream
is regulated through feedforward control system. In this feedforward control system, an
appropriate control action of the discharge stream flowrate is immediately taken after any
disturbances is detected in order to eliminate directly the effect of disturbance. It provides the
direct control compensation from the reference signal. Signal pertaining to the flowrate of
discharge stream is detected and conveyed to the flow indicator controller via flow transmitter.
The comparison between the measured flowrate and the desired set point is performed and the
valve regulating the flowrate of discharge stream is driven to open more or less depending on the
magnitude of deviation computed. The valve controlling the discharge stream flow is driven to
open more when the discharge stream flowrate rises below the set point. On the other hand, the
valve closes when the flowrate of discharge stream returns to the desired operating level.

Table 4.4.2.7: Control System Strategy of Mixer


Controlled Manipulated Control
Unit Control Objective
Variable Variable Strategy
M-101
M-102
To control the
M-103 Discharge stream Discharge stream
discharge stream Feedforward
M-104 flowrate flowrate
flowrate
M-105
M-106

Figure 4.4.2.7: Control Strategy of Mixer


107
4.4.2.8 Splitter

Outlet Flowrate Control

Splitter is utilized to divide a single stream (input) into two or more streams (outputs) with
the same composition. The flowrates of splitter discharge streams are regulated through ratio
control system. In this ratio control system, the flowrates of the two discharge streams are
maintained at the same proportion to each other. The two process variables are flow rates
connected in a specific ratio in which the disturbances are measured and the ratio is retained at the
predetermined set point by regulating one of the streams. The application of ratio control system
involves the dependent process input being proportioned to another process input, namely the
independent input. The changes in the independent input leads to the proportional change of the
other process input through ratio control. This is done to held the proportion of the inputs defined
by the ratio set point.

Table 4.4.2.8: Control System Strategy of Splitter


Control Controlled Manipulated
Unit Control Strategy
Objective Variable Variable
To control the
S-101 Discharge
discharge Process input
S-102 streams Ratio
streams streams flowrates
S-103 flowrates
flowrates

Figure 4.4.2.8: Control Strategy of Splitter

108
CHAPTER 5: SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION

5.1 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a planned and methodical inspection of a


structured or existing process or operation to identify and assess problems that may signify risks
to personnel or equipment or which stops effective operation. The HAZOP technique was
developed to study chemical process systems, but has later been prolonged to other types of
systems and to intricate processes and to software systems.

HAZOP is a qualitative practice based on guide-words and is agreed by the HAZOP team
during assembly. It is also a crucial method in the Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) which is an
important pillar in Process Safety Management (PSM) framework. Some of the other PHA process
are fault tree analysis, what-if analysis, failure mode and effect analysis FMEA and many more.

The HAZOP study should ideally be agreed out as early in the project stage as possible -
to have effect on the project. Alternatively; to carry out a HAZOP we need a rather comprehensive
design. As such, the HAZOP is usually carried out as a last check when the comprehensive design
has been finished (Rausand, 2005; Dunjo et al., 2011)

5.2 HAZOP Principles

Some of the terminologies used in HAZOP are:

1. Node - Is a precise location in the process of the design that are being inspected
2. Design Intent – A report on how the process is likely to behave at the node. A description
of the activity
3. Deviation – How the process environments behave contrary to the intent design
4. Parameter – Relevant parameter for the conditions
5. Guideword – A word which create the thoughts of the design/process intent
6. Cause – The reason of the deviation
7. Consequence – Outcomes of the deviation
8. Safeguard – Action takes to mitigate the consequence

109
Table 5.2: HAZOP Guide Words

Guide words Meaning Guide words Meaning


No, Not, None No flow of flow in reverse
More of any relevant physical property than there should
More of be, e.g. higher flow (rate or total quantity), higher
temperature,
Less of any relevant physical property than there should
be, e.g. lower flow (rate or total quantity), lower
Less of
temperature, lower
pressure, etc.
Composition of system unlike from what it should be, e.g.
Part of
change in ratio of components, component missing, etc.
More components present in the system than there should
be, e.g. extra phase present (vapor, solid), impurities (air,
As well as more than
water,
acids, corrosion products), etc.
A parameter occurs in the reverse direction to that for
Reverse
which it was intended e.g. reverse flow.
Complete substitution e.g. acid was added instead of
Other than
benzene

Table 5.3: HAZOP Parameters


Mixing PH Flow Separation
Addition Level Time Voltage
Frequency Speed Composition Reaction
Viscosity Temperature Pressure Information

5.3 HAZOP Methodology

Individual segments are cautiously studied and all conceivable deviations from normal
operating condition are recognized. The figure below shows the summary of how HAZOP can be
carried out:

110
Figure 5.3: HAZOP Methodology

111
5.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

Nodes: 1

Desired condition:
Temperature: 256.65 °C
Pressure: 4000 kPa
Description: The flow of ethylbenzene must be mixed with the fresh ethylene before entering
reactor R-101(b).

Figure 5.4 a: Node 1

112
STUDY TITTLE: ETHYLBENZENE UNIT SHEET
DRAWING NO: REV. NO:
TEAM MEMBERS MEETING
DATE:

PART CONSIDERATION

DESIGN INTENT MATERIAL Ethylene, ethyl ACTIVITY Transfer ethylene with ethylbenzene
benzene mixture

SOURCE Mixer M-101 DESTINATION Ethylbenzene Reactor R-101(B)


Cooler C-101

No. Guide Parameter Deviation Possible Consequences Action required


word Causes
1 No Flow No flow of 1.1 Pipe is 1.1 No mixing of 1.1 Install flow meter on the
ethylene or blocked or ethylene and flow after cooler (C-
ethylbenzene into ruptured ethylbenzene 101) and after the mixer
reactor 1.2 Mixer is 1.2 No ethylbenzene (M-201)
not entering reactor 1.2 Install low flow alarm in
working 1.3 No material to be line.
cooled 1.3 Create maintenance and
inspection schedule of

113
mixer and valve
controller yearly
More Flow Excess flow of 1.1 Valve 1.1 Pressure increase 1.1 Install high flow
ethylene to unable to in reactor alarm in line.
reactor close 1.2 The process line 1.2 Create maintenance
1.2 Valve fails cannot be cooled and inspection
and open by cooler (C-101) schedule of mixer
and valve controller
yearly

Less Flow Less flow of 1.1 Leak in 1.1 Yield of 1.1 Low flow alarm is
ethylbenzene and pipeline ethylbenzene is installed
ethylene to 1.2 Control undesired 1.2 Construct dike to
reactor valve contain release
cannot fully 1.3 Create maintenance and
open inspection schedule of
mixer and valve
controller yearly
2 Low Level Liquid level is 1.1 Feed valve 1.1 Overpressure in 1.1 Level indicator with low
low in reactor R- is closed reactor alarm is installed in the
101(B) 1.2 Blockage in column bottoms
pipe 1.2 Back up control valve is
1.3 High installed on Reactor
temperature Maintenance and
inside the inspection on control
reactor valve is carried out
periodically

114
High Level Liquid level is 1.1 Outlet line 1.1 Overpressure in 1.1 Level indicator with
high in reactor is blocked reactor high alarm is installed in
1.2 No flow out the reactor
of column 1.2 Pressure safety relief
1.3 Low valve is installed on
temperature reactor
inside reactor 1.3 Maintenance and
inspection on control
valve is carried our
periodically
3. More Temperature High Temperature 1.1 Cooler C- 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller
in reactor 101 failure incomplete, low is installed
1.2 External product yield 1.2 Pressure safety relief
heating 1.2 Reactor R-101(B) valve is installed
from overheated 1.3 Insulation installed on
surrounding 1.3 Pressure increased reactor R-101(B)
in reactor
Less Temperature Low Temperature 1.1 Cooler C- 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller
in reactor 101 failure incomplete, low is installed
product yield 1.2 Create maintenance and
inspection schedule of
mixer and valve
controller yearly

115
Nodes: 2

Desired condition:
Temperature: 240 °C
Pressure: 2000 kPa
Description: Ethylbenzene is mixed with excess ethylbenzene to undergo 1st stage of distillation.

Figure 5.4 b: Node 2

116
STUDY TITTLE: ETHYLBENZENE DISTILLATION UNIT SHEET
DRAWING NO: REV. NO:
TEAM MEMBERS MEETING
DATE:

PART CONSIDERATION

DESIGN INTENT MATERIAL Ethyl benzene ACTIVITY Ethylbenzene undergoes distillation

SOURCE Mixer DESTINATION Distillation Column T-102


Distillation Column
T-101

No. Guide Parameter Deviation Possible Consequences Action required


word Causes
1 Low Level Liquid level 1.1 Feed valve 1.1 Separation 1.1 Level indicator with low
is low in is closed between heavy key alarm is installed in the
distillation 1.2 Blockage in and light key not column bottoms
column T- pipe effective 1.2 Back up control valve is
101 1.3 High installed on distillation
temperature column
inside the

117
distillation 1.3 Maintenance and
column inspection on control valve
is carried out periodically
High Level Liquid level 1.1 Outlet line 1.1 Overpressure in 1.4 Level indicator with high
is high in is blocked column alarm is installed in the
distillation 1.2 No flow out 1.2 Separation column
column T- of column between heavy key 1.5 Pressure safety relief valve
101 1.3 Low and light key not is installed on column
temperature effective 1.6 Maintenance and
inside inspection on control valve
distillation is carried our periodically
column
2 No Flow No flow 1.1 Outlet valve 1.1 Overpressure in 1.1 Pressure safety relief valve
stuck at close column is installed on distillation
position 1.2 Separation column
between heavy key 1.2 Flow rate meter is installed
and light key not 1.3 Maintenance and
effective inspection on control valve
1.3 No flow enters carried out periodically
distillation column
T-102
Less Flow Less Flow 1.1 Pipe 1.1 Distillation 1.1 Flow rate meter is installed
blockage column dries out 1.2 Maintenance and
1.2 Control 1.2 Ethylbenzene inspection on control valve
valve fails quality reduces carried out periodically
1.3 Pipe 1.3 Separation
leakage and between heavy key
blocked and light key not
effective

118
More Flow More flow 1.1 Control 1.1 Flooding in 1.1 Flow rate meter is installed
valve is distillation column 1.2 Maintenance and
open fully 1.2 Separation inspection on control valve
1.2 Failure in between heavy key carried out periodically
control and light key not
valve effective
1.3 Flow temperature
decreases

3 Less Pressure Low 1.1 Leakage in 1.1 Backflow happens 1.1 Low pressure alarm is
pressure pipe installed on distillation
1.2 Outlet valve column
stuck at 1.2 Check valve is installed to
open prevent back flow
position 1.3 Maintenance and
inspection on control valve
carried out periodically
More Pressure High 1.1 Outlet valve 1.1 Distillation 1.1 Pressure safety relief valve
pressure stuck at column is installed on column
close rupture/explosion 1.2 High pressure alarm is
position 1.2 Separation installed on distillation
1.2 Stream is between heavy key column
block and light key not 1.3 Maintenance and
effective inspection on control valve
carried out periodically
4 More Temperature High 1.1 External 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller is
Temperature heating incomplete, low installed
from product yield 1.2 Pressure safety relief valve
surrounding is installed

119
1.2 Column 1.3 Insulation installed on
overheated column
1.3 Pressure increased
in reactor
Less Temperature Low 1.1 Heater 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller
Temperature failure incomplete, low is installed
product yield 1.2 Create maintenance and
inspection schedule of
mixer and valve
controller yearly

120
Nodes: 3

Desired condition:
Temperature: 175 °C
Pressure: 2000 kPa
Description: Excess benzene is reacted in R-102 to be then distilled at T-101

Figure 5.4 c: Node 3

121
STUDY TITLE: BENZENE UNIT SHEET
DRAWING NO: REV. NO:
TEAM MEMBERS MEETING
DATE:

PART CONSIDERATION

DESIGN INTENT MATERIAL Benzene ACTIVITY Excess Benzene is reacted

SOURCE Heat exchanger HE-107 DESTINATION Distillation Column T-101


Mixer M-103

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible Causes Consequences Action required
word
1 No Flow No flow of 1.1 Pipe is blocked 1.1 No reaction of 1.1 Install flow meter on the flow after
benzene into or ruptured benzene cooler (C-101) heat exchanger HE-
reactor 1.2 Mixer is not 1.2 No benzene entering 107
working reactor 1.2 Install low flow alarm in line.
1.3 Create maintenance and inspection
schedule of mixer and valve
controller yearly

122
More Flow Excess flow 1.1 Valve unable to 1.1 Pressure increase in 1.1 Install high flow alarm in line.
of benzene close reactor 1.2 Create maintenance and inspection
into reactor 1.2 Valve fails and schedule of mixer and valve
open controller yearly

Less Flow Less flow of 1.1 Leak in pipeline 1.1 Yield of benzene is 1.1 Low flow alarm is installed
benzene into 1.2 Control valve undesired 1.2 Construct dike to contain release
reactor can’t fully open 1.3 Create maintenance and inspection
schedule of mixer and valve
controller yearly
2 Low Level Liquid level 1.1 Feed valve is 1.1 Overpressure in 1.1 Level indicator with low alarm is
is low in closed reactor installed in the column bottoms
distillation 1.2 Blockage in pipe 1.2 Back up control valve is installed
column R- 1.3 High on Reactor
101(b) temperature Maintenance and inspection on
inside the control valve is carried out
Reactor periodically

High Level Liquid level 1.1 Outlet line is 1.1 Overpressure in 1.1 Level indicator with high alarm is
is high in blocked reactor installed in the reactor
reactor 1.2 No flow out of 1.2 Pressure safety relief valve is
column installed on reactor
1.3 Low temperature 1.3 Maintenance and inspection on
inside reactor control valve is carried our
periodically
3. More Temperature High 1.1 Heat Exchanger 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller is installed
Temperature E-7 failure incomplete, low 1.2 Pressure safety relief valve is
product yield installed

123
1.2 External heating 1.2 Reactor R-102 1.3 Insulation installed on reactor R-
from overheated 102
surrounding 1.3 Pressure increased
in reactor
Less Temperature Low 1.1 Heat Exchanger 1.1 Reaction 1.1 Temperature controller is installed
Temperature HE-107 failure incomplete, 1.2 Create maintenance and inspection
low product yield schedule of mixer and valve
controller yearly

4. Less Pressure Low 1.1 Leakage in pipe 1.1 Backflow happens 1.1 Low pressure alarm is installed on
pressure 1.2 Outlet valve distillation column
stuck at open 1.2 Check valve is installed to prevent
position back flow
1.3 Maintenance and inspection on
control valve carried out
periodically
More Pressure High 1.1 Outlet valve 1.1 Reactor 1.1 Pressure safety relief valve is
pressure stuck at close rupture/explosion installed on column
position 1.2 High pressure alarm is installed on
1.2 Stream is block distillation column
1.3 Maintenance and inspection on
control valve carried out
periodically

124
5.5 Plant Layout

5.5.1 Introduction

It is of utmost importance to establish a detailed framework pertaining to the set-up of


styrene monomer production plant. Therefore, the design of plant layout constitutes a major part
of the preliminary development process of equipment arrangements and piping layouts. The
proposed design of plant layout must ensure the adherence of the process facilities arrangement to
the safety standards established while maintaining its cost-effectiveness as well as its
constructability. A good plant layout abiding by the standard safety regulations leads to significant
savings in cost and ensures the smooth production of desired products through proper plant
managements.

The proposed plant location for the development of styrene monomer production plant is
Telok Kalong Industrial Zone, Kertih, Terengganu. The layout of this plant comprised of two
major areas namely the process area and non-process area. The process area serves as the crucial
pillar of the chemical process plant in which it houses the process facilities containing the raw
materials as well as the desired product and by-product. Therefore, this area is subjected to the fire
and explosion hazards resulting from the production of styrene. On the other hand, non-process
area accommodates for administrative buildings as well as other service facilities built for the
welfare of on-site personnel and thus do not possess any potential major hazards to the personnel.
A comprehensive understanding of the major factors to be taken into consideration when designing
a good plant layout is needed prior to the development of the plant layout for the styrene monomer
production plant. The factors to be considered when designing a plant layout are explained in
details in the following section.

5.5.2 Plant Layout Consideration Factors

Plant layout is often designed by taking into account several factors such as safety, storage
availability and geographical limitations. Besides, the collaboration with existing or planned
facilities on site such as existing roadways, drainage and utilities routings is considered to ensure
the plant operability and maintainability. It is also important to identify the ideal location for the
setup of facilities containing hazardous materials within the plant as to ensure that it is located as

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far as possible from the site borders and people living in the local neighbourhood. Besides, the
plant layout must assure that emergency services are easily accessible during any plant accidents
by providing emergency escape routes for on-site personnel. The most important factors in
designing a plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are listed as following (Health Safety
and Executive, 2015):
 To prevent and mitigate escalation of nearby events (domino).
 To ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings.
 To control entries of unauthorised personnel.
 To ease access for emergency services.

5.5.3 Inherent Safety

The main principle pertaining to inherent safety is to eliminate the hazard and the best way
to achieve this is to decrease the amount of hazardous substances available such that a major hazard
is no longer available. The potential methods to achieve an inherently safer design are (Health
Safety and Executive, 2015):

 Escalation to reduce inventories.


 Exchange of hazardous substances by less hazardous alternatives.
 Mitigation to minimize hazardous process conditions such as temperature and pressure.
 Establishment of a simpler systems or processes to eliminate the potential loss of
containment or the possibility of mistakes causing a hazardous event to take place.
 Establishment of fail-safe design including valve position on failure.

Hazard assessment of the plant layout is crucial to ensure the minimization of the
consequences brought upon by the loss of containment and reduces the chances of escalation.
Domino may take place due to fire, explosion (pressure wave and missiles) or toxic gas cloud
which lead to the loss of control of operations in another whereabouts.

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i) Explosion

Explosion propagation may be caused by pressure waves. Thus, inherently safety aspect
pertaining to explosion that should be considered when designing the plant layout includes the
incorporation of separation gap in order to prevent damage to the adjacent plants even during worst
case scenarios. In addition, the establishment of barriers such as blast walls in location around the
buildings, provision of thicker walls on vessels and the installation of explosion relief valve to vent
away the explosion from the exposed areas (plants or buildings) into the roadways near site
boundaries.

ii) Fire

A fire can spread through several ways such as through direct burning (which includes
consecutive liquid fires), convection, radiation and conduction. The spread of fire from its origin
to other portions of the plant can be avoided by constructing vertical and horizontal compartment
using fire retardant walls and floors. Attention should also be given to the spread of flammable
material via ducts and ventilation systems. Late ignition following a release may result in the
spread of flames through such systems via distributed flammable gases and vapours. Protection
against domino effects by convection, conduction and radiation can be accomplished by
incorporating inherent safety principles when designing the plant layout by ensuring that the
distances between plant items are sufficient to prevent overheating of adjacent plants thus
compromising the safety of the plants

iii) Toxic Gas Releases

Toxic gas releases may instigate a domino effect by rendering nearby plants inoperable and
injuring personnel. Prevention or mitigation of such consequences may be reduced by provision
of automatic control systems using inherently safer principles and a suitable operations room.

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iv) Reduction of Consequences of Event On and Off Site

In addition to the safety measures described above, plant layout design practises are

applicable to the reduction of the risks from the release of flammable or toxic materials such as:

 Placing all high-volume storage of flammable / toxic material well outside operations areas;
 Placing hazardous plant away from main roadways;
 Installing remote-actuated isolation valves where high inventories of hazardous materials
may be released into vulnerable areas;
 Provision of ditches, dykes, embankments, sloping terrain to enclose and control releases
and limit the safety and environmental effects outside;
 Positioning of plants within buildings as secondary containment;
 Positioning of plants in the open to ensure quick dispersion of minor releases of flammable
gases and vapours and which then prevents concentrations building up and lead to flash
fires and explosions;
 Hazardous area cataloguing for flammable gases, vapours and dusts to designate
areas where ignition sources should be eliminated.
 Risk management methods should be used to recognize control measures that can be
approved to reduce the consequences of on or off site events.

v) Aggregation and Trapping of Flammable Vapours

Aggregation and trapping of flammable and toxic vapours could lead to a hazardous
situation. Buildings should be planned so that all parts of the building are well ventilated by natural
or forced ventilation. Flammable storages should be positioned in the open air so that minor leaks
or thermal out breathing can be dissipated by surrounding ventilation.

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vi) Positioning of Occupied Buildings

The distance between occupied buildings and plant buildings is governed by the need to
diminish the dangers of explosion, fire and toxicity. Evacuation routes must be properly designed
and workers with more general responsibilities should be allocated in buildings sites safeguarded
from hazards and are located near to the main entrance of the plant. Occupied buildings should be
arranged outside of the main fence. In addition, occupied buildings should not be built downwind
of any hazardous areas within the plant.

5.5.4 Codes of Practice and Industry Guidance for Plant Layout

 Process plant hazard and control building design: An approach to categorisation',


Chemical Industries Association, 1990.
 CIA Guidance for the location and design of occupied building on chemical
manufacturing sites, CIA/CISHEC, 1998.
 BS 5908: 1990 Code of practice for fire precautions in the chemical and allied
industries, British Standards Institution.
 Section 5, Paragraph 21 provides guidance on the minimum distance that the building
can be placed from the site boundary. For some specific substances, HSE guidance
notes or industry codes of practice are available, giving separation distances such as
those from plant to site boundaries.
 Section 10, Paragraph 54.3 provides guidance on methods to reduce any flammable
gas concentrations below the lower limit, including the use of fixed water sprays or
monitors positioned in such a way as to aid the dispersion of the gas into the
atmosphere.
 HS(G)176 The storage of flammable liquids in tanks, HSE, 1998.
 Paragraphs 46 to 55 provide guidance on the siting of tanks.
 HS(G)50 The storage of flammable liquids in fixed tanks (up to 10000 cu. m in total
capacity), HSE, 1990.
 Superseded by HS(G)176, Paragraph 12 provides guidance on the siting of tanks.
 HS(G)51 Storage of flammable liquids in containers, HSE, 1990.

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 HS(G)52 The storage of flammable liquids in fixed tanks (exceeding 10000 cu. m in
total capacity), HSE, 1991.Superseded by HS(G)176.
 HS(G)28 Safety advice for bulk chlorine installations, HSE, 1999.
Paragraphs 21-30 provide guidance on siting of bulk chlorine installations.
 HS(G)30 Storage of anhydrous ammonia under pressure in the UK: spherical and
cylindrical vessels, HSE,1986.
 Paragraph 155-160 provide guidance on siting of vessels for receiving tanker
deliveries of anhydrous ammonia.
 LPGA COP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 1: Design, installation and
operation of vessels located above ground, LP Gas Association, Revised Edition July
1998 includes Amendment 1, January 1999). Supersedes HS(G)34 Storage of LPG at
1999 fixed installations. Part 1 gives guidance on plant layout.
 HS(G)34 Storage of LPG at fixed installations, HSE, 1987.Superseded by the above.

Therefore, the plant layout of styrene monomer production plant is developed in


accordance to the codes of practice and industry guidance for plant layout as mentioned earlier and
the physical arrangement of the plant items including equipment, buildings as well as facilities is
done by considering the factors stated as following:

i) Economic considerations

The equipment as well as the support controls are interconnected through the piping system.
The optimization of the equipment arrangement is performed whereby the equipment is set out in
sequence and within proximity to each other. This enhances the accessibility as well as improving
the flexibility of the piping connections and consequently leads to the reduction of overall cost due
to the less construction cost needed as a result of optimized equipment arrangement.

ii) Process Equipment Location

All the process equipment installed within the plant is allocated in an appropriate manner
by ensuring there is sufficient space in between one another. This allows convenient
implementation of the maintenance works as well as allowing proper evacuation when needed.

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iii) Safety

Non-process area is located at a considerably far distance from the process area in order to
hinder the occurrence of any fire and explosions which might arise from the process area due to
containment of chemical reactions. In addition, any chemicals which possessing hazardous nature
are kept away from the equipment especially reactors as to mitigate the risks associated with the
fire and explosion incidents. Emergency assembly areas are also established at the open space in
which it is easily accessible during emergencies.

5.6 Plant Layout Justification

Figure 5.6: Plant Layout

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As shown in Figure 5.6, the plant layout is divided into two major parts namely the Process
Area and Non-Process Area. Process area houses all the plant process units needed for the
production of styrene monomers and thus is subjected to fire, toxic release and explosion risks.
The production of styrene monomers is divided into two main process units which are alkylation
of benzene and dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene. These two process units are built next to each
other with the aim of optimizing the piping arrangement thus minimizing the piping construction
cost.
Waste water treatment serves to treat the wastewater generated from the processing train
and plant drainage system prior to being discarded into the environment. It is located near to the
process area to facilitate direct channelling of wastewater effluents to the waste water treatment
plant. The waste storage and handling area is the place whereby the hazardous solid wastes
originating from the wastewater treatment sludge are kept. The loading and unloading area which
functions as a place for inland traffics in which the transports are permitted to go in and out of the
plant site to pick up, transfer as well as loading off materials. Raw material storage and finished
product storage are the areas in which ethylene, benzene as well as styrene and toluene are kept.
The storage areas are located far away from the occupied buildings where the personnel are
allocated. They are situated near to the process area to allow easier operation of the feedstocks as
well as product rundowns but are separated by a certain distance from process area site to avoid
domino effects from fire and explosion. In addition, the storage areas are located near the entrance
and exit to prevent any traffic congestion in the plant during the loading and unloading processes.
The central control room serves to regulate the plant facilities through the distributed control
systems is located at a considerable far distance from the hazardous process units.

Moving on to non-process area, security office is located at the entrance and exit gate to
monitor the incoming and outgoing vehicles, visitors and authorised personnel in order to avoid
any unauthorised personnel from intruding the plant and causing any unnecessary problems.
Besides, there is an open space for emergency assembly near the entrance to ease any evacuation
routes. The emergency assembly area is easily accessible from both the process area and non-
process area. The cafeteria is allocated near to the administration office in order to lessen the time
spent by the on-site personnel on travelling from one building to another. In addition, it is built far
away from the process area as to prevent the contamination of food by chemicals of the process
area.

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The fire station which serves to put off the fire which went out from either the process area
or non-process area is situated relatively near to the process area to ensure quick implementation
of any evacuation processes. The warehouse which functions as a storage area accommodating the
plant equipment spare parts and various chemicals is built near to the process area. The clinic
serves to attend to patients whom sustain minor injuries during the plant operation and is situated
near to the main office and away from plant site with easy access route. The main administrative
office is also situated far away from the process area to avoid the potential risks of incidents such
as explosion and fire which might arise from the process area. It is also located adjacent to the
main plant entrance as to enable the employees to go to their workplace without the hassle of
having to pass through the process area which might impose potential hazard risks on them.

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CHAPTER 6: WASTE TREATMENT
6.1 Introduction

The method adopts by a country to manage its wastes has substantial long-term
implications for public health, the natural environment and the economy. Thus, it is vital to
encourage an environmentally comprehensive waste treatment and disposal program. Generally,
adequate waste management indicates that the authorities are conscious of the health and
environmental risks and those they support or impose suitable measures to prevent or reduce waste.

Waste treatment is done for 2 purposes, that is to recuperate useful materials and to prepare
the waste for disposal. Treatment preceding to disposal may include eliminating the waste volume
or reducing, immobilizing or neutralizing the harmful properties of waste. The treatment of
hazardous waste can be undertaken by chemical, physical, biological, and thermal means.

Steps that should be taken to design the waste treatment strategies of a styrene monomer
production plant are:

 Identify the possible waste generated from a styrene monomer plant, which can be
performed by identifying the output of each major equipment in the process
 Identify and highlight the associated environmental laws and regulations concerning waste
management, either to be composted, recycled or even re-incinerated which is in line with
the regulated laws
 Identify the waste properties such as its flammability, toxicity level, environmental effects,
physical state, and its disposal to best comprehend and decide on its treatment technique.
Plant maintenance which will generate waste should be considered in this step as well.

6.2 Laws and Regulation Limits

Per the environmental assessment (EA) process based on the country regulation and the
Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, the emission level selected must be justified in
EA and acceptable to the World Bank Group. In Malaysia, no national emission limits or rules are
fixed for styrene monomer production plants. The values are subjected to the negotiations between
contractors and the authorities responsible for granting licenses (L.o. Malaysia, 2015).

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All industries in Malaysia must comply with the law and regulations stated in the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974) which consists of:

 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978


 Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009
 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulation 2005
 Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences) Regulation 1978
 Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulation 1977

6.2.1 Gaseous Waste Limit

Per Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978, the limit of gaseous wastes to be
abided is as shown in table below:

Table 6.2.1: Gaseous waste limit abiding Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978

Substance emitted Regulation Standards


Dark smoke 14 Ringelmann Chart No. 1
Standard A: 0.6
Solid particles 25 Standard B: 0.5
Standard C: 0.4

6.2.2 Liquid Waste Limit

Per Regulation of Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluent) Regulation


2009; no person shall discharge industrial effluent, investigated per Regulation 7, which contains
materials in concentrations greater than the limits of (Department of Environment Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, 2010):

 Standard A, as shown in the third column of the Third Schedule, into any inland waters
within the areas specified; or
 Standard B, as shown in the fourth column of the Third Schedule, into any other inland
waters or Malaysian water.

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Below are the standards of the parameters allowed of sewage discharge for Standard A and B.

Table 6.2.2: Acceptable Conditions of Sewage Discharge for Standards A and B

Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B


Temperature °C 40 40
pH value - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD at 20°C mg/l 20 50
COD mg/l 120 200
Suspended solid mg/l 50 100
Oil and Grease Mg/l 1 10

6.2.3 Solid Waste Limit

Per Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulation 2005 which was implemented
on 2015, sludge and spent catalyst are considered as scheduled wastes which they need cautious
attention in handling them. Scheduled waste will be treated at prearranged premises or at on-site
treatment facilities only.

Table 6.3: Categories of Scheduled Waste


Category Type of Scheduled Waste
SW 1 Metal and metal-bearing wastes
SW 2 Waste containing principally inorganic constituents which may contain
metals and organic materials

SW 3 Waste containing principally organic constituents which may contain


metals and inorganic materials
SW 4 Waste which may contain either inorganic or organic constituents
SW 5 Other wastes

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6.3 Waste Identification

Table 6.3 a: Composition in 3-Phase Separator


No. Source of Waste Stream No. Composition
1 3-Phase Separator 36,37 Stream 36- Benzene, Ethylene, Ethylbenzene
13-E-BZ, Toluene, CO2, H2O, H2, Styrene

Stream 37- Water and CO2

Table 6.3 b: Components in Stream 36 and 37 from 3-phase separator


Component Stream 36(kgmole/h) Stream 37(kgmole/h)
Benzene 9.67 0
Ethylene 0 0
Ethylbenzene 4.17 0
13-E-BZ 0 0
Toluene 2.06 0
CO2 90.34 0.33
CO 0 0
Methane 0 0
H2O 44.25 6272.86
H2 563.14 0.01
Styrene 8.62 0

6.4 Waste Treatment Strategy

6.4.1 Waste Gas Treatment

For gas waste, the treatment can be done by using a scrubber. Scrubbers are air pollution
control instruments that use liquid to remove particulate matter or gases from an industrial flue gas
source. This atomized liquid (typically water) removes particles and pollutant gases to efficiently
scrub them out of the gas flow. Furthermore, when comparing scrubber to other air pollution
control instruments, scrubbers are very versatile, with the ability to remove solids, mists, and gases
concurrently while also offering cooling. They are also capable of handling explosive and
flammable gases securely. However, scrubbers suffer from high quantities of corrosion and yield
slurry waste streams which are not so convenient for recycling and disposal (Gas Scrubber and
Chemical Scrubbers, n.d.)

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Figure 6.4.1: Treatment of gas wastes in gas scrubber

6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment

Minimal treatment is mainly required at the water stream flowing away from the gas
scrubber while the stream 37 containing mainly water which is safe to discharge immediately to
the environment as per DOE requirements (Burton et al., 2013).

They are mainly a few stages in wastewater treatment. They are:

Table 6.4.2: Wastewater Treatment Stages

Treatment Stage Function


The main function is to remove huge particles such
Preliminary treatment
as suspended solids, oils and grease.
Chemical treatment is used to remove the toxicity
Primary Treatment
of the water as well as heavy metals and solids
Mainly is to remove major organic particles and
Secondary Treatment
biodegradable materials
Removal of dissolved and remaining materials
Tertiary treatment
after the secondary treatment.

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6.4.2.1 Preliminary Treatment

i. Screening

The raw wastewater from the three-phase separator and gas scrubber unit would be
screened to eliminate the bigger solids found in the influent before inflowing the treatment unit. It
is crucial to remove the larger solids in the wastewater since it has high likelihood to damage
consequent process equipment which resulting in reduce in process reliability and effectiveness.
In this styrene plant, fine screen is selected as screener to eliminate small inert solids where the
material left in the fine screen is washed and compressed for disposal to landfill. Static wedge wire
screen type is preferred in this stage due to its easy maintenance and commonly installed in
wastewater treatment plant for industrial application. This fine screener is operated at an opening
of 0.2 to 1.2 mm with the designated flowrate is alternating from 400 to 1200 L/m2-min. The wedge
wire screen consists of small, stainless steel wedge shaped bars with the flat part of the wedge
facing the flow which is crucial to eradicate the small contaminant in the wastewater (Metcalf &
Eddy, 2003).

ii. Grit Removal

The grit comprises of sand, oil, gravel or cinders which is primarily inert and dry material.
This material will be removing in the grit removal where it is deposited in the long channels or
circular traps. The grit dumping will be transported to the landfill along with other solids left.

iii. Equalization Tank

The flow of wastewater from the grit removal will be canal into the equalization tank for
evaluation, of the flowrate of wastewater before entering the primary treatment. The focal purpose
of equalization tank is to equalize and dilute the inlet water where alkali and acid is added into this
tank to control the pH to optimum range so that the bacteria are not affected in the biological
treatment area. In addition, the equalization tank also, important in preventing the shock loading
inlet water with high level of organic matter. If the inlet water contains high level of COD means

139
high level of organic matter, the water can be diverted to holding pond to reduce the level before
its flowed back in wastewater treatment plant.

6.4.2.2 Primary Treatment

The main function of primary treatment in this styrene plant is to remove highly toxic
compounds, heavy solids and metals. To remove this highly toxic material such as 13-E-BZ,
ethylbenzene and styrene in wastewater, the most common method used in this treatment is
coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation in CFS tank before being passed into secondary
treatment for further process.

The main function of CFS tank is to remove all suspended solids in the wastewater
Coagulation is the deterioration of colloids with addition of chemical to neutralize the negative
charges of suspended solids. Cationic salts such as aluminium ions and iron (III) ions is added into
the tank along with rapid mixing for dispersion. Next, the destabilized colloidal particles with
diameter of 5 to 200 nanometers in wastewater will undergo flocculation process where it will
agglomerate to form larger particle known as flocks. Lastly, the flocks will be detached from the
wastewater through sedimentation process where the suspended solids are settled because of
gravity. This process requires adequate density difference between flocks and water. The sludge
and will be send it to sludge treatment facility.

6.4.2.3 Secondary Treatment

The secondary treatment is a common biological treatment used in this stage is activated
sludge and secondary clarifiers before it is flowed into the advanced treatment.

i. Aeration Tank

The activated sludge is a practice whereby the wastewater and biological organisms are
combined and undergo ventilation and agitation. The term of “activated sludge” signifies a
biological mass formed when oxygen in the air is forced into wastewater to develop biological
flocks that help in reducing the organic content in wastewater. Furthermore, a certain amount of
activated sludge is returned to the aeration known as return sludge to guarantee high growth of

140
microbes to disintegrate the organic matter in the wastewater. This process aides in reducing the
cost of culturing new bacteria for continuous treatment.

ii. Secondary Clarifier

The key function of clarifier is to clarify the treated water from aeration tank into solids
(sludge) and discharged water. The wastewater from the aeration tank will flow to the clarifier
following the gravitational force. A share of the sludge is then recycled to the aeration tank to
sustain the absorption of organism known as Return Activated Sludge (RAS) and a quantity of
waste known as Waste Activated Sludge (WAS).

6.4.2.4 Tertiary Treatment

Activated Carbon Filter (ACF)

Lastly, the wastewater will be treated using Activated Carbon Filter ACF purpose is to
eradicate the Total Suspended Solids from the wastewater to make sure the water discharged into
the river are at the safe level by the DOE.

Figure 6.4.2.4: Proposed wastewater treatment strategy for styrene plant

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6.4.3 Solid Waste Processing and Handling

The solid wastes produced from the process are sent to the designated premise for solid
waste treatment process. In this styrene plant, all solid waste is sent to Kualiti Alam Sdn.Bhd.
Before the solid wastes are transferred to the treatment facility, it is package and labelled correctly
to be easily identified. We need to ensure that scheduled wastes generated by the plant are properly
stored and delivered to and received at prescribed premises for treatment, disposal or recovery of
the scheduled waste. The generator in charge of waste must ensure that the scheduled waste that
are exposed to movement or transfer be packaged, labelled and transported in. There are certain
rules to be followed based on the stated regulations by DOE which are shown below:

6.4.3.1 Storage of Scheduled Wastes

i. Scheduled waste shall be stored in containers which are compatible with the scheduled
wastes to be stored, durable and which can prevent spillage or leakage of the scheduled
wastes into the environment.
ii. Incompatible scheduled waste shall be stored in separate containers, and such containers
shall be placed in separate secondary containment areas.
iii. Containers containing scheduled wastes shall always be closed during storage except when
it is necessary to add, or remove the scheduled wastes.
iv. Area for the storage of the containers shall be designed, constructed and maintained.

6.4.3.2 Labelling of Scheduled Waste

i. Labelling must contain the important information such as date of generated, name, address
and telephone number of the waste generator and shall be clearly labelled on the containers
that are used to store the waste
ii. Shall be clearly labelled with their scheduled waste code in accordance to First Schedule and
potential hazards label as comply with Third Schedule.
iii. All obsolete marks and labels must be removed or erased.

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6.4.3.3 Packaging

i. Packaging must be robust, which it can withstand normal chemical reaction, and
ii. capable of withstanding transportation by lorries or trucks.
iii. Packaging must be leak-proof.
iv. Container must not be weakened by bulging, corrosion or tear.

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CHAPTER 7: PROCESS ECONOMICS & COST ESTIMATION

7.1 Introduction

The establishment of a profitable and feasible plant is made possible with a good economic
evaluation whereby the economic potentials of the plant will be assessed. The output acquired
from the economic evaluation enables the investors to better evaluate their decision-making
pertaining to the acceptance or rejection of the proposal. A project’s profitability is assessed based
on two important criteria namely the product cost as well as the cost of investment. Financial
planning is especially crucial in the development of a plant since its basis revolves around making
the right profit for the plant. Detailed and accurate cost estimation need to be performed by taking
into account all the contributing aspects including process equipment, raw material consumptions,
operating labor as well as capital investment, cost needed for manufacturing purpose, local taxes
and general expenses. The computation of discounted cash flow is performed following the cost
estimation process in order to evaluate the feasibility of the plant besides serving as a tool and
indicator of the plant’s payback period. The cost which is associated with the plant process is
comprised of

 Total process equipment cost


 Estimation of fixed capital cost
 Estimation of production cost
 Cash flow analysis

The total amount of cash inflow for this styrene monomer plant with the production
capacity of 231975.15 mt/year must be sustained at a high value in order to compensate for all the
cash outflow, thus hindering incurred losses at the end of this project. This chapter outlines the
rapid cost estimate as well the detailed estimate of the production of styrene monomers and the
calculations performed in United States Dollar (USD/$) and subsequently converted to Malaysian
Ringgit (MYR/RM) with the conversion rate of $1=RM 4.20. This plant is assumed to operate for
330days/year with a lifetime of 15 years.

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7.2 Economic Potential Analysis

The economic potential (EP) analysis is done to evaluate the preliminary profitability of
styrene monomer production. The economic potential can be calculated as follow: The cost of raw
materials which are ethylene and benzene and the cost of product namely styrene is taken as the
basis to compute the economic potentials. The formulas of economic potential 1, 2 and 3 are shown
in the following respectively:

Economic Potential 1= Product Value – Raw Material Cost (RM)


Economic Potential 2 = Product Value + By-product Value – Raw Material Cost (RM)
Economic Potential 3 = Economic Potential 2 – Utilities Cost (RM)

The latest market price of the chemicals used in the styrene monomer plants are acquired
from reliable reference source as to ensure the precision of the economic analysis performed. The
consumption of raw materials per year is calculated as follow:

Ethylene:
350 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 330 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 28.05 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛
× × × × = 77754.6
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Benzene:
350 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟i𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 330 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 78.11 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛
× × × × = 216520.92
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Table 7.2 a: Consumption of Raw Materials


Raw Molecular Weight Consumption
Materials (kg/kmol) (kmol/hr) (mt/year)
Ethylene 28.05 350.00 77754.60
Benzene 78.11 350.00 216520.92

The cost of raw materials per year can be calculated as follow:

𝑈𝑆𝐷 4.2 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑚𝑡 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑀𝑌𝑅


Ethylene = 1000 𝑚𝑡
× 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷
×77754.6 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 326,569,320 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= 326.57 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

145
𝑈𝑆𝐷 4.2 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑚𝑡 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑀𝑌𝑅
Benzene = 740 × ×216520.92 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 672,947,019.40 = 672.95 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑚𝑡 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Raw material cost = Ethylene + Benzene


𝑀𝑌𝑅
= (326.57 + 672.95) 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑀𝑌𝑅
= 999.52 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Table 7.2 b: Total Cost of Raw Materials


Consumption Price
Raw Materials Cost (RM/year)
(mt/year) (USD/mt) (RM/mt)
Ethylene 77754.60 1000.00 4200.00 326,569,320.00
Benzene 216520.92 740.00 3108.00 672,947,019.40
Total 999,516,339.40

The production of styrene per year can be calculated as follow:


281.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 330 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 104.16 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛
× 3
× × × = 231975.1526
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 10 𝑘𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
The production of by-product toluene per year can be calculated as follow:
17.2358 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 330 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 92.14 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛
× 3
× × × = 12577.8044
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 10 𝑘𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Table 7.2 c: Production of Styrene and By-product


Raw Molecular Weight Production
Materials (kg/kmol) (kmol/hr) (mt/year)
Styrene 104.16 281.2000 231975.1526
Toluene 92.14 17.2358 12577.8044

The cost of product (styrene) and by-product (toluene) per year can be calculated as follow:

𝑈𝑆𝐷 4.2 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑚𝑡 𝑀𝑌𝑅


Styrene = 1250 × ×231975.15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 1,217.869 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑡 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑈𝑆𝐷 4.2 𝑀𝑌𝑅 𝑚𝑡 𝑀𝑌𝑅
Toluene = 631.50 × ×216520.92 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 33.36 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑚𝑡 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷

146
Product and by-product cost = Styrene + Toluene
𝑀𝑌𝑅
= (1,217.869 + 33.36) 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑀𝑌𝑅
= 1,251.23 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Table 7.2 d: Estimated Production of Styrene and By-product


Consumption Price
Raw Materials Cost (RM /year)
(mt/year) (USD/mt) (RM/mt)
Styrene 231975.1526 1250.00 5250.00 1,217,869,551.15
Toluene 12577.8044 631.50 2652 33,360,110.61
Total 1,251,229,662.00

7.2.1 Utility Cost

Table 7.2.1 a shows the tariff rates for high voltage industries during peak and off-peak
period provided by Tenaga Nasional Berhad. This serves as the reference for the tariff rates of
industries in Kemaman, Terengganu.

Table 7.2.1 a: Tariff Rates for High Voltage Industries


Tariff E3 - High Voltage Peak/Off-Peak Industrial Tariff
Tariff category Rates
For all kWh during the peak period 33.70 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period 20.20 sen/kWh

Table 7.2.1 b: Summary of GTE plant Utilities Energy Consumption


Utilities Usage Before HI Total Cost (RM/h)
Cold 141656.1 kW/h 47,738.11 (Peak period)
28,614.53 (Off-peak period)
Hot 65823 kW/h 22,182.35(Peak period)
13,296.25(Off-peak period)

147
Total 69,920.46(Peak period)
41,910.78(Off-peak period)

7.2.1.1 Cost of Utilities before Heat Integration

During peak period (8AM – 5PM):


8 hours MYR
RM 69,920.46 × = 559,363.68
day day
During off peak period (6PM – 8AM):
16 hours MYR
RM 41,910.78× = 670,572.48
day day
million
Total cost for a year = 1.23 ×330 days of assumed operation
day
million
= 405.88 year

Table 7.2.1 c: Summary of GTE plant Utilities Energy Consumption


Utilities Usage Before HI Total Cost (RM)
Cold 91366.9 30,790.65(Peak period)
18,456.11(Off-peak period)
Hot 15535.1 5,235.33(Peak period)
3,138.09(Off-peak period)
Total 36,025.97(Peak period)
21,594.20(Off-peak period)

7.2.1.2 Cost of Utilities after Heat Integration

During peak period (8AM – 5PM):


8 hours MYR
RM 36,025.97 × = 288,207.79
day day
During off peak period (6PM – 8AM):
16 hours MYR
RM 21,594.20× = 345,507.264
day day

148
MYR
Total cost for a year = 633,715.056 ×330 days of assumed operation
day
million
= 209.13 year

The economic potentials of styrene monomers plant are assessed by taking into account the
sales revenue of the plant and the total capital investment in acquiring the raw materials. With that,
an insight into the gross earnings of the styrene monomer plant will be gained from the economic
analysis. The economic potentials calculated for the plant which is assumed to operate 330 days
per annum with 30 days of shutoff are summarized in Table 7.2.1 d. As the implementation of heat
integration leads to huge saving in the overall cost as indicated by the improved economic potential
3 after heat integration compared to before heat integration, it is recommended that the process of
this plant is to be carried out with heat integration.

million million
EP 1 = (1,217.87 − 999.52) = 218.35
year year
million million
EP 2 = (1,251,23 − 999.52) = 251.71
year year
million million
EP 3 (Before HI) = (251.71 − 405.88) = −154.17
year year
million million
EP 3 (After HI) = (251.71 − 209.13) = 42.58
year year

Table 7.2.1 d: Summary of Economic Potential for Styrene Monomer Production Plant
Economic Analysis
EP 1 Formula Styrene – Raw Material
EP 1 Value (RM million/year) 218.35
EP 2 Formula Styrene + Toluene – Raw Material
EP 2 Value (RM million/year) 251.71
EP 3 Formula EP 2 – Cost of Utilities
EP 3 Value 1 (RM million/year) Before HI -154.17
EP 3 Value 2 (RM million/year) After HI 42.58

149
From the economic analysis performed through the computation of economic potentials
1,2 and 3 respectively, it can be deduced that the establishment and operation of styrene monomers
plant in Malaysia which utilizes ethylene and benzene as the raw materials is economically feasible
and beneficial.

7.3 Capital Investment

Capital investment is defined as the amount of expenditure needed to build the plant and
subsequently putting the plant into operation. It is equivalent to the sum of fixed capital investment
as well as the working capital. Fixed capital investment is expressed as the cost required to
construct the plant as well as equipping the plant with required manufacturing facilities. It is
constituted of two contributing components which are manufacturing as direct cost and
nonmanufacturing as indirect cost. On the other hand, working capital encompasses the necessities
for the normal plant operation. It includes the cost of raw materials and intermediates used in the
production process and the finished product inventories.

7.3.1 Capital Investment Estimation

The approximation of the capital cost of chemical process plants is performed by estimating
the purchased cost of equipment for the designed process while the gauging of other costs can be
done as factors of the equipment cost (Sinnott, 2005). Peters & Timmerhaus stated that the
accuracy of the estimation method based on the knowledge pertaining to the major equipment
items is estimated up to 25%. This is attributed to the incomplete characterizations constituting the
correlations making up the cost equations as well as the market conditions, qualities of construction
and the variations among manufacturers. The capital cost of

7.3.2 Purchased Equipment

The cost of purchased equipment including distillation column, heat exchangers, coolers,
packed bed reactors, mixer and storage tanks are approximated using the purchased and installed
cost of equipment equations which utilize the information pertaining to general dimensions of

150
equipment such as diameter, height and heat exchange area. Marshall and Swift equipment cost
index (M&S) of year 2011 is employed to perform the estimation of purchased equipment cost.
The value of M& S is 1536.5 during 2011.Table 7.4.10 b shows the cost of all purchased equipment
needed for the styrene monomer production plant.

7.3.2.1 Distillation Column

Installed Cost ($) = (M&S/280)(97.2D1.55 HFC )

Fc = Fm + Ft

where
𝐷 = diameter (m)
𝐻 = height (m)

Table 7.3.2 a: Material Factor for Distillation Column


Trays 𝑭𝒕
Sieve trays 1.0
Bubble cap 1.8
Complicated trays 3.0

Table 7.3.2 b: Material Factor for Distillation Column


Material 𝐅𝐦
Carbon steel 1.0
Stainless steel 1.7

Table 7.3.2 c: Cost of Distillation Columns

DC Remarks D (m) Stages H (m) 𝑭𝒕 𝑭𝒎 𝑭𝒄 Installed Installed


cost, $ cost, RM
1 T-101 1.168 77 55.31 1.0 1.7 2.7 101331.54 425592.47

151
2 T-102 1.168 77 55.31 1.0 1.7 2.7 101331.54 425592.47
3 T-103 1.473 72 37.26 1.0 1.7 2.7 97805.14 410781.59
4 T-104 1.473 72 37.26 1.0 1.7 2.7 97805.14 410781.59
Total cost of distillation column 1672748.12

7.3.2.2 Heat Exchanger

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 Fc )

Installed cost ($) =(M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 )(2.29 + Fc )

Fc = Fm (Fd + Fp )

where
A = heat exchanger area in m2 (20 < A < 500 m2 /shell)
Fm = correction factor for material
Fd = correction factor for design type
Fp = correction factor for design pressure

Table 7.3.2 d: Material Factors of Shell & Tubes Heat Exchanger


Shell/tubes CS/CS CS/Brass CS/Monel CS/SS SS/SS Monel/Monel CS/Titanium
Fm 1.0 1.30 2.15 2.81 3.75 4.25 8.95

Table 7.3.2 e: Correction Factors for Shell & Tubes Heat Exchanger
Design type 𝐅𝐝 Design pressure, bar 𝐅𝐩
Kettle reboiler 1.35 < 10 0.0
Floating head 1.00 20 0.10
U-tube 0.85 30 0.25
Fixed tube sheet 0.80 60 0.52
75 0.55

152
Table 7.3.2 f: Cost of Heat Exchangers
Heat
Heat exchange Purchased Installed Total cost Total cost
𝐅𝐦 𝐅𝐝 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐜
exchanger area, A cost ($) cost ($) ($) (RM)
(𝐦𝟐 )
1 44.53 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 43007.68 113355.97 156363.65 656727.33
2 32.58 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 35102.66 92520.58 127623.24 536017.59
3 30.23 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 33435.41 88126.18 121561.58 510558.64
4 36.87 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 38041.65 100266.92 138308.57 580895.99
5 33.19 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 46187.01 104301.44 150488.45 632051.49
6 27.89 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 31729.51 83629.92 115359.42 484509.58
7 29.74 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 33082.13 87195.04 120277.16 505164.08
Total Cost of Heat Exchanger 3905924.70

7.3.2.3 Cooler

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 Fc )


Installed cost ($) =(M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 )(2.29 + Fc )
Fc = Fm (Fd + Fp )
where
A = heat exchanger area in m2 (20 < A < 500 m2 /shell)
Fm = correction factor for material
Fd = correction factor for design type
Fp = correction factor for design pressure

Table 7.3.2 g: Material Factors of Cooler


Shell/tubes CS/CS CS/Brass CS/Monel CS/SS SS/SS Monel/Monel CS/Titanium
Fm 1.0 1.30 2.15 2.81 3.75 4.25 8.95

Table 7.3.2 h: Correction Factors for Cooler


Design type 𝐅𝐝 Design pressure, bar 𝐅𝐩
Kettle reboiler 1.35 < 10 0.0
Floating head 1.00 20 0.10
U-tube 0.85 30 0.25
Fixed tube sheet 0.80 60 0.52
75 0.55

153
Table 7.3.2 i: Cost of Coolers
Heat
Remarks exchange Purchased Installed Total cost Total cost
Cooler 𝐅𝐦 𝐅𝐝 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐜
area, A cost ($) cost ($) ($) (RM)
(𝐦𝟐 )
1 C-101 18.64 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 31743.51 71684.53 103428.04 434397.77
2 C-102 16.55 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 29382.17 66352.04 95734.21 402083.68
3 C-103 17.89 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 30907.36 69796.29 100703.64 422955.30
Total Cost of Cooler 1259436.75

7.3.2.4 Heater

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 Fc )


Installed cost ($) =(M&S/280)(474.7 A0.65 )(2.29 + Fc )
Fc = Fm (Fd + Fp )
where
A = heat exchanger area in m2 (20 < A < 500 m2 /shell)
Fm = correction factor for material
Fd = correction factor for design type
Fp = correction factor for design pressure

Table 7.3.2 j: Material Factors of Heater


Shell/tubes CS/CS CS/Brass CS/Monel CS/SS SS/SS Monel/Monel CS/Titanium
Fm 1.0 1.30 2.15 2.81 3.75 4.25 8.95

Table 7.3.2 k: Correction Factors for Heater


Design type 𝐅𝐝 Design pressure, bar 𝐅𝐩
Kettle reboiler 1.35 < 10 0.0
Floating head 1.00 20 0.10
U-tube 0.85 30 0.25
Fixed tube sheet 0.80 60 0.52
75 0.55

154
Table 7.3.2 l: Cost of Heaters
Heater Remarks Heat 𝐅𝐦 𝐅𝐝 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐜 Purchased Installed Total Total cost
exchange cost ($) cost ($) cost ($) (RM)
area, A
(𝐦𝟐 )
1 H-101 27.88 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 64166.17 41,238.75 93,127.06 134365.81
2 H-102 25.34 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 61971.03 38,756.04 87,520.52 126276.56
3 H-103 29.08 1.0 0.85 0.55 1.82 63207.51 42,383.96 95,713.22 138097.18
Total Cost of Heater 1674706.12

7.3.2.5 Compressor

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(664.1 P 0.82 Fc )(Fc )


where P = power of the compressors in kW

Table 7.3.2 m: Correction Factor for Compressor


Design type 𝐅𝐜
Centrifugal, motor 1.00
Reciprocating, steam 1.07
Centrifugal, turbine 1.15
Reciprocating, motor 1.29
Reciprocating, gas engine 1.82

Table 7.3.2 n: Cost of Compressors


Compressor Remarks Power (kW) 𝐅𝐜 Purchased Purchased
cost ($) cost (RM)
1 CP-101 429.71 1 525789.48 2,208,315.81
Total cost of compressor 2,208,315.81

155
7.3.2.6 Packed Bed Reactor

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(957.9 D1.066 H 0.82 Fc )


Installed cost ($) =(M&S/280)(957.9 D1.066 H 0.82 )(2.29 + Fc )
Fp = 1 + 0.0074(P − 3.48) + 0.00023(P − 3.48)2
Fc = Fm Fp

where
both D(diameter) and H(height) are expressed in meter
P is expressed in bar
Fm = correction factor for material
Fp = correction factor for design pressure

Table 7.3.2 o: Material Factors for PBR


Shell material Carbon steel Stainless steel Monel Titanium
Fm clad 1.00 2.25 3.89 4.25
Fm solid 1.00 3.67 6.34 7.89

Table 7.3.2 p: Total Cost of PBR


PBR Remarks Diameter, Height, Pressure, 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐦 𝐅𝐜
m m bar
1 R-101A 3.4 10.49 30 1.36 3.67 4.98
2 R-101B 3.51 10.5 30 1.36 3.67 4.98
3 R-102 3.49 10.62 18 1.16 3.67 4.24
4 R-103 A 3.6 11.25 0.95 0.98 3.67 3.61
5 R-103 B 3.48 11.03 0.65 0.98 3.67 3.60

Purchased cost ($) Installed cost ($) Total cost ($) Total cost (RM)
663522.9825 968398.5451 1631921.528 6854070.416
686967.4436 1002615.268 1689582.712 7096247.388
586637.3271 903305.3406 1489942.668 6257759.204

156
540464.8435 883622.5236 1424087.367 5981166.942
511942.1881 837603.0614 1349545.249 5668090.048
Total cost of packed bed reactors 31857334.00

7.3.2.7 Pump

Purchased cost ($) = (M&S/280)(517.5)(BHP)0.82 Fc


Installed cost ($) =(M&S/280(517.5)(BHP)0.82 (2.11 + Fc )
Fc = Fd
where
BHP = brake horsepower; 30<BHP<10000
Fd = correction factor for design type

Table 7.3.2 q: Correction Factors for Pump


Design type 𝐅𝐝
Centrifugal, motor 1.00
Reciprocating, steam 1.07
Centrifugal, turbine 1.15
Reciprocating, motor 1.29
Reciprocating, gas engine 1.82

Table 7.3.2 r: Cost of Pumps


Pump Remarks Brake 𝐅𝐜 Purchased Installed Total Total cost
Horsepower cost ($) cost ($) cost ($) (RM)
(BHP)
1 P-101 0.0923 1 402.49 1251.73 1654.22 6947.71
2 P-101S 0.0923 1 402.49 1251.73 1654.22 6947.71
3 P-102 0.1336 1 545.06 1695.14 2240.21 9408.87
4 P-102S 0.1336 1 545.06 1695.14 2240.21 9408.87
5 P-103 0.081 1 361.61 1124.61 1486.22 6242.14
6 P-103S 0.081 1 361.61 1124.61 1486.22 6242.14

157
7 P-104 0.0499 1 243.07 755.94 999.01 4195.84
8 P-104S 0.0499 1 243.07 755.94 999.01 4195.84
9 P-105 0.0622 1 291.20 1196.84 1196.84 5026.71
10 P-105S 0.0622 1 291.20 1196.84 1196.84 5026.71
Total cost of pump 63642.53

7.3.2.8 Mixer

Ce = CS n
where Ce= purchased equipment cost, $
C= cost constant
S= characteristic size parameter
n= index for that type of equipment

Table 7.3.2 s: Cost Factor for Mixer


Equipment Size unit, S Size Range Constant, C ($) Index,n
Mixer Power, kW 5-75 3000 0.5

Table 7.3.2 t: Cost of Mixers


Mixer Remarks Size, S Constant, C Index, n Purchased Purchased
cost ($) cost (RM)
1 M-101 9.71 3000 0.5 9348.262 39262.7
2 M-102 11.02 3000 0.5 9958.916 41827.45
3 M-103 12.55 3000 0.5 10627.79 44636.73
4 M-104 7.58 3000 0.5 8259.54 34690.07
5 M-105 10.88 3000 0.5 9895.45 41560.9
6 M-106 9.49 3000 0.5 9241.75 38815.36
Total cost of mixer 240793.21

158
7.3.2.9 Splitter

Ce = CS n

where Ce= purchased equipment cost, $


C= cost constant
S= characteristic size parameter
n= index for that type of equipment

Table 7.3.2 u: Cost Factor for Splitter


Equipment Size unit, S Size Range Constant, C ($) Index,n
Splitter Power, kW 5-75 3000 0.5

Table 7.3.2 v: Cost of Splitters


Splitter Remarks Size, S Constant, Index, n Purchased Purchased
C cost ($) cost (RM)
1 S-101 6 3000 0.5 7868.926 33049.49
2 S-102 9 3000 0.5 9232.01 38774.44
3 S-103 11 3000 0.5 10248.41 43043.34
Total cost of splitter 114867.3

7.3.2.10 Storage Tank

The storage tank is calculated by using the equation based on the storage capacity and types of
equipment chose (Ulrich, 1984).

C = Fm exp[11.662 − 0.61041(ln V) + 0.045368 (ln V) 2 ]


where 21,000 < V < 11,000,000 gal
Fm = 2.4 for stainless steel

159
Table 7.3.2 w: Cost of Storage Tanks
Usage/production Volume, V
Storage Purchased Purchased
Remarks
tank 𝐠𝐚𝐥 cost ($) cost (RM)
𝐦𝟑 /𝐝𝐚𝐲 𝐠𝐚𝐥/𝐝𝐚𝐲
𝟕 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬
1 Ethylene 25.6215 6768.48 47379.36 47379.36 198993.312
2 Benzene 30.9894 8186.53 57305.71 80464.88 337952.496
3 Styrene 32.1933 8504.57 59531.99 81655.66 342953.772
Total Cost of Storage Tank 879899.58

Table 7.3.2 x: Purchased Cost Equipment


Equipment Amount Purchased Cost of
Equipment (RM)
Heat exchanger 7 3,905,924.70
Heater 3 1,674,706.12
Cooler 3 1,259,436.75
Distillation column 6 1,672,748.12
Three phase separator 1 631,180.00
Packed bed reactor 5 31,857,334.00
Pump 10 63,642.53
Compressor 1 2,208,315.81
Mixer 6 240,793.21
Splitter 3 114,867.3
Storage tank 3 879,899.58
Total 44,508,848.12

All of the cost of major and minor equipment installed for the styrene monomer production
plant is computed as shown in Table 7.4.10 b and the total purchased cost of equipment is RM
44,508,848.12 with the currency rate of $ 4.20 to RM 1. The purchased cost of equipment (PCE)
can be used to calculate the fixed capital investment and the working capital.

160
7.3.3 Fixed Capital Investment

In order to estimate the fixed capital investment more accurately, individual consideration
of the cost factors compounded into “Lang factor” is done whereby the contribution of respective
direct cost items to the total capital cost is computed through the multiplication of the total amount
of purchased cost equipment (PCE) with an appropriate factor to obtain the physical plant cost
(PPC). Subsequently, the fixed capital cost is acquired by multiplying physical plant cost with
factors accounting for indirect cost items. The calculation of the fixed capital investment for both
the direct and indirect cost items are listed in Table 7.5.1 a and Table 7.5.1 b respectively.

Table 7.3.3 a: Typical Factors of CAPEX’s Direct Cost Items


Item Process type (Fluids)
f1 Equipment erection 0.4
f2 Piping 0.7
f3 Instrumentation 0.2
f4 Electrical 0.1
f5 Buildings, process 0.15
f6 Utilities 0.5
f7 Storages 0.15
f8 Site development 0.05
f9 Ancillary buildings 0.15
Total 2.40

Total physical plant cost, PPC = PCE (1+f1 + … +f9)


= RM 44,508,848.12 (1+2.40)
=RM 151,330,083.60

161
Table 7.3.3 b: Typical Factors of CAPEX’s Indirect Cost Items
Item Process type (Fluids)
f10 Design and Engineering 0.3
f11 Contractor’s Fee 0.05
f12 Contingency 0.1
Total 0.45

Fixed capital cost = PPC (1+f10+f11+f12)


= RM 151,330,083.6 (1+0.45)
= RM 219,428,621.20

7.3.4 Working Capital

Working capital is defined as the supplemental capital required, over and above the fixed
capital, to begin operating the plant up to the stage in which profit is acquired. Sinnott (2005)
stated that the working capital of a project is computed as 15% of the total fixed capital cost.

Working capital = Fixed capital cost x 0.15


= RM 219,428,621.2 x 0.15
= RM 32,914,293.18

7.3.5 Total Capital Investment

Sinnott (2005) indicated that the the capital investment of a plant is the sum of direct,
indirect cost as well as working capital.

CAPEX = Working capital + Fixed capital

= RM 32,914,293.18 + RM 219,428,621.20

= RM 253,342,914.4

162
7.4 Annual Operating Expenditure (OPEX)

According to Peter & Timmerhaus (2003), the approximation of the total operating costs,
also known as annual operating expenditure consist of three major contributing aspects including:

i) Fixed charges which indicates expenses that are remain relatively constant throughout the
operation period and are independent of the rate of production of the plant.
ii) Variable production cost which is the cost directly associated with the manufacturing
operation.
iii) Plant overhead cost which are the expenses similar to the fixed charges which do not vary
despite the changes in the production rate of plant.

7.4.1 Fixed Operating Cost

7.4.1.1 Maintenance and Repairs

According to Sinnott (2005), the maintenance and repair of a plant is calculated as 5 – 10% of the
fixed capital investment. The factor of 10% is assumed for this styrene monomer plant.

Maintenance and repair cost = 0.1 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)

= 0.1 x RM 219,428,621.20

= RM 21,942,862.12

7.4.1.2 Operating Supplies

Douglas (1988) stated that the rough estimation of operating supplies cost is computed as 10% of
the total maintenance and repair cost.

Operating supplies cost = 0.1 x Maintenance and repair cost

= 0.1 x RM 21,942,862.12

= RM 2,194,286.212

163
7.4.1.3 Operating Labor

Peters and Timmerhaus (1991) stated that 40 workers are needed per day in a process plant by
taking into account the basis of the typical labour requirements for process equipment whereby 2
working shifts are implemented and 10 workers/day are required for each shift. This is equivalent
to 20 workers/day. According to Malaysia Industrial Development Authority, MIDA, (2013), a
semi-skilled labourer has salary scheme of approximately USD 463/month.

Operating labor cost = 20 x USD 463/month x 12 months/year x RM4.2/USD

= RM 466,704.00

7.4.1.4 Direct Supervision and Clerical Labour

According to Sinnott (2005), the cost of direct supervision and clerical labour required for a plant
is calculated as 30% of operating labor cost.
Direct supervision and clerical labour cost = 0.3 x Operating labor cost
= 0.3 x RM 466,704
= RM 140,011.20

7.4.1.5 Laboratory Charges

Laboratory charges is estimated to be 20% of the operating labor cost (Sinnott, 2005).
Laboratory charges = 0.2 x Operating labor cost
= 0.2 x RM 466,704
= RM 93,340.80

7.4.1.6 Plant Overheads

Sinnott (2005) indicated that plant overheads can be calculated as 50% of the operating labor cost.
Plant overheads cost = 0.5 x Operating labor cost
= 0.5 x RM 466,704
= RM 233,352.00

164
7.4.1.7 Capital Charges

Sinnott (2005) suggested that capital charges constitute 10% of the fixed capital investment.
Capital charges = 0.1 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= 0.1 x RM 219,428,621.20
= RM 21,942,862.12

7.4.1.8 Local Taxes

Local taxes are estimated to be 2% of the fixed capital investment.


Local taxes = 0.02 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= 0.02 x RM 219,428,621.20
= RM 4,388,572.424

7.4.1.9 Insurance

The insurance of a process plant is estimated to be 1% of the fixed capital investment.


Insurance = 0.01 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= 0.01 x RM 219,428,621.20
= RM 2,194,286.212

7.4.1.10 Royalties and License Fees

Similarly to the insurance cost a process plant, royalties and license fees is computed as 1% of the
fixed capital investment.
Royalties and license fees = 0.01 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= 0.01 x RM 219,428,621.20
= RM 2,194,286.212

The table below summarizes the computation of total fixed operating cost of the styrene monomer
plant.

165
Table 7.4.1: Fixed Operating Cost
Cost Item Method Price, RM/year
Maintenance and Repair 10% of fixed capital investment 21,942,862.12
Operating Supplies 10% of maintenance and repair cost 2,194,286.212
Operating Labor Estimate 20 workers with average 466,704
salary of USD 463/month
Direct Supervision and 30% of operating labor cost 140,011.2
Clerical Labour
Laboratory Charges 20% of operating labor cost 93,340.8
Plant Overheads 50% of operating labor cost 233,352
Capital Charges 10% of fixed capital investment 21,942,862.12
Local Taxes 2% of fixed capital investment 4,388,572.42
Insurance 1% of fixed capital investment 2,194,286.212
Royalties and License Fees 1% fixed capital investment 2,194,286.212
Total fixed operating cost 55,790,563.30

Therefore, total fixed operating cost is RM 55,790,563.30/year.

7.4.2 Variable Operating Cost

Variable operating cost is dependent on the rate of production and includes the cost of raw
materials, miscellaneous and utilities.

7.4.2.1 Cost of Raw Materials

The raw materials for the production of styrene monomers are listed in the table below:

Table 7.4.2 a: Cost of raw materials


Raw Material Consumption ( Consumption Price Price
kg/h) (MT/yr) (USD/mt) (RM/mt) (RM/year)

166
Ethylene 9817.5 77754.60 1000.00 4200.00 326,569,320.00
Benzene 27338.5 216520.92 740.00 3108.00 672,947,019.40
Total raw material cost 999,516,339.40

The raw material cost for styrene monomer plant is approximately estimated to be MYR
999,516,339.40.

7.4.2.2 Miscellaneous Materials

Miscellaneous materials are the materials utilized in the plant operation aside from the raw
materials and maintenance materials. These materials encompass
i) Cleaning material
ii) Accessories and instrument charts
iii) Pipe installation gaskets
iv) Personal protective equipment
The cost of miscellaneous materials is approximated to be 10% of maintenance and repair cost
(Sinnott, 2005).

Miscellaneous materials cost = 0.1 x Maintenance and repair cost


= 0.1 x RM 21,942,862.12
= RM 2,194,286.21

7.4.2.3 Utilities

Utilities are used in the styrene monomer plant for cooling and heating purposes. The cost of
utilities is estimated as 10% of fixed capital investment calculated earlier.
Utilities cost = 0.1 x Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= 0.1 x RM 219,428,621.2’
= RM 21,942,862.12

7.4.2.4 Total Variable Operating Cost

The variable operating cost is the total sum of raw material, miscellaneous materials and

167
utilities cost.
Variable operating cost = Cost of raw material + Cost of Miscellaneous + Cost of utilities
= RM 999,516,339.40 + RM 2,1942,862.12 + RM 21,942,862.12
= RM 1,023,653,487.73
The tabulation of variable operating cost is summarized in Table 7.4.2 b.

Table 7.4.2 b: Variable operating cost


Cost Item Method Price, RM/year
Raw Materials Shown in Table 7.5.5.1 999,516,339.40
Miscellaneous 10% of maintenance and repair cost 2,194,286.21
Utilities 10% of fixed capital investment 21,942,862.12
Total variable operating cost 1,023,653,487.73

Total Direct Operational cost = Variable operating cost + Fixed operating cost
= RM 1,023,653,487.73 + RM 55,790,563.3
= RM 1,079,444,051.03

7.4.3 General Expenses (Indirect Operating Cost)

The general expenses of a plant consist of the administrative costs, distribution and marketing
expenses and expenses for research and development (R&D). The table below shows the tabulation
for the general expenses of the styrene monomer plant.

Table 7.4.3: General expenses


Cost Method Price, RM/year
Administrative cost 10% of operating labor+ maintenance + 2,254,957.732
supervision
Distribution & marketing 10% fixed capital investment 21,942,862.12
Research & development 5% of fixed capital investment 10,971,431.06
General Expenses (Indirect operational cost) 35,169,250.91

168
Thus, the OPEX can be computed as following:
Annual operating expenditure, OPEX = Direct operational cost + Indirect operational cost
= RM 1,079,444,051.03 + RM 35,169,250.91
= RM 1,114,613,301.94

7.5 Estimation of Total Revenue

The revenue generated from the selling of the main product, styrene as well as the by-
product, toluene is the source of cash inflow for the styrene monomer plant. Assuming that the
plant operated for 330 days per year with 30 days of shut-off, the total revenue generated is
calculated using the equation shown below.

𝑀𝑇 𝑀𝑌𝑅
Annual sales revenue = ∑ [𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡(𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)×𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 ( 𝑀𝑇 ]

The total revenue generated for the styrene monomer plant is summarized in Table 7.6.

Table 7.5: Total Revenue


Product Production ( Production Price Price (RM/year)
kg/h) (MT/yr) (USD/mt) (RM/mt)
Styrene 29289.79 231975.1526 1250.00 5250.00 1,217,869,551.15
Toluene 1588.11 12577.8044 631.50 2652 33,360,110.61
Total product revenue 1,251,229,662.00

Therefore, the total annual revenue of the plant is RM 1,251,229,662.00/ year.


Since the total annual revenue of the plant is not equivalent to the gross earning attributed
to the expenditures which must be deducted from the revenue, the gross earning is calculated as
following.
Gross Earning = Total Annual Revenue – Annual Operating Expenditure
= RM 1,251,229,662.00– RM 1,114,613,301.94
= RM 136,616,360.06

169
7.6 Profitability Analysis

Profitability analysis is conducted to determine whether the plant is worth to be invested


in the process of investment decision. The profit expected from the project needs to be conducted
by using a few profitability analyses. There following are the few parameters which can
quantitatively measure the profit with the capital invested:

i. Cash flow income after tax


ii. Payback period
iii. Rate of investment (ROI)
iv. Net present worth (NPW)
v. Rate of return (ROR)
vi. Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
vii. Rate of investment (ROI)
Assumptions:

1. The plant construction period is 3 years


2. The plant life of this project is 15 years
3. The plant operates 330 days a year (7920 hours)
4. The sales income, operating cost and raw materials will be increase by 1.5% per year
5. The income tax per year is 25% of net profit
6. The minimum attractive rate of return (MARR) is 15%
7. The rate of return (ROR) is 25-30%

7.6.1 Start-up Period

Table 7.6.1: Cost estimation of start-up period

Year Cost Estimation Explanation Cost (RM)


1 30% CAPEX Long lead-time items+ Engineering Cost 76,002,874.32
2 60% CAPEX Procurement and construction 152,005,748.64
3 10% CAPEX Remaining construction 25,334,291.44
Total capital investment 253,342,914.4

170
7.6.2 Depreciation

𝐵 − 𝑆𝑉
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐷 =
𝑛
Where,
B- Total capital investment
SV- Salvage value (2% of fixed capital cost)
N- Total plant life

253,342,914.40 − (0.015×219,428,621.20)
𝐷= = 𝑅𝑀16,596,956.13
15

7.6.3 Tabulation of Net Present Worth (NPW)

Net present worth is calculated to determine the total value that could be obtained over a
period. This would help to provide a better understanding and accurate results on the payback
period. The final net present worth is positive value indicate that the project is profitable.
𝑛=𝑡
𝑁𝐹𝑊
𝑁𝑃𝑊 = ∑
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
𝑛=1

Where,
𝑁𝐹𝑊- estimated cash net flow in year n
𝑖- interest rate
𝑡- project life, year

Based on Table 7.7.4, this project can be considered as profitable as the total net present
worth of the project is RM 1,268,528,355 at the end of the project.

171
7.6.4 Cumulative Cash Flow
Table 7.6.4: Cumulative Cash Flow

Annual capital Cash Income Federal Income Net Profit after Net Cash Income
Sales Income Depreciation Total Expenses Accumulation
Year investment A(CI)=A(S)- Taxes Taxes A(NCI)= ANNP -
A(S) A(BD) A(TE) of A(NCI)
(AI) A(TE) A(IT) ANNP=ANP-A(IT) A(BD)
-2 -76,002,874.32 - - - - - - - -76,002,874.32
-1 -152,005,748.64 - - - - - - - -228,008,623
0 -25,334,291.44 - - - - - - - -253,342,914
1 - 1,251,229,662 16,596,956 1,114,613,302 136,616,360 34,154,090 102,462,270 85,865,314 -167,477,600
2 - 1,269,998,107 16,596,956 1,131,332,501 138,665,605 34,666,401 103,999,204 87,402,248 -80,075,353
3 - 1,289,048,079 16,596,956 1,148,302,489 140,745,590 35,186,397 105,559,192 88,962,236 8,886,884
4 - 1,308,383,800 16,596,956 1,165,527,026 142,856,773 35,714,193 107,142,580 90,545,624 99,432,507
5 - 1,328,009,557 16,596,956 1,183,009,932 144,999,625 36,249,906 108,749,719 92,152,763 191,585,270
6 - 1,347,929,700 16,596,956 1,200,755,081 147,174,619 36,793,655 110,380,965 93,784,008 285,369,278
7 - 1,368,148,646 16,596,956 1,218,766,407 149,382,239 37,345,560 112,036,679 95,439,723 380,809,001
8 - 1,388,670,875 16,596,956 1,237,047,903 151,622,972 37,905,743 113,717,229 97,120,273 477,929,274
9 - 1,409,500,938 16,596,956 1,255,603,622 153,897,317 38,474,329 115,422,988 98,826,031 576,755,306
10 - 1,430,643,452 16,596,956 1,274,437,676 156,205,777 39,051,444 117,154,332 100,557,376 677,312,682
11 - 1,452,103,104 16,596,956 1,293,554,241 158,548,863 39,637,216 118,911,647 102,314,691 779,627,373
12 - 1,473,884,651 16,596,956 1,312,957,555 160,927,096 40,231,774 120,695,322 104,098,366 883,725,739
13 - 1,495,992,921 16,596,956 1,332,651,918 163,341,003 40,835,251 122,505,752 105,908,796 989,634,535
14 - 1,518,432,814 16,596,956 1,352,641,697 165,791,118 41,447,779 124,343,338 107,746,382 1,097,380,917
15 - 1,541,209,307 16,596,956 1,372,931,322 168,277,984 42,069,496 126,208,488 109,611,532 1,206,992,449

172
7.6.5 Payback Period

1,400,000,000.00
PAYBACK PERIOD
1,200,000,000.00

1,000,000,000.00
CUMMULATIVE CASH FLOW (RM)

800,000,000.00

600,000,000.00

400,000,000.00

200,000,000.00

0.00
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-200,000,000.00

-400,000,000.00
YEAR

Figure 7.6.5: Graph of Payback Period

The payback period of the styrene production plant is 3 years, and 6 years from the initial
startup. The payback period of this plant is less than 5 years and it is proven that it is profitable to
build the styrene plant.

7.6.6 Rate of Return (ROR)

𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡


𝑅𝑂𝑅 = ×100%
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ×𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

1,206,992,449
𝑅𝑂𝑅 = ×100% = 31.76%
15×253,342,914.40

The ROR=31.76% which is greater than the minimum attractive rate of return
(MARR=15%). Therefore, the project is economically feasible to be built.

173
7.6.7 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)

DFCRR is to determine the present worth earnings. This is to find the interest rate where
the cumulative net present worth is zero at the end of the project. This rate is a measure of the
maximum rate that the project able to pay and break even at the end of the project.
𝑁𝐹𝑊
∑ =0
(1 + 𝑟′)𝑛
1
𝑑𝑛′ =
(1 + 𝑖′)𝑛
where
r’- the discounted cash flow rate of return (per cent/100)
𝑑𝑛′ -discount factor
𝑛′- year of project life which cash flow applies
𝑖′- estimated discounted cash flow rate of return

Figure 7.7.7 shows the cumulative cash flow plot at various discounted rates by trial and
error using data generated from Table 7.7.7. From Figure 7.7.7, the discounted cash flow rate of
return is 15 % where the total cumulative cash flow is break even at the end of the project. The
higher the discount cash flow rate of return indicate the more profitable the project it is.

Figure 7.6.7: Cumulative Cash Flow Plot at Discounted Rates


174
Table 7.6.7: Discounted Cash Flow

Net Cash
Accumulation of Accumulation of Accumulation
Year Income i=10% NPV at 10% i=12% NPV at 12% i=15% NPV at 15%
NPV at 10% NPV at 12% of NPV at 15%
A(NCI)
-2 -82,285,733 -82,285,733 -82,285,733 -82,285,733 -82,285,733 -82,285,733 -82,285,733
-1 -164,571,466 -164,571,466 -246,857,199 -164,571,466 -246,857,199 -164,571,466 -246,857,199
0 -27,428,578 -27,428,578 -274,285,777 -27,428,578 -274,285,777 -27,428,578 -274,285,777
1 -85,792,171 0.91 -77,992,883 -352,278,660 0.89 -76,600,153 -350,885,929 0.87 -74,601,888 -348,887,664
2 -87,841,416 0.83 -72,596,212 -424,874,871 0.80 -70,026,639 -420,912,568 0.76 -66,420,730 -415,308,395
3 89,931,647 0.75 67,566,977 -357,307,894 0.71 64,011,570 -356,900,998 0.66 59,131,518 -356,176,877
4 92,063,682 0.68 62,880,734 -294,427,160 0.64 58,508,134 -298,392,864 0.57 52,637,709 -303,539,168
5 94,238,357 0.62 58,514,605 -235,912,555 0.57 53,473,375 -244,919,489 0.50 46,853,119 -256,686,049
6 96,456,526 0.56 54,447,194 -181,465,361 0.51 48,867,878 -196,051,611 0.43 41,700,818 -214,985,231
7 98,719,059 0.51 50,658,487 -130,806,874 0.45 44,655,489 -151,396,123 0.38 37,112,151 -177,873,081
8 101,026,842 0.47 47,129,767 -83,677,107 0.40 40,803,047 -110,593,075 0.33 33,025,854 -144,847,227
9 103,380,781 0.42 43,843,543 -39,833,564 0.36 37,280,146 -73,312,929 0.28 29,387,270 -115,459,957
10 105,781,798 0.39 40,783,462 949,899 0.32 34,058,908 -39,254,022 0.25 26,147,643 -89,312,314
11 108,230,836 0.35 37,934,248 38,884,146 0.29 31,113,779 -8,140,243 0.21 23,263,485 -66,048,829
12 110,728,855 0.32 35,281,626 74,165,772 0.26 28,421,339 20,281,097 0.19 20,696,015 -45,352,814
13 113,276,834 0.29 32,812,264 106,978,036 0.23 25,960,127 46,241,223 0.16 18,410,652 -26,942,162
14 115,875,773 0.26 30,513,713 137,491,749 0.20 23,710,479 69,951,702 0.14 16,376,567 -10,565,595
15 118,526,690 0.24 28,374,347 165,866,096 0.18 21,654,383 91,606,085 0.12 14,566,277 4,000,682

175
7.7 Recommendations

One of the feasible approaches to reduce the cost of plant is by carrying out the tradeoff
between the energy and capital cost. With that, an economic retrofit of heat exchanger network
can be assured. The maximum heat recovery and subsequently the minimum external heating and
cooling requirements are governed by the value of the minimum temperature difference, ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
The demand for utilities is driven to raise while the overall heat exchange area decreases along
with the increase of ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Figure 7.9 b indicates that the total annual cost is lessened for certain
values of ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 . and the demand for both the utilities as well as heat exchange area vary in a
complex pattern as the minimum temperature difference, ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Thus, the minimum number of
heat exchangers also vary with , ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Therefore, a tradeoff generally exists between the overall
heat exchange area and the amount of heat exchangers with the overall energy consumption of the
network.

The minimum temperature difference used in the current heat exchanger network design is
10℃. The overlapping between the hot composite curve and the cold composite curve changes as
the value of ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 is varied. With that, the minimum heat transfer area required to fulfill the
energy demand in addition to the minimum utility consumption can be determined by calculating
the area under the composite graph curve as indicated in Figure 7.9 b using the equation shown
below. Subsequently, the capital cost of heat exchanger can be calculated since the area of the heat
exchanger is known. Then, the calculation of minimum utility cost is performed where the annual
operating cost of the utility needed can be calculated. The acquisition of both the capital cost and
utility cost enabled the computation of the total cost of heat echanger. The total annual cost is
plotted against varying value of ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 in order to arrive at an optimum ∆T𝑚𝑖𝑛 value. Thus, this
approach enables the determination of optimum heat recovery level.

𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠
1 𝑞𝑗
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∑ ( ∑ )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚,𝑖 ℎ𝑗
𝑖 𝑗
𝑖

where i = ith enthalpy interval


j = jth stream
𝑇𝑙𝑚,𝑖 = Log mean temperature difference in the ith enthaply interval

176
Figure 7.7 a: Enthalpy intervals in composite curves

Figure 7.7 b: Capital energy trade off

177
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

8.1 Conclusion

In a nut shell, the objectives of this design project to produce styrene through an integrated
benzene alkylation and dehydrogenation plant by utilizing RM500 million budget have been
attained. The conceptual design as well as the proposed process design method is found to possess
high viability from both the economic and environmental perspectives.

It is proven that it is feasible to establish a styrene monomer production plant in Malaysia


to meet the surging styrene demand in the Asia Pacific region as a result of rapid growth of the
infrastructure industry which subsequently calls for proportional growth in the styrene production.
Weightage analysis is performed to assess the relevant selection criteria in selecting the optimal
plant location to build the styrene monomer production plant. Telok Kalong Industrial Zone at
Kerteh, Terrenganu is identified as the best location for the set-up of the plant since the location
offers a combination of desirable and captivating facilities including transport utilities and
common utilities and possesses captivating features encompassing raw materials availability and
good climatic conditions.

Styrene production process with raw materials of benzene and ethylene is divided into
alkylation, dehydrogenation, and distillation process. It is of utmost importance to acquire accurate
reaction kinetic information pertaining the conversion and selectivity of ethylene and benzene to
ethyl benzene for alkylation process and ethyl benzene to styrene monomer for dehydrogenation
process. From HYSYS simulation, a conversion rate of 75% of ethyl benzene to styrene monomer
is achieved by acquiring the precise reaction kinetic information. The plant is scaled up to the
targeted throughput capacity using RM 500 million with the information obtained. The styrene
monomer plant is able to achieve its targeted production capacity of 231,975 metric ton per year
with 99.9% purity.

Heat integration and pinch analysis is done to reduce the utility consumption in the
production plant by using HINTS. The total utility is reduced from 207,479 kW to 106,902 kW
where the utility consumption has been reduced by 48.48% after heat integration. Besides, basic
instrumentation and control strategy has been performed in the plant for each stage of the process

178
to ensure the continuous operation of processes at desire operating conditions. The Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram is generated according to PETRONAS Technical Standard (PTS).

In line with the controlled process, HAZOP is conducted to identity any possible risks lie
in this styrene process plant. There are three nodes that are selected based on the process which
contain highly hazardous materials for HAZOP assessment namely: ethylbenzene unit,
ethylbenzene distillation unit and benzene unit. Any possible hazards regarding the process units
are listed and safeguards have been proposed in HAZOP worksheet. Besides, waste treatment
strategy is proposed for styrene plant as there are some wastes components generated from styrene
plant. There are two major forms of wastes identified in the plant: liquid waste and gas waste. Gas
scrubber system is introduced in the plant to remove CO2 and H2 from the vent gas whilst the
wastewater will undergo a few stages of wastewater treatment to remove harmful particles before
discharged.

Economic evaluation of the plant is conducted to determine the profitability of the plant.
The total capital expenditure (CAPEX) and annual operating expenses (OPEX) are determined by
taking into account of every cost items that need to be taking into account in a plant. From the
profitability analysis, it is shown that styrene plant is capable of generating a gross earning of RM
136,616,360 per annum. Profitability analysis also indicates a payback period of 3 years with rate
of return (ROR) at 33.38%.

In conclusion, the proposed process design is found to be economically feasible from the
evaluation of profitability analysis of styrene monomer production through the economic potential
(EP) analysis performed. The styrene plant is designed in a way that it is economically viable for
investment, environmental friendly and well-incorporated with controlled safeguards to produce a
substantial amount of profits over 15 years of plant lifetime.

179
8.2 Recommendations

There are a few recommendations which may be useful for future developments of similar
plant design project which include:

a) Optimization of Equipment
The optimization of equipment involved in the process should be scheduled to be
performed in PDP I instead of PDP II. With earlier exposure to the potential optimizations
of equipment which can be carried out, appropriate improvisations to the flow rates and
operating conditions of respective equipment can be performed which can potentially
increase the production rates of the plant.

b) Access to market analysis reports


Students undertaking PDP I had difficulties in conducting a deep economic analysis since
majority of the styrene market analysis reports available online provide restricted access to
the users whereby only very limited and brief information associated with the styrene
market analysis such as deliverables and report digest are available to general users whom
did not purchase the reports. Students are confined to general information of the important
aspects comprising the economic analysis section and thus unable to provide a
comprehensive and in depth market analysis. UTP IRC subscription to websites which
provide complete financial analysis reports such as IHS Markit and ICIS is highly desirable
to enable students to gain more accurate insights of the production and market demands of
styrene production. With that, students will be more cognizant of the latest economic
potential of the styrene production.

180
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APPENDIX I: HYSYS MAIN FLOWSHEET

187
APPENDIX II: HYSYS MATERIAL STREAMS DATA

188
189
190
191
192
APPENDIX III: BENZENE MSDS

193
194
195
196
197
198
APPENDIX IV: ETHYLENE MSDS

199
200
201
202
203
204
APPENDIX V: STYRENE MSDS

205
206
207
208
209
APPENDIX VI: ETHYLBENZENE MSDS

210
211
212
213
214
APPENDIX VII: TOLUENE MSDS

215
216
217
218
219
220
APPENDIX IX: P&ID

221
222

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