JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

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Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

Hydrogeologicalcharacterizationofseawaterintrusionintidally-forcedcoastal
fracturedbedrockaquifer
1 1 2
Hak-Yun Park ,Kiyoung Jang ,JeongWoongJu ,InWookYeo⇑
Dept.ofEarthandEnvironmental Sciences,Chonnam NationalUniversity, Gwangju500-757,RepublicofKorea

a r t i c l e i n f s u m m a r y
o
Articlehistory: Hydrogeological investigation was carried out to characterize seawater intrusion in a tidally-forced
Received18February 2011 coastalfracturedbedrockaquiferinthewestcoastofKoreapeninsular,whichwasalsosubjecttoheavy
Receivedinrevisedform4April2012 groundwaterextraction.Timesseriesanalysis,usingthedataofelectricalconductivity(EC),groundwater
Accepted 17April2012
levelandtidaloscillation,showedthatintensivegroundwaterextractionfromthewellsneartheshore
Availableonline28April2012
Thismanuscript washandled byPhilippe
causedasevereseawaterintrusion.Thegeophysicalloggingsandhydraulictestsindicatedthatthetid-
Baveye,Editor-in-Chief, withtheassistance ally-forcedcoastalfracturedaquiferinthestudyareawascharacterizedbytheshallowfreshgroundwa-
ofMagdeline Laba,AssociateEditor ter,transitionzone,anddeephighsalinewaterzone.Theextentofseawaterintrusionhighlydepended
onconductivefracturesandtheirhydraulicconnectivity.Inthedeepsalinewaterlayer,progressivesea-
Keywords: waterintrusiontookplacemainlybypersistentintensivepumpingandinpartbytidalactivity.Thecon-
Seawater intrusion ductive fractures acted as a pathway for saline water flow from the deep saline water zone to the
Coastalfracturedaquifer transitionzone,whengroundwaterwasextracted.Theextentoftransitionzonedependedonthechange
Pumping ofgroundwaterlevelbygroundwaterpumpingorrecharge.Thisstudyindicatedthatapersistentinten-
Tide sive extraction of groundwater would intensify seawater intrusion in tidally-forced coastal fractured
Timeseriesanalysis aquiferandpropermeasureswouldberequiredtopreventit.
Flowmeter test
Ó2012ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.

1.Introduction The west coastal aquifer of the Korea peninsular consists

mainly of fractured rocks and in part of tidal lands or reclaimed
Deterioration of groundwater quality, caused by seawater paddy fields. Itwas reported that the west coastal aquifer ofKor-
intrusion,isapotentialthreattowatersuppliesinthecoastalareas easuffered fromtheextensive seawater intrusion andconsequent
around the world. It was reported that intensive groundwater deterioration of groundwater quality (Lee et al., 2002; Kim et al.,
extractioncausedasignificantintensification ofseawaterintrusion 2005, 2006b; Park et al., 2005; Song et al., 2007). In the western
into coastal aquifers (Frolov and Yushmanov, 1998; Giménez and coastal areaofKorea, groundwater wasamajor water source, and
Morell, 1997; Yakirevich et al., 1998; Capaccioni et al., 2005; Don was intensively developed for agricultural and domestic uses,
etal.,2005;Zektseretal.,2005).Thetidewasalsoknowntocause which lowered hydraulic head in coastal aquifers and accelerated
seawater to intrude into a multi-layered coastal aquifer through the inland migration of seawater (Lee et al., 2008). In addition,
the most permeable layer (Oki et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2002; Li the west coastal aquifer was subject to tidal oscillation with the
and Jiao, 2003; Kim et al., 2005, 2006a). In case of tidally-forced magnitude of 3–7m (Lee et al., 2008). Lee et al. (2008) examined
coastal aquifer, fractured bedrock ismuchmorestressed byinten- the groundwater level and electrical conductivity (EC) data mon-
sive groundwater pumping than non fractured porous media, be- itored at the seawater intrusion monitoring network along the
cause groundwater flow in fractured bedrock occurs through few west and south coasts of Korea. They reported that groundwater
hundred micron-sized fractures. Nevertheless, littlehasbeendone level was influenced by groundwater pumping and tidal oscilla-
on the assessment of seawater intrusion in tidally-forced coastal tion. In contrast to reclaimed tidal lands for paddy fields where
fractured aquifer byintensive groundwater pumping. groundwater is withdrawn only for agricultural purposes for less
than a month over the year, the fractured rock aquifer near the
shore in Korea has been exploited extensively throughout the
⇑ Corresponding author.Tel.:+82625303457;fax:+82625303459. year for living, drinking, agricultural, poultry-raising and sea-
E-mailaddress:iwyeo@chonnam.ac.kr(I.W.Yeo). food-processing purposes. Therefore, the tidally-forced fractured
1
Present address: Office of Environmental Geology, Korea Rural Community
bedrock aquifer from which groundwater is intensively extracted
Corporation,UiwangCity,Gyeonggi-Do437-703,RepublicofKorea.
2
Present address: GeoGreen 21 Co. Ltd., #901 E&C Venture Dream Tower Two, is more vulnerable to seawater intrusion than reclaimed tidal
Guro-gu,Seoul152-719,RepublicofKorea. fields.

0022-1694/$ -seefrontmatterÓ2012ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.04.033
78 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology
This study examined how the tide and intensive groundwater
pumping work dynamically for the seawater intrusion into a
tidally-forced fractured bedrock aquifer with heavy pumping
underwent, and how conductive fractures and their hydraulic
connectivity determine the extent of seawater intrusion, which
was assessed by a long term monitoring of groundwater levels
andEC,aswellasbyhydraulic fieldtests.Thisstudyhelpsprovide
insight into the effective management of limited groundwater re-
sources and groundwater wells in coastal fractured bedrock
aquifers.
2.Methods
2.1. Study area
The coastal fractured aquifer, located near the Dowon ferry of
Muan County, Jeollanam-Do, Korea, wasselected asthestudysite,
which neighbors ontheYellow Sea(Fig. 1).Abridge connected to
Aphae Island had been constructed since 2003, and the construc-
tion office extracted groundwater for living purposes. Poultry
farmswerelocatedinthewestofthestudyarea.Thereexistedres-
idential houses and two restaurants near the shore. The field was
extensively used for cultivation all the year round, where onions,
cabbage, and beans were cultivated in turns. The east side of the
studyarea,whichwasthelowestlandinthestudyarea,wasapad-
dyfield. Therefore, anumber ofwells were extensively developed
inthestudyareawithin300mfromtheshoreforagricultural, liv-
ingand poultry-raising purposes (Fig. 1).
The bedrock geology of the study area was granite gneiss. The
weathered soil was well developed on the surface. However, the
Fig.1. Locationandsurroundingsofthestudyareawhereanumberofwellswereextensivelydevelopedinthestudyareawithin300mfromtheshoreforagricultural,living
andpoultry-raising purposes.
446–447(2012)77–89
thickness of weathered top soil and rock was unknown because
welllogswerenotkeptatthedevelopment stageofthewell.Most
ofthewellsinthestudyareawereequippedwithpumpingfacilities
onthetopofthewellcasing,whichdidnotallowforanywelltests
andmonitoring. However, thetwowellsOW1andOW2remained
open. The elevation of OW1 and OW2 was EL. +10.41 and EL.
+10.44m (above mean sea level), respectively. The depth of OW1
and OW2 was 71.59 (EL. À61.18m) and 77.72m (EL. À67.29m),
and the casing of OW1 and OW2 was installed up to a depth of
24.29(EL.À13.88m)and24.32m(EL.À13.89m)belowtheground
surface,respectively(Fig.2).BasedonthecasingdepthofOW1and
OW2,theweatheredtopsoilandrockwasassumedtoexistuptoa
depthofapproximately 24mbelow theground surface.
The hydrogeological investigations were carried out at four
wellsdeveloped withinadiameter of10m(thedottedrectangular
areainFig.1),twoofwhich(P1andP2)wasusedaspumpingwells
foragricultural irrigation. Thepumpinstalled atP1andP2hasthe
capacity of 67.71m3/day. The other two wells (OW1 and OW2)
was not used for pumping and kept open, at which a long term
monitoring ofwaterlevelandelectrical conductivity (EC)wascar-
ried out. The shortest distance of the wells OW1 and OW2 to the
shore was approximately 200m.
Fig. 3 shows the variations of the tidal level measured from
December 2006 to February 2007 by the National Oceanographic
Research Institute (NORI)inMokpo,whichwastheneareststation
to the study area. During this period, the difference between the
high and low tides at the spring and neap tides was 5.25 and
0.72m, respectively. The study area had a unique environment
thatunderwent bothintensive groundwater pumping andhighti-
dal activity.
 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89 79

Fig.2. Detailsoftheobservation wellsOW1andOW2andtheinferredcross-section ofthestudyarea(nottoscale).

Fig.3. TidallevelmeasuredfromDecember 2007toFebruary2007bytheNationalOceanographic Research Institute(NORI)inMokpo,Korea.

The annual precipitation measured at Muan station by the
Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA) was 1309.0, 1341.5,
and 960.5mm for 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. In general,
heavy rain occurred from June to September and itwas relatively
dry from November to March (Fig. 4). The precipitation in 2008
was much lower than that at2006 and 2007.
2.2. Monitoring and analysis
Groundwater levelandECweremeasuredatOW2every20min
fromApril2006toMay2007.Anautomaticloggerequippedwitha
pressure transducer was installed at a depth of 20m from the
ground surface. ECwas auseful tool for assessing seawater intru-
sion in coastal aquifer. An automatic logger equipped with an EC
itorprobeEC.(withaccuracyof0.1%)wasinstalledatEL.À59.3mtomon-
Thevertical profiles oftheECwere measured 11times atOW1
and OW2 from February 2006 to April 2009 to monitor the sea-
sonalvariationsinECwithdepth.Inthespringof2009,watertable
dropped toonly tensofcentimeters above themean sealevel due
tothedrought of2008 and 2009 (Fig. 4)that would subsequently
lead to extensive pumping. To assess the effect of groundwater
extraction from fractured bedrock aquifer on seawater intrusion,
the vertical EC profiles of OW1 and OW2 were measured before
80 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

Fig.4. Monthlyprecipitation measured attheMuanstationbytheKoreaMeteorological Administration (KMA)fromJanuary2006toJune2009.

pumping and after 24hpumping from P1attherate of67.71m3/ tures and determine their hydraulic connectivity between wells
day. bymeasuring theverticalflowatdiscreteintervals alongthebore-
Time series analysis was carried out to examine the relative hole (Hess, 1986; Molz et al., 1989; Paillet, 1998; Williams and
effect of tidal activity and groundwater pumping on seawater Paillete, 2002; LeBorgne etal.,2006). Inflowmeter tests, ambient
intrusion. A cross-correlation function was used to analyze the flow tests were first carried out to measure natural flow at every
inter-relationship between two time series (Kim et al., 2005, 2.5mdepth along the boreholes ofOW1 and OW2, using anelec-
2006a;Leeetal.,2008).Inthisanalysis,theECwasusedastheout- tro-magnetic flowmeter (Model 9721 by Century-Geophysical
put,andthegroundwater levelandtidaldatawereusedasinputs. Corp.)witharesponselimitof50mL/minto40L/minandanaccu-
Thecross-correlogram cxy between thetwotimeseries x t andy t is racy of20mL/min.
defined as(Davis, 1986; Kim etal., 2005) Single borehole and cross borehole flowmeter tests were then
carriedout.Thesingleboreholetestisusefulforfindingconductive
fractures. Forthesingle borehole test, vertical flow was measured
cxyðkÞ¼n ½ðxt Àl x ÞðytþkÀl y ފ; ð1Þ at every 2.5m along the borehole from which the groundwater
1X
t¼1 nÀk
wasbeingextracted atarateof68m3/day.Asingleborehole flow-
where lx and ly are the mean of the two time series t x and yt, metertestwascarriedoutforbothOW1andOW2.Thecrossbore-
respectively, n is the length of the time series, and k is the time hole flowmeter tests were carried out to identify the hydraulic
lag.Thecross-correlation functionqxy becomes connectionbetweenobservation wellsandpumpingwell.Theflow
was measured at every 2.5m depth along the boreholes of OW1
cxy ðkÞ; 2 and OW2 while the groundwater was being pumped from P1. In
q ðk Þ¼ rr
xy
x y ð Þ ordertoobtainreliabledataofflow,bothsingleandcrossborehole
where rx and ry are the standard deviation of the xt and yt, flowmeter tests were started approximately 2h after the start of
respectively. pumping from P1. Kim et al. (2010) analyzed the drawdown data
ECdataoftheperiodwhengroundwater extractionfromP1and set,obtained fromthesamepumping settingasinthisstudy,with
P2didnotoperate wereusedforthecross-correlation analysis for adiagnostic plot by calculating the log-derivative of the data and
theinter-relationship betweenECandtide.Groundwater leveldata plotting simultaneously the drawdown and the log-derivative.
oftheperiodwhengroundwater wereintensively withdrawn were They revealed that ittook 1hand 40min, for which the wellbore
selected for the cross-correlation analysis between EC and storage and the transition effects prevailed, before afull response
pumping. offractured aquifer topumping took place.

2.3. Hydraulic tests 3.Results

Hydraulic testswerecarriedouttoidentifytheconductive frac- 3.1. Groundwater level

tures and their hydraulic connectivity, which was later integrated
with the monitoring results to conceptualize seawater intrusion
inthe study area.
An acoustic televiewer (Model 9801 by Century-Geophysical
Corp.), which identifies fractures by emitting and receiving
acoustic waves to/from a borehole wall, was used to determine
the location and orientation offractures crossing the boreholes of
OW1 and OW2. As fractures identified by the acoustic televiewer
tend to include both conductive and non-conductive fractures,
flowmeter tests were carried out to identify the conductive frac-
Groundwater level measured at OW2 from March 2006 to Au-
gust 2007 showed a clear seasonal variation (Fig. 5). The 24h
pumpingatP1ledtothedrawdownof0.55matOW2(Fig.6),when
groundwater waspumpedfromP1attherateof67.71m3/day.The
pumpingtestyieldedthehydraulicconductivityof1.94Â10À5m/s
forOW1and1.62Â10À5m/sforOW2,respectively. Therefore, the
drawdown of approximately 1m shown in Fig. 5 meant the
operation of the pumping at both P1 and P2, and that of 0.50m
meant the pumping at either P1 or P2. The rainfall from April
 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89 81

Fig.5. Groundwater levelmeasured atOW2anddailyprecipitation measuredatMuanstationofKMAfromMarch2006toAugust2007.

Fig.6. DrawdownmeasuredatOW1andOW2forthepumpingtestwheregroundwaterwasextractedfromP1attherateof67.71m 3/dayfor24hfromMarch7toMarch8,

2009.Thepumping testyieldedthehydraulicconductivity of1.94Â10À5forOW1and1.62Â10À5m/sforOW2,respectively.

2006toJuly2006ledtoagradualincreaseinthegroundwaterlevel. 3.2. Electrical conductivity monitoring

However, intensive pumping fromAugust2006toNovember 2006
resulted inadecrease inthegroundwater level. When noground-
waterextraction fromP1andP2occurred attheperiod ofDecem-
ber 2006 to March 2007, the groundwater level was stationary
andthegroundwater levelremained aboveEL.+1.0m(Fig.5).
Although the groundwater level indicated occasional pumping
eventsatP1andP2sinceMarch2007(Fig.5),theremightexistinten-
sivepumpinginthisarea,becausethegroundwaterlevelhadanobvi-
ousdeclinetendencyatthistime.DuringtheperiodofJune2007to
September2007,thereshouldexistintensivepumpinginthisareabe-
causethegroundwaterlevelmaintainedarelativelowelevation,even
thoughthereoccurredmuchrainfallatthattime.Underthiscondition,
littlepumpagefrompumpingwellscausedthelevelinOW2togobe-
lowthemeansealevel,whichcanresultinintenseseawaterintrusion.
Fig.7shows thevertical profiles oftheECatOW1 andOW2. A
cleardistinctionintheextentoftransitionzoneandthemagnitude
ofECbetween OW1 andOW2 within adiameter of2mshowed a
strong indication of completely different development of conduc-
tive fractures between the two boreholes.
For OW1, the transition zone of the EC was observed between
approximately EL. À30m (but the upper boundary varied from
EL.À30toÀ20m)andEL.À48m(Fig. 7a).Inthistransition zone,
the EC alternated between an increase and decrease with time,
whichindicatedthatseawaterencroachmentandretreattookplace
through well developed fractures. However, below EL. À48m, the
ECwasrelativelyconstantuptothebottomoftheboreholeforeach
stage of measurement, but increased steadily with time. Between
82 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

used to be between approximately EL. À35 and EL. À40m ex-

panded to amuch shallower depth of EL. À10m. This was due to
adecrease in the water level below EL. +1m caused by the lower
precipitation (and probably consequent pumping) for the period
of2008 toApril 2009.
InMarch 2009, while groundwater was being withdrawn from
P1 for 24h, the vertical profile of EC was measured to assess the
effect of groundwater extraction from a coastal fractured aquifer.
For OW1, the transition zone responded to pumping and an in-
crease in EC was observed (Fig. 8a). Outside the transition zone,
the EC did not change, particularly below EL. À45m. For OW2,
theuppertransition zoneshowed adistinct increase inECandex-
panded remarkably toashallower depth ofEL.À20m(Fig.8b).In
contrast, therewasnochangeinECbelowEL.À40m.Itwasfound
that the upper transition zone responded to groundwater extrac-

Fig.7. VerticalprofilesofECat(a)OW1and(b)OW2.TheoverallincreaseoftheEC
showed a clear indication of seawater intrusion progressing with time. The
transition zone, where the EC changed rapidly, expanded to a shallower depth
withtime,diminishing thefreshwatervolume.

August2008andApril2009,thestudyareasufferedfromadrought.
FromMarchtoApril2009,asignificantincreaseinECwasobserved,
andtheupperboundary ofthethicktransition zonechanged from
EL.À30toEL.À20m.
ForOW2,twotransitionzoneswereobserved(Fig.7b).Withthe
exception of March 2009 and April 2009, the upper sharp transi-
tion zone developed at approximately EL. À35 to EL. À40m, and
the lower thick transition zone was observed between EL. À50m
andthebottom ofthewell.Incontrast toOW1, theelectrical con-
ductivity of OW2 reached more than 10mS/cm at the bottom of
theborehole, whichindicates thatOW2suffered fromfarmorein-
tenseseawaterintrusionthanOW1eventhoughtheywerelocated
within a2mdiameter. Note thattheelectrical conductivity ofthe
Fig. 8. The vertical EC profiles of (a) OW1 and (b) OW2 before and after 24h
seanearthestudyareawasmeasured tobe30.0mS/cm. InMarch
pumpingfromP1.Thepumpingtriggeredanexpansionoftheuppertransitionzone
andApril2009,asignificant increase inECwasobserved through- toashallowerdepth,butthelowerthicktransitionzoneofOW2didnotshowany
out the borehole of OW2. The upper sharp transition zone that remarkable changeinEC.
 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89 83

tion. Fig. 8 indicated that groundwater extraction triggered an 3.4. Fracture and flowmeter tests
expansion of the transition zone to a shallower depth, conse-
quentlydiminishing alargevolumeoffreshgroundwater ofashal- An acoustic televiewer was used to probe the fractures inter-
low aquifer in the study area. The lower thick transition zone did secting OW1 and OW2 (Fig. 12). The dip directions of major frac-
not show any remarkable change inEC. tures crossing OW1 and OW2 were SW, N, and NE, and the
Fig. 9 shows the EC and temperature from April 2006 to May dipping angle of most fractures was higher than 60°. For OW1,
2007atEL.À59.3mofOW2.Thetemperature wassteady,ranging intensive fractures developed well below the casing up to EL.
from 16.02 to16.33°C,which was small enough tohave noeffect À22m. Fractured zones and fractures with a large aperture were
ontheEC.Although therewerelossesindataduetoamalfunction observedaroundEL.À29,À34,À38,À40,À44,andÀ45m.Anum-
of the loggers, a clear trend of an increase in EC with time was ber of fractures with a small aperture were detected around EL.
identified, which agreed with a consistent increase in EC below À49, À52, À54, À56, and À57m.
EL.À40mforthesameperiod(Fig.7b).Astrongercyclicoscillation ForOW2,fracturedzoneswereobservedaroundEL.À16,EL.À37
ofECwasalsoobserved,whichindicatedapossibleassociation be- toÀ39,and EL.À42toÀ43m.Anumber offractures with alarge
tween the ECand tidal oscillation. aperture were found around EL. À23, À27, À29, À31, À35, À44,
À48, À49, À53, À58 62, and À6364m. In contrast to OW1
3.3. Tidal and pumping effect onseawater intrusion where the fractured zones developed from EL. À14 to EL. À45m,
thefractures withalargeaperture welldeveloped downthebore-
Hourly-based cross-correlation analysis was conducted be- holeofOW2.
tween the tide and EC measured atEL. À59.3m ofOW2 (Fig. 10). Ambientflowtestswerefirstmeasuredevery2.5mthroughthe
Theperiod ofDecember 1,2006 toJanuary 31,2007, wasselected borehole of OW1 and OW2. For OW1, the upward flow was mea-
for analysis because groundwater level of this period was solely sured atarateofapproximately 0.1L/min, andanumber ofslight
under the influence of the tidal activity, i.e., not affected by both variations in flow were observed, which indicated that flow into
pumpingandprecipitation (Fig.5).Thecoefficientofthecross-cor- andoutofOW1occurredthroughouttheborehole(Fig.13a).Ama-
relation forECwasbelow thesignificance level, which indicated a joroutflow fromOW1occurred justbelowthecasing.Ifflowmea-
weak association of EC with the tidal activity. This period of time sured at a concerned depth is higher than that at 2.5m below, it
showed the decline trend of EC (Fig. 9), and the decline trend indicates that the inflow takes place between the two measure-
was removed bysubtracting daily average ECfrom corresponding mentpoints,andalowerflowraterepresents theoutflowbetween
dailyECs.TheECdatawithdecline trendremoved werethenused thetwoconcernedpoints.ForOW2,theinflowtoandoutflowfrom
for the cross-correlation analysis with the tide, which yielded a OW2wereobservedwithanoverallupwardflowthroughout OW2
better fluctuation correlation between tide and EC. However, the (Fig. 13b), asinOW1, but theflow was smaller than that ofOW1.
low cross-correlation coefficient indicated a slight association of Asingleboreholeflowmeter testforOW1andOW2wascarried
the ECwith the tidal activity. out to distinguish the conductive fractures from others. Fig. 14a
Fig. 11 shows the cross-correlation between the groundwater shows thechange inflowratewithdepth atOW1.ForOW1, most
level and EC. The groundwater level data from October 5,2006 to water was extracted within the casing section, which meant that
November 10,2006wereusedforcross-correlation analysis,when there existed a number of broken sections in the casing. The fol-
thegroundwater levelsharplyvariedbyintensivepumping.Aneg- lowingsimplecalculation wasusedtomoreclearly display thein-
ativecorrelation coefficient, higherthanthesignificance level,was flow and outflow between the two measurement points:
obtained after 10h of time lag, with the maximum coefficient of
DF i ¼ðF i ÀFÞ;j ð3Þ
À0.17. The negative coefficient meant that a decrease in the
groundwater level caused by pumping led to an increase in the whereFistheflowrate,DFmeansthedifferentialflowbetweenthe
EC. The cross-correlation analysis indicated that the high EC in twoconcernedpoints,andsubscriptsiandjrepresentthetwocon-
the study area was induced mainly by intensive pumping and in cernedpointswherethepointjwassetat2.5mbelowthepointi.
particular, excessive pumping during thedry season would inten- Thepositiveandnegativedifferentialflowsindicatetheinflowand
sify seawater intrusion. outflowtakingplacebetweenthetwomeasurementpoints,respec-

Fig.9. ECmeasuredatEL.À59.3mofOW2.Thetemperature wassteadyenoughtohavenoeffectonEC,buttheECclearlyshowedarisingtrendwithtime.

84 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

Fig.10. Resultsofhourly-basedcross-correlationanalysisbetweenthetideandtheECfromDecember12006toJanuary312007measuredatEL.À59.3mofOW2.TheEC
withadeclinetrendremovedshowedabettercorrelation withtide,butthelowcross-correlation coefficient indicated aslightassociation oftheECwithtidalactivity.

Fig. 11. Result of hourly-based cross-correlation analysis between the groundwater level influenced by pumping and the EC at EL. À59.3m of OW2. A high negative
correlation coefficient indicated thattheintensivepumping ledtoseawater intrusion.

tively.Fig.14bshowsthatthefractureslocatedatEL.À34,À44,À49 of EL. 14.3

À
andÀ52mwereconductive,whichagreedwellwiththetransition fromthefractured rocks into theborehole ofOW2 atdeep depths
16.8m), and a large amount of water also flowed
ofEL. 29to 39m(Fig.15b),whichexplainedmuchstrongersea-
zoneshowninFig.7a,indicatingthatthosefracturesactedaspath- À À
water intrusion at OW2 than at OW1. The results of the acoustic
waysforseawater intrusion atOW1.
televiewer and single borehole tests suggested that the fractures
Fig.15ashows theflowratemeasured through theborehole of
atEL. 31and À
OW2 while groundwater was being extracted from OW2. Water À À À
sharp transition zoneshown inFig.7b.When theupper transition
wasprovided justbelowthebottomofthecasing(i.e.,theinterval 35, 37to 39mcontributed greatlytotheupper
 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89 85

zonewasexpandedtoashallowdepthduetoadrought(andprob-
ably consequent pumping) from the fall of 2008, the fractures
aroundEL.À16,EL.À23,andEL.À27mbecame pathways forsea-
waterintrusion(Fig.7b).MostofthefracturesbelowEL.À45mdid
notprovide much water tothe borehole ofOW2. Inspite that the
fractures were apparently less developed at OW2 than at OW1
(Fig. 12), the fractures at OW2 was found to be more conductive
especially atdepths (Figs. 13and14), which agreed with ahigher
ECatOW2.
Crossborehole flowmeter testswerecarriedouttoexaminethe
hydraulic connection between the observation wells (OW1 and
OW2)andpumpingwell(P1).After2hfromthestartofthepump-
ing,whilegroundwater wasbeingextracted fromP1,theflowwas
measured throughout the boreholes of OW1 and OW2, respec-
tively. Differential flow (DF) for OW1 and OW2 was plotted in
Fig. 16. For OW1, the inflow into OW1 and the outflow to P1 oc-
curredatmostofthesectionsbelowEL.À12m(Fig.16a).However,
a large amount of inflow within the casing occurred (Fig. 16a),
whichwouldflowouttoP1throughthebrokensectionsofthecas-
ing.Thehydraulic connection withP1wasobserved attheinterval
ofEL.À27toEL.À52m(Fig.16a),whichcorresponded tothethick
transition zone inthe borehole ofOW1.
The borehole of OW2 was found to have a stronger hydraulic
connection with P1 than that of OW1 (Fig. 16b). The inflow at
thebottom(EL.À64m)ofthewellhadarelationshipwiththelow-
er thick transition zone shown in Fig. 7b. The outflow to P1 oc-
curred around EL. À42m, which corresponded to the lower
boundary ofthe upper sharp transition zone. The inflow occurred
atEL.À39m,whichcoincidedwiththefracturezoneandtheupper
transition zone. Theinflow andoutflow fortheinterval ofEL.À14
to À42m was closely related to the upper transition zone and its
Fig. 12. Fractures, represented by thick black curved lines, were detected by the expansion in2009.
acousticteleviewerattheboreholesofOW1andOW2.Thedippingangleofmost The cross borehole tests indicated that the extent of seawater
fracturesatOW1andOW2washigherthan60°withthedipdirectionofSW,N,and
intrusion inthecoastal fractured aquifer highly depended oncon-
NE.

Fig.13. Ambientflowmeasuredbytheflowmeterthrough(a)OW1and(b)OW2.Theinflowandoutflowoccurredwithanoverallupwardflowthroughouttheboreholesof
OW1andOW2.Notethatapositiveflowratemeansanupwardflowintheborehole.
86 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

Fig.14. (a)Flowrateand(b)thedifferentialflowbetweenthetwomeasurementpointsforthesingleboreholeflowmetertestatOW1.NotethatthebaratthepointofEL.
theÀ14.2transitionmmeanszonetheofdifferentialOW1. flowbetweenEL.À14.2andÀ16.7m.Exceptthecasinginterval,groundwatercameinbetweenEL.À34andÀ52m,whichagreedwellwith

Fig.15. (a)Flowrateand(b)thedifferentialflowbetweenthetwomeasurementpointsforthesingleboreholeflowmetertestatOW2.ComparedtoOW1,alargeamountof
groundwater wasprovidedfromthefracturedrocks,whichexplained muchstrongerseawaterintrusion atOW2thanatOW1.
 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89 87

Fig.16. Differentialflowbetweenthetwomeasurementpointsat(a)OW1and(b)OW2,whilegroundwaterwasbeingpumpedfromP1.TheboreholeofOW2wasfoundto
haveastrongerhydraulic connectionwithP1atdepthsthanthatofOW1.

Fig.17. Schematicconceptualmodelofseawaterintrusioninthestudyarea.Theextentofsalinewaterzoneinthecoastalfracturedaquifervarieslocally,anddependshighly
onconductive fracturesandtheirhydraulic connectivity (nottoscale).

ductivefracturesandtheirhydraulicconnection withthepumping
thespringof2009decreased thewatertable,consequently caused
wells and the saline water body. seawater intrusion, andexpanded thetransition zoneuptoashal-
low depth (Fig. 7), which resulted inasubstantial decrease in the
4.Discussion volumeoffreshwater.AsofApril2009,theaquiferthicknessavail-
ablefortheproduction offresh water decreased toapproximately
The long term monitoring, time series analysis and hydraulic 10m(i.e.,fromEL.+1.0toEL.À10m),basedontheverticalprofile
tests showed that groundwater extraction played a major role in ofECatOW1 and OW2 (Fig. 7).
inducing seawater intrusion into the fractured bedrock aquifer, Asindicated bytheflowmeter testsandvertical ECprofiles, the
the extent of which was determined by of conductive fractures developmentoftransitionzoneswascloselyrelatedtothelocations
andtheirhydraulic connectivity. Inparticular, thelowerprecipita- ofthe conductive fractures, which became apreferential pathway
tion (and probably subsequent intensive pumping) from 2008 to for saline water intrusion. As the transition zone expanded in the
88 H.-Y.Parketal./JournalofHydrology 446–447(2012)77–89

spring of 2009, the fractures at a shallower depth became a new deepsalinewater zone,transition zoneandshallow freshground-
path for seawater intrusion and formed anew upper boundary of water. In the deep saline water zone, seawater intrusion steadily
the transition zone. The different vertical EC profiles at OW1 and progressed by persistent heavy pumping without being retreated.
OW2 originated from thedifference inthedistribution ofconduc- Inthetransitionzone,groundwater extractionledtoanimmediate
tive fractures. In particular, the inflow through the fracture near increase in EC and the vertical expansion into the shallow fresh
thebottom ofOW2 resulted inahigher ECprofile atOW2 than at groundwater, diminishing the shallow fresh groundwater. The
OW1(Figs.11and15b). measured vertical EC profiles indicated that depending on the
The analyses of the monitoring and hydraulic tests were inte- magnitude ofgroundwater extraction and recharge, salinity alter-
gratedtoconceptualize seawaterintrusionintothefracturedaqui- nated in acyclic manner, but persistent intensive pumping led to
fer in the study area. The coastal fractured bedrock aquifer in the more saline water encroachment and vertical expansion than
studyareacouldbedividedintothreezones:thedeepsalinewater before.
zone, transition zone, and shallow fresh groundwater zone A major cause of seawater intrusion in tidally-forced coastal
(Fig. 17). The deep saline water zone, which corresponded to the fractured aquifer was found tobeapersistent intensive pumping.
lower transition zone ofOW2, contained higher saline water than Therefore, it is quite possible that groundwater withdrawal in
5mS/cm.Thiszonedidnotrespondimmediately tothegroundwa- coastal fractured bedrock aquifer, exceeding groundwater re-
ter withdrawal, which did not lead to a relatively immediate in- charge, intensifies seawater intrusion into tidally-forced fractured
crease in salinity (Fig. 8). The persistent intensive groundwater aquifer,whichwilldiminishthevolumeoffreshgroundwater sub-
pumping caused this zone to expand slightly upward, and the stantially. Every effort should be made to effectively manage the
salinity increased progressively with time (Figs. 6and 10). groundwater resources incoastal fractured aquifer.
The transition zone was characterized by a sharp change in
salinity, which agreed with the visual observation of mixing zone
by Abarca and Clement (2009). This zone responded immediately Acknowledgements
to groundwater pumping (Fig. 8): the zone at EL. À30 to À50m
forOW1andthatatEL.À30toÀ40mforOW2,whereitsthickness This study was supported by the Korea Research Foundation
varieddependingongroundwater extractionandrecharge.Theup- Grant funded by the Korean Government (KRF-2008-313-C009
wardflowmeasured bytheflowmeter testsindicated thatthesal- .25), the Korea Ministry of Environment as ‘‘The GAIA Project’’
inewaterwasprovidedtothistransitionzonefromthedeepsaline (173-092-009) and Chonnam National University, 2010. Special
water zone, when intensive pumping was inoperation. The shape thanks are extended to Mr. Yun-Gi Kim for his kind help during
andmagnitude ofthetransition zone tended tobeaffected bythe the field tests.
changeingroundwater levelbyheavypumpingorgroundwaterre-
charge. The EC in the transition zone alternated between an in-
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