The Turbulent Earth

I. Questions to Pose: An Uneasy Planet

 What causes the natural movements of the Earth?
 What causes the unnatural movements of the Earth?
 When do such movements become disasters?
 How do different societies respond differently to disasters?
 What can be predicted? What can be managed?

II. The Earth Beneath Our Feet

 Erosion and the Face of the World
 Physical Structure and Plate Tectonics
 Earthquakes and Tsunamis
 Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

III. Disruptions of the Atmosphere

 Hurricanes and Typhoons
 Cyclones and Tornadoes
 Droughts and Desertification
 Sources and Impacts of Particulate Matter

IV. World of the Future

 Causes and Consequences of Climate Change
 Toward a New Mastery of the Earth
 What Causes an Earthquake Plate
Movement?

Earthquakes occur along fault lines where plates meet.

Earthquakes are unpredictable in the short term, but a thorough

understanding of plate movement helps scientists make general
predictions about which areas of the globe are most likely to experience
shaking. The basic cause of all earthquakes is the natural movement of
crustal plates, although these plates can interact differently in different
areas of the world.

1. Plate Tectonics
o Plate tectonics refers to any movement of the earth's crust over the liquid
mantle below it. The surface of the earth is constantly moving at an
extremely slow rate, and the shifting of continental plates has shaped how
the continents look over millions of years. When the shifting plates move
against each other, this can lead to earthquakes. Plate tectonics are the
driving force behind earthquakes, as well as other natural disasters, such as
volcanoes and tsunamis.

Plate Boundaries
o There are four different types of interaction when two plates are next to
each other. Divergent plates are moving apart, so they are more likely to
cause volcanoes than earthquakes, since molten material under the plates
can move up into the opening crack. At convergent boundaries, one plate
slips under the other, a process called subduction. This can lead to large
earthquakes, especially when pressure builds up and a big slip happens all
at once. Transform boundaries appear when two plates shift past each other
in opposite directions, another potential source of earthquakes. In some
places, there is a plate boundary zone, where the interaction between two
plates remains unclear, so the potential for earthquakes is unknown.

Specific Mechanism
o The stresses that build up as two plates interact with each other is the direct
cause of earthquakes. Just like when any two objects push up against each
other, eventually the building force causes one or both of the objects to
break. In the case of tectonic plates, this break sends tremors upward and
outward through the earth, causing the shaking and rolling felt as an
earthquake. The longer the stresses have been building up without being
released, the greater the potential energy in the two plates, and the more
likely they will rupture in a big earthquake event.

Predictability
o Because scientists can identify areas where plate boundaries are building
up stress, they can predict areas where earthquakes are most likely. They
can also pinpoint the speed of the crustal movement using satellite data.
Using this information, scientists know that about 90 percent of the earth's
earthquakes will occur along well-known fault lines and subduction zones,
explains the Earthquake Information Bulletin by the U.S. Geologic Service.
However, earthquake science still isn't good enough to predict the date or
time of a particular earthquake.

What Moves Tectonic Plates?



Tectonic plates are large sections of the Earth's crust that extend about
100 kilometers below Earth's surface. These plates interlock like the pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle and slowly move over the course of millions of years.
 When two adjoining plates move relative to each other, this can result in
mountain formation, earthquakes and a host of other geological
phenomena.

Tectonic motion is caused by several forces, including gravity, Earth's

rotation and heat convection. A tectonic plate moves when the denser,
more fluid layers of the Earth that it lies upon move as a result of these
forces.
1. The Tectonic Plates and Their Boundaries

There are seven major (primary) tectonic plates and numerous smaller
secondary and tertiary plates. These plates are part of the lithosphere, a
layer of comparatively light and brittle rock that lies on top of a layer called
the aesthenosphere, which is rendered semi-fluid due to the immense
temperature and pressure it is subjected to.
The aesthenosphere moves up to several centimeters a year, causing the
overlying tectonic plates to move as well. When two plates converge, they
collide and form a mountain range. Similarly, when they diverge, they form
a valley, rift or ridge. Additionally, tectonic plates can move laterally
relative to each other, as is the case at the San Andreas fault.
Volcanic activity and earthquakes are common at these boundaries. The
Earth's crust is often thinner in these areas and sudden slippage of
adjoining plates can occur when pressure builds up.
2. Mantle Convection
o The middle layers of the Earth between the core and the crust are called
the mantle. The mantle is heated from below by the radioactive decay of
Uranium and cooled from above by passive dissipation and volcanic
activity. Some of this heat is also transformed into movement. Differences
in heat and density act on the mantle like a giant conveyor belt moving
several centimeters per year. This is perhaps the greatest contributor to
tectonic movement.
 3. Gravitational Forces

The Earth's gravity exerts tremendous pressure upon the mantle and core
layers. Due to local differences in density and thickness, however, this
pressure isn't completely uniform. This difference in gravitational stress on
the deep layers determines the direction that the aesthenosphere beneath
the tectonic plates will move, and hence determines the general direction of
tectonic movements.
4. Tidal Forces

In addition to the Earth's internal gravity, other celestial bodies can affect
tectonic motion through gravitational attraction. The moon and, to a lesser
extent, the sun both pull upon the Earth, slightly deforming its shape over
the course of rotation. This deformation results in internal friction, which
translates to heat. Thus, tidal forces contribute to a third, albeit minor,
source of tectonic movement.
5. The Importance of Mantle Ductility

Tectonic plates exist only because the Earth's upper crust is hard and brittle
while the mantle is ductile and flows like a very slow-moving fluid. Without
a dynamic, moving mantle, the plates would stop moving despite the
continued presence of some of these forces.

Types of Plate Tectonics in Earthquakes

1. The theory of plate tectonics was developed in the 1960s and 1970s, and
transformed our understanding of geology. According to the theory, Earth's crust
is broken into pieces, or plates, that are constantly in motion. Three primary
types of plate tectonic boundaries exist: transform boundaries, divergent
boundaries and convergent boundaries. The nature of convergent boundaries
 varies depending on whether they occur in the ocean floor or continental floor.

Transform Boundaries
o Transform boundaries, known more commonly as faults, occur where two
plates slide horizontally past each other. Most faults occur along the ocean
floor and produce shallow earthquakes. However, some faults--such as the
San Andreas fault in California--occur on land. Earthquakes along the San
Andreas fault result from the Pacific Plate sliding past the North American
Plate, which it has been doing for 10 million years at a rate of several inches
per year.
Divergent Boundaries
o At divergent boundaries, neighboring plates pull away from each other.
This produces new crust, which expands the ocean floors or creates a rift
zone on land. Diverging landmasses will eventually become distinct, as the
divide between them fills with water. For this reason, Iceland will someday
be split down the middle into two islands. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, between
South America and Africa, is another example of diverging plates.
Convergent Boundaries: Oceanic Convergence
o Oceanic convergence can occur where two oceanic plates meet, or when an
oceanic plate collides with a continental plate. A deep oceanic trench can
develop when two oceanic plates collide, as one plate tends to get
subducted under the other. Ocean volcanoes also form at oceanic-oceanic
convergent boundaries, collecting lava and debris until they grow out of the
water and become island volcanoes. This process often forms island arcs
that are subject to frequent, strong earthquakes. When an oceanic plate
converges on a continental plate, the oceanic plate generally gets pushed
under the continental plate, creating mountain ranges, generating powerful
earthquakes and breaking the subducted oceanic plate into pieces.
Convergent Boundaries: Continental Convergence
o Continental rocks are a relatively light part of the Earth's crust. Thus, when
two continental plates meet, the surface gets pushed upward. Unlike
convergence with oceanic plates, neither plate will get pushed under the
other; instead, the convergence is like icebergs colliding. For this reason,
earthquakes are common, but volcanism is comparatively rare. The
Himalayas resulted from the convergence of the Eurasian Plate and the
Indian Plate.
 How Are Volcanoes & Plate Tectonics
Connected?

crust of the Earth's surface is known as the lithosphere. The

movement of the lithosphere on the earth's surface is also known
as plate tectonics. The surface of the earth is broken up into
plates that are responsible for seismic activity, including
earthquakes and volcanoes. Volcanoes form into mountains as
erupted debris collects over millions of years. The formation of
volcanoes and their activity is directly connected to plate tectonic.
Plate Tectonic Basics
 The tectonic plates are composed of the uppermost crust of the continents
and the ocean floor, also known as the oceanic crust. These plates are
approximately 50 miles thick and sit atop of molten areas. Each plates
moves at the rates of a few centimeters per year. The areas at which the
tectonic plates meet are known as plate tectonic boundaries. There are
three types of plate tectonic boundaries, including divergent, convergent
and transform boundaries, which describe how the plates pull apart, collide
and slide past one another.
Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are found at both convergent and divergent plate tectonic
boundaries. These places are also known as hot spots. Magma forms in
these hot spots, where heat and pressure cause it rise up, forming a
volcano. Volcanoes are found in the subduction zone of convergent plate
boundaries. When tectonic plates converge, it means that they push
together, recycling the broken material of the plate's collision back into the
earth. The volcanoes themselves do not subduct as the plates collide.
 Divergent plate boundaries are areas where the tectonic plates pull apart
and form volcanoes in ocean basins.

Island Arcs
 Island arcs are chains of volcanoes that form islands in the ocean. Island
arcs form as the result of two oceanic plates converging or colliding
together underwater. After millions of years of eruptions, the debris that is
spewed from the volcano piles up and hardens. The underwater volcano
continues to grow in size until it rises above the surface of the water. These
volcanoes tend to occur in chain-like sequences underwater, eventually
forming arcs of island volcanoes.


1.
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
o Earthquakes and volcanic activity are the result of tectonic movements. The
breaking up of rocks inside continental plates causes earthquakes along the
plates' fault lines where sufficient strain energy has built up. Earthquakes
also occur along convergent and transform plate boundaries. Volcanoes
appear where divergent plate boundaries form on continents as well as on
convergent boundaries as a result of the melting of old crust.

Earth Movements

The face of the earth is constantly being reshaped by internal forces,

such as earth movements, volcanoesr earthquakes and landslides, and
external forces, such as river, rain water, glacier, wind and sea waves.
In this chapter, we will discuss landforms formed due to activities of
earth's internal forces.

EARTH MOVEMENTS
The powerful internal forces operating from within the crust are called
earth movements. Such movements may be slow and sudden. Earth
movements are classified into tectonic movements, vertical movements
and horizontal movements.

Tectonic Movements The earth movements which bring about vast

changes on the earth's surface are called tectonic movements (see
box). The concentration of great internal forces within the earth raises
local areas upwards or cause them sinking downwards. Tectonic
movements are divided into sudden movements and slow or secular
movements.
Sudden Movements These are commonly noticed during an
earthquake.

Slow or Secular Movements These movements continue much longer

as compared to our life span. The periodical advance and retreat of
continental glaciers and ice caps because of global changes in climate
are said to have caused them. These movements are relative to each
other, the land advancing against sea is termed a negative movement
and the sea advancing on land is known as positive movement.

Vertical Movements Responsible for a rise or a fall of a portion of the

earth surface, vertical movements of the earth do not disturb the
horizontality of the strata as they were originally laid down. Vertical
movements cause uplift and subsidence. When a part of the earth's
crust rises in relation to surrounding portions, it is known as uplift.
Conversely, when the sinking of a part of the earth's crust, relative to
the surrounding portions takes place, it is called subsidence. These
earth movements on a large scale build up continents and plateaus.

Horizontal Movements These movements are responsible for greatly

disturbing the horizontal arrangement of layers of rock. They involve
both the forces of compression and tension. Tension is the puIling
force. Compression is a force that pushes against a body from directly
opposite sides. The tension is responsible for breaking of rock layers
with their subsequent sliding or displacement. It is termed as the
formation of a 'fault'. The compression leads to the bending of
horizontal layers of deep sediments into a shape known as a 'fold'.
These two phenomena of folding and faulting lead to the building up of
mountains.

EROSION

EROSION
Erosion refers to the disintegration of rocks which lie exposed to what
are called the agents of erosion, Le., gravity, running water, wind, and
moving ice, and, on the coasts, waves, tides and currents.
Landforms Made By Rain Action Rain action is an aspect of erosion as it
involves movement. It is most marked in semi-arid regions because
these have little or no vegetation and the rains, though infrequent, are
torrential. It produces the following features.

A gully is an incised water-worn channel. Overland flow down a slope,

following heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which merge and
enlarge into the gully.
When rain falls on slopes made of clay and boulders, the clay is rapidly
removed except where the boulders form a protection. When this
happens, columns of clay capped by boulders develop. These an~ called
earth pillars.

ion. When this happens, columns of clay capped by boulders develop.

These an~ called earth pillars.

PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING

PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING Mechanical weathering is the

physical disintegration of a rock into smaller particles. It takes place
without changing the rock's chemical composition. Although it is most
rapid in sedimentary rocks, yet it does not spare even the harder
granite and the marble. Several factors are responsible for mechanical
weathering.

Temperature Mechanical weathering is common in deserts, cold or hot,

under the influence of rapid changes in daily temperature. In deserts,
rocks are exposed to the blazing sun during the day and are intensely
heated. This results in expansion of outer layers. At nightfall, the
temperature drops rapidly and the outer layers contract more rapidly
than the interior, setting up internal stresses. The continuous expansion
and contraction for several years cause the rocks to crack and split.
, Repeated Wetting and Drying Repeated wetting and drying of the
surface layers of the rock results in development of stresses. Stresses so
produced cause surface to split off. When rocks are wetted, the outer
layers absorb a certain amount of moisture and expand. When they
dry, this moisture evaporates and they quickly shrink. Weathering by
repeated wetting and - drying takes place especially in tropical regions
such as Malaysia.
Frost Action In temperate latitudes or areas of cold climate, the
alternate freezing and melting of water inside the cracks in rocks split
them into fragments called frost. The conversion of water into frost or
ice increase the volume of water. This phenomenon, also known as
frost weathering, develops a strong force in widening the crevices in
rock by physical destruction over a period of time. The magnitude of
frost action is indicated by a continual increase in the formation of
series over the mountain sides.

Biotic Factors The rocks are also destroyed by plants', and animals'
activities. The long and tenacious root fibres of the plants work down
into the cracks of rock. The burrowing by earthworms, ants, rats, etc.
makes channels through the rocks and contributes to their destruction.
The quarrying, mining, deforestation and indiscriminate cultivation of
land by man are other contributing factors. Such biological actions may
be physical or chemical in nature. VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS There are several landforms that are

associated with volcanoes. Important among them include:

Batholith Batholith or bathylith is a very large domeshaped intrusion of

magma, typically several kilometres in depth and extending over
hundreds of square kilometres. It is usually composed of acid rocks,
such as granite and diorite, and is always associated with an area where
mountain-building has taken place. Examples of batholiths include
Dartmoor, Devon, and the Moume Mountains in Northern Ireland.

Laccolith Laccolith or laccolite is a large dome-like mass of igneous rock

(magma) that was intruded along a bedding plane in a sedimentary
sequence of rocks. In the well-developed laccoliths, the base tends to
be relatively flat so that the resulting intrusion has a lens shape. When
a number of laccoliths are stacked one above another from a single
intrusion, they are termed a cedar-tree laccolith.

Sill Sill is a horizontal intrusion of magma along a bedding plane

between two rock layers. When cooled, magma forms a -tabular sheet
more or less parallel to the surrounding layers of rock. The best known
example in the British Isles is the Great Whin Sill in Northern England
which is composed of dolerite.
Dyke When a mass of magma cuts across the bedding planes and forms
a wall-like structure, it is termed a dyke. Dykes tend to occur in large
numbers, known as swarms, e.g., on. the coast of Isle of Arran, and on
the Isle of Mull, Scotland. Some dykes when exposed on the surface,
stand as ridges or escarpments. In ridges, the side with gentle slope is
termed dip, while the side with steeper slope is termed scarp.

Hot Spring Hot or thermal spring is a spring of hot water that flows out
of the ground heated by volcanic areas, e.g., at Bath, Avon. The water
that flows from hot springs often contains a large proportion of
dissolved minerals, which may be deposited as basins or terraces
around the hot springs. Iceland and New Zealand have thousands of hot
springs.

Geysers Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam

that may spout up to a height of 150 feet from the earth beneath. The
phenomena are associated with a thermal or volcanic region in which
the water below is being heated beyond boiling point. Almost all the
world's geysers are confined to three major areas; Iceland, the Rotorua
district of North Island (New Zealand), and Yellowstone Park of USA.
The world's best known geyser is perhaps 'Old Faithful' in Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming, which erupts at regular intervals - every 63
minutes on the average. In 1904, the Waimangu Geyser in New Zealand
erupted to a height of about 457 m, higher than the world's tallest building,
the Sears Tower (445 m)

OROGENESIS
As mentioned earlier, orogenesis is the process by which mountains are formed.
Orogenic movements result in the thrusting, folding and faulting that form the
major mountain ranges. This occurs when two continents collide and the
sediments between them are intensely deformed into linear mountain ranges.
Volcanic activity and earthquakes are closely associated with orogenesis.
Since the dawn of geological time, no less than nine orogenic movements have
taken place. Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian times between 600-3,500
million years ago. The three more recent orogenies are:

(i) The Caledonian About 320 million years ago, the Caledonian orogenies raised
the mountains of Scandinavia and Scotland. This orogenies is represented in
North America.
(ii) The Hercynian During the Hercynian earth movements, which occurred about
240 million years ago, ranges such as the Ural Mountains, the Pennines and
Welsh Highlands in Britain, the Harz Mountains in Germany, the Appalachians in
America were formed.
(iii) The Alpine The Alpine movement occurred about 30 million years ago. Young
fold mountain ranges were buckled up and overthrust on a gigantic scale. Being
the most recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, the Himalayas, the
Andes and the Rockies are the loftiest and the most imposing.
Major earthquakes

One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history occurred on 23

January 1556 in the Shaanxi province, China, killing more than 830,000 people
(see 1556 Shaanxi earthquake). Most of the population in the area at the time
lived in yaodongs, artificial caves in loess cliffs, many of which collapsed during
the catastrophe with great loss of life. The 1976 Tangshan earthquake, with a
death toll estimated to be between 240,000 to 655,000, is believed to be the
largest earthquake of the 20th century by death toll.

The 1960 Chilean Earthquake is the largest earthquake that has been measured
on a seismograph, reaching 9.5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. Its epicenter was
near Cañete, Chile. The energy released was approximately twice that of the next
most powerful earthquake, the Good Friday Earthquake, which was centered
in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all
beenmegathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history.

Effects of earthquake

 Shaking
 Ground rupture
 Landslide
 Avalanche
 Soil liquefaction
 Tsunami / floods

Tsunami
A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: lit. "harbour wave"; a
series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of
water, generally an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and
other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear
devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances
above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in
human history with over 230,000 people killed in 14 countries bordering the
Indian Ocean.

HURRICANES AND TYPHOONS

A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low-pressure center
and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce strong winds and
heavy rain.

the eye is normally circular in shape, and is typically 30–65 km (19–40 mi)
in diameter, though eyes as small as 3 km (1.9 mi) and as large as 370 km
(230 mi) have been observed.

Most tropical cyclones form in a worldwide band of thunderstorm activity

near the equator, referred to as the Intertropical Front (ITF),
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or the monsoon trough.

 The 1970 Bhola cyclone is the deadliest tropical cyclone on record, killing
more than 300,000 people and potentially as many as 1 million.
 Hurricane Katrina is estimated as the costliest tropical cyclone worldwide.

Tornado
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth
and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often
referred to as twisters or cyclones, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology, in a
wider sense, to name any closed low pressure circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes
and sizes, but they are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end
touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have
wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177 km/h), are about 250 feet (76 m) across, and
travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can
attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (483 km/h), stretch more than two miles
(3.2 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km)

Scale- Fujita

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia

Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1300 people.
Drought
Drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a
deficiency in its water supply whether surface or underground water.
Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below
average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on
the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts
can persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can cause
significant damage and harm the local economy.

This global phenomenon has a widespread impact on agriculture. Lengthy

periods of drought have long been a key trigger for mass migration and
played a key role in a number of ongoing migrations and other
humanitarian crises in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel.

Periods of droughts can have significant environmental, agricultural, health,

economic and social consequences. The effect varies according to
vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate
during drought because they do not have alternative food sources. Areas
with populations that depend on as a major food source are more
vulnerable to famine.
Drought can also reduce water quality, because lower water flows reduce
dilution of pollutants and increasecontamination of remaining water
sources. Common consequences of drought include:

 Diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity

for livestock
 Dust bowls, themselves a sign of erosion, which further erode
the landscape
 Dust storms, when drought hits an area suffering from desertification
and erosion
 Famine due to lack of water for irrigation
 Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife
 Hunger, drought provides too little water to support food crops.
 Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases
 Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement and
international refugees
 Reduced electricity production due to reduced water flow
through hydroelectric dams
 Shortages of water for industrial users
 Snake migration and increases in snakebites
 Social unrest
 War over natural resources, including water and food
 Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires, are more common during times
of drought

Strategies for drought protection, mitigation or relief include:

 Dams - many dams and their associated reservoirs supply additional

water in times of drought.
 Cloud seeding - a form of intentional weather modification to induce
rainfall.
 Desalination - of sea water for irrigation or consumption.
 Drought monitoring - Continuous observation of rainfall levels and
comparisons with current usage levels can help prevent man-made
drought. For instance, analysis of water usage in Yemen has revealed
that their water table(underground water level) is put at grave risk by
over-use to fertilize their Khat crop. Careful monitoring of moisture levels
can also help predict increased risk for wildfires, using such metrics as
the Keetch-Byram Drought Index or Palmer Drought Index.
 Land use - Carefully planned crop rotation can help to
minimize erosion and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops
in drier years.
 Outdoor water-use restriction - Regulating the use of sprinklers, hoses
or buckets on outdoor plants, filling pools, and other water-intensive
home maintenance tasks.
 Rainwater harvesting - Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or
other suitable catchments.
 Recycled water - Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated
and purified for reuse.
 Transvasement - Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive
attempts at irrigation in drought-prone areas.
Desertification
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region
becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and
wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human
.
activities Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem.

The immediate cause is the removal of most vegetation. This is driven by a

number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage
for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials

Prevention and replenishment

Reforestation

rovisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil

the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks

contour trenching.

Growing leguminous plants

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that

has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this
method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some
success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to
regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves
enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub
shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for
fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation.
Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields.
The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques
in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund,
which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or
agricultural ecosystems
Particulate matter
Particulate matter," also known as particle pollution or PM, is a
complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets.
Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including
acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and
soil or dust particles. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or
smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron
microscope.

Health effects

 premature death in people with heart or lung disease,

 nonfatal heart attacks,
 irregular heartbeat,
 aggravated asthma,
 decreased lung function, and
 increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the
airways, coughing or difficulty breathing
 Environmental Effects

 Visibility impairment
Fine particles are the main cause of reduced visibility (haze)

 Environmental damage
Particles can be carried over long distances by wind and then
settle on ground or water. The effects of this settling include:
making lakes and streams acidic; changing the nutrient
balance in coastal waters and large river basins; depleting the
 nutrients in soil; damaging sensitive forests and farm crops;
and affecting the diversity of ecosystems.

 Aesthetic damage
Particle pollution can stain and damage stone and other
materials, including culturally important objects such as
statues and monuments.

Climate Change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical
distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to
millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in
the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or
fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors that
include oceanic processes (such as oceanic circulation), bioticprocesses,
variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic
eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these latter
effects are currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often
used to describe human-specific impacts.

Causes
On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun
and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium
temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the
globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the
climates of different regions.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing
mechanisms".[4] These include processes such as variations in solar
radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, mountain-building and continental
drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety
of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial
forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice
caps, respond slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond
more quickly.
Forcing mechanisms can be either "internal" or "external". Internal forcing
mechanisms are natural processes within the climate system itself (e.g.,
thethermohaline circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either
natural (e.g., changes in solar output) or anthropogenic (e.g., increased
emissions of greenhouse gases).
Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response
of the climate system might be fast (e.g., a sudden cooling due to
airbornevolcanic ash reflecting sunlight), slow (e.g. thermal expansion of
warming ocean water), or a combination (e.g., sudden loss of albedo in the
arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more gradual thermal expansion
of the water). Therefore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the
full response to forcing mechanisms might not be fully developed for
centuries or even longer.
Internal forcing mechanisms
Natural changes in the components of Earth's climate system and their
interactions are the cause of internal climate variability, or "internal
forcings." Scientists generally define the five components of earth's climate
system to
include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere (restricted to the
surface soils, rocks, and sediments), and biosphere
External forcing mechanisms
Orbital variations
Main article: Milankovitch cycles
Slight variations in Earth's orbit lead to changes in the seasonal distribution
of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the
globe. There is very little change to the area-averaged annually averaged
sunshine; but there can be strong changes in the geographical and
seasonal distribution. The three types of orbital variations are variations in
Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation,
and precession of Earth's axis. Combined together, these
produce Milankovitch cycles which have a large impact on climate and are
notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods,[20] their
correlation with the advance and retreat of the Sahara,[20] and for
their appearance in the stratigraphic record.[21]
The IPCC notes that Milankovitch cycles drove the ice age
cycles, CO2 followed temperature change "with a lag of some hundreds of
years," and that as a feedback amplified temperature change.[22] The
depths of the ocean have a lag time in changing temperature (thermal
inertia on such scale). Upon seawater temperature change, the solubility of
CO2 in the oceans changed, as well as other factors impacting air-sea
CO2exchange.[23]
Solar output
Main article:
Variations in solar activity during the last several centuries based on
observations of sunspots and berylliumisotopes. The period of
extraordinarily few sunspots in the late 17th century was theMaunder
minimum.
The Sun is the predominant source for energy input to the Earth. Both long-
and short-term variations in solar intensity are known to affect global
climate.
Three to four billion years ago the sun emitted only 70% as much power as
it does today. If the atmospheric composition had been the same as today,
liquid water should not have existed on Earth. However, there is evidence
for the presence of water on the early Earth, in
the Hadean[24][25] and Archean[26][24] eons, leading to what is known as
the faint young Sun paradox.[27] Hypothesized solutions to this paradox
include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of
greenhouse gases than currently exist.[28] Over the following approximately
4 billion years, the energy output of the sun increased and atmospheric
composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event – oxygenation of the
atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration.
Over the next five billion years the sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red
giantand then a white dwarf will have large effects on climate, with the red
giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.
Solar output also varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar
cycle[29] and longer-termmodulations.[30] Solar intensity variations are
considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age,[31] and
some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of
the sun's energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs from the very
slow change that is happening within the sun as it ages and evolves.
Research indicates that solar variability has had effects including
the Maunder minimum from 1645 to 1715 A.D., part of the Little Ice Age
from 1550 to 1850 A.D. that was marked by relative cooling and greater
glacier extent than the centuries before and afterward.[32][33] Some studies
point toward solar radiation increases from cyclical sunspot activity
affecting global warming, and climate may be influenced by the sum of all
effects (solar variation, anthropogenic radiative forcings, etc.).[34][35]
Interestingly, a 2010 study[36] suggests, “that the effects of solar variability
on temperature throughout the atmosphere may be contrary to current
expectations.”
In an Aug 2011 Press Release,[37] CERN announced the publication in
the Nature journal the initial results from its CLOUD experiment. The
results indicate that ionisation from cosmic rays significantly enhances
aerosol formation in the presence of sulphuric acid and water, but in the
lower atmosphere where ammonia is also required, this is insufficient to
account for aerosol formation and additional trace vapours must be
involved. The next step is to find more about these trace vapours, including
whether they are of natural or human origin.
Further information: Cosmic ray#Role in climate change
Magnetic field strength
Some recent (2006+) analysis suggests that global climate is correlated
with the strength of Earth's magnetic field.[38][39]
Volcanism
Volcanic eruptions release gases and particulates into the
atmosphere. Eruptions large enough to affect climate occur on average
several times per century, and cause cooling (by partially blocking the
transmission of solar radiation to the Earth's surface) for a period of a few
years. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, the second largest
terrestrial eruption of the 20th century[40] (after the 1912 eruption
of Novarupta[41]) affected the climate substantially. Global temperatures
decreased by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). The eruption of Mount Tambora in
1815 caused the Year Without a Summer.[42] Much larger eruptions, known
as large igneous provinces, occur only a few times every hundred million
years, but may cause global warming and mass extinctions.[43]
Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long
(geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the Earth's
crust and mantle, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other
geological carbon dioxide sinks. The US Geological Survey estimates are
that volcanic emissions are at a much lower level than the effects of current
human activities, which generate 100-300 times the amount of carbon
dioxide emitted by volcanoes.[44] A review of published studies indicates
that annual volcanic emissions of carbon dioxide, including amounts
released from mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hot spot volcanoes, are
only the equivalent of 3 to 5 days of human caused output. The annual
amount put out by human activities may be greater than the amount
released by supererruptions, the most recent of which was the Toba
eruption in Indonesia 74,000 years ago.[45]
Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is
part of the climate system, the IPCC explicitly defines volcanism as an
external forcing agent.[46]
Plate tectonics
Over the course of millions of years, the motion of tectonic plates
reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates topography. This
can affect both global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-ocean
circulation.[47]
The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and
therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas
are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the
globe, and therefore, in determining global climate. A recent example of
tectonic control on ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of
Panama about 5 million years ago, which shut off direct mixing between
the Atlantic and PacificOceans. This strongly affected the ocean
dynamics of what is now the Gulf Stream and may have led to Northern
Hemisphere ice cover.[48][49] During theCarboniferous period, about 300 to
360 million years ago, plate tectonics may have triggered large-scale
storage of carbon and increased glaciation.[50]Geologic evidence points to a
"megamonsoonal" circulation pattern during the time of
the supercontinent Pangaea, and climate modeling suggests that the
existence of the supercontinent was conducive to the establishment of
monsoons.[51]
The size of continents is also important. Because of the stabilizing effect of
the oceans on temperature, yearly temperature variations are generally
lower in coastal areas than they are inland. A larger supercontinent will
therefore have more area in which climate is strongly seasonal than will
several smaller continents or islands.
Human influences
Main article: Global warming
Main article: Climate change mitigation
In the context of climate variation, anthropogenic factors are human
activities which affect the climate. The scientific consensus on climate
change is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part
caused by human activities,"[52] and it "is largely irreversible."[53]
“Science has made enormous inroads in understanding climate change
and its causes, and is beginning to help develop a strong understanding of
current and potential impacts that will affect people today and in coming
decades. This understanding is crucial because it allows decision makers
to place climate change in the context of other large challenges facing the
nation and the world. There are still some uncertainties, and there always
will be in understanding a complex system like Earth’s climate.
Nevertheless, there is a strong, credible body of evidence, based on
multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and that
these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much
remains to be learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and
hypotheses have been examined thoroughly and have stood firm in the
face of serious scientific debate and careful evaluation of alternative
explanations.”
— United States National Research Council, Advancing the Science of
Climate Change
Of most concern in these anthropogenic factors is the increase in
CO2 levels due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed
by aerosols (particulate matter in the atmosphere)
and cement manufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone
depletion, animal agriculture[54] and deforestation, are also of concern in the
roles they play - both separately and in conjunction with other factors - in
affecting climate, microclimate, and measures of climate variables.

Consequences
1. Increased seismicity , leading to more frequent eartquakes.
2. Increased volcanism
3. Increase in land and water temperatures.
4. Melting of ice caps and glaciers.
5. Increase in sea level and floods leading to submerging of low lying ,
coastal areas and islands.
6. Reduction in amount of dissolved O2 in water bodies , which may
affect aquatic life.
7. Disruption of sulfur cycle
8. Acidification of oceans
9. Increased and intense tropical cyclone activity (hurricanes , tornado
etc) .
10. Forest fires
11. Droughts
12. Negative effects on economy
13. Faster spread of diseases
14. Extinction of various plant and animal species .