• EN 1993-5 Piling

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

• EN 1993-6 Crane supporting structures
Introduction
Eurocode 3 Part 1 has 12 sub-parts:

Development of Eurocode 3 • EN 1993-1-1 General Rules

Aim: to create a common structural language • EN 1993-1-2 Fire

– And make allowances for National
Choice through the use of a National
Annex
National Annex
• Eurocode 3 allows some parameters and
design methods to be determined at a
national level.
• Where a national choice is allowed, this is
indicated in the Eurocodes under the
relevant clause.
• EN 1993-1-3 Cold-formed thin gauge
• EN 1993-1-4 Stainless steel
• EN 1993-1-5 Plated elements
• EN 1993-1-6 Shells
• EN 1993-1-7 Plates transversely
loaded
• EN 1993-1-8 Joints
• EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
• EN 1993-1-10 Fracture Toughness

– values or methods to be used in a • EN 1993-1-11 Cables

particular country are given in the • EN 1993-1-12 High strength steels
National Annex.

Nationally Determined Parameters

(NDPs) Key Differences between EC3 and
BS 5950
• The recommended values of the
parameters and design methods are There are several differences between EC3
collectively referred to as Nationally and BS 5950:
Determined Parameters (NDPs).
BS 5950 Structure EC3 Structure
• NDPs determine various aspects of
design but perhaps most importantly the
Separate sections Sub-parts are based
level of safety of structures during for different on structural
construction and service. elements types phenomena

Structure of Eurocode 3 e.g. Beams, e.g. Tension,

Compression,
Eurocode 3 is broken into 6 parts: Plate Girders, Bending, Shear
Compression
• EN 1993-1 Generic rules Sub-parts can be
members...
• EN 1993-2 Bridges applied to any
element
• EN 1993-3 Towers, masts and
chimneys The arrangement of
the sub-parts means
• EN 1993-4 Silos, tanks and pipelines
less duplication of
rules
Different Axes Informative subscripts

BS 5950 Eurocode 3 ‘Ed’ means design effect

Along the ‘Rd’ means design resistance
X
member
Major Axis X Y Therefore:
Minor Axis Y Z NEd is an design axial force

NRd is the design resistance to the axial force

Gamma Factors

Partial factor UK NA
Application
γM value

γM0 1.00 Cross-sections

Figure 1 (Source: Arya (2009) Design of
Structural Elements Pg.377)
Member
γM1 1.00
Different Wording Buckling

‘Action’ – force or imposed displacement γM2 1.25 Fracture

 Permanent action (Dead Load)

 Variable action (Live Load)
Omissions
‘Effect’ – internal force or moment, deflections

‘Verification’ –check Notable omissions:

• Effective lengths
‘Resistance’ – capacity
– Use BS 5950 effective lengths

• Formulae for Mcr

Different Symbols
– Use SN003 NCCI Document
BS BS BS
EC3 EC3 EC3 • Deflection limits
5950 5950 5950
– Refer to National Annex
A A P N py fy

Z Wel Mx My pb χLTfy

S Wpl V V pc χfy

Ix Iy H Iw r i

Iy Iz J It
Loading Combination Factors ψ
Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Introduction to EN 1990 Imposed loads in buildings,
Category A : domestic/residential
 Covers the „Basis of Structural Design‟ areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B : office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
 Use with the other Eurocodes Category C : congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
 Gives safety factors needed for ULS and Category D : shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E : storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
SLS verifications Category F : traffic area, < 30kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
 partial factors (see Table 1) Category G : traffic area, 30– 160 0.7 0.5 0.3
kN 0.7 0 0
 combination factors (See Table 2) Category H : roofs
Snow (sites up to 1000m) 0.5 0.2 0
Wind 0.5 0.2 0
Table 2: Extract from Table NA.A1.1
ULS Checks
EQU: static equilibrium Combinations of Actions

STR: strength/buckling etc Can use either:

 Equation 6.10
GEO: Failure of excessive deformation of
 Less favourable of 6.10a and 6.10b
ground
Method: Get the factors from Tables 1 and 2
FAT: fatigue failure
and substitute them into the equation you are
using, check for a range of different loading
combinations and take the least favourable
Actions
result.
Permanent actions , G (Dead loads)
Equation 6.10
Variable actions , Q (Live loads)
ΣγG,jGk,j “+” γPP “+” γQ,1Qk,1 “+” ΣγQ,iψ0,iQk,i
 Qk Characteristic value (ψ = 1.0)
 ψ0Qk Combination value
 ψ1Qk Frequent value
 ψ2Qk Quasi-permanent value

Equation 6.10a
Partial Factors ΣγG,jGk,j “+” γPP “+” γQ,1ψ0,iQk,1 “+” ΣγQ,iψ0,iQk,i

Unfavourable Favourable
γG 1.35 1.0 Equation 6.10b
γQ 1.5 0 ΣξjγG,jGk,j “+” γPP “+” γQ,1Qk,1 “+” ΣγQ,iψ0,iQk,i
Table 1: Partial Factor values from the UK NA
ξj is 0.925 (From NA 2.2.3.2)
 The choice between a first- and second- order
Steel Design to Eurocode 3 analysis should be based on:

Structural Analysis  the flexibility of the structure

 in particular, the extent to which ignoring
Analysis Types second-order effects might lead to an unsafe
There are four types of global analysis: approach due to underestimation of some of
the internal forces and moments.

Deformed Geometry

Non-linear material
Clause 5.2.1(2) states that second order effects
Initial Geometry

Linear material
shall be considered:

behaviour

Analysis Type
First-order elastic
behaviour
• if they increase the action effects
significantly
• or modify significantly the structural
  behaviour

Second-order elastic  

First-order plastic  
First-Order Analysis
Second-order elastic   A first-order analysis may be used if the
Table 1: Summary of Analysis Types following criteria is satisfied:

αcr ≥ 10 for elastic analysis

αcr ≥ 15 for plastic analysis

αcr =Fcr/FEd

αcr is the factor by which the design loading

would have to increased to cause elastic
instability in a global mode (λcr in BS 5950-1)

FEd is the design loading on the structure

Figure 1: Load-Deformation graph for different analysis types Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for global
(Source: Designer’s Guide to EN 1993-1-1 Page 21)
instability based on initial elastic stiffness.
Joints
For portal frames (with shallow roof slopes less
Clause 5.1.2 deals with joint modelling than 26°) and beam and column plane frames:

Eurocode 3 recognises the same three types of

joint, in terms of their effect on the behaviour of
the frame structure, as BS 5950: Part 1. HEd is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the
storey

VEd is the total vertical load at the bottom of the

storey

δH,Ed is the horizontal deflection at the top of the

storey under consideration relative to the
bottom of the storey, with all horizontal loads
applied to the structure.
Figure 2: Joint stiffness effects (Source: SCI CPD Course
Material) h is the storey height.
Amplifier (h is the height of the structure in metres)

If 10 > αcr ≥ 3.0 α m is the reduction factor for columns

Increase all lateral loads by the amplifier:

Limits on αcr Action

αcr >10 First order Analysis (m is the number of columns contributing to the
First order analysis plus amplification effect on the bracing system)
10>αcr >3
or effective length method
αcr ≤ 3 Second order analysis
Table 2: Actions to be taken once αcr has been
calculated Summary
1) Model the Frame

Imperfections 2) Put all the loads on the frame

(Including the EHFs)

3) Calculate αcr

4) Check to see if second-order effects are

significant

5) If necessary use the amplifier

Figure 2: Typical Imperfections that will be present

when designing a structure

Frame imperfections appear in (almost) every load

case. We can represent initial sway imperfections
by using Equivalent Horizontal Forces (EHFs)
which are based on 1/200 of the factored vertical
load, with reduction factors.

Figure3:Replacing initial sway imperfections with

equivalent horizontal forces

EHF = φ x Vertical Forces

φ = φ0αhαm

φ0 = 1/200 = 0.005

α h is the reduction factor for height:

Steel Design to Eurocode 3 • S275 J0 - Charpy value of 27J can be
obtained at 0°C
Brittle Fracture
• S275 J2 - Charpy value of 27J can be
obtained at -20°C
Steel sub-grade selection
EN 1993-1-10
Brittle failure is most likely to occur at very low
temperatures. It should be considered where there are The method given in the Eurocodes can be quite
tensile stresses. It can be avoided by choosing a steel complex to use, it is recommended that you use
with sufficient fracture toughness Published Document PD 6695 instead.

Failure mainly dependent on: The service temperature is lowered i.e. it becomes a
reference temperature. Refer to table 2.1 of the
• Steel strength grade Eurocodes so determine the steel sub grade, below is
an extract from that table.
• Thickness

• Lowest service temperature

fy(t)
• Material toughness
fy(t) = fy,nom – 0.25 (t/t0)
• Tensile Stress

• Notches or defects in the element but t0 = 1mm, so fy(t) = fy,nom – 0.25 (t) .

Steel toughness PD 6695-1-10

Steel toughness is measured by Charpy V-notch • Published Document is much Simpler to use
value. The Charpy test measures how much energy is
absorbed by a steel sample, at a given temperature. – Internal Tmd is -5°C (Table 2)

– External is Tmd -15°C (Table 3)

• S275 JR - Charpy value of 27 J can be
obtained at +20°C NOTE: Can only use this document for design in the
UK
PD 6695-1-10 Tables
Table 2 Maximum thicknesses for internal steelwork in buildings for T md = -5°C

Table 3 Maximum thicknesses for external steelwork in buildings for T md = -15°C

 Class 2 cross-sections are those which can develop
Steel Design to Eurocode 3 their plastic moment resistance, but have limited
rotation capacity because of local buckling.

Local Buckling and Cross-
Section Classification
In Eurocode 3 you will need to refer to the following
clauses when classifying a section and determining the
cross-sectional resistance:
• Clause 5.5 covers the cross section classification
Class 3 cross-sections are those in which the stress in
the extreme compression fibre of the steel member
assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach
the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent
development of the plastic moment resistance.
Class 4 cross-sections are those in which local
buckling will occur before the attainment of yield stress
in one or more parts of the cross-section.

• Clauses 6.1 and 6.2 covers the cross-sectional

resistance
Limits
Sections with slender webs or flanges will be more
susceptible to local buckling, where the element will The limits between the classes depend on the ε factor
fail before the design strength is reached. Eurocode 3 which is calculated using fy, the yield strength of the
takes into account the effects of local through the steel.
process of cross section classification.

Classes
ε Factor
BS 5950 EC3
BS 5950 EC3
Plastic Class 1
ε = (275/py)0.5 ε = (235/fy)0.5
Compact Class 2
Semi-compact Class 3
Values of ε are given at the bottom of Table 5.2:
Slender Class 4
fy 235 275 355 420 460

ε 1.00 0.92 0.81 0.75 0.71

Class 1 EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2

Class 2

Class 3
fy Yield Strength
Class 4
The UK National Annex says that material properties
should be taken from the product standards.
Image
Source: http://www.steel-insdag.org/new/pdfs/Chapter8.pdf Extract from EN 10025-2 - fy (yield strength) values for
hot rolled steel:
2
Similarly to BS 5950, cross sections will be placed into fy (N/mm )
one of four behaviour classes. Class 1 is the least nominal thickness of element,
susceptible to local buckling and class 4 is the most t (mm)
susceptible.
Steel
40 < t ≤ 63

63 < t ≤ 80

Grade
16< t ≤ 40

The classification of a section will depend mainly on:

t≤16

 The material yield strength, fy

 c/t ratio

Eurocode 3 defines the classes in Clause 5.5.2: S 275 275 265 255 245
Class 1 cross-sections are those which can form a S 355 355 345 335 325
plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required from
plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance. EN 10025-2 (Table 7)
c/t Width-to-Thickness Ratio Class 3: Semi-compact

The width-to-thickness ratios differ in EC3 differs from BS (Table 11) EC3 (Table 5.2)
BS 5950: Flange
b/T = < 15 ε c/tf = < 14 ε
outstand
BS 5950 EC3

Limits
Web in
d/t = < 120 ε d/tw = < 142 ε
bending
Web in
d/tw = < 42 ε
compression

Class 4: Slender

An element that doesn’t meet the class 3 limits should

be taken as a class 4 section. Effective widths are
assigned to Class 4 compression elements to make
Outstand c = (b – tw –
b = B/2 allowance for the reduction in resistance as a result of
Flange 2 r)/2
local buckling
Internal
Compressio d= c= To calculate the effective width of a Class 4 section,
n D–2T–2r h – 2 tf – 2 r refer to the relevant section in the Eurocodes:
Part
Section Type Reference
Appropriate values of c and t are defined at the top of
Table 5.2 for different types of sections. Cold-formed sections EN 1993-1-3
Table 5.2 Hot-rolled and
EN 1993-1-5
fabricated section
Internal compression parts and outstand flanges are CHS EN 1993-1-6
assessed against the limiting width to thickness ratios
for each class. The limits are provided in table 5.2.

Table 5.2 is made up of three sheets: Overall Cross-Section Classification

Sheet 1 – Internal Compression Parts
Sheet 2 – Outstand Flanges
Sheet 3 – Angles and Tubular Sections
Clause 5.5.2(6) states that a cross-section is classified
according to the highest (least favourable) class of its
compression parts.

Summary
Cross-section Classification
1. Determine fy (UK NA recommends you use the
Class 1: Plastic product standards)
2. Determine ε from Table 5.2
BS (Table 11) EC3 (Table 5.2)
3. Substitute the value of ε into the class limits in
Flange
b/T = < 9 ε c/tf = < 9 ε Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange and
outstand
web
Limits

Web in
d/t = < 80 ε d/tw = < 72 ε
bending Flange
Web in outstand Web in bending
d/tw = < 33 ε
compression limiting limiting value, d/tw
value, c/tf
Class 2: Compact Class 1 9ε 72 ε
Class 2 10 ε 83 ε
BS (Table 11) EC3 (Table 5.2) Class 3 14 ε 124 ε
Flange If it does not meet Class 3
b/T = < 10 ε c/tf = < 10 ε
outstand Class 4 requirements, the section is classified
Limits

Web in as Class 4
d/t = < 100 ε d/tw = < 83 ε
bending
Web in 4. Take the least favourable class from the flange
d/tw = < 38 ε
compression and web results
Steel Design to Eurocode 3
Restrained Beams
A beam is considered restrained if:
 The section is bent about its minor axis
 Full lateral restraint is provided
 Closely spaced bracing is provided making
the slenderness of the weak axis low
 The compressive flange is restrained again
torsion
 The section has a high torsional and lateral
bending stiffness
There are a number of factors to consider when
designing a beam, and they all must be satisfied
for the beam design to be adopted:
 Bending Moment Resistance
 Shear Resistance
 Combined Bending and Shear
 Serviceability
Bending Moment
Resistance
In Eurocode 3:
 Clause 6.2 covers the cross-sectional
resistance
o Clause 6.2.5 deals with the cross-
sectional resistance for bending.
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.4 Equation 6.12 states
that the design moment (MEd) must be less than
the design cross-sectional moment resistance
(Mc,Rd)
(6.12)
The equation to calculate Mc,Rd is dependent on
the class of the section. A detailed assessment of
cross-section classification can be found in the
‘Local Buckling and Cross-Section Classification’
handout.
For Class 1 and 2 cross-sections:
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = W plfy/ɣM0(6.13)
For Class 3 cross-sections:
Mc,Rd = Mel,Rd = W el,minfy/ɣM0
(6.14)
For Class 4 cross sections:
Mc,Rd = W eff,minfy/ɣM0 (6.15)
γM0 =1.0
Section Modulus, W
Subscripts are used to identify whether or not the
section modulus is plastic or elastic and the axis
about which it acts.
BS
EC3
5950
Elastic modulus about the major axis Zxx W el,y
Elastic modulus about the minor axis Zyy W el,z
Plastic modulus about the major axis Sxx W pl,y
Plastic modulus about the minor axis Syy W pl,z
Table 1.0 Section modulus terminology comparison
between BS 5950 and EC3
Cross-section Classification
Summary
1. Get fy from Table 3.1
2. Get ε from Table 5.2
3. Substitute the value of ε into the class limits in
Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange
and web
4. Take the least favourable class from the
flange outstand, web in bending and web in
compression results to get the overall section
class
Bending Moment Resistance
Summary
1. Determine the design moment, MEd
2. Choose a section and determine the section
classification
3. Determine Mc,Rd, using equation 6.13 for Class
1 and 2 cross-sections, equation 6.14 for
Class 3 cross-sections, and equation 6.15 for
Class 4 sections. Ensure that the correct
value of W, the section modulus is used.
4. Carry out the cross-sectional moment
resistance check by ensuring equation 6.12 is
satisfied.
Shear Resistance
In Eurocode 3:
 Clause 6.2 covers the cross-sectional
resistance
o Clause 6.2.6 deals with the cross-
sectional resistance for shear.
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.6 Equation 6.17 states
that the design shear force (VEd) must be less than
the design plastic shear resistance of the cross-
section (Vpl,Rd)
(6.17)
 (6.18)
Shear Resistance Summary
1. Calculate the shear area, Av
γM0 =1.0
2. Substitute the value of Av into equation 6.18
to get the design plastic shear resistance
3. Carry out the cross-sectional plastic shear
Shear Area, Av resistance check by ensuring equation 6.17 is
satisfied.
EC3 should provide a slightly larger shear area
compared to BS 5950 meaning that the overall
resistance will be larger as shown in Figure 1.
Serviceability
Deflection checks should be made against
unfactored permanent actions and unfactored
variable actions.

Figure 1: Differences in shear area calculated using BS

5950 and EC3

Type of member Shear Area, Av

Rolled I and H sections Av = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf
(load parallel to web) but ≥ ηhwtw
Rolled Channel sections
Av = A – 2btf + (tw + r)tf
(load parallel to web)
Rolled PHS of uniform
thickness (load parallel to Av =Ah/(b+h)
depth)
CHS and tubes of uniform Figure 2: Standard case deflections and corresponding
Av =2A/π
thickness maximum deflection equations
Plates and solid bars Av =A
Table 2.0: Shear area formulas The maximum deflection calculated must not
exceed the deflection limit. The deflection limits
Term Definition are not given directly in Eurocode 3, instead,
A Cross-sectional area reference must be made to the National Annex.
b Overall breadth
h Overall depth
Design Situation Deflection limit
hw Depth of web
r Root radius Cantilever Length/180
tf Flange thickness Beams carrying plaster of
Span/360
Web thickness (taken as the minimum value other brittle finish
tw
is the web is not of constant thickness) Other beams (except
Span/200
purlins and sheeting rails)
Constant which may be conservatively taken
η To suit the characteristics
as 1.0 Purlins and sheeting rails
of particular cladding
Table 3.0: Shear area parameter descriptions Table 4.0: Vertical Deflection Limits from NA 2.23
Clause 7.2.1(1) B
Figure 1: Visual definition
of the parameters used in
the shear area
calculation. (Source:
Blue Book)
Steel Design to Eurocode 3 (6.54)

Unrestrained Beams
(6.55)
Beams without continuous lateral restraint are prone to
buckling about their major axis, this mode of buckling
where γM1 =1.0 (from UK NA)
is called lateral torsional buckling (LTB).
Section Modulus Wy
This handout is a continuation of the ’Restrained
Beams’ one and covers the design of unrestrained For Class 1 and 2 cross-sections:
beams that are prone to lateral torsional buckling.
W y = W pl,y
Lateral torsional buckling can be discounted when:
For Class 3 cross-sections:
 The section is bent about its minor axis
 Full lateral restraint is provided W y = W el,y
 Closely spaced bracing is provided making the
For Class 4 cross-sections:
slenderness of the weak axis low
 The compressive flange is restrained again W y = W eff,y
torsion
 The section has a high torsional and lateral Yield Strength, fy
bending stiffness
 The non-dimensional slenderness, < 0.2 The UK National Annex says that we should obtain the
value of the yield strength from the product standards.
Eurocode 3 Approach
Extract from EN 10025-2 - fy (yield strength) values for
hot rolled steel:
There are three methods for calculating the LTB
resistance of a member in Eurocode 3:
fy (N/mm2)
1. Primary method (Clauses 6.3.2.2 and Clauses nominal thickness of element,
6.3.2.3) t (mm)
2. Simplified assessment method (Clause Steel

40 < t ≤ 63

63 < t ≤ 80
Grade
16< t ≤ 40

6.3.2.4)
t≤16

3. General method (Clause 6.3.4)

Note: This handout will only deal with the primary

method.
S 275 275 265 255 245
General and Special Cases S 355 355 345 335 325
When using the primary method, there are two cases Extract from EN 10025-2 (Table 7)
which are available for you to use. The first case is the
‘General Case’ which can be used for all sections, and Reduction Factor, χLT
the second case is the ‘Special Case’ which is
specifically for rolled sections of standard dimensions. General Case:

The methods for both cases are very similar with the (6.56)
addition of a few extra parameters in the Special Case.
This small amount of extra work for the Special Case
is worthwhile as it provides greater resistance of the
section.

LTB Resistance where

EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.3.2.1 Equation 6.54 states that
the design moment (MEd) must be less than the design
buckling resistance moment (Mb,Rd)
To get αLT, determine the buckling curve that you (6.58)
need to use from table 6.4 and then refer to table
6.3 to get the corresponding value of αLT
f= 1- 0.5(1 - kc)[1-2.0( - 0.8)2]
Cross- Limits Buckling
section Curve but f ≤1.0
Rolled I h/b ≤ 2 a
sections h/b >2 s kc can be obtained from Table 6.6 in the
Welded I h/b ≤ 2 c Eurocodes:
sections h/b >2 d
Other - d
EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.4

Buckling a b c d
curve
αLT 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.3

Special Case (for rolled sections):

(6.57)

where EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.6

UK NA sets β = 0.75 and = 0.4 You will need the value of for both the general and
special cases.
To get αLT, determine the buckling curve that you
need to use from the table from the National
Annex NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1) and then refer (6.56)
to table 6.3 to get the corresponding value of αLT

Cross-section Limits Buckling Mcr

Curve
Rolled bi-symmetric I
h/b ≤ 2 b Refer to SN003 document (NCCI) for detailed
and H sections and hot- description of how to get Mcr
2.0 < h/b ≤ 3.1 c
finished hollow sections
Angles (for moments in
the major principal
d
plane) and other hot-
rolled sections
Welded bi-symmetric
sections and cold-
h/b ≤ 2 c where
h/b > 2 d
formed hollow sections
L is the distance between points of lateral restraint (Lcr)
Table from NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1)
E is the Young’s Modulus = 210000 N/mm2
Buckling a b c d
curve G is the shear modulus = 80770 N/mm2
αLT 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.3 Iz is the second moment of area about the weak axis

You can use a modified value of χLT in the special It is the torsion constant
case to give some extra resistance:
Iw is the warping constant
k is an effective length factor (usually 1.0)
kw is an effective length factor (usually 1.0)
zg is the distance between the point of load application
and the shear centre. The value will be positive or
negative depending on where the load is applied as
shown in figure 1.
Figure 1 (from SN003 document)
C1 and C2 are coefficients.
For transverse loading, C1 and C2 are obtained from
Table 5.2 in SN003:
Table 5.2 from SN003 (C1 and C2 values for
transverse loading)
For members with end moments, the value of C1 is
obtained from Table 3.1 in SN003:
Table 3.1 from SN003 (Values of C1 for members with
end moments)
where
Figure 3.1 from SN003
Summary
1. Draw the bending moment diagram to obtain the
value of the maximum bending moment, MEd
2. Determine fy (UK NA recommends you use the
product standards) and calculate the class of the
section. Once you know the class of the section
then you will know which value of the section
modulus you will need to use in the equation 6.55.
3. Work out the effective length, Lcr
4. Refer to SN003 document and work out the value
of Mcr, the critical moment
5. Work out using expression 6.56.
6. Determine the values of αLT
a. For the general case use Table 6.4 to work
out the buckling curve and then refer to Table
6.3 to get a value of αLT
b. For the special case, refer to the table in the
National Annex (NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1))
to get the buckling curve and then refer to
Table 6.3 to get the value of αLT
7. Work out ΦLT
a. For the general case use expression 6.56
b. For the special case, use expression 6.57
8. Work out χLT
a. For the general case use expression 6.56
b. For the special case, use expression 6.57
9. Calculate the design buckling resistance Mc,Rd
using equation 6.55.
10. Carry out the buckling resistance check in
expression 6.54.
 must be less than the design cross-sectional
Steel Design to Eurocode 3 resistance of the sections to uniform compression
force (Nc,Rd)
Compression Members (6.9)

Columns are vertical members used to carry axial Cross-section resistance in compression depends
compression loads and due to their slender nature, on cross-section classification. For Classes 1, 2
they are prone to buckling. The behaviour of a and 3:
column will depend on its slenderness as shown in
Figure 1 (6.10)

For Class 4 sections:

(6.11)

γM0 =1.0

Figure 1 Behaviour of columns is determined by their Cross-section Classification Summary

slenderness
Stocky Columns are not affected by buckling and
the strength is related to the material yield stress fy.
Nmax = Npl = Aeff fy
1. Get fy from Product Standards
2. Get ε from Table 5.2
3. Substitute the value of ε into the class limits in
Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange
and web
4. Take the least favourable class from the flange
outstand, web in bending and web in
compression results to get the overall section
class

For a more detailed description of cross-section

classification, please refer to the ‘Cross-section
Figure 2: Resistance of columns depends on different Classification’ handout.
factors

Eurocode 3 Approach
Cross-section Resistance Check
To take into account the various imperfections Summary
which the Euler formula does not allow for, the
Eurocode uses the Perry-Robertson approach. This 1. Determine the design compression force
is approach is the similar to that used in BS 5950.
2. Choose a section and determine the section
classification
Table 1 shows the checks required for both slender
and stocky columns: 3. Determine Nc,Rd, using equation 6.10 for Class
1,2 and 3 sections, and equation 6.11 for Class
Slender Stocky
4 sections.
column Column
> 0.2 < 0.2 4. Carry out the cross-sectional resistance check
Cross-section Resistance check, Nc,Rd   by ensuring equation 6.9 is satisfied.
Buckling Resistance Check, Nb,Rd 

Table 1.0 Resistance checks required for slender and
stocky columns
Cross-Section Resistance
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.4 Equation 6.9 states that
the design value of the Compression force (NEd)
Effective Area Aeff
The effective area of the cross-section used for
design of compression members with Class 1, 2 or
3 cross-sections, is calculated on the basis of the
gross cross-section using the specified dimensions.
Holes, if they are used with fasteners in
connections, need not be deducted.
Member Buckling Resistance Non-dimensional Slenderness
For sections with Classes 1, 2 and 3:
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.3.1 Equation 6.46 states
that the design values of the Compression force (6.50)
(NEd) must be less than the buckling resistance of or
the compression member (Nb,Rd)
For Class 4 sections:
(6.46)
(6.51)
or
Similarly to cross-section resistance, buckling
resistance is dependent on the cross-section
classification. For sections with Classes 1, 2 and 3:
(6.47) where

For Class 4 sections: Imperfection Factor, 

(6.48)
 is an imperfection factor, first you will need to
determine the required buckling curve from Table
γM1 =1.0 6.2 and refer to Table 6.1 to get the value of :
Buckling Curves Buckling Curve a0 a b c d
Imperfection
0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Buckling curve selection is dependent on the Factor
section geometry. Table 6.2 in EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.1
provides guidance on a range of sections.

Effective Buckling Lengths Reduction Factor, χ

The effective length of a member will depend on its (6.49)

end conditions. EC3 gives no direct guidance on
calculating the buckling length, therefore it is
acceptable to use those given in BS 5950 Table where
13. Some typical effective lengths are given in
Figure 3. Alternatively, χ may be read from Figure 6.4 in the
Eurocodes by using and the required buckling
curve.

Buckling Resistance Check Summary

1. Determine the design axial load, NEd

2. Choose a section and determine the class
3. Calculate the effective length Lcr
4. Calculate Ncr using the effective length Lcr, and
Pinned - Fixed - Fixed Fixed - Pinned
E and I which are section properties
Pinned
5. Calculate
Figure 3: Effective Lengths for three types of end 6. Determine α by first determining the required
conditions buckling curve from Table 6.2 and then reading
off the required value of α from Table 6.1.
7. Calculate Φ by substituting in the values of α
Elastic Critical Buckling Load and
8. Calculate χ by substituting in the values of Φ
Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load for the and
relevant buckling mode based on the gross 9. Determine the design buckling resistance of
properties of the cross section the member by using equation 6.47 or 6.48
and substituting in the value of χ
10. Make sure that the conditions of equation 6.46
are satisfied.
 Partial Factors γM
Steel Design to Eurocode 3
γM UK N.A. Value
Tension Members γM0 Resistance of cross-sections 1.0
Resistance of cross-sections
γM2 1.25
in tension to fracture
As the tensile force increases on a member it will
straighten out as the load is increased. For a
member that is purely in tension, we do not need
Characteristic Strengths fy and fu
to worry about the section classification since it will The UK National Annex says you should get the
not buckle locally. values of fy and fu from the product standards. For
A tension member fails when it reached the hot-rolled sections you can use the table below.
ultimate stress and the failure load is independent
of the length of the member. Tension members fy (N/mm2) fu (N/mm2)
are generally designed using rolled section, bars
or flats. Steel

16 < t ≤ 40

40 < t ≤ 63

63 < t ≤ 80

3 < t ≤ 100
grade
Tensile Resistance

t ≤ 16

t<3
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.3(1) Equation 6.5 states
430- 410-
that the design tensile force (Nt,Ed) must be less S 275 275 265 255 245
580 560
than the design tensile resistance moment (Nt,Rd) 510- 470-
S 355 355 345 335 325
680 630
Extract from Table 7 of EN 10025-2
(6.5)

The tensile resistance is limited by the lesser of: Anet for Non staggered fasteners

 Design Plastic Resistance Npl,Rd Anet = A – Σd0t

 Design Ultimate Resistance Nu,Rd

Design Plastic Resistance, Npl,Rd

Npl,Rd is the plastic design resistance, and is

concerned with the yielding of the gross cross-
section.

Equation 6.6 gives the expression used to Anet for Staggered Fasteners:
calculate Npl,Rd:

(6.6)

Design Ultimate Resistance, N u,Rd

Nu,Rd is the design ultimate resistance of the net
The total area to be deducted should be taken as
cross-section, and is concerns with the ultimate
the greater of:
fracture of the net cross-section, which will
normally occur at fastener holes. a) The maximum sum of the sectional areas
of the holes on any line perpendicular to
Equation 6.7 gives the expression used to
the member axis
calculate Nu,Rd:
(6.7)
b)
where:
t is the thickness of the plate
p is the spacing of the centres of the same two
holes measured perpendicular to the member axis
s is the staggered pitch of the two consecutive
holes
n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal
or zig-zag line progressively across the section
d0 is the diameter of the hole
Tension Member Design Steps Summary
1. Determine the design axial load NEd
2. Choose a section
3. Find fy and fu from the product standards
4. Get the gross area A and the net area Anet
5. Substitute the values into the equations to
work out Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd
(6.6)

Angles with welded end connections

Clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8 states that for an
equal angle, or unequal angle welded along its
larger leg, the effective area = gross area.
Angles Connected by a single row of bolts
Refer to EN 1993-1-8.
(6.7)
For angles connected by a single row of bolts,
use the required equation to work out N u,Rd
from EN 1993-1-8 which will depend on the
number of bolts.

For 1 bolt:
(3.11)

For 2 bolts:
For 1 bolt:
(3.12)
(3.11)

For 2 bolts: For 3 or more bolts:

(3.12) (3.13)

For 3 or more bolts:

6. The design tensile Resistance is the lesser of
(3.13) the values of Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd
7. Carry out the tension check:
Values of reduction factors β2 and β3 can be found (6.5)
in Table 3.8:

Pitch p1 ≤ 2.5 d0 ≥ 5.0 d0

β2 (for 2 bolts) 0.4 0.7
β3 (for 3 or
0.5 0.7
more bolts)
Note: For intermediate values of pitch p 1 values of
β may be determined by linear interpolation.
EN 1993-1-8Table 3.8
 Clause 6.3.3(4)
Steel Design to Eurocode 3
Members which are subjected to combined
Combined axial bending and axial compression should satisfy
both:
compression and bending

Equation 6.61
Uniform members in bending and axial
compression demonstrate complex structural
behaviour

Interaction Method Equation 6.62

When using the interaction method you will need

to refer to Clause 6.3.3 of EN 1993-1-1, and you
will also need to refer to Annex A or B depending
on the specific method being used.
where:

design values of the compression force

Clause 6.3.3(1) NEd
and the maximum moments about the y-y
My,Ed
When checking uniform members in bending and and z-z axes along the member,
axial compression, a distinction is made for: Mz,Ed respectively
 members not susceptible to torsional
deformation (e.g. SHS, CHS, fully restrained
members) ΔMy,Rd moments due to the shift of the centroidal
 members susceptible to torsional deformation axis according to 6.2.9.3
ΔMz,Rk

Clause 6.3.3(2)
The resistance of the cross-sections at each end Χy reduction factors due to flexural buckling
of the member should also satisfy the from clause 6.3.1
χz
requirements given in Clause 6.2

Clause 6.3.3(3) reduction factor due to lateral torsional

χLT
For members of structural systems the resistance buckling from clause 6.3.2
check may be carried out on the basis of the
individual single span members regarded as cut
out of the system.
kyy,
Second-order effects of the sway system (P-Δ kyz,
effects) have to be taken into account, whether by interaction factors kij.
the end moments of the member or by means of kzy,
appropriate buckling lengths respectively. kzz
Table 6.7 – Values for NRk, Mi,Rk and
ΔMi,Ed
NRk = fyAi Mi,Rk = fyW i

Class 1 2 3 4

AI A A A Aeff

Wy Wpl,y Wpl,y W el,y W eff,y

Wz Wpl,z Wpl,z W el,z W eff,z

ΔMY,Ed 0 0 0 eN,yNEd

ΔMz,Ed 0 0 0 eN,zNEd

NOTE1 : For members not susceptible to

torsional deformation χLT would be χLT = 1.0

NOTE 2: Nb,Rd = χ NRk/γM1

Interaction Factors kij

Interaction factors are obtained from one of two
methods:

 Method 1 (given in Annex A)

 Method 2 (given in Annex B)

Annex A (Method 1)
• Use Table A.1 of EN 1993-1-1

Equivalent uniform moment factors Cmi,0 depend

on the shape of the bending moments diagram
and these factors are determined from Table A.2
of EN 1993-1-1

Annex B (Method 2)
• Use Table B.1 of EN 1993-1-1 for members
not susceptible to LTB
• Use Table B.2 of EN 1993-1-1for members
that are susceptible to LTB.

Determine the equivalent uniform moment factors

from Table B.3 of EN 1993-1-1.
Annex A
Table A.1 Interaction factors kij for interaction formula in clause 6.3.3 (4)
Table A.2 – Equivalent uniform moment factors Cmi,0
Annex B

Table B.1 - Interaction factors kij for members not susceptible to torsional deformations

Table B.2 - Interaction factors kij for members susceptible to torsional deformations
Table B.3 Equivalent uniform factors Cm in Tables B.1 and B.2
 EN 1993-1-8 Clause 2.2
Steel Design to Eurocode 3
• Partial safety factors, γM for joints are given in

Joints Table 2.1 of EC 3-8.

• Refer to NA to get the required values of the

Eurocode 3 Part: 1-8 different partial safety factors

Joint Types
CL 5.2.2.2 ‘Nominally pinned’ joints are capable of
transmitting internal forces without developing
significant moments, and capable of accepting the
resulting rotations under the design loads.
CL 5.2.2.3 ‘Rigid and full strength’ joints have
sufficient rotational stiffness to justify analysis based
on full continuity.
• Resistance of bolts and welds, γM2 = 1.25
Bolted Joints – Table 3.4
Table 3.4 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the different checks
required for individual fasteners subjected to shear
and/or tension.
Checks need to be carried out for a number of possible
failure modes:

‘Semi-rigid’ joints lie somewhere between ‘nominally • Shear resistance per shear plate
pinned’ and ‘rigid’. • Bearing Resistance
• Tension Resistance
Eurocode 3 • Combined shear and tension
• Principles mostly the same as BS 5950
• Results are similar although EC3 results are slightly Bolted Joints – Tension
more conservative and this is due to the larger
Tension resistance for ordinary bolts:
partial safety factor (γM2=1.25)

Bolt Strength
These values should be adopted as characteristic
values in design calculations : where:

Bolt classes 4.6 5.6 8.8 10.9 • As is the tensile stress area of the bolt
• γM2 = 1.25
fyb (N/mm2) 240 300 640 900
• fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
fub (N/mm2) 400 500 800 1000 • k2 = 0.63 for countersunk bolt, otherwise k2 = 0.9
EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.1 - Nominal values of fyb and fub
for bolts Bolted Joints – Shear
Steel Strength
Shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts
2 2 where the shear plane passes through the threaded
fy (N/mm ) fu (N/mm )
portion of the bolt:
Nominal
Steel Nominal thickness of element thickness of
grade t (mm) element t
(mm)
16 < t 40 < t 63 < t 3≤t
t ≤ 16 t<3
≤ 40 ≤ 63 ≤ 80 ≤ 100 where:
430 410
S 275 275 265 255 245 to to • As is the tensile stress area of the bolt
580 560 • fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
510 470
S 355 355 345 335 325 to to • γM2 = 1.25
680 630
Bolt classes 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9
Extract from Table 7 of EN 10025-2
αv 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5
Shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts
where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded
portion of the bolt:
Welded Joints
Simplified method for design resistance of fillet
weld (CL 4.5.3.3 and Table 4.1 EN 1993-1-8)

where: Fw,Ed ≤ Fw,Rd (4.2)

• A is the gross cross-section of the bolt
Fw,Ed is the design value of the weld force per unit
• fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
• γM2 = 1.25 length

Bolted Joints – Bearing Fw,Rd is the design resistance per unit length

Bearing resistance for ordinary bolts:

Fw,Rd = fvw,da
fvw,d is the design shear strength of the weld
where:
• d is the bolt diameter a is the effective throat thickness (see Figure 1)
• t is the thickness
• γM2 = 1.25
• fu is the ultimate tensile strength

• for end bolts

• for inner bolts

Perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:

• for edge bolts

Figure 1 – effective throat thickness
Image Source: Design of Structural Elements (Arya,
2009) Page 421
• for inner bolts

Bolted Joints – Position of Holes

Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the maximum and
minimum spacing, end and edge distances (4.4)

fu is the minimum ultimate tensile strength of the

connected parts
βw is a correlation factor (See Table 4.1)
γM2 = 1.25
Image Source: ESDEP

Minimum distance Steel grade Correlation factor βw

End distance e1 1.2d0 S275 0.85

Edge distance e2 1.2d0 S355 0.90

Spacing p1 2.2d0 Extract from Table 4.1 from EN 1993-1-8: Values for
Spacing p2 2.4d0 correlation factor βw

where d0 =hole diameter