LIFT

The aerodynamic forces of both lift and drag depend on combined effects of many variables.
The important factors being:
𝟏
DYNAMIC PRESSURE (𝟐  𝐕 𝟐 )

 Air stream velocity (V)

 Air density ()

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (𝒄𝒍 or𝒄𝒅 )

 Shape or profile of the surface

 Angle of attack 1

SURFACE AREA(S)

CODITION OF SURFACE

COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS

The relationship of these three factors is expressed as: 𝑭 = 𝑸 𝑪𝑭 𝑺

Where: F = aerodynamic force,

Q = dynamic pressure,
CF = co-efficient of aerodynamic force,
S = surface area

Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (90) to Relative airflow or Flight path of A/C

The aerodynamic force of lift results from the pressure differential between the top and bottom surfaces of
the wing.

𝟏
𝐋=  𝐕 𝟐 𝐂𝐋 𝐒
𝟐
Where:  = DENCITY
V = TAS
C𝐿 = ANGLE OF ATTACK
S = SURFACE AREA

 If any moment weight is constant lift must be constant.

 While generating the required lift force the lee drag is the better. Because the drag must be
balanced by thrust and thrust costs money.
 Lift is generated by a pressure differential pressure between the top and bottom surfaces
of the wing.
 Air gets thinner as altitude increases. if speed of the aircraft through the air kept constant
as altitude increased, the amount of air flowing over the wing in a given time would
decrease – and lift would decreases.
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 For constant lift force as altitude increases TAS has to be increased.

At 40,000ft density is 1/4th of sea level value. So to keep constant lift TAS has to doubled.

At constant lift and dynamic pressure if speed is doubled C𝐿 must be reduced by 1/4th of
previous value.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE:-
The unit of dynamic pressure is 𝑁/𝑚2 and the symbol is Q or q.

 Because air has mass, air in motion must possess kinetic energy. And will exert a force 2
1
per square meter on any object in path. (𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚 𝑉 2 )
 It is called DYNAMIC pressure because the air is moving in the relation to object being
considered, in this case an A/C.
 Dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the air and square of the speed of
the air flowing over the A/C.
𝟏
DYNAMIC PRESSURE = 𝟐 𝝆 𝑽𝟐 N/𝒎𝟐

IF SPEED IS DOUBLED, DYNAMIC PRESSURE WILL BE FOUR TIMES GREATER.

Considering the following at 52 m/s(100kt) with density of 1.225 kg/𝑚3

Dynamic pressure is = 0.5 x 1.225 x 52 x 52 =1656 N/𝒎𝟐 (16.56 hpa)

If speed is doubled then dynamic pressure:

0.5 x 1.225 x 104 x 104 = 6625 N/𝒎𝟐 (66.25 hpa)

If IAS is doubled, TAS will double, and square function would increase dynamic pressure by
factor of four. As the A/C is accelerated, the angle of attack must be decreased so that the 𝐶𝑙
reduces to one quarter of its previous value to maintain a constant lift force.
𝑰𝑨𝑺 ∝ √𝑸

s. no condition Action to be taken to mntn constant lift force

1. If altitude increased, TAS must be increased

density decreased

2. If altitude decreased, TAS must be decreased

density increased

If speed is changed at constant altitude

3. If speed increased Angle of attack must be decreased

4. If speed decreased Angle of attack must be increased

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 The greater the operating weight higher minimum dynamic pressure.

 The angle of attack for C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is constant
 If more lift is required due to more operating weight, a greater dynamic pressure is
required to mntn given angle of attack.

DENSITY EFFECT

S.NO CONDITION EFFECT

1. Air density low, Longer the take-off run. 3

hotter day, above ISA.

2. Air density high, Shorter the take-off run.

colder day, below ISA.

C𝐿 Will increase with angle of attack increases up to maximum (C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

 An increase in the thickness of the symmetric aerofoil gives a higher C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

 The introduction of camber also beneficial effect on C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

The greater theC𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the lower the minimum flight speed (stall speed).

Thickness and camber necessary for a high C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 . But it will produce increased form drag
and large twisting moments at high speed. So high C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is just one of the requirements
for an aerofoil section.

If an aerofoil section of greater camber is used to give a lower minimum flight speed, the
efficient cruise speed will be lower due the generation of excessive drag. So it is better to
use an aerofoil section that is efficient at high cruise speed, with the ability to temporarily
increase the camber of the wing when it is necessary to fly slowly. (at the time of take-off
and landing). This can be achieved by the use of adjustable flaps of wing leading and
trailing edges.

The L/D ratio

Efficiency of lift production is gained from the ratio between lift and drag; a high L/D ratio
being more efficient.

The L/D ratio increases with angle of attack up to a maximum at about 4; this is
called the optimum angle of attack. The L/D ratio then decreases with increasing angle
of attack until C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 reached.

The maximum L/D ratio of a given aerofoil section will occur at one specific angle of attack.
If a/c is operated in steady level flight at he optimum angle of attack, drag will be least
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while generating required lift force. Any angle of attack higher or lower than that reduces
the L/D ratio and increases drag for the required lift.

 For given configuration (Flaps, gear, spoilers and airframe contamination) and at
speed less than 0.4M, changes in weight will not affect the 𝑳/𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 .

The design of a/c has a great affect on the L/D ratio.

A/C Type 𝑳/𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙

High Performance Sail Plane From 25 to 60

4
Modern Jet Transport From 12 to 20

Propeller Powered Trainer From 10 to 15

 If A/C weight is increased minimum flight speed will increase

EFFECTS OF SURFACE ON 𝐂𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 and minimum flight speed

Condition Affects on C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Minimum flight speed

Increasing roughness of surface C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Decreases Increases

Frost, snow and rain water C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Decreases Increases

High lift devices(Flaps, Slats, Slots) C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Increases Decreases