Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PREFACE
The MCC training is conducted by Global Aviation team of synthetic flight instructors,
with an international experience of thousands of hours in airline environment. The flight
simulator used for the training is a FNPT II-MCC made by Elite Simulation Solutions AG,
and it represents a twin-turboprop aircraft Beechcraft B200 King Air. The student pilot
must spend at least a few hours preparing an MCC session before arriving at the
airport; this manual will assist him/her to be better prepared.
Special thanks to the team of people behind the making of this manual.
Marios Samprakos
The Head of Training
Global Aviation SA
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Table of Contents
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0 General Description
0.1 Introduction
0.1.1 The aim and objectives of the MCC course
The aim of the course is to become proficient in multi-crew co-operation (MCC) in order to
operate safely multi-pilot multi-engine aeroplanes under IFR. The MCC course shall comprise at
least 25 hours of theoretical instruction/ self-study and exercises 20 hours on a MCC training-
device. The MCC training shall be accomplished within six months under the supervision of the
Head of Training of GLOBAL Aviation S.A.
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Hardware
Interaction between human beings and the other elements of the SHEL model are at the heart
of Human Factors. It involves considerations such as the design of seats to fit the sitting
characteristics of the human body, of displays to match the sensory and information
processing characteristics of the human model. The user may never be aware of a liveware-
hardware (L-H) deficiency, even where it finally leads to disaster, because the natural
human characteristic of automatically adjusting to L-H mismatches will mask such a
deficiency. But it will not remove its existence. This constitutes a potential hazard to which
designers should be alert.
The L-H interface addresses the mismatch in the human-machine design relationship and
the source of confusion and error caused by poorly designed or located equipment. Many
elements and skills can affect the L-H interface. During this course we will discuss those
elements that can affect MCC.
The following list contains some examples:
Hardware elements.
Controls and displays.
Design (movement, size scales, color, illumination, etc,).
Common errors in interpretation and control.
Glass cockpits, information selection. Habit pattern interference, design and
standardisation.
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Software
Liveware/software interaction his encompasses humans and the non-physical aspects of the
system such as procedures, manual and checklist layout, symbology and computer
programmes. The problems are often less tangible in this interface and are consequently
more difficult to resolve (e.g., misinterpretation of checklists or symbology).
Many elements and skills can affect the liveware-software interface. During this course we
will discuss the elements that can affect MCC. The following list contains some examples of
software interface elements and skills:
Software elements:
Standard Operating Procedures
Written materials/computer software
Maps/charts
Checklists and manuals
Operational aspects of automation(overload/under load and phase of flight,
complacency and boredom)
Automated in-flight equipment; appropriate use
Liveware-software interface:
Self discipline and procedural behaviour
Interpretation
Time management
Self motivation
Task allocation
Computer literacy
Environment
The human-environment interface was one of the earliest recognised in flying. Initially,
the measures taken were all aimed at adapting the human to the environment (helmets,
flying suits, oxygen masks, anti-G suits). Later, the trend was to reverse this process by
adapting the environment to match the human requirements (pressurisation and air-
conditioning systems, soundproofing).
Illusions and disorientation are at the root of many aviation accidents. Examples of this are
the illusions which may be encountered during approach and landing phases. The L-E
interface must therefore consider perceptual errors induced by environmental conditions.
Many elements and skills can affect the liveware/environment interface.
New challenges arise as new advances are made in our industry (e.g. ozone concentrations
and radiation hazards at higher flight levels). The problems associated with disturbed
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biological rhythms and related sleep disturbance and deprivation as a consequence of the
increased speed of trans meridian travel. The aviation system operates within the context of
broad political and economical constraints and those aspects of the environment will interact
in this interface. Although the possibility of modifying these influences is beyond Human
Factors practitioners, their incidence is central and should be properly considered and
addressed by those in management who have the authority, position and facility to do so.
The following list contains some examples of environment interface elements and skills.
Environmental elements:
Temperature, pressure and humidity
Noise and vibration
Lighting
Radiation
Pollutants, contaminants and carbon monoxide poisoning
Terrain: mountains, water, desert, "white-out" and "black-hole"
Weather: turbulence, wind shear and icing
Other air traffic
Time of day
Take-off and landing conditions: density altitude, snow and runway conditions
Legal and regulatory factors
Company organisational structure and economic climate
Employer operating pressures
Employer/employee relations/unions
Family relationships
Peer groups and professionalism
Pairing of inexperienced crews (experience in the operational context).
Liveware-environment interface:
Adaptation
Observation
Situational awareness
Stress management
Risk management
Prioritisation and attention management
Coping/emotional control
Decision-making.
Liveware
Liveware/ Liveware interaction is the interface between people. On a single crew
operation, with which you have been familiar, this workplace interface is generally 'distant'
and consists of interactions with other groups or individuals such as:
Air traffic control
Operations staff and management
Airport ground staff (loaders, fuellers, marshallers).
Most of these interactions are conducted without prolonged close proximity and seldom
involve tasks that are perceived to be 'shared', even although the activities of all contribute
to the 'team' effect.
Elements that affect liveware are:
Breathing: hypoxia and hyperventilation
Pressure effects on ears, sinuses and trapped or evolved gases
Limitations of the visual, aural and vestibular senses
Disorientation and illusions
Fatigue
Sleep disturbances and jet lag
Nutrition
Alcohol
Drugs (including nicotine/caffeine)
Medications (prescribed over the counter)
Blood donations
Ageing
Pregnancy
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General fitness
Liveware psychological elements:
Human errors and reliability
Workload
Information processing, mindsets and habit patterns, attention, vigilance,
perceptual imitations and memory
Attitudinal factors, personality, motivation, boredom, complacency and culture
Perceptual and situational awareness
Judgment and decision making
Stress and coping mechanisms
Skills, experience, currency and proficiency
For effective liveware/liveware interfaces some liveware skills will have been developed.
These include:
Communication skills
Listening skills
Observation skills
Operational management skills, leadership and followership
Problem solving
Decision-making
Stress recognition/coping
Disorientation
Fatigue prevention and coping techniques
Pressure effects
Self discipline/control/tolerance
Perception
Attitudes and the application of knowledge
Exercise of judgment
The Multi Crew environment can result in added complications, which are highlighted by
considering the dual nature of the MCC SHEL model. The obvious first consideration is that
there is an additional liveware interface.
Unlike other liveware interfaces this one is a "close encounter" and will last from the pre-
flight briefing until the post flight activities. In this situation it is important that the
interface, rather than becoming a barrier, should become the conduit for exchanging
information, sharing experience and providing mutual support and monitoring. In order
for this to be effective, allowances must be made for personality, attitude, experience
gradient, knowledge gradient and differences in perception of the outside world.
Hardware interfaces
Because of physical differences, each pilot will experience a different interface. Instruments
and/or warning are sometimes misinterpreted (even by the most experienced and careful
pilot) while selections of controls, radios, FMS input, etc., are notoriously prone to error.
The liveware interface should be tactfully used whenever such an error is believed to have
been made.
Software interfaces
Manuals, maps, checklists etc., are all capable of being misread or misunderstood. Different
people may well read them differently. Conflicts are possible in the case of such an
occurrence. These must be resolved calmly and rapidly.
Environmental Interfaces
As individuals we will be affected in different ways by the environment, both immediate
and distant from the flight deck. It is necessary to be aware of this and to be prepared to
make allowances for how the other person is feeling, both physically and mentally.
Think of your own personal life and see if you can find instances where such interfaces
have caused problems. Certainly, without too much searching,
you will find some. With a little thought and diplomacy, could these problems have been
avoided or resolved?
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0.3.2 COMMUNICATION
Objective
By the end of this section you will have reviewed the process of communication, will be able
to identify the skills and components for effective communication and will be fully aware of the
necessity of perfecting and practicing these skills within effective communication loops.
Content
Communication is a fundamental component of life.
Effective communication is essential in life but is
critical to the safety and efficiency of operating in a
multi-crew environment.
Effective communication is a transmission of a message
from one brain to another with a minimum of
change. Communication can be described as a cycle of
activities. To be effective the cycle must be closed.
The sender is the communication source. The cycle,
which progresses from this source, is made up of the
following elements:
The sender
This person develops the message, selects the medium, and transmits the message. In
developing the message, the sender makes a choice of words and, consciously or
unconsciously, adds 'non-verbal1 content, body language, eye contact. Influencing factors
that may distort the message, such as voice, noise and workload should be taken into
account when selecting the medium.
The Medium
There are a range of mediums and factors affecting their effectiveness. Some of the
mediums are non-verbal, e.g., body language, signs or gestures, touch, written word. We
"say" a lot with our bodies - studies have shown that about 55% of normal communications
take place through body language. In the flight deck environment, body language effect is
diminished. Signs or gestures can be used to convey information or instruction (marshalling
signals) but can easily be misinterpreted, e.g., sender pointing to a control (flap selector)
and the receiver thinks that the landing gear lever has been indicated. Touch can be useful
as an "attention getter" but does not normally convey much information.
Written word and diagrams can be very explicit but there is no immediate feed back.
Our most effective means of communication in a team environment is the voice, which can
convey information and meaning by using carefully selected and arranged words
expressed in a suitable tone and transmitted at a suitable time.
The Message
The message can be short and easy to understand, or long and complicated. Whenever
possible, and especially during high workloads, use short common words. Examples of this
include: using the words "keep" or "hold" instead of "let us try to maintain"; using the
word "start" instead of "let us go ahead and do the," and using the word "stop" instead of
"it is time to terminate ..."
Casual communication is part of our everyday lives and it is more "cosy" to use it. However do
keep in mind the fact that casual words, slang and long sentences have caused several
accidents.
Short and simple commands works better during high workload and prevent misunderstandings.
The phraseology used in SOP's has been made with this in mind.lt is recommended that
instructions should be given in the imperative form. For example:
"Set heading 250 degrees - set speed 190 knots" is preferable to:
"Can you set the heading bug to 250 and the speed bug needs to be set to 190." Apply a
"KISS" rule - Keep It Short & Simple.
This also applies when we deal with ATC. Do not give too much information at the same
time. It is safer to break it up a bit.
Consider this transmission:
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"Approach, Steal 235 at FL 250, pilots discretion to FL lBO, speed restricted to 250 knots,
estimating to start descent in five miles, requesting a right turn to avoid weather, we have
information Alpha, and could you tell us what runway to expect".
The controller's short-term memory was just overloaded. The message should have been
broken down. It was too much in one transmission.
Use the words and phrases on the radio as contained in the ICAO publications as appropriate
to the region. Some examples of the correct usage are restrictions' in the use of the words
"clear", "clearance" and "take-off" (in order to prevent repeats of disasters such as
Tenerife). The word "take-off" is used only for the single case of the take-off itself. The only
situations in which the word "clear" may be used are the route, take-off, approach and
landing clearances. Introducing the word "affirm" to replace affirmative prevents possible
confusion between negative and affirmative responses.
Communication with non-pilots or with ATC personnel can sometimes create problems caused
by different vocabulary.
Timing of Transmission
It is of little use to start a briefing of an approach chart when the other crewmember is
still looking for the chart in his binder. The timing of transmission of a message is important.
Is the receiver ready? This needs to be verified.
Voice and noise
Is there a lot of noise in the cockpit? Are you talking at the same time as ATC or visitors
from the cabin? Is your voice loud enough? Do you use clear language or do you have an
accent that the other pilot is not used to?
Workload
If the workload is high, the message should, if possible, be delayed. Examples of this would
be to call for the after take-off checklist when the PM is changing frequencies and looking for
essential traffic. Keep in mind that humans cannot do too many things at one time. Would it
be safer to delay the message for a short time to avoid missing altitude restrictions etc.?
How effective communication is, depends heavily on the sender. It is up to you the sender to
ensure that your message is not only transmitted, but also received and understood.
Ask yourself the question - Is the message received and understood? This is the sole purpose
of the entire process and needs to be verified. The question remains how to do that. Step
one is to look at the receiver:
Does he/she acknowledge?
What body signals can be read?
Does it look like he/she understands?
Is he/she busy and making the common mistake of just replying yes, when he/she
really was not paying attention?
If you are not sure, challenge by asking a follow-up question.
The good transmitter:
Constructs a clear, easy to understand message.
Uses a loud and clear voice.
Ensures a good timing of transmission.
Looks at the receiver, if duties permit, in order to see what reaction is shown.
Challenges understanding or feedback.
The good receiver:
Pays attention.
Notifies if unable to pay attention (e.g., if not ready for a checklist).
Acknowledges the receipt and understanding of a message verbally or by gesture.
In short, the good receiver gives a feedback to the sender.
Communication assumptions
We have discussed how barriers in the communication process should be respected. Let us
take a look at some common assumptions.
I. Assumption
Do you assume that the message sent is the same as the message received? Or do you
consider that the message sent is rarely the same as the message received? If you operate
under the first assumption, you would be correct if you were communicating with a
machine. However, almost all communication in organisational settings involves the
sending of messages from one human to another. Consequently, the message sent is rarely
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the same as the message received. Each of us has our own unique set of attitudes,
motivations and perceptual frames and we filter incoming messages to some extent. The
message we think we are sending may be substantially different from the message that is
received.
II. Assumption
Do you assume that you communicate only when you consciously choose to do so? Or do you
assume that communication is often unplanned and unconscious? The truth is, you cannot
stop communicating. Simply being in the presence of another person is to communicate
with that person, even if you choose not to say or do anything. Such non-verbal stimuli as
physical stature, dress and gestures may all serve as unintended messages in the
communication process.
Furthermore, what others have heard about you and their mental image of you often
contradicts the message you hope to transmit. The total image sent incorporates not only
the intended message, but the unintended message as well.
Remember that it is impossible not to communicate.
III. Assumption
Do you assume that meanings are inherent in words? Or do you assume that meanings
originate in people? When structuring messages we often assume that the words
constituting the message have a fixed, predictable meaning. We are surprised when others
do not understand what we believe to be obvious. If we assume that others may attach
their own definitions to words, then we are not so surprised when confusion arises. For
example, "impending layoff" may mean, "tomorrow I get axed" to one person, and "I
wonder who will be cut" to another. Words have a fixed meaning only when one machine
communicates with another.
IV. Assumption
Do you assume that the communication process ceases after the message has been received?
Or do you assume that feedback is an essential element of the communication process? Many
people assume that the communication process ends when the message reaches its
destination. Unfortunately, this assumption ignores the fact that feedback is necessary if
the sender is at all concerned about the impact of that message. Has the message been
understood? Has action been taken? How should the message have been structured in
order to achieve the desired results?
Each of these questions can be answered only by feedback from the receiver. Sending the
message is only part of the communication process; the other part is being responsive to
feedback from the receiver.
V. Assumption
Do you assume that if a communication breakdown occurs, it is invariably the recipient's
fault? Or do you assume that a communication breakdown may be a function of your own
communication style? There is a popular saying among public speaking teachers, "if the
audience is falling asleep, someone should wake up the speaker." Is the communication
problem with the sender's behaviour rather than with the receiver's behaviour? How can
the message best be adapted to the receiver's attitudes, motivations and perceptual
frame?
Routine communication
So far we have focused mostly on the sender, the message and the receiver in a technical
operational way.
I. Listening
Now look at the receiver. The sender could be exercising the highest levels of
communication skills but if the receiver is not listening the communication will fail. How
often have you heard but not listened? We all do it. If you have a partner how often have
you been conscious of a message being sent by him/her but not listened? If you are busy or
distracted, you may respond to a communication without actually listening to it. Car
drivers do this to passengers.
The active listener attends to the words and projects their mind into that of the speaker,
so that they can align their thoughts and feelings more closely to those of the speaker.
Active listening consists of the following two skills:
II. Non-verbal attending
Face the speaker, smile and look relaxed.
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environments create a safety hazard. Pilots must maintain a professional attitude to help
overcome the psychosocial barrier. This requires some basic social skills, respect for others
and common courtesy. We have discussed the importance of listening skills. Let us identify a
few communication pitfalls and how to avoid them. Unpleasant types- they are everywhere.
It is often a good idea to listen to yourself talk once in a while. Hear, for example, whether
you are a conversational bully, monopolising, insisting you are right and never giving another
a chance to agree or disagree. The bore- one who talks about himself or a subject that only
he finds interesting, insisting on telling you at length in spite of your obvious boredom.
The whaler. One of the fundamental rules of all conversation is that you talk about things
that will be interesting and agreeable to all the listeners. Do not spend the entire long haul
flight talking about the "good old air force fighter" days, if the, captain or co-pilot does
not have the background to participate or be interested. The sentence finisher- some people
are quicker to find words than others are. They have the irresistible urge to supply that
word or to finish a sentence.
The contradictor- everyone has a right to express his or her viewpoint. If you wish to
express an opposing view, or contradict, say, 'I think it is this way or that way", not "You
are wrong, I'm right"
The wandering eye- nothing is more disconcerting than talking with someone who does not
look directly at you. Some people do this while they are talking. Others only while listening.
Both are lacking in that primary obligation of a good communicator namely, being a good
listener. When you are talking to anyone, look directly at him/her, not with a fixed stare
but sufficiently so that it is obvious that you are giving undivided attention.
The non-stop talker- there are seldom regrets for what you have left unsaid. "Better to keep
your mouth closed and be thought of as a fool than to open it and remove all doubts". Do
not just talk to talk, be considerate, especially in the tightly enclosed area of a cockpit.
Remember your fellow crewmember may only want some peace and quiet.
Communication summary
Effective communication encompasses the entire scope of the sender's verbal, non-verbal
symbolic message. Effective communication is recognition that a variety of assumptions
and other filters could, potentially, distort the message that is sent or received. Effective
communication involves active listening for clear comprehension. Effective communication
completes the circuit of sending, receiving and feedback with all parties sharing a common
understanding of the message.
Objective
By the end of this section you will have gained an appreciation of the role of decision making
and of the steps necessary to ensure that the decision making process is recognised as
requiring continuous monitoring, validation and refinement. Barriers to effective group
decision making will have been considered and methods of ameliorating the effects of each
barrier discussed.
Content
Identifying the problem and gathering Information
Firmly establish that there is a problem that requires action.
Establish the nature of the problem and identify its source.
To achieve these bullets we must gather information so that a complete mental picture of
the problem can be constructed. Systematic steps to follow when identifying problems are:
I. Silence warning horns/bells.
II. Do not extinguish annunciation lights automatically, before their indications have
been analysed. They should, however, be extinguished and re-armed as soon as
possible to enable detection of multiple problems.
III. Call out the indications. Keep in mind that it is very easy to select the wrong checklist
during stressful high workload situations, as this report confirms: "During idle
descent the system annunciation light illuminated. A quick look at the overhead panel
detected the number one generator bus "off" light illuminated indicating that the
respective generator bus was un-powered. We completed the electrical bus "off"
system procedure. When levelling off at the next altitude restriction the PF called out
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engine failure on engine number one. The generator had not failed. The bus "off" light
was just one of many indications of on engine failure. There was, however little flight
control change from the engine failure during the idle descent."
Other examples include simply not reading the text on the warning light correctly. "We
incorrectly used the "bleed trip off" abnormal checklist for a "pack trip off" problem. This almost
made a simple cabin temperature problem into a more serious pressurisation problem. "
Carefully identify where the indication is. The next trap is to identify the correct location of
the failed system.
Left of right?
Number 1, 2, 3 or 4?
There have been many examples of a crew shutting down a good engine or the operating
hydraulic system and so on. A good way to navigate safely through these traps is to read out
the indication and be very careful and thorough when identifying which side it is. "Engine
number two oil pressure light," "electric hydraulic pump number 2 overheat light" or
"number one generator drive high oil temperature light."
Gather information
Crosscheck other sources of information such as instruments and caution or warning lights.
Reading the name as it appears on the light or panel will help as the same terminology is used
in the printed abnormal procedures.
Adjust panel lights to illuminate any printed information next to gauges and lamps intended
to help identify which engine or system it affects. Listen to the other team member.
Experienced and inexperienced pilots are equally well fitted with sensory equipment (eyes,
ears, nose etc.). They are both licensed and type rated and can therefore both identify and
interpret instrumentation and warnings. Other team members such as cabin staff, air
traffic control, ground handlers, etc., may also have valuable information. Once the
problem is identified, gather information that will assist in identifying the options.
Select the option
Remember that many options are Covered by procedures. It is important to know what
kinds of "abnormal procedures" exist and where to find these procedures. Remember that
a problem may require a number of different actions so be able to prioritize.
Implement an action
Having selected an option you should now implement the appropriate action. Do not rush
into action - at the very least this could lead to embarrassment.B747 cruising at FL 330. Cabin
staff in upper galley knocked over a drinks trolley. The resultant loud crash caused the Captain
to declare "Explosive decompression" and promptly entered an emergency descent. Result
aircraft had to return to departure as it now had insufficient fuel to reach other side of
ocean. Captain had red face}. The old adage "sit on your hands and count to five" is still valid
in most occasions. In a flight deck the Captain must make the decision and see to its
implementation. He should, as far as possible, inform the team of what action has been
decided and perhaps the reasons for that decision.
Monitor the effectiveness
Having implemented the decision, the crew must now monitor the situation to ensure that
the action is having the desired effect and that, if the desired effect is achieved, the situation
does not subsequently regress or deteriorate.
Some examples of causes of bad decisions
The following have all been identified as causes of actual accidents/incidents, sometimes
individually but often some acting together.
I. Peer pressure
Poor decision-making based upon emotional response to peers rather than evaluating a
situation objectively. Self imposed peer pressure by trying to live up to others' performance
or expectations.
II. Mind set
The inability to recognise, accept and cope with changes in situations that are different
from those anticipated or planned.
III. Get-there-it is
This tendency, common among pilots, clouds the vision and impairs judgment by causing a
fixation on the original goal or destination combined with a total disregard for any
alternative course of action.
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Objective
By the end of this section you will be able to define "Situational Awareness" (SA), describe
the three levels of SA and discuss the factors (productive and counterproductive) which will
affect SA. You will be fully aware of the importance of maintaining Situational Awareness
at the highest possible level.
Loss of Situational Awareness occurs when a crew develops or fails to recognise a lack of
attention or misunderstands the state of the aircraft and its relation to the terrain. Here
are a couple of samples from what appears to be an endless list:
A B-707 at FL-350 over Newfoundland experienced an autopilot disconnect and began a
downward spiral. It took a long time for the crew to detect the problem and they reCovered
at 6000 feet. On April 3, 1996, an U.S. Air Force CT-43A (B-737) crashed near Dubrovnik.
Croatia. The accident investigation concluded that the crew was distracted from
adequately monitoring the final approach course because of a rushed approach, improper
aircraft configuration and the call from a pilot on the ground at Dubrovnik.
These and countless other accidents and incidents demonstrate how even a highly trained
crew, flying good equipment, can find themselves in circumstances where Situational
Awareness has diminished to the point of disaster.
A bag full of traps has always awaited the unwary pilot:
Distractions
Ambiguities
Poor communications
Automation-induced complacency
Fatigue, etc
Situational Awareness is a widely used term - but what does it really mean? A simple, easy
to understand answer would be "knowing what is going on and being prepared for the
unexpected".
We use it to describe a flight crew's knowledge and awareness of important information.
From the very first flying lesson, you were taught to aviate, navigate and communicate.
This means that you must be aware of the aircraft, its position, its path and the people
(crew, passengers, ground personnel and air traffic controllers). Not only do you need to
monitor and evaluate these four elements, but also to anticipate what is going to happen
in the future, including considerations of unforeseen problems that might occur. A lapse in
awareness can be deadly and we should certainly take advantage of some of the lessons
learned by others to provide a recipe for managing awareness. What we will try to do in
the next few pages is to figure out how to direct our attention so that it is always where it
needs to be.
For simplicity, Situational Awareness is sometimes abbreviated to SA. The most used
scientific definition of SA is: "the perception of the elements in the environment within a
volume of space and time, the comprehension of their meaning and the projection of their
status in the near future". The scientists have different ideas about which subjects should
be part of the SA syllabus.
The skills for being aware of what is happening now are different from the skills for
anticipating what is going to happen later and considering what could happen. To many
pilots these skills are second nature. They are continuously aware of the aircraft, the path
and the people and can project into the future and maintain this awareness. However, like
all skills, these can be refined and that is our goal here. But first, we will take a look at
vigilance and how to stay alert.
Vigilance
A good way to stay alert and vigilance is to be aware of all the traps that can distract your
attention. Knowing the traps will hopefully make them easier to avoid. The human brain
cannot do too many things at the same time. You need to focus on the right information
at the right time. Keeping the priorities straight is a constant challenge as this report
describes.
"After we exited the runway, the co-pilot asked me a question about the ground control
frequency and I looked down at the airport diagram which was on the yoke in front of me.
When I looked up, I saw runway markings in front of me. I then looked right and observed a
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wide-body aircraft approaching us on his take-off run. I slammed on the brakes and came to
a stop 20 feet short of the runway. Two cabin attendants were out of their seats but
fortunately no one was injured, although I did have an aircraft load of concerned passengers".
This brief lapse could have been fatal and it underlines the importance of knowing where
you are at all times. Above all it highlights the need to control the aircraft first and deal
with incidents later.
If something does not look or feel right, it probably isn't.
As humans, we are aware of many clues from our surroundings for which we cannot always
identify the origin. These clues are very real. Do not ignore them, even when they only
manifest themselves in a feeling of uneasiness. In this highly technological age, it may seem
foolish to speak of intuition or gut feeling. Nonetheless, that nagging feeling that
something is not quite right is often unfailing in its precision. It is an easy feeling to ignore
because there is no specific course of action suggested; just an uncomfortable "there is
something wrong" feeling. Many CVR tapes reCovered from aircraft involved in controlled
flight into terrain accidents contain the recorded misgivings of at least one of the
crewmembers. Words were spoken such as "I do not like this", or even "let's get out of
here", but the action was taken too late. If you get a gut feeling, respond to it; do not ignore
it. Excerpts from the cockpit voice recorder prior to the tragic accident in Cali, Columbia
emphasise the point. (American Airlines, B-757 December 1995). The flight crew turned
their aircraft into a mountain.
Co-pilot: "uh, where are we" "we goin' out to"
Commander: "Let's go right to, uh, Tulua first of all.
OK?
A few seconds later, Commander identifies Tulua.
Commander: "Just doesn't look right on mine. I do not know why"
Two minutes later they impacted a mountain.
Stress
When a person is under stress his/her ability to maintain the level of attention necessary
to sustain awareness may be severely limited, especially in situations where the workload
is high.
Arousal/stress
Basically we are reacting to the 'fight or flight' syndrome which is natural to us all. As we
become aroused, some chemical activity takes place within our body. This causes our senses
to become alerted. Too much alerting or arousal, however, and we become like a rabbit
caught in the headlights - we freeze and are unable to respond.
Consider two people you know: A -Iald-back, zero stress character B - stressed, always
worried. 'A' is almost lethargic but once sufficiently roused appears to have the capacity to
take whatever is thrown at him/her. This person may need a "kick start". "B" is always
jumpy, will respond to a stimulus very quickly. This character probably has a stress factor
already working (financial, home, health, thwarted ambition, etc.). He/she will be unable
to cope with as much additional workload or situation induced stress. In a two-crew flight
deck it is important that each has an awareness, not only of their own stress level, but also
of their commander or co-pilot as the case may be ..
Be aware of your own stress level. If you feel stressed, tell your fellow team member.
Monitor your fellow team member. If he/she is acting in an abnormal fashion, ask if
anything is worrying them. If you have any reason to believe that they are under stress be
extra vigilant.
Fatigue
Fatigue is a normal fact of life. It is the tiredness we feel after a period of physical and/or
mental activity. If we are tired (fatigued) our performance is not up to scratch and we may
easily make mistakes. Fatigue is cured by proper rest periods coupled with the balanced
diet and regular exercise that are necessary inputs to a good physical condition.
Unfortunately, fatigue can become chronic. This occurs when a person becomes tired but, for
some reason, does not get sufficient quality rest. The effects are cumulative and a situation
is reached where all the essential elements of:
concentration
judgment
tolerance
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constructive thought
become adversely affected or even totally suppressed.
Chronic Fatigue requires an extended period of rest and recuperation under medical
advice if a cure is to be effected. If you are aware that you are tired then tell someone. If
you become aware that you are always tired and never get a proper sleep, then see a doctor.
Bored
Studies of humans performing many different tasks show us that we will be less likely to
detect something when we're busy attending to something else. We will also be less likely
to detect something when we are not attending too much at all. During times of low and
high workload, try to compensate for this human characteristic and be more violent. Work
out crew procedures to keep each other in the loop during these times. Predetermine roles
for high workload times, especially for abnormal situations. Vigilance is the task of
constantly monitoring without lapses in attention. Moderate levels of stress generally
enhance vigilance. Stress is considered as an increase in arousal. Fatigue and loss of sleep
decrease vigilance.
Habits are hard to break
As highly trained flight crews, you will have developed very complex habit structures.
These enable you to perform all the tasks required to skilfully fly your aircraft. There are
times when these habits can get in the way of safety. If you are required to perform a task
in a way that is different from normal, watch out, because the habit pattern may take
over without you even realizing it. The best way to combat this natural tendency is to create
a barrier. This barrier can help you to prevent or at least to be aware of what you are doing.
Expectation can reduce awareness
It is very common that incident and accident reports contain the phrase, "we heard what
we expected to hear". This trap often comes in the form of published "expect" altitudes on
arrival charts or familiarity with an airport, resulting in an altitude deviation. When you are
expecting something, double check to make sure that really was the way you expected to
be.
Things that take longer are less likely to get done right
It is especially true in the cockpit with all the things going on that, if you are doing
something over a period of time, it is less likely to get done correctly. Fuel cross feeding is
an example that most of us are familiar with. The problem is that you get interrupted with
other tasks during the time that you are cross feeding so that the time seems shorter. Or,
you might even forget that you have the cross-feeds on. Take special precautions when a
task takes a long time, is subject to interruption or is something that you cannot do right
away and have to remember to do later. Fuel cross-feeding, check lists (especially before
start) and contacting the tower at the outer marker, are examples of things that have
shown up in reports as not getting done right or not at all.
Reliable systems are not always reliable
We know that, in theory, all the systems we rely on to get an aircraft from point A to B can
fail. We practice this stuff in the simulator. However, research has shown that people
actually stop cross-checking reliable systems. When the system fails it can go undetected.
This is especially true in glass cockpits where systems are very reliable and failures are
difficult to detect. The only cure for this is to force yourself to double check information
against other sources. The following report illustrates this point.
"What I failed notice was that by inserting the arrival in the FMS, the computer dumped
the crossing restriction I had inserted just a few moments earlier. Through about FL 180,
ATC asked if we would make the BUMBY restriction (10.000 feet) and it was immediately
obvious that we would not. The cause, I believe, was a combination of workload during the
approach phase coupled with overconfidence in the FMS. I allowed myself to get too busy
during the descent to make essential crosschecks to confirm the FMS was working as
advertised".
The cure? Always, double-check the FMS data against other available navigational data to
ensure that your programming is correct and that the aircraft is following accurate FMS
guidance. Overconfidence in the FMS and increased workload in the cockpit during bad
weather and approach preparation are no excuse for sound airmanship and the
maintenance of Situational Awareness.
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safely operating the aircraft. In spite of the existence of the sterile cockpit rule over the past
decade, pilots have continued to have accidents and serious incidents that perhaps could
have been prevented. For the most part, disobeying the rule is not intentional. It just
happens.
Cockpit conversation between pilots and jump seat riders is the highest source of deviation
from the sterile cockpit rule and has been a contributing factor in several accidents.
Non-pertinent radio calls and PA announcements
Checklists
Can a checklist be "called" at any time or is there a good time/bad time?
Handling distractions
We have looked at some causes of distractions. The remaining question is, will you allow the
entire crew to "take the bait" presented by the distraction at the expense of Situational
Awareness? An honest answer will probably be that sooner or later you will. But you can
detect that this is happening and re-establish roles and priorities to make sure that
someone is still "minding the store".
Fight the tendency for the entire crew to latch onto the distraction. Assign the responsibility
to investigate the distraction to some of the crew and instruct others to pick up their
awareness requirements. This is not just the role of the commander. A co-pilot or flight
engineer who detects that the entire crew is being distracted from the task at hand should
also bring this to the crew's attention and suggest an assignment of roles and responsibilities.
Any unusual or unexpected event that draws the entire crew's attention should be a red flag
to everyone on the flight deck to ensure that someone is still "minding the store".
The next time you get a TCAS traffic alert watch all eyes go in the cockpit and then watch
everyone in the crew struggle to obtain the visual. See if your entire crew or a portion of
your crew continues to look for the visual even after it poses no immediate threat. If one
person in your crew gets the visual, see if everyone's attention is diverted to the visual. See
how long the entire crew spends looking at the traffic. If you see that your entire crew's
attention is being diverted away from the primary task, you may want to suggest a better
division of attention and awareness. A simple statement like, "Will I continue flying the
approach while you maintain the visual?" may be all that is needed to get the crew back on
track.
Recognise that your physiological condition will have an effect on how easily you are
distracted and how many operational elements you can maintain awareness on. As you get
towards the end of any duty day your capacity and vigilance may decline. You need to
account for this and realise that you (and the rest of the crew) are more easily drawn to
distractions, fixations and subsequent loss of awareness.
Avoid self-induced distractions. If your company is enforcing sterile cockpit procedures,
then comply. Crewmembers working in a cockpit where chatter occurs during critical
phases should try to have good self-discipline during critical phases of flight. Do not start a
story or get involved in any non-essential conversations. Avoid non-essential activities such
as eating meals or non-essential communications between the cabin and cockpit crews. For
the purposes of this section, critical phase of flight includes all ground operations involving
taxi, take-off and landing and all other flight operations conducted below cruise level.
Remember that the taxi phase is also very critical. There have been several crashes on
runways and taxiways that have resulted from a distraction. (This is very hazardous
towards the end of the duty day).
Three levels of SA
We have talked about how the skills of being aware of what is happening now are different
from the skills of anticipating what is going to happen later and what could happen. This
leads us to consider the three levels of SA:
Monitor,
evaluate
and anticipate
SA level 1- Monitor
The first skill is monitoring. Unfortunately, we humans have limits to how much we can see
and hear at the same time. If we had to put our monitoring goal into one rule, it would be
"to be aware of what you need to and ignore everything else." That is very easy to say and
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probably impossible to do. Let us look at some techniques that can move us towards this
goal.
Think of how you focus and direct your attention as you would focus and direct a flashlight.
Imagine that everything you are aware of is in the beam of the flashlight. You can hold it
steady in one direction and focus the beam (your attention)very narrowly so that you are
able to see a small area extremely well. This allows you to ignore all else and concentrate on
that small area. Knowing what you can ignore, if even for a moment, allows you to focus on
that which you need to be aware of. Narrowly focused attention can be appropriate when
you are solving a difficult problem, as long as someone else is attending to the other
aircraft/path/people issues. The checklist is probably the most common tool for focusing
attention. Each crewmember knows what they are to look at, when, and very importantly,
they know what the other crewmembers are looking at.
On the other hand, if you broaden the flashlight beam and move it around, you are aware of
everything about the aircraft, the path and the people. You have the big picture, but less
detail in anyone area. Well, naturally, your job requires you to do both - to focus on a
problem and to keep the big picture. This is difficult. There is no way to know when to step
back from what you are attending to and move that flashlight around or move it to a
developing problem area for a closer look. Remember, everything has to be covered all the
time, so if someone has their attention focused narrowly in one direction, the other
crewmember(s) should broaden their beam and keep it moving.
You can focus your attention in the wrong direction and get sidetracked. There are also
things that get in the way of where you are directing your attention. Things arise that block
your view, both literally and figuratively. These are distractions and they come in many
forms as we have discussed. A distraction is often the first link in the chain of events that
leads to an incident, sometimes embarrassing and sometimes dangerous.
You direct your attention in different ways:
Focus on a road region- keep the big picture
Focus on a narrow region- pay attention to detail
Focus on the right information- do not get side-tracked or distracted.
If a crew fails to recognise a problem or misinterprets information they are "failing behind
the situation". This is known as a SA level 1 failure. SA level I errors have causes the
majority of accidents. As a matter of fact, about 80% of all SA related accidents are level!.
The most common are:
Failure to monitor flight path.
Distractions, caused by malfunctions, radio, checklists, procedures and situations not
directly related to flying the aircraft.
Misunderstandings caused by confusing instructions, phraseology and mind-sets.
SA level 2- Evaluate
It is not good to "fall behind". Most of us prefer to stay on top of the situation. This leads us
to the next level of SA. This level is called evaluation and comprehension of cues. We have
the time and capacity to comprehend the current situation. In addition to monitoring the
aircraft/path/people, we are able to evaluate the status of each. The evaluation entails
first comprehending what we see and hear. Secondly, we make an assessment of the status
of each of the aircraft/path/people issues. This leads to an understanding of what the
situation is now. It will give Situational Awareness for the current state.
Many problems in this category come from difficulties with automation. Examples would
include misunderstandings of how systems work. Pilots who convert from old technology to
new technology aircraft often find themselves asking, "What is the FMS doing now?"
Use all the sources of information you have available to maximise your Situational Awareness.
To stay on top of the situation we must utilise all our sources of information. Many of those
sources are other people's eyes and ears. The following report shows how information from
the tower, the cabin attendants and the relief pilot were critical in detecting a tail strike and
making a prudent decision to discontinue the flight.
Shortly after take-off the tower reported they had seen sparks from the rear of the aircraft.
From the cockpit the rotation had seemed normal to all three crewmembers and the P/F felt
nothing abnormal. Aft cabin attendants said they had heard scraping on take-off. With all
systems normal and no other adverse information, it was decided by the commander and
company maintenance it would be OK to continue to our destination. After levelling off at
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25,000 feet, the commander asked the relief pilot to clarify from the cabin attendants what
noise had been heard on take-off. On return to the cockpit, he informed the commander that
the cabin attendants in the aft had also heard a loud metallic bang or crashing sound on
rotation. The commander then called this cabin attendant to the cockpit for more information.
After receiving this new information, the commander felt it would not be prudent to continue
over water not knowing if there was damage to the aircraft fuselage. A request for return and
fuel dump was received. Upon inspection, paint was missing from the tailskid. It was found that
the cargo bins had come loose. On take-off the cargo bins shifted aft causing a slight movement
of the centre of gravity to the rear. This resulted in over-rotation and tailskid contact.
SA level 3- Evaluate
Most of us do not just want to stay on top of the situation; we also want to be ahead of it.
That is to anticipate and stay ahead of the aircraft. If you project what is going to happen
later, you will go a long way towards that crystal ball view we talked about earlier. It is like
having the answers before the test. Anticipating simply involves projecting the current
situation into the future. Most of the time everything follows the laws of physics and the
prediction is very accurate. Standard procedures allow you to anticipate what other
crewmembers will do in a given situation. A crew that is skilled in managing their Situational
Awareness has a shared vision of what is going to happen in the next few minutes and on
into the future. Anticipation is particularly important for high workload situations. If you,
as a crew, know what each person's responsibility is ahead of time, the awareness level can
remain high on each person's part, even when a lot is going on. In effect, "level 3" SA is a
structured approach to projecting forward using ail the available data.
An example of level 3 SA should be the crew on final who hears TWR 'clear' another aircraft
for immediate take-off. The departing aircraft is still at some distance from the hold short
line and is moving slowly. The aware crew slows down to minimum speed and makes mental
preparation for a go-around. The commander who is the PF makes this comment: "The noise
abatement departure procedure for this RWY calls for an immediate right turn after takeoff.
The departing aircraft will probably turn right after lift-off, so if we hove to go-around I will
do it on the left side of the runway to stay clear of the deporting aircraft and you must keep
visual contact."
Years of experience clearly show that the most effective crew performance is found among
individuals engaging in more advance planning. High levels of awareness are reflected
through requests for assistance from outside the cockpit. High performing crews tend to ask
more questions like:
Can we get a weather update?
What is your wind doing right now?
Does it look like a circle to land on the east side would be better than on the west side
where our radar is painting weather?
Could you check with our destination to find out how the snow clearance situation is
going?
Which approach can we expect?
Any crossing restrictions?
Higher performing crews also ask for more assistance from ATC in terms of holding,
vectoring or long final approach in order to buy time to gather additional information
before making a decision to accomplish their tasks during high workload periods.
Consider future unforeseen events
Sometimes things happen that cannot be anticipated. These can be aircraft malfunctions,
ATC clearances, or simply a normal event at an unexpected time. Playing the 'what if
game has a tremendous advantage in the management of Situational Awareness.
As a common example, when briefing an approach, the entire crew is made aware of the
required flight path for the missed approach. Should a missed approach be executed, each
crewmember has a shared awareness of the sequence of actions, the airport environment
and the navigational information, They collectively know the 'what, 'where', 'when' and
'who' of the missed approach procedure.
Plan
The plan is the current and future state of the aircraft, the path and the people. This plan is
the foundation upon which all crewmembers are building their Situational Awareness. The
plan is constantly being updated based on the awareness activities-. These awareness
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0.3.5 Teamwork
Objective
By the end of this section you should will be able to discuss the structure and functioning
of an effective team, consider the aim of the team and the tasks, roles and norms associated
with the team.
A team can be defined as "a group (of people) gathered together to perform a task". In a
commercial aircraft operation, the task is to operate the aeroplane with the maximum
safety and greatest efficiency possible. To achieve these goals the greater task is broken into
a large number of smaller tasks, each of which may vary in detail, as circumstances change,
and each of which will demand a different response from the team. If the task is to be
completed successfully it is important that each member of the team is fully aware of what
role he/she is supposed to be filling. It is equally important that each team member
should be aware of what roles are supposed to be played by the other team member.
But what of the team? Who makes up "the team"? The commercial success of an airline
operation demands the activities of a very large team Covering all aspects or activities such
as:
Marketing and sales
Passengers
Freight
Maintenance
Ground handling
Flight operations, etc.
In this course, although not forgetting that we are only a part of that much larger team, we
will concentrate on the activities of the flight operations team and, more specifically, on
the tasks, roles and norms associated with the flight deck of a multi crew aircraft.
The tasks
These are the various activities that must be carried out in order to ensure the safe and
expeditious process of happenings which are required if the aircraft is to be successfully
operated.
Every task can be broken into an ordered sequence of essential sub-tasks which can then
be completed by conducting certain activities or procedures.
The roles
The team (of pilots) is trained and constituted to carry out the tasks associated with the
general task of conducting the flight safely and expeditiously from departure to
destination.
To be an effective team member:
You must clearly understand and conduct all the - task associated procedures for
which you are responsible
You must monitor all procedures and ensure that there are no gaps developing
between what you are doing and what the rest of the team is doing or achieving
If you become aware of an anomaly or 'out of standard' condition you must
communicate.
Normally, by using procedures (Standard Operating Procedures) the roles of the flight deck
crews are well defined.
Role ambiguity
Where the role is not clearly understood by either (or both) of the team. Here are two
entries from the SOPs for the same aircraft
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(1) Sink rate should be called out any time it exceeds 1000 feet per minute after reaching
initial approach altitude. 1000 feet per minute will be considered the maximum useable
rate of descent in FAF. Excessive descent rates shall be cause to abandon the approach
(2) During non-precision, straight in approaches the power should be reduced to maintain at
least 1000 feet per minute descent rate.
In the structural operation of a flight deck, most tasks have associated roles that are clearly
spelled out in SOPs. We must be sure that we clearly understand these roles and that means
that we must be familiar with our SOPs.
Wherever SOPs cause confusion they should be reported so that corrective action can be
taken.
Wherever actions of (or statements by) a crewmember cause or indicate ambiguity or
confusion this must be resolved. If you are conscious that you have a personality trait or
attitude which gives a negative 'assumed role' then control it.
Positive roles must be adopted - roles that will enhance the working of the team by creating
an air of cheerful co-operation mixed with critical professional monitoring.
In effect, we are all responsible for the roles that must be carried out if the task is to be
completed. However, we recognise that, in the final analysis, the captain is responsible for
the task definition and role allocation and should, therefore, playa major role in resolving
role ambiguities and conflicts.
Norms
These are patterns of behaviour that can affect how we interpret our role and complete the
task. Norms are developed over a period of time and are insidious in their effects.
To illustrate a “norm" in everyday life - many of us who drive a car will quite happily (and
regularly) drive at some margin over the declared speed limit - it has become a 'norm' of our
method of operating the can In the same way, some pilots adopt procedures which are
slightly different from the published procedure - these have become their norms.
Norms can develop in a team organisational situation. Sometimes organisations put teams
under time pressures to complete a task and the teams will develop 'shortcuts' through
normal procedures in order to accelerate task completion.
Anything which causes departure from a published procedure requires some careful
consideration. The procedures will have been designed to ensure that there is an adequate
margin of safety. You must ask yourself whether the 'norm1 that is being implemented has
an effect which is worth the inevitable erosion of that safety margin.
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SOP Sections
The SOP is divided into sections. The kind of information that is incorporated in the
SOP will depend on local regulations and type of operations. Large operators would
typically have many manuals and a General Operations Manual that ties all information
together. Specific manuals would address certain areas such as loading,
performance, maintenance, cabin attendants, SOP for the pilots and so on. Smaller
operators may include some or all of this information in one manual making the typical
cockpit duties one of many sections in this publication. We will focus on the cockpit
procedural parts.
A typical layout of sections for this part would be:
Introduction
Normal procedures
Non-normal procedures
Emergency procedures
Manoeuvres
Special procedures-
Introduction section
This section will include information such as general philosophies, terminology,
workload reduction and area of responsibility. Examples of these topics include food in
the cockpit, who is responsible for various panels/areas in the cockpit and who takes care
of specific steps of a procedure.
Normal procedures section
Included in the SOP should be a section about normal procedures; it is considered an
enhancement of the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). These normal procedures include all
aspects of day-to-day flight, including the start-up and normal procedures checklist,
the take- off briefing, go around procedures, IFR approaches, etc.
Non-normal procedures section
This section will describe the procedures to be followed during a flight that cannot be
operated in accordance with
'Normal Procedures'. The following are examples of 'non-normal' operations:
Ferry flights with gear extended
Ferry lights with pressurization inoperative
Flight without FMS Etc.
Emergency procedures section
A section of the SOP should be dedicated to emergency procedures, with the expanded
version of the emergency procedures checklists. Again, this should complement the AFM's
emergency section and streamline procedures; thus removing any ambiguity. This
chapter will explain the use of emergency procedures and would typically emphasize
topics such as mandatory confirmation items. These are certain critical procedural steps
that should be confirmed by a second crewmember before the step may be taken.
The procedural actions must clearly identify the critical actions and the crewmember
that is responsible for giving the confirmation. The types of procedural actions that
require this confirmation include the following:
Actions resulting in the shutting down of an engine.
Actions resulting in the deactivation of flight controls.
Actions that if performed incorrectly, in the wrong sequence, or at the wrong
time produce a catastrophic result, even if the incorrect action is not highly likely.
Actions where past experience or analysis has shown that there is a high
probability of error or incorrect action and which creates a hazardous situation.
SOP Terminology
SOP terminology may vary from country to country or between aircraft manufacturers.
There are also differences between companies. The following is a brief description of some
frequently used terminology.
Normal-is used to describe a procedure or checklist referring to a routine operation(without
malfunctions).
Normal procedures verify for each phase of flight that:
the airplane condition is satisfactory
the flight deck configuration is correct
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Normal procedures are done on each flight. Refer to the Supplementary Procedures (SP) chapter
for procedures that are done as needed, for example the adverse weather procedures.
Normal procedures are used by a trained flight crew and assume:
all systems operate normally
the full use of all automated features (auto land, autopilot, and auto throttle as
applicable)
Normal procedures also assume coordination with the ground crew before:
hydraulic system pressurization, or
flight control surface movement, or
airplane movement
Configuration Check
Before engine start, use system lights to verify each system's condition or configuration. After
engine start, the master caution system alerts the crew to warnings or cautions away from the
normal field of view.
If there is an incorrect configuration or response:
i. verify that the system controls are set correctly
ii. check the respective circuit breaker as needed. Maintenance must first determine that it
is safe to reset a tripped circuit breaker on the ground
iii. test the respective system light as needed
Before engine start, use individual system lights to verify the system status. If an individual
system light indicates an improper condition:
I. check the Dispatch Deviations Guide (DDG) or the operator equivalent to decide if the
condition has a dispatch effect
II. decide if maintenance is needed
If, during or after engine start, a red warning or amber caution light illuminates:
I. do the respective non-normal checklist (NNC)
II. on the ground, check the DDG or the operator equivalent
If, during recall, an amber caution illuminates and then extinguishes after a master caution
reset:
i. check the DDG or the operator equivalent
ii. the respective non-normal checklist is not needed
Emergency - is used to describe a procedure or checklist referring to a non-routine
operation in which certain procedures or actions must be taken to protect the crew and the
passengers, or the aircraft, from a serious hazard or potential hazard.
Non-normal or Abnormal - are used to describe a procedure or checklist referring to a
non-routine operation in which certain procedures or actions must be taken.
Alternate - is used to describe a procedure or checklist referring to a procedure which may
be employed instead of another procedure. Alternate procedures may either be normal,
non-normal, or abnormal procedures.
Supplemental- is used to describe a procedure or checklist referring to a procedure which
may be employed in addition to a normal, non-normal, or abnormal procedure.
Supplemental procedures may either be normal or non- normal procedures.
Phase checklist - is used to establish and/or verify aircraft configuration during a specific
phase of flight. An example of a phase checklist is an after-takeoff checklist.
Immediate action (memory action, recall action) - is an action that must be taken in
response to a non-routine event. The action must be taken so quickly that reference to a
checklist is not practical because of a potential loss of aircraft control, incapacitation of a
crewmember, damage to or loss of an aircraft component or system which would make
continued safe flight improbable. Such items are referred to as boxed items, memory items
or recall items.
High workload environment - any environment in which multiple demands on the flight crew
necessitate the prioritizing of work functions. For example, operations below cruising level
during arrival or departure from a terminal area (including taxiing) are considered to be high
workload environments.
Critical Phase (of flight) is defined in EU-OPS as including the following:
Take off run
Take off flight path
Final approach
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Landing
Landing ground roll
Operators may add to this minimum list if they so wish
Systems management- the management of those systems that sustain the mechanical
functions of the aircraft as opposed to the management of the aircraft's thrust, flight-
path, or aerodynamic configuration.
Warning- an instruction about a hazard that (if ignored 0 could result in injury, loss of
aircraft control, or loss of life
Caution- an instruction concerning a hazard that (if ignored) could result in damage to an
aircraft component or system that would make continued safe flight improbable.
Note - information or instruction of such significance that special emphasis is required.
The general Pilot-flying PF is the pilot who is controlling the path of the aircraft at any given
time, whether or not the aircraft is in flight or on the ground. PF phase of flight
responsibilities are:
The general Pilot Monitoring (PM) - is the pilot who is not controlling the path of the
aircraft but who is carrying out a complimentary role.PM phase of flight responsibilities
are:
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performs radio-communication
sets and identifies the appropriate NAV AIDS
reads the normal checklists during flight
reads the non normal checklists on request of the PF and
observes the air space
PF and PM duties may change during a flight. For example, the CM1 could be the PF during taxi
but be the PM during takeoff through landing.
Normal procedures show who does a step by crew position (CM1, CM2, PF, or PM):
in the procedure title, or
in the far right column, or
in the column heading of a table
The mode control panel is the PF’s responsibility. When flying manually, the PF directs the PM to
make the changes on the mode control panel.
The CM1 is the final authority for all tasks directed and done.
0.3.9 Standardization
Standard Phraseology - Standard Calls
Standardisation of crew communications increases the efficiency of crew coordination during
times of high crew workload such as take-off, emergency conditions, instrument approaches
and landings. It is also extremely useful for detecting partial incapacitation.
The normal call-outs are one example of standard phraseology used to convey vital information
with a minimum number of words that have an exact meaning to all crew members.
General
a. Standard intra - crew phraseology is essential to ensure effective crew communication,
particularly in the modern operational environment. Standard calls are intended and
designed to enhance the efficiency of the crew coordination and update the flight crew
situational awareness. Standard calls included in this TM are designed to :
• Give a command or transfer information;
• Acknowledge a command or the transfer of information;
• Give a response or ask a question;
• Callout an observed or expected change in configuration (e.g. AP/FD mode
transition);
• Identify a specific event (e.g. crossing of an altitude or flight level);
b. The following are calls that have broad application or are not specifically dealt with
elsewhere in the TM. The calls are listed in alphabetical order by the situation that
requires the call. Terms that are underlined are defined in the "Definitions" section of
this chapter. The standard calls pertaining to altitude are in the section titled
"Standard Calls - Altitude" which is found later in this chapter.
c. Generic Standard Calls The following generic standard calls will be used to express a
command or response:
CHECK a command to a crew member to check or verify a specific item; Checked
a confirmation that an item has been verified;
SET a command for a crew member to set a specific value or configuration; Arm a
command to the other pilot to arm a specific AP/FD mode;
o - "SET GO AROUND ALTITUDE ____FT!"
o - “SET QNH____!”
o - "SET FL ___!"
o - "SET ALTITUDE ___!”
o - "SET HDG ___!"
o - "SET COURSE ____!”
ARM a command to the other pilot to arm specific AP/FD mode;The “ARM____”
command means arming a system by pushing the specified P/B on the AP/FD control
panel. Example: “ARM APPROACH!”.
PUSH The "PUSH" command means PF required PM to push a push button to engage,
or arm, a mode or target.
o Example:
o "HEADING PUSH!" (Heading button is to be pushed by PM).
o "NAV PUSH!" (NAV button is to be pushed by PM).
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Abnormal Bank Upon observing Abnormal Bank the PM should call "Bank". The PF
should respond with “Check, correcting" and correct the bank to less than 30° or if
excess bank is necessary, call "Intentional" and continue.
Abnormal Rate of Descent Upon observing Abnormal Rate of Descent the PM should
.•..
call "Descent Rate." The PF should respond with "Check, correcting" and reduce the rate of
descent to within normal parameters or, if abnormal rate is necessary, call "Intentional" and
continue.
Abnormal Speed Upon observing Abnormal Speed the PM should call "Speed." The PF
should respond with ""Check, correcting "and correct the speed to within the normal
parameters, or if abnormal speed is necessary, call Intentional" and continue.
ATC Heading Should ATC issue a heading for the aircraft to fly, the PM should respond by
reading back to ATC the heading to be flown (and altitude, and/or speed if included in the
clearance or direction). The PF should turn the aircraft to achieve the heading and state
the following as applicable. If a speed change is required see ATC speed below. If an
altitude change is required see the section on Standard Calls Altitude. These calls would be
combined as required.
(1) "Turning to xxxo” if a turn is required;
(2) "Steering xxxo” if no turn required;
ATC Speed Should ATC issue a speed restriction, the PM should respond by reading back
to ATC the speed to be flown (and altitude, and/or heading if included in the clearance
or direction). The PF should change the aircraft speed to achieve the speed instructed and
state to xx« knots" or "Stable at xxx knots" If a heading change is required see ATC
Heading above. If an altitude change is required see the section on Standard Calls Altitude.
These calls would be combined as required.
Climb Power To command the setting of Climb Power call "Set Climb Power" The PM should
then set Climb Power as specified in the AFM.
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Configuration Changes. The PM will call out any configuration change made by the PF.
Additionally, he/she will call out any instruction given by the PF to execute configuration
changes.
Flight Mode Annunciation (FMA) Changes The PF/PM will call out any observed or pilot
initiated change in the-Auto flight mode status, as shown on the EFIS.
WARNING
Always use the annunciations provided on the EFIS in order to determine the status
(active and armed AP/FD modes) of the Auto-flight system.
Full Power To command the setting of Full Power call "Set Fun Power" The PM should
then set the engine controls to the limit of their travel to obtain the absolute
maximum power available, and respond "Full Power Set" This setting should be used
only in the direst of situations.
Heading Deviation Upon observing a Heading Deviation, the PM should call The PF should
respond with and correct the aircraft heading. If the PF believes that the aircraft heading
is correct as indicated on the PF's display, the flight crew shall determine the source of
the discrepancy and deal with it appropriately.
Maximum Continuous Power To command the setting of Maximum Continuous Power call
"Set Max Continuous Power" The PM should then set Maximum Continuous Power as
specified in the AFM.
Climb Power To command the setting of Climb Power call "Set Climb Power," The PM
should then set the recommended climb power that is specified in the AFM and respond
"Climb Power Set"
Take-off Power To command the setting of Take-off Power call "Set Take off Power"
The PM should then set the maximum power that is approved for a normal take-off as
specified in the AFM and respond "Take off Power Set"
Time Out (CRM call out) This call out will be used in the following circumstances to provide a
warning for a deviation from established normal flight parameters or for the loss of situational
awareness.
Immediately following a Time Out call the PF will stabilize flight conditions, and the crew
member initializing the call will brief the rest of the crew on the conditions he that he felt made
the call necessary.
Standard Calls - Altitude
Similarly to the General Standard Calls, some standard calls are designated that
apply specifically to altitude. The purpose of these calls is to reduce the likelihood of
inadvertent deviation from a desired altitude or missing of a target altitude.
Underlined terms are defined in the "Definitions" section of this chapter.
Altitude Deviation Upon observing an Altitude Deviation the PM should call "Altitude"
The PF should respond with "Check" and correct the altitude to within the normal
parameters or if, abnormal altitude is necessary call "Intentional" and continues.
Approaching an Altitude Upon reaching 1000 ft away from a target altitude the PF
shall confirm the altitude alert and flight guidance settings(if applicable)and should call
for Altitude Select" An example of such a call follows, level one niner zero for eighteen
thousand, Altitude Select" If the target altitude is less than 1000 ft away from the
altitude that the aircraft is level at, no additional calls are required to those described in
the Departing an Altitude" subsection. The calls for approaching an altitude that is part of an
Instrument Approach Procedure are found in the chapter pertaining to Normal Flight
Procedures Arrival.
Arriving at an Altitude Upon arriving at a target altitude the PF should call "Level at(FL or
Altitude)"The PM will reply "Check" and if appropriate make any radio transmission to ATC
that may be required.
Departing an Altitude Upon departing an altitude the PF shall confirm the altitude
alert and flight, guidance settings and then should call "Leaving (altitude or flight Level
vacated) for (target Altitude) Altitude Select, Vertical Mode set to (vertical mode, mode setting
i.e IAS, VS). The PM will confirm that the settings are appropriate and call "Check"
Instrument Approaches For Instrument Approaches the guidance for standard calls,
including altitude related calls, is found in the chapter pertaining to Normal Flight
Procedures Arrival.
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FL100 Procedures for climbing and descending through Flight Level 100 or 10000 ASL are
found in the applicable chapters for Normal Procedures Departure and Normal Procedures
Arrival.
Transition- Altimeter Setting/Standard Pressure Regions Transition procedures and
standard calls are found in the next section of this chapter.
Checklist
A checklist is a formal list used to identify, schedule, compare, or verify a group of
elements or actions. A checklist is used as a visual or oral aid that enables the user to
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Checklist content
Aircraft checklists have traditionally been divided into three categories. These categories
are referred to as normal, non-normal, and emergency. Operators may use other titles
for these categories such as abnormal instead of non- normal. Operators may also further
divide these categories into subcategories such as alternate and supplemental.
Checklists are normally limited to action items or verification items. The aircraft
checklist should not contain elaboration or explanation. The required actions and
decisions for flight crews when performing a checklist will be thoroughly described in
the operator's SOP. Non-normal and emergency checklists contain each sequential step
of a procedure.
A normal checklist is typically a listing of action items to be performed and verified at
a particular point in light. Normal checklist items do not necessarily represent a
procedural step and may even represent completion of an entire procedure. For
example, the item "Gear - up and locked" could indicate the gear handle had been raised,
the gear indications checked, "normal" noise noticed, variations in hydraulic pressure
observed, the gear handle had been placed in the neutral position to check the up-
locks, and that the handle had then been returned to the "up" position. Most normal
procedures do not require itemisation or incorporation into a checklist. For example,
the procedures for making normal takeoffs and landings are not itemised in a checklist
format.
Criticality of checklist items can be ranked according to the potential effect of the
crewmember failing to perform the action. Critical items are those items that, if not
correctly performed, have a direct adverse effect on safety. Non- critical items are
"housekeeping" items or systems management items, for which operating practices
must be routinely accomplished during a specific phase of flight, but if omitted would
have a minimal effect on safety. An item may be considered to be critical on one
checklist but non-critical on another checklist. For example, a flight crew's failure to
set the flaps while accomplishing the before-takeoff checklist has had extremely
adverse consequences. A flight crew's failure to retract the flaps while performing the
after-landing checklist, however, has had little effect on safety.
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The flight crew's attention is diverted from other tasks when performing a checklist.
Checklists must be kept as short as practical to minimize "heads-down" time and
diversion of the crew's attention while performing the checklist. Each additional item
that is added to a checklist increases the potential for interruption and diversion of the
crew's attention at a critical point and the resultant omission of critical items. Operators
must weigh the benefit of including each item on a checklist against the possible
adverse affects that can occur. Items not associated with aircraft operations (such as
calls to the company) should not be placed on the checklist.
Fleet Standardisation
Operators should try to standardize checklist items and the sequence of items, to the
extent allowed by individual aircraft differences across all aircraft in the fleet. Many
operators use common before-landing checklists. Items appear in a standard sequence
to the degree possible.
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which crewmembers can readily recall. The CDV method also enforces crew co-ordination,
cross checking, and verification, all of which aid the crewmember in overcoming the
adverse effects of stress. Few governments will approve or accept the DV method for
non-normal or emergency procedures unless the operator can provide substantial
evidence that the method is effective for this application.
Mechanical/electronic checklists
Mechanical or electronic devices differ in format from paper, hand-held checklists, but
not in the design method or use. The CDV or DV methods can be applied to any type of
checklist. Many safety experts encourage the use of such aids when operators find them
effective.
Verification.
Keep in mind that all checklist designs are subject to Human Error. Crewmembers may omit
and skip checklist items. Crewmembers may erroneously respond to a checklist at times
believing that an item or task was accomplished when it was not. At times,
crewmembers may see what they expect to see rather than what has actually been
accomplished. Both the CDV and the DV methods are subject to such Human Errors.
Checklists should require stringent cross-checking and verification to overcome these
human limitations. These policies must be appreciated and respected by the crewmembers.
Checklist accomplishment
The appropriate sections of the SOP contain the specific crewmember responsibilities for
monitoring, verifying, and managing the accomplishment of checklists. The primary
objective of the SOP is to standardize crewmember interaction; it will include items such
as:
Decision Making
Flight crew responsibilities for maintaining aircraft control, analyzing situations,
and for requesting the appropriate checklist in non-normal and emergency
situations
The specified crewmember responsible for initiating each checklist
The specified time when>ach checklist is to be initiated.
The specified crewmember responsible for accomplishing each item on the checklist
The specified crewmember responsible for ensuring that each checklist is
completed and for reporting that completion to the crew.
Crewmember responsibilities for bringing to the attention of the Commander
and the rest of the crew any observed deviation from prescribed procedures
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Pre-start phase
In the pre-start phase, flight guidance and navigation checklist items have proven to
be critical items. A response should be required from both when the same setting is
required for more than one device (such as computers, flight instruments, and
altimeters). Inertial platform alignment and computer programming should be
accomplished by one crewmember and independently confirmed by another crew
member. As many of these checklist items as possible should be accomplished and
verified before the aircraft is moved.
Approach Phase
The approach phase flight guidance checklist items have proven to be critical items. At
least two crewmembers should confirm and respond to these items. A response should be
required from each pilot when the same setting is required on two separate devices (such
as computers, flight instruments, or altimeters).
Before-landing phase
A" checklist items that are critical in the before-landing phase vary with the type of aircraft
involved. In the operation of small aircraft, the landing gear has proven to be a critical
checklist item and both pilots should confirm and respond to this item. Although the
landing gear and flaps are critical items for large, transport category aircraft, the multiple
warning devices and systems which are associated with these systems make the need for
a response and confirmation by both pilots slightly less critical. All checklists, except the
after-takeoff and after-landing checklists, should be accomplished by one crewmember
reading the checklist item and a second crewmember confirming and responding to each
item.
Once a checklist is complete, the PM must advise the PF and announce " ... Checklist
complete."
Crew Briefings
A crew briefing is not limited to reviewing an instrument approach procedure, or detailing
aspects of the flight to the flight attendants. In fact, the cockpit crew briefing is an
important tool for improving safety during any critical phase of flight. In a somewhat
modified form, it's of use to the single-pilot flight operation as well.
In the simplest terms, the crew briefing is the verbalization of the plan for executing a
critical phase of the flight. Given a normal transport flight ops profile, most would
agree takeoffs and departures, as we" as descents and arrivals, constitute critical flight
segments. For the novice briefer, verbalizing these two major events is an excellent
beginning. A good brief is concise and Covers; what one intends to do, what is going to be
used, how it is going to be done and what will be done if unable to do it.
As you would expect, you will not easily brief something you have not planned. Also one
must avoid becoming too ritualistic or institutionalized with their crew briefing.
Conducting appropriate and meaningful briefing enhances individual as well as crew
performance. It is an art born of practice in identifying the key elements of every departure
and arrival and conveying the information with clarity and brevity.
For the first officer the briefing is the means by which he/she becomes involved in the
operation of the aircraft. They are also the platform that provides an insight as to how
the Commander expects the flight to be conducted. Do not be a passive listener, show
interest and ask for clarification of points with which you are in doubt. The briefing
sessions also allow you to formulate in your own mind what a good briefing is (and
regrettably sometimes what a bad briefing is) and this is a valuable experience for your
own career development.
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Brief Beginning
The takeoff and departure briefing is not as common as the arrival brief, yet it's no less
critical. In fact, given the pilot flying/pilot not flying discipline so widely accepted
today, the departure crew briefing goes far to establish or clarify what's expected of crew
members in their respective roles. This is the opportune time for the captain to establish
or promote the atmosphere of enlightened leadership within the confines of the
workplace. Even if the captain is the PM on a particular leg, the responsibilities of
command dictate that he or she include amendments or modifications to the PF crew
briefing should it be warranted.
A typical takeoff and departure crew briefing should include:
Weather and related precautions
Any special modification to the standard takeoff and initial climb profile
Initial routing via designated SID and/or vector fix
Initial clearance altitude including the transition altitude
Com and Nav radio configuration to include the assigned transponder code
Contingencies for critical emergency situations
Weather conditions for the takeoff and departure should be part of every briefing.
Special procedural precautions such as the use of engine or wing anti-ice, modified
takeoff computations, or restrictions on the applicability of using a reduced
power takeoff are examples of weather-related modifications best reviewed
before getting involved in the actual activity.
Included in the briefing any special noise abatement takeoff and climb
profile to be flown, a high terrain/obstacle clearance manoeuvre to execute, or
a possible windshear complication.
When briefing the departure climb, either by reference to a published SID or radar
vector clearance, the initial clearance altitude should be emphasized. The NAV radio set
up should be noted, crossing restrictions discussed, and any special duties clarified.
Many different emergencies are possible during any takeoff and climb out. Reviewing
the basics of "who will do what" in the event of a reject or engine failure, are commonly
briefed. Attempting to address further emergencies could run the brief too long to be
effective.
Once cleared onto the runway for take-off, the pilot flying should re-brief
The initial heading and/or route to be flown,
The initial clearance altitude, and confirm the takeoff flap settings and
respective takeoff flap settings and takeoff speeds.
Conducting this last chance mini-brief will focus the crew on the details at hand.
Pilot workload increases in inverse proportion to the distance from touchdown. For
this reason, the best time to conduct the approach briefing is before or soon after,
commencing your initial descent. This scheduling may network in some situations but the
intent is to avoid trying to brief and fly at the same time. That will result in neither briefing
nor flying being done well. As your briefings become more polished, you will be better
able to accommodate last- minute alterations like a runway change However, if what you
have briefed is rendered totally inappropriate, make the time to do an approach and
landing briefing that's relative to your actual situation.
Mindful of the intent to promote crew co-ordination and enhance communication
with your fellow pilots, the content of the approach and landing briefing should
contain no more than 8 to 10 key elements beyond a common understanding of the
current weather conditions;
• Name and effective date of the instrument approach procedure
• Minimum sector altitudes(s)
• Airport elevation
• Initial approach manoeuvre and respective minimum altitude(s)
• Final approach course and defining navaids
• Final approach fix minimum altitude
• Applicable approach minimums (DH or MDA)
• MAP for the non-precision approach
• Published missed approach procedure
• Approach lighting and runway information
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It is imperative to clarify the name and currency of the instrument approach procedure
(lAP) to be used. It is a good idea to state the airport elevation as an overall awareness
factor.
If you anticipate radar vectors to intercept the final approach course, it is important to
brief the published minimum final approach fix (FAF) altitude. In the absence of radar
vectors to final, your briefing must be expanded to include depicted transitions,
procedure turns, arcs or other published routings and the associated minimum altitudes.
Focus attention on the frequency of the defining navaid as well as the published final
approach course. You may want to brief the pilot not flying on a special sequence for
tuning and identifying navaids specific to your radios. All crewmembers must know the
decision height (DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) and the advisory minimum
visibility. For non-precision approaches, 'step-down fixes' and the corresponding
'minimum descent altitudes' and 'missed approach point (MAP)' should be called out by
the pilot Monitoring.
Brief the timing or DME fix for every lAP as a means of identifying the MAP. Granted, the
MAP for the ILS is the DH, but should you lose the glide-slope signal inside the FAF, you
have the option to descend to the LOC minimums and a better reference for the location
of the MAP. In the absence of ATC intervention, your clearance for the published lAP
includes a clearance for the published missed approach procedure. It is good practice to
emphasize the initial route and altitude in your briefing. Should Nav-Radio changes be
required, these are best included as pilot not flying duties. And if the missed approach
procedure culminates in a holding pattern, the type of entry is worth mentioning.
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1 Aircraft Systems
1.1 Instrument Panel
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1.1.9 NAVIGATION
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1.1.10 PEDESTAL
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2 Practical Training
2.1 Call outs
They are used as pure information transmission and are to create or emphasise the realization
of a certain situation .
Examples: Calls of Vi, VR V2 during T/O Likewise "Approaching minimum" and “minimum" are
announced, furthermore the speeds at deceleration during Rollout. In addition during T/O "60"
is announced and before landing "500 Feet" by the PM as an "Incapacitation gate" . These calls
must be answered by the PF (pilot Flying) with "checked". If it does not happen, the call is
repeated again. Still if no answer, the PF is considered as "incapacitated". PM takes over the
controls "with the loud command "I have control".
ATC PF PM
GLOBAL001,HDG140 Sets HDG and says Checks and Answers to ATC:
"140o Set" "GLOBAL 001, HDG 140"
GLOBAL 001, Speed 150 Sets the Speed bug and says Checks and Answers to ATC:
"150 Set" "GLOBAL 001, Speed 150"
GLOBAL 001 climb/descent Sets the cleared FL/ALT and Checks and Answers to ATC:
FL 070 says "GLOBAL 001,
"070 Set" climbing/descending
FL070"
2.2 Announcements
These are given by all CM's, if deviations are observed, e.g. "below glide slope";"high sink rate",
"speed ". The condition should be corrected by the other crewmember.
Announcements must always lead to the reaction in terms of a correcting action. That may lead
to PF answer- "Checked" followed by the appropriate correction. If no reaction takes place and if
the condition which was observed continues to exist, the announcement has to be repeated and
after missing correction immediately announce "I have control" for the same reason mentioned
above.
2.3 Instructions
This complex is divided into : Command, order and request
2.3.1 COMMAND
A command is an instruction for the change of the configuration, thus driving flaps, gear or
maybe power-setting. It requires: an acknowledgement and the completion notice - a report.
The wording of COMMAND, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT and REPORT are accurately fixed .
Command and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT must be the same in the wording, the report has to be
different and must indicate the condition reached.
Hereby tasks and responsibilities for these actions are delegated. It begins with the
operationally caused command of the PF to drive flaps or gear.
The PM repeats the command in the wording. This Acknowledgement (verbal confirmation) is to
have as a consequence:
1. Reversal of the attention-capacity of PF to his main task- Fly the aircraft- .
2. Conscious receipt of tasks and their execution by PM.
3. Increase of attention of the PM and thus increase of the probability of a
conscious action .
4 . Avoidance of misunderstandings (transmission errors).
With the verbal confirmation the PF hears that its intention was understood and for the
execution no direct attention is needed. The other crew member examines, after confirmation,
the conditions, like speed, climbing or descent rate, i.e. he is not blindly executing the
command. If the conditions permits the execution, it will be done by PM silently.
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Example:
Check lAS before selecting flaps or gear, check minimum height and climb rate before ordering
climb power, A command initiates the following "flow Pattern" with the command receiver thus :
1. Confirmation of the command,
2. examination of the current situation in the cockpit,
3 . The execution of the task and monitoring the procedure up to reaching the new
configuration, Report if the condition is reached.
2.3.2 ORDER
This is an instruction, which concerns systems, whose priority stands behind from "Flaps, Gear,
power". Also the "order" requires Acknowledgement and Report. But the wording is not
compellingly fixed by the order, confirmation and completion notice, although desirably (good
airmanship), if time and capacity permits
Examples:
Set of Nav. Aid 's
switching of anti - Ice, Ignition or switching of the Flight-director system, if the PF f lies by
hand.
Wording: PF: "VOR KEA on # 1" PM: "VOR KEA on # 1"; "VOR Tegel set"
2.3.3 REQUEST
This is an instruction, which can be controlled by the requesting pilot (PF) directly. Therefore
neither confirmation nor completions notice is necessary.
Examples: Switch from windshield wipers or landing-lights.
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3 Simulator tasks
3.1 General Description
pre-flight preparation including documentation, and computation of take-off performance
data, pre-flight checks including radio and navigation equipment checks and setting ;
before take-off checks including power plant checks, and take-off briefing by PF;
normal take-offs with different flap settings, tasks of PF and PM, call-outs;
rejected take-offs, crosswind take-offs, take-offs at maximum take-off mass, engine failure
after V1 ;
normal and abnormal operation of aircraft systems, use of checklists;
selected emergency procedures to include engine failure and fire followed by single engine
landing, incapacity at ion of a flight crew member, etc
early recognition of and reaction on approaching stall in differing aircraft configurations;
instrument flight procedures including precision approaches using raw navigation data, one
engine simulated inoperative approaches, non-precision approach briefing by PF, setting of
navigation equipment, call-out procedures during approaches, computation of approach and
landing data;
go-around, normal and with one engine simulated inoperative, support of the PF by the PM;
Normal landings & crosswind including with one engine simulated inoperative, transition
from instrument to visual flight on reaching decision height or minimum descent
height/altitude.
The training-sessions will be conducted in a 2h flying time as PF and 2h flying time as PM
accordance (see page 55 ff), whereby the time as PF is completed from the right seat, as
usually the way into commercial aviation starts with an F/O position. We think that this is the
best way to collect valuable experiences for a possible follow-up type-rating.
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3.4 SYLLABUS
3.4.1 MCC SIM SESSION 1
FIRST FLIGHT
CM1 CM2 PF PM U S
1 COCKPIT PREPARATION
2 BEFORE START
3 ENGINE START
4 AFTER START
5 TAXI
MCC FLIGHT SYLLABUS 1
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OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to allow both crewmembers to adapt themselves to the
simulator, to the use of checklists and to develop the basic principles of two-man crew
communication and interaction.
The AP will be used extensively during this course. So, during this session, all modes of
operation of the FD/AP will be demonstrated.
Pilots will also have the opportunity to hand-fly the aircraft to allow them to gain a
feeling of its behaviour and its potential as a tool for MCC learning.
CAT I Precision approaches will be flown with and without the assistance of the
autopilot or flight director.
Special emphasis will be made on the use of specific power setting during the approach
STALLS
For the STALLS exercises use the following procedures:
Flaps up
Pull the control column smoothly and establish a 15 degree nose up attitude;
Set the THRUST LEVERS to IDLE;
Trim the aircraft down to 140 KTS, then stop trimming;
Increase back pressure as speed bleeds off to keep the 15 deg attitude all the way;
At about 99 KTS the aircraft will STALL.
Recovery:
Push the control column full forward in a brisk manner and set an attitude of 20º nose
down;
Apply full power on the THRUST LEVERS (be careful not to exceed 2200LBS/FT of TQ);
As soon as speed builds up, the nose will tend to come up to the trimmed speed of 140
KTS.
Flaps 60
Continue to raise the nose of the aircraft to the 5 deg nose up attitude;
Set flaps to APPROACH and reduce the THRUST LEVERS to IDLE;
Keep the attitude at the 5 deg setting;
Set the L/G down;
Set flaps to 60;
Trim the aircraft down to 140 KTS, then stop trimming;
STALL will occur at about 75 KTS.
Recovery:
Push the control column full forward in a brisk manner and set an attitude of 20º nose
down;
Apply full power on the THRUST LEVERS (be careful not to exceed 2200LBS/FT of TQ);
As speed builds up and goes through 100 KTS retract flaps to the UP position;
Retract the L/G;
As speed continues to build up the aircraft will tend to come to a nose up position.
Recover to level flight;
As speed reaches 200 KTS level off and reduce THRUST LEVERS to a cruising setting
of1800LBS/FT – 1700 RPM.
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OBJECTIVES
In this session, it is assumed that the use of the checklists is well understood by both
crewmembers.
FD/AP will be extensively used during this session to allow both Pilots to be free to
direct their attention to the exercises.
The non-precision approach profile will be introduced and practiced.
GO-AROUND and CIRCLING to LAND procedures will also be practiced.
There will also be an introduction to the Abnormal Operation.
The briefing should include the following subjects:
Non-precision approaches
Go-around
Circling to land
Abnormal Operation
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OBJECTIVES
In this session, both Pilots are expected to start the engines without the assistance from
the instructor.
Pilots are also expected to know how to perform all the correct call-outs during all
phases of flight.
Pilots should also have assimilated the correct procedures to perform a GO-AROUND
During this session the use of the abnormal checklists will be introduced, emphasizing
the need to perform the normal checklists before tackling the abnormal ones.
There will be a demonstration of the engine failure in flight emergency procedure.
This demonstration will be practiced from a cruise setting at 5000’ feet QNH. Emphasis
should be made on the necessity of having irreversible actions confirmed from the other
pilot before execution.
There will also be a demonstration of the engine failure during TO. The Rudder Booster
will be introduced and its interaction with the autopilot demonstrated.
After this exercise is completed, the engine will be restarted in flight.
Emphasis should be made on the separation of the PF and the PM task in an
abnormal/emergency situation.
After the engine is started and stabilized it will be set on fire by the instructor. Notice
that there will be no aural warning associated with the ENG FIRE indication.
Single engines approaches with auto-pilot engaged will be trained. The instructor may
require both pilots to perform the approaches without the assistance of the auto-pilot.
The briefing should include the following subjects:
Engine failure below V1
Engine failure above V1
Engine Fire
Engine Air start
Single Engine Approaches
Single Engine Go-around
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42 AFTER LANDING
43 PARKING
OBJECTIVES
During this session, all the trained procedures introduced in the previous session are expected
to be performed with proficiency.
The REJECTED T.O. procedure will be introduced. Special emphasis will be given to the
necessity to consider well the possibility of a rejected T.O. above 60 KTS.
There will be a demonstration of the PASSENGER EVACUATION. Special emphasis will be given
to the necessity to advise cabin crew to be at their stations in case of a passenger evacuation
being required.
The briefing should include the following subjects:
RTO
Passenger Evacuation
Pilot Incapacitation
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43 LANDING
44 AFTER LANDING
45 PARKING
OBJECTIVES
During this session, all the trained procedures introduced in the previous sessions are
expected to be performed with proficiency.
There will be an introduction to the EMERGENCY DESCEND procedure.
Special emphasis will be given to the problems of the loss of conscience due to oxygen
deprivation to the brain.
At the end of this session, the instructor will issue a PASS (APTO) or NOT PASSED
(NÃOAPTO) classification regarding each pilot.
The briefing should include the following subjects:
Emergency descent
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LANDING CARD
LW
MDA /DA
ATIS: lbs DH ft
WIND: Vyse 121 APT ELEV ft
VIS: Vref 111
CLD: G/A POWER
Vapp 116
TEMP: o
C
QNH: mb
RWY:
RMKS:
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4 Procedures
4.1 Normal Procedures
Normal Procedures are used by the trained flight crew to ensure the airplane condition is
acceptable for flight and to operate the airplane and its system properly for each phase of flight.
These procedures assume that all systems are operating normally and that automated features
are fully utilized. The procedures are written for the first flight of the day or a crew change.
Before engine start, individual system lights are used to verify system status. After engine start,
the system annunciator lights are used as primary means to alert the crew to a non-normal
system condition. During accomplishment of procedures, it is the crew member responsibility to
assure proper system response. If an improper indication noted, first verify that the system
controls are properly positioned . Then, if necessary, check the appropriate circuit breaker(s)
and related system test light(s). For ground operation, flight crew member's duties are
organized in accordance with an area-of responsibility concept. A normal scan flow is
encouraged; however, certain items may be handled in the most logical sequence for existing
condition . Actions outside the crewmembers area of responsibility are initiated by the captain
(CM1). Co-ordination with ground crew, if required, establishing hydraulic power and starting
engines are initiated by the captain. All of the in-flight procedures in this chapter assume CM2
as PF. If the CM1 is PF, the responsibilities are reversed. The CM1 however, retains final
authority for all actions directed and performed.
Pre-flight Procedures
Cockpit Cockpit Crew
BOTH CM1
Preparation Check
CM2 ATIS
Nav &
Instrument
BOTH Instrument PF
Check
Setup
Departure and
Departure
PF Emergency CM1
Briefing
Briefings
Before Start Before Start
CM2 CM1
Before Start
Procedures Procedures
Procedure
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As soon as both pilots take their places CM1 will request the PRELIMINARY COCKPIT
PREPARATION PROCEDURES. This checklist prepares the cockpit to be energized
PRELIMINARY COCKPIT PREPARATION PROCEDURES
Adjust your seats so as to reach the rudder pedals and
SEATS ADJUSTED BOTH flight controls in a comfortable manner
Check that both Left and Right STBY Fuel Pumps switches
L & R STAND-BY PUMPS OFF CM1 are OFF
Make sure that the Auxiliary Tank Pumps switches are in
AUX TRANSFER PUMPS AUTO CM1 the AUTO position
CROSSFEED OFF CM1 Check that the Crossfeed is in the OFF position
When parked, always set Parking Brakes to ON by pulling
the parking brake lever out. If the brakes are hot from a
PARKING BRAKES AS REQUIRED CM1 previous landing, leave the Parking Bakes OFF but be
sure to check that the wheels are choked
IGNITION AND START Since these switches are not spring loaded to the OFF
OFF CM1 position, make sure they are set to off before turning the
SWITCHES battery switch to ON
GENERATORS OFF CM1 Check that both generators are in the OFF position
Setting the Microphone switches to NORMAL assures that
you can use the headset microphone for communications.
MICROPHONE SWITCHES NORMAL BOTH Otherwise the Oxygen mask microphone would be used
AVIONICS MASTER PWR OFF CM1 Check the Avionics Master Power switch is set to OFF
AUTOFEATHER OFF CM1 Check that the Auto Feather switch is in the OFF position
LIGHT PANEL ALL OFF CM1 Check that all light are set to OFF
ICE PROT PANEL ALL OFF CM1 Check that the Wing Anti-Ice switches are set to OFF
Check that the Landing Gear Lever is down and secured
LANDING GEAR LEVER DOWN CM1 and the 3 green lights are on
BEACON OFF CM1 Check that the Beacon switch is set to OFF
STROBE OFF CM1 Check that the Strobe Lights switches is set to OFF
TAIL FLOOD OFF CM1 Check that the Tail Flood switch is set to OFF
PITCH TRIM ZERO CM1 Set Elevator Pitch Trim wheel to zero manually
Set the THRUST LEVERS to the full aft idle position.
THRUST LEVERS IDLE CM1 Caution: Make sure that they are not in the REVERSE
position
Set the PROPELLER LEVERS to the full aft FEATHER
PROPELLER LEVERS FEATHER CM1 position.
CONDITION LEVERS CUT-OFF CM1 Set the CONDITION LEVERS to the full aft CUTOFF
FLAP LEVER UP CM1 Check that the flap lever is in the UP position
CABIN LIGHTS ALL OFF CM2 Set the Cabin Lights switches to the OFF position
VENT BLOWER AUTO CM2 Set the Vent Blower switch to the AUTO position
CABIN TEMP SET CM2 Set Cabin Temp to the 9 o’clock position
CABIN TEMP MODE AUTO CM2 Set Cabin Temp Mode to AUTO
Set the Environment Bleed Air Valve to OFF (middle
BLEED AIR VALVE ENVIR OFF CM2 position)
AFT BLOWER OFF CM2 Set the Aft Blower switch to the OFF position
RADIANT HEAT OFF CM2 Set the Radiant Heat switch to the OFF position
Check that the EFIS Control Panel BEARING and COURSE
EFIS CONTROL PANEL ALL OFF CM1 switches are OFF
CABIN PRESSURE DUMP Set the Cabin Pressure Dump Switch to PRESS
PRESS CM1
SWITCH
RUDDER BOOST OFF CM1 Set Rudder Boost switch to the OFF position
Check that the Elevator Trim switch on the pedestal is
ELEVATOR TRIM OFF CM1 OFF
PRESSURIZATION PANEL SET CM1 Set cabin altitude to SL and cabin rate to maximum
Check that all CB are in. If not, check the reason why
CIRCUIT BREAKERS before pushing it back in. WARNING: Make sure that
CHECKED BOTH
(LEFT/RIGHT) maintenance personal did not pull it out on purpose
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Now that all switches are set to the correct position, you can energize the aircraft
COCKPIT PREPARATION PROCEDURES
BATTERY ON CM1 Set the BATT switch to ON
Setting the Avionics Master Power switch to ON allows
AVIONICS MASTER POWER ON CM1 all avionics to be energized and prepared for departure
Use inverter 1 on odd days and inverter 2 on even days.
INVERTER 1 OR 2 CM1 Check that Red INVERTER LIGHT on the WARNING
ANNUNCIATOR PANEL goes off after inverter ON
COCKPIT LIGHTS (OVHD PANEL Set cockpit and instruments lights to the required level
ON CM1
MASTER SWITCH)
NAV LIGHT ON CM1 Set the NAV Light switch to ON
Open the red guards and make sure both switches are in
FUEL FIREWALL VALVES OPEN CM1 the ON position. Close the guards.
Check that both Left and Right Fuel Press and NO
L & R STAND-BY PUMPS ON CM1 TRANSFER annunciator lights (WARNING PANEL) are off
L/G HANDLE LIGHT TESTED CM1 Check that both red lights inside the LG handle light up
Check from bottom to top that all engine instrument
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS CHECKED CM1 readings are symmetric
Press and hold the PRESS TO TEST ANNUNCIATOR push
button next to the WARNING PANEL. Check all light
illuminate. Check that MASTER CAUTION and MASTER
WARNINIG LIGHTS flash and press them to cancel.
ANNUNCIATORS LIGHTS TESTED CM1 Release the Push button and check that only the
following lights remain illuminated: L/R FUEL PRESSURE,
L/R OIL PRESSURE, L/R DC GEN, RVS NOT READY, ELEC
TRIM OFF L/R BL AIR OFF, EXT POWER (if on)
Set the switch for the PF to allow him/her to make the
FD/AP SWITCH SET FOR PF CM1 necessary changes in his/her EFIS or HIS Controls.
HSI NAV1/NAV2 CM2 Set the F/O HSI selector for the appropriate NAV
SET FOR Set altitude alert to the first altitude constraint on the
ALT ALERT CM1 SID
DEPARTURE
Set COM 1 and 2 to ON on the receivers buttons and
AUDIO PANEL SET CM1 COM 1 on the transmitter selector
FMA & FD/AP MODE SELECTOR TESTED CM1 The test will light up all mode annunciator lights and
sound an aural sound. It finishes in GA mode. Press
TEST a second time to get out of GA mode
RADIO STACK SET FOR CM1 Turn all radios and NAV equipments to on. Prepare all
NAV aids for the expected departure procedure
DEPARTURE
RUDDER & AILERON TRIM ZERO CM1 Set both Rudder and Aileron Trim wheels to zero
EFIS CONTROL PANEL SET CM1 Set the EFIS control panel as required for departure
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DEPARTURE BRIEFING
STATUS TAKEOFF DEPARTURE
RWY_ STATE / WIND TO CONF TAXI OUT
NOTAMS TRH RED / ACC ALT SID / MSA / INIT ALT / TA
ANTI-ICE/IGNITION EMERG BRIEF: SID & ROUTE CHECK
-STOP/GO RAD NAV
-MIN ALT FOR CHECKLIST LOST COMM
EXECUTION
EOSID/MAA
TOFF ALTERNATE
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NAV SYSTEMS SET FOR BOTH Check that all NAV systems are properly set for departure
DEPARTURE
FUEL QTY _____LBS CM1 State the actual quantity and compare it to the required
for the intended flight
TO DATA CARD COMPLETED BOTH Check that TO DATA CARD was completed taking into
consideration the latest ATIS
BARO REF _____ SET BOTH Confirm QNH on all altimeters
WINDOWS/DOORS CLOSED CM1 Check that all windows and doors are closed and CABIN
DOOR light is not lit
BEACON ON CM1 Set the BEACON to ON
THR LEVERS IDLE CM1 Check that THRUST LEVERS are in the IDLE position
PARKING BRAKE SET CM1 If the brakes were off to allow for cooling, set them back
to on now
DC Volt/Loadmeter (GPU CHECKED CM1 Check that the Voltage of the GPU is at 28-28.5V. If not,
or if not available, perform a Battery Start
Volts)
Start engine 2 first. Use the Engine Start Procedures
BEFORE START CHECK LIST described next
CM1 checks with cabin crew if cabin is ready and order all doors to be closed.
CM1 checks with ground crew if area is clear and order external power connection.
At CM1 discretion, CM2 requests START UP CLEARANCE from ATC. All clearances should be
received by both pilots
STANDARD CALLOUTS AND TASK SHARING WITH CABIN CREW PRIOR TO REQUEST
START-UP CLEARENCE
CM1 CABIN CREW
PURSER, THIS IS COCKPIT.
COCKPIT, THIS IS PURSER. GO AHEAD.
CLOSE ALL DOORS
ALL DOORS ARE CLOSED AND CABIN IS
READY
Set the communication selector to EXT on the ACP (Audio Control Panel).
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STANDARD CALLOUTS AND TASK SHARING WITH GROUND CREW PRIOR TO REQUEST
START-UP CLEARENCE
CM1 GROUND CREW
GROUND, THIS IS COCKPIT.
COCKPIT, THIS IS GROUND. GO AHEAD.
CONFIRM ALL CARGO DOORS ARE CLOSED
AND THE AREA IS CLEAR FOR ENGINES
START.
ALL DOORS ARE CLOSED AND AREA IS
CLEAR FOR ENGINES START
STAND-BY
STANDING-BY
CM1 now directs CM2 to request start-up clearance from ATC. Don’t forget to set the
communication selector back to COM1. After the clearance is received, CM1 requests BEFORE
STARTCHECKLIST
COCKPIT TO GROUND COMMUNICATION DURING ENGINES START
CM1 establishes communications with ground crew to prepare for start-up.
Communication from cockpit to ground crew must be clear and restricted to the minimum.
Standard phraseology should be used at all times. This communication is done by CM1.
Set the communication selector to EXT on the ACP (Audio Control Panel).
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WARNING: Only request the after start checklist after the ground crew has cleared
the aircraft and given the OK sign.
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STALL WARNING ON AND TESTED CM1 Turn the Stall warning heating switch to on and perform the
stall warning test. The stall warning sound will come up.
L & R BLEED VALVES OPEN CM2 Check that both L/R BL AIR OFF lights are extinguished
AFT BLOWER ON CM2 Set the Aft Blower switch to the on position
RADIANT HEAT ON CM2 Set the Radiant Heat switch to the on position
PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CHECKED CM2 Check the Pneumatic Pressure indicator in the Green Arc
ELEVATOR TRIM ON /CHECKED BOTH Set Electric Trim switch to on. CM1 checks trim forward and
backward to zero. CM2 does the same and sets the trim to
2,5 units UP
The CM1 must receive the clear signal from ground crew before commencing the taxi.
CM1 now directs CM2 to request TAXI clearance. When the TAXI clearance is received, CM1
requests the TAXI CHECKLIST.
TAXI CHECKLIST
TAXI LIGHT ON CM1 Turn on the Taxi Light
TAXI LIGHT
CM1 switch on taxi light.
PARKING BRAKE
CM1 release parking brake and smoothly increase power to minimum required(about 40% N1)
for the airplane to roll forward then reduce to lower power as Required.
BRAKES
The CM1applies brake smoothly and verify proper operation.
TAXI
Nose wheel (by use of brakes) and rudder pedal steering are used for manoeuvring the airplane.
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
Both CM will check compasses and turn coordinator for proper turning indication.
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FLAPS
CM1 command: "FLAPS 40%" and CM2 set flaps to assigned take-off flap setting. FLAP EXT
flap position indicator shows commanded flap position. Both CM must confirm that the selected
is the same as calculated with.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
CM1 asks "READY FOR FLIGHT CONTROLS" and after CM2 stated "READY" the CM1 checks
aileron and elevator free movement through full travel movement.
CABIN REPORT
CM1 shall receive the "CABIN CLEAR" report from the cabin manager.
BRIEFING CONFIRMED PF Make a final revision of the SID and T.O. conditions
CONDITION LEVERS HIGH IDLE CM1 Slowly advance the CONDITION LEVER to full forward
Set the Auto Ignition Switch of both engines to the ARM
L & R AUTO IGNITION ARMED CM1 position.
AUTO FEATHER ARMED CM1 Set Auto Feather switch to the ARM position
STROBE LIGHTS ON CM2 Set the Strobe Lights to ON prior to entering a runway
WARNING LIGHTS ALL OFF CM2 Check that all Warning lights are extinguished
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AT 96KTS “ROTATE!”
PF rotates to 12º with a rate of 3 deg/sec
“ACCELARATION”
AT 3000’ AAL
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T.O. TECHNIQUE
When VR is reached at 96kts, PF pulls the control wheel to obtain a 3º/second rotation up to
12º target attitude. That’s about 4 seconds. This attitude will allow the aircraft to lift-off
avoiding a tail-strike and to accelerate to the optimum single-engine climb speed of 120kts.
This speed will be maintained during initial climb so that in case of an engine failure the aircraft
is already at its optimum single engine climb speed.
When reaching 1500ft AAL, the THRUST is reduced to CLIMB THRUST of 2200 LBS/FT TQ
and1800RPM. This THRUST reduction may be done by the PF if the AP is engaged, or he/she
may request PM to set the CLIMB THRUST for him/her if he/she is too busy with other tasks.
But in this case he/she must make a small reduction on the THRUST LEVERS of about 100
FT/LBS (to avoid overboosting the engines at PROP reduction).When reaching 3000’ AAL, the
airspeed is increased to the clean climb speed of 160kts, and the flaps retracted to the UP
position at 140kts.
INITIAL CLIMB OUT
With all engines operating, maintain V2+15 and take-off flaps to the flap retraction altitude.
FLAP RETRACTION
At flap retraction altitude, decrease pitch attitude to maintain approximately1000 fpm. climb
(10 pitch up) accelerate and retract flaps on the TAKE-OFF FLAP RETRACTION SCHEDULE.
There is no restriction on retracting flaps while turning at these speeds.
The PM operates the flaps, must check speed, observe the flap position indicator and monitor
the movement. PF should include the flap indication in his instrument scan to assure proper
speed and control during flap retraction.
CLIMB SPEED
After flap retraction accelerate to cruise climb speed. Adjust pitch angle for steady climb
during climb on(1000 fpm). Cruise Climb:
• Sea Level to 10.000ft 160 Knots
• 10.000ft to 20.000ft 140 Knots
• 20.000ft to 25.000ft 130 Knots
• 25.000ft to 30.000ft 120 Knots
TURBULENT AIR ENROUTECLIMB
In turbulent air it is recommended to maintaining 170 kts.
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LIGHTS
PROP SYNC ON PM Check the Prop Auto-Synchronizer switch is on
YAW DAMPER ON PM If the AP is not engaged immediately after T.O., set the
Yaw Damper to on.
FLAPS UP PM Check on the flap position indicator that the flaps are
retracted to full up position
CLIMB THRUST SET PF Check 2200LBS/FT of Torque and 1800RPM on the
propellers
AUTOFEATHER OFF CM1 Autofeather is used only to assist the pilot in case of
engine failure at low speeds.
BARO REF _____ SET BOTH Check all altimeter are set to 1013
SIGNS OFF PM Set the Fasten Seatbelt sign to OFF only after passing
FL100 climbing
Example: ATC clears to climb from 3000’ to 5000’. If the rate of climb was, for example,
2000’/min, when passing 4800’ PF pushes the ALT button. The altimeter continues climbing up
to 5000’. If nothing was done, the AP would now start a descend to 4800’. To avoid this, when
the pointer reaches 5000’,PF will recycle the ALT mode by pushing the ALT button twice.
Be advised: if you push the second time too soon, the ALT mode will not be engaged. Always
look at the green ALT legend on the mode control panel to be sure that the ALT mode is
engaged. When reaching an altitude, let the aircraft accelerate up to 220 Kts and then set the
CRUISE THRUST of 2200 LBS/FT / 1700 RPM. This power setting will allow the aircraft to
maintain 235 Kts, the cruising speed.
When reaching the final cruise altitude, PF sets the CRUISE THRUST and requests the
CRUISECHECKLIST.
If a step climb is required after level off, perform the following action in this order:
1. Set the cleared altitude on the ALT SELECTOR;
2. Choose a climb mode. For climbs of 1000’ or less, use V/S. For more than 1000’ use
CLIMB mode. CLIMB mode will be done at 160 Kts by the AP;
3. Set CLIMB THRUST of 1800 RPM / 2200 LBS/FT (first set the RPM and then the
TORQUE);
4. Set the Altimeter setting as required according to the cleared altitude or FL.
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Descent preparation
The Top of decent (TOD) should be calculated by the pilots . Calculate the distance to the OFF
Level Point as follows : Check the time to the destination, check the distance between the
present Altitude or Level and thereafter calculate the Rate of Decent.
For example:
Present FL 100, FAF 3000 ft, Distance to the Airport 10 min.
Descent distance 10000ft - 3000ft = 7000ft : 10 min= approx. 700ft/min Rate .
The early lowering of landing gear results in additional increase of rate of descent. The flaps are
not to be used to increase the descent rate or drag. High sink rates during the approach should
be avoided .To optimize crew efficiency and to minimize cockpit talk level and work load,
continue as follows .
The PM should receive the latest weather from destination as well as at least one alternate and
brief it to the PF.
Inbound routing, active RWY and the corresponding approach must be prepared.
To descend, perform the following actions in this order:
1. Set the cleared altitude on the ALT SELECTOR;
2. Push DSC PB on the FD/AP Mode Selector. This will result in a 1500 fpm descent;
3. Reduce the THRUST LEVERS as much as necessary in order to maintain the cruise
speed (about1000 LBS/Ft Torque, 220 kts). Leave the propellers at 1700 RPM;
4. Set the Altimeter setting as required according to the cleared altitude or FL;
When starting the descend, set the cabin SIGN to ON.
When passing Transition Level perform the APPROACH CHECKLIST.
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Approach Setup
On PF's command the PM performs the approach set up. The approach set up procedure
completes the approach preparation and includes a final check that all necessary items for the
approach have been carried out. The PM follows a fixed setup sequence announcing every step.
APPROACH SETUP
NAV FREQUENCIES The PM announce tuned navigation frequencies
PM verify and announce that appropriate or
OBS
final inbound courses are set
Announce ADF/VOR bearing pointer setting from
RMI ADF/VOR BEARING
left to right for the approach.
POINTERSWITCHES
The PF repeat his setting
NAV AID IDENTIFICATION The PM identifies all tuned radio aids
Descent Procedures
After commencing of the descent PF calls for "DESCENT CHECKLIST" and both pilots confirm
that have already performed their items.
DESCENT CHECKLIST
PM(CM1) PF(CM2)
ARRIVAL BRIEFING COMPLETED
ICE AND RAIN PROT AS REQUIRED
CABIN PRESS CABIN PRESS
FSS ON
PM reads it and both CM responds their respective parts.
PM state's "DESCENT CHECKLIST COMPLETED".
“XXXX SET”
ALTIMETERS “SET X-CKD”
“SET X-CKD”
NAV AIDS “SET X-CKD”
“SET X-CKD”
4.1.18 Approach
During an ILS approach the initial approach configuration should be flaps up and gear retracted
(no tailwind) . With approaching the glide slope start with final configuration (flaps and gear).
A standard profile of 3° will result in a descent rate of 500-800 ft/min . Trim the airplane during
the approach to reduce elevator forces.
High, low or offset condition should be corrected as early as possible, in order to have stabilized
conditions through the last 1000ft of the approach.
Control the path profile by pitch and power. When visual contact to the RWY is established,
maintain attitude by scanning the AI and VSI.
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Flap Setting
PF commands flap extension according to flaps speed schedule, announces and vsets respective
target speed, if autopilot is engaged, or commands the corresponding flaps manoeuvring speed
while in manual flight.
Next flaps setting should be ordered maximum 15 kts, optimum 5 kts before manoeuvring speed
for present flap configuration.
PM positions flaps as directed and monitor flap position indicator and leading edge lights. Select
flaps 40 when approaching under tailwind condition, wet or short RWY. In general try to keep
speed between target speed and Ref.
Gear
On PF's command PM positions gear lever to DOWN and checks 3green lights ON.
Approach speed
The target speed on final approach in landing configuration is the VBLUE LINE.
Before Landing Checklist
The PF calls for: " LANDING CHECKLIST", the PM reads and both responds to its respective
items.
PM state's " LANDING CHECKLIST COMPLETED".
Approach Technique and Guideline
Basic Procedure
Approach set up & Checklist must be completed
initial approach configuration flaps 40/g ear down
on intercept course in manual flight
cleared for approach
Start final configuration when glide slope alive and it should be accomplished at least at start of
descent
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4.1.21 CIRCLING
When the prevailing wind dictates that a runway without an instrument approach must be used,
a CIRCLING MANEUVER must be performed.
Perform the approach as for a non precision approach, but maintain FLAPS 40 and L/G DOWN
with 140 Kts.
Extend the downwind beyond the RWY end by 20’ for each 500’ ± 1’ for each Kts of tail or head
wind.
When ready to turn to FINAL, set RWY heading and maintain speed 120 Kts, switch off the AP
and FD and request LANDING CHECKLIST.
The turn on final must be completed (wings leveled) at 300’ minimum.
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“FLAPS 40 , GEAR
DOWN ,THREE GREEN”
PM reads landing checklist “LANDING CHECKLIST”
Established on GS “ON GLIDE , SET MAA”
“MAA SET”
Passing OM or FINAL FIX “OM ALT xxx FT”
“CHECKED”
500 ft above elevation “500”
“CHECKED”
100ft above DA “APPROACHING
MINIMUM”
At DA and visual references “MINIMUM”
established “CONTINUE”
At DA and NO visual “MINIMUM NO “GO AROUND”
references established CONTACT”
4.1.23 GO-AROUND
Going Around is a critical manoeuvre. To initiate it, PF will perform the following actions:
state “GO-AROUND, FLAPS!”
advances the THRUST LEVERS to GO-AROUND THRUST OF 2200LBS/FT TQ – 2000RPM
activates the Go-Around switch on the THRUST LEVER
rotate to follow F/D.
The AP will disengage automatically. The FD will command about 7º nose up attitude, wings
level. But wings level is hardly what you want. So as soon as the climb is established, the gear is
retracted and as speed increases above 120 Kts, switch the FD to HDG . PM will set flaps to UP
initially at the “GO-AROUND, FLAPS” command of the PF.
The PF may request the AP to be reengaged. At 1500’ AAL set CLIMB THRUST (2200 LBS/FT –
1800RPM) .Maintaining speed 120 Kts, up to 3000’ and then accelerate to 160KTS. After the
aircraft is cleaned from its landing configuration, PF requests the “AFTER T/O CHECKLIST!”.
The aircraft will continue to climb at 160 Kts.
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“HDG PUSHED”
When the HDG green lights come on in “HDG!”
the FMA
4.1.24 LANDING
When the landing configuration is set, PF requests the LANDING CHECKLIST
LANDING GEAR DOWN/3 GREENS PF Check that the three green lights are on.
LANDING & TAXI ON PF Even during the day turn on the Landing and Taxi
Lights to prevent a bird strike.
LIGHTS
As soon as you cross the runway threshold, set the THRUST LEVERS to IDLE and allow the
airspeed to bleed of all the way to touchdown. With FLAPS 40, the optimum approach speed is
120 KTS. You have to maintain 120 KTS during approach because of the possibility of an engine
failure occurring.
Even though you can continue the approach in a CAT II ILS using the autopilot with an engine
failed, if you have to overshoot, 120 KTS would be optimum climb speed single engine.
As soon as the aircraft lands, set the nose wheel on the ground and keep forward pressure on
the flight control wheel. Set full reverse on both engines. If you feel the aircraft veering to a
side, immediately deselect the reverse on both engines.
Smoothly apply the toe brakes and using the rudder pedals keep the aircraft in the centre line.
At 40 KTS PM says “TAXI SPEED!”. PF deselect the reversers on both engines.
CM1 takes control from now on and vacates the runway.
Do not perform any after landing task before the runway is vacated.
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AFTER LANDING
As soon as the runway is vacated, CM1 requests the AFTER LANDING CHECKLIST
Set both CONDITION LEVERS to idle and allow the engine to cool
CONDITION LEVERS LOW IDLE CM2 down for 1 minute before shutdown
Turn off both landing lights. They are not design to be used at
LANDING LIGHTS OFF CM2 slow speeds and may overheat
As soon as the aircraft exits the runway the Strobes must be
STROBES OFF CM2 selected to Off
FLAPS UP CM2 Retract the Flaps to the full up position
ELEVATOR TRIM ZERO CM2 Set Elevator Trim to zero using the electric trim motor.
Switch of the Electric Elevator Trim pushing the AP Instinctive
ELECTRIC ELEV TRIM OFF CM2 disconnect PB all the way down and then setting the Electric
Elevator Switch to Off.
Set the Transponder to STBY and code 2000 unless required by
TRANSPONDER STBY CM2 ATC
Push the HDG button on the AP/FD control panel as many times
FD OFF CM2 as required until the FD are OFF
Taxi speed is limited to the equivalent of a man walking at a fast walking pace
4.1.25 PARKING
When turning facing the ramp marshal, turn off all lights to avoid glaring him.
When the aircraft stops, set the parking brake to ON. The engines should only be shut down
after a 1minute cool down period.
CM1 requests the PARKING CHECKLIST
Turn off the Taxi Light when turning into the gate to
TAXI LIGHTS OFF CM1 avoid glaring the ramp marshal.
PARKING BRAKE ON CM1 Set the Parking Brake to on
AUTO FEATHER SWITCH OFF CM1 Set the Auto Feather Switch to OFF
THRUST LEVERS IDLE CM1 Confirm both THRUST LEVERS are in the Idle position
L & R BLEED VALVES ENVIR OFF CM2 Set both switches to Env Off
FUEL CONDITION LEVERS Set both CONDITION LEVERS to the Cutoff position.
CUTOFF CM1 Monitor Fuel Flow, ITT and N1 decreasing
ICE & RAIN PROTECTION OFF CM1 Turn off any Ice & Rain protection being used for landing.
AFT BLOWER OFF CM2 Set the Aft Blower switch to the Off position
RADIANT HEAT OFF CM2 Turn off the Radiant Heater
Turn Off the Cabin signs to advise cabin crew to open
CABIN SIGNS ALL OFF CM2 cabin doors
Switch off the Beacon so that ground crew may approach
BEACON OFF CM1 the aircraft for unloading
GROUND CREW OK RECEIVED CM1 Confirm that the aircraft is chocked using the interphone.
Cabin Crew should notify CM1 that the cabin doors are
CABIN CREW OK RECEIVED CM1 ready to be opened
SECURING THE AIRCRAFT
When ready to leave the aircraft, perform the SECURING THE AIRCRAFT CHECKLIST
INVERTER OFF CM1 Turn the Inverter OFF
AVIONICS MASTER PWR OFF CM1 Turn Off the avionics Master Power switch
NAV LIGHTS OFF CM1 Turn Off the NAV lights except for a quick turn
around
COCKPIT LIGHTS ON Turn off the Cabin Lights Switch on Overhead Panel.
OFF CM1 No need to set the light regulators to off
OVERHEAD PANEL
AFTER GPU CONNECTION OR JUST BEFORE LEAVING THE AIRCRAFT
BATTERY OFF CM1 Turn the Battery switch to Off
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Although it is the PF responsibility to request ABN/EMERG Checklists, CM1 has the authority to
change roles at any time and take control of the aircraft or ordering actions as he/she see fit.
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For our training purposes we are practicing the pilot’s incapacitation during T/O. Normally the
PM does not respond to the incapacitation call (60kts).
Thereafter PF take over the controls, abort the T/O and informs ATC.
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All checklist actions are to be performed by the PM except the THRUST LEVERS, which are
actuated by the PF as well as any other unreachable item to the PM.
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