The Golden Ratio

Rune Pettersson Lennart Strand

Abstract
The principle of the Golden Ratio has been used in art and architecture for 2,500 years to create harmonious propor-
tions. Many handbooks on typography and graphic design recommend the use of the Golden Ratio. “Is the Golden
Ratio really a good principle?” No, it is rather a myth. In this study we found that there is a big variety of what subjects
consider as a harmonious book page. Subjects did not choose alternatives built on the principle of the Golden Ratio.

Introduction
The Golden Ratio is also known as the Golden
Section1, The Golden Mean, or the Divine Proportion. It
is an irrational number of a line divided into two segments.
The ratio of the whole segment (a+b) is the same to the
larger segment as the larger segment is to the shorter
segment (Figure 1).
Figure 1
The Golden Ratio, (a+b)/b = b/a
a b
Historical Background
According to Mario Livio (2002, p. 3) the first clear
definition of this irrational number, later known as the
Golden Ratio, was around 300 B.C. given by Euclid2 of
Alexandria, Egypt. The mathematical relationship forms
an irrational number, i.e. a number that never ends. The
number is called “the Golden Ratio”, or “phi”, which is
a letter in the Greek alphabet (Figure 2). A Latin phi looks
like an “o” with a crossing, slightly angled line.
Figure 2
Phi In The Greek And In The Latin Alphabet
segment is to the number one, plus the root of five. The
result is 1.6180339887 respectively 0.6180339887. The
number 1.6180339887 is called the Golden Ratio Quota.
In the early 20th century the American Mathematician
Mark Barr named this irrational number “phi” in honor
of the Greek Sculptor Phidias (Livio, 2002, p. 5). Histo-
rians believe that Phidias lived circa 490–430 B.C.
He was, among other things, responsible for the
artistic ornamentation of the Parthenon temple on the
Acropolis in Athens, Greece. According to Livio (p. 74)
the Parthenon is, however, not built in accordance with
the principle of the Golden Ratio, but many authors of text-
books believe that it is.
According to the Swedish “Nationalencyklopedin”3
the term “goldene schnitt” (the Golden Ratio) was first
used by the German Adolf Zeising4 in his book Neue Lehre
von der Proportionen des Menschlichen Körpers (1854).
The principle of the Golden Ratio is comparable to
the well-known “Fibonacci numbers”: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, 55, 89, and so forth. In this sequence any term after
the first two is the sum of the previous two terms. This
property is a close approximation of the Golden Quota
(8/5 = 1.6). A Golden Rectangle therefore has sides of
approximately the same proportions, 8/5. Any such
rectangle is enlarged by being multiplied by 1.62, and
reduced by being multiplied by 0.62.
When we divide a rectangle according to the Golden

OO
Mathematically the relationship between the two
Ratio (to the left in Figure 3) by adding a square, the rest
of the original rectangle (the black surface) gets the
Golden Ratio. In theory we can repeat this process forever;
in reality though, there are always physical limits to this.

Figure 3
segments can be described as
Dividing According To The Golden Ratio
(1 + 1x)/x = x/1
x2 = x + 1

The relationship between the shorter one of two

segments to the number two is the same as the larger
 When diagonal lines are drawn in a pentagon, several
examples of the Golden Ratio emerge (Figure 4). At the
same time “phi” is the property between the diagonal and
one side in the pentagon. The five-point star is used in
many ways.
Figure 4
The Golden Ratio
Traditionally, the golden rectangle is considered
aesthetic in the western world (Arnheim, 1974; Berndal
and Frigyes, 1990; Koblanck, 1999; Pettersson, 2002).
The principle of the Golden Ratio has been used in art and
architecture for 2,500 years to create harmonious propor-
tions.
The Golden Ratio is a well-known standard format for
flags, fine art, symbols and more. The Golden Ratio was
much used in painting academies in the 19th century.
For many years designers and fine artists have been
using, and are still using, the proportions of the Golden
Ratio in their work. It can be used in paintings, page
formats, or picture formats in print products, e.g. in books.
Furthermore, handbooks in typography and graphic
design recommend the use of the Golden Ratio. In her
book Creative Advertising, Sandra Moriarty (1991, p.
237) noted that: “Most quality books and magazines use
page sizes that are close to a 3:5 ratio. The amount of type
on the page relative to the overall page size is roughly 3:5.
The proportions of the page margins to the text area are
also 3:5”. The Penguin publishing house has used the page
format 111x180 mm (3:4.9) for more than half a century
(Bringhurst, 2004, p. 157).
Still, we haven’t found any other explanation for these
recommendations than the Golden Ratio has always been
used. Therefor we found a reason to ask: ”Is the Golden
Ratio really a good and practical principle when it comes
to proportional formats of various kinds?”
Standard Formats
When taking out any number of books from a book
case it is apparent that size and design vary quite a lot.
Comparably there are also different formats on computer
screens, and also of projected images.
Paper
The most common paper format in Sweden is the A-
format. The A-series comprises international standard
formats for printed matters with a page ratio of 1:1.414.
The A-series can be traced back to a French law from 1798
for certificate papers. The most common format in the A-
series is the A4, which is 297 mm high and 210 mm wide.
Another standard format for printed matters is the G-
series. A common G-format is 338 mm high and 239 mm
wide. In USA the A-format is not used. Here the most
common format is the US-letter, which is 279.5 mm high
and 216 mm wide.
Screens
The size of computer screens and television screens
is measured diagonally in inches. Computer screens are
quite often 12, 14, 15 or 17 inches. Television screens are
often larger, normally 26 or 28 inches, but in recent years
much larger screens have been developed.
Projected images come in various formats for moving
pictures and for still pictures. In the old standard 8-mm-
film the picture screen is circa 3.5 by 4.5 mm. A Super-
8-camera has a picture screen circa 4.5 x 5.5 mm. The
screen in a 16-mm film camera is 9 x 10 mm.
In 35-mm film the picture size varies, one common
format is 18 x 24 mm. The picture size on films with a
sound track is 18 x 22 mm. Also in 70-mm films the screen
can vary, one format is 19 x 43 mm.
There have been many different sizes for still photo-
graphy with sheetfilm and roll film; miniature formats (8
x 11 mm, 12 x 17 mm, 13 x 17 mm), Viewmaster (8 x 10
mm), film cartridge 126 (28 x 28 mm), “slide format” (24
x 36 mm), half format (18 x 24 mm), robot format (24 x
24 mm), medium format (40 x 40 mm, 45 x 60 mm, 60
x 60 mm, 60 x 70 mm, 60 x 90 mm and 56 x 72 mm) and
big formats (90 x 120, 120 x 165, 130 x 180 and 180 x
240 mm), and direct format (78 x 78 mm and 68 x 90 mm).
We Need An Index
It may be difficult to compare different formats in
photographs, and formats of for example books. The
values become subjective. However, to objectivly
compare different page formats we can use an index. Such
an index may be calculated as the hight/width x 100.
With this index rectangular horizontal formats get
index values under 100. Very wide formats get low index
numbers. This is regardless of how large the individual
pages are. All square formats get an index of 100 (Figure
5). All vertical formats get index values over 100. Very
high formats get high index values.
A picture or a book page that is designed according
to the Golden Ratio gets an index of 62 when the format
is horizontal, and an index of 162 when the format is
vertical.
 Figure 5 three points between the lines on the pages.
Some Index Values Two of the six layout variants are based on the X-law.
The body type is normal in one of these examples, bold
in the other. Two of the layout variants are based on the
principle of the Golden Ratio. Also, the body type is
normal in one case and bold in the other. One of the
Golden
Golden Ratio = 62 Square = 100 Ratio = 162 examples is based on Pettersson’s own model for study
books and compendia in A4-formats (Pettersson, 2003a).
Finally one of the layout variants is based on
Hellmark’s model for traditional book typography
(Hellmark, 2000). The six variants were randomly sorted
for each subject.
Over all, 32 students participated in the project. They
Projected slide were asked to carefully study the six variations and rank
Cinemascope = 46 = 65 them. There is a relatively large spread in their percep-
tions. All six layout variants were ranked according to the
alternative “best,” or “second best” by at least one person.
Taken together two clear groups emerge, one group that
Projected
IMAX = 69 TV = 76 overhead is considered “better”, and one group that is considered
= 78 “not as good.”

Figure 6
Typographical Data For The Best Legends

A-series Headline Headline Headline Headline

US-letter = 141 level 1 level 2 level 3 level 4
A-series = 71 = 129 G-series
= 141 Font Helvetica Helvetica Helvetica Helvetica
Style Normal Normal Normal Normal
Align-
Centered Centered Left Left
Different Levels Of Legends ment
According to Berndal and Frigyes (1990) the Golden
Size 30 24 18 12
Ratio has been used in the past to estimate suitable levels
for headlines in a document. The size of bodytype is multi- Leading 36 30 24 15
plied with 1.62, and then rounded off. If the bodytype is Space
ten Didot points (=10.7 pica points), and there are four 50 33 18 15
before
levels for headlines in the document, the following sizes
are adequate: 10, 16, 26 and 42 Didot points5. Space
62 12 3 0
In one experiment Pettersson studied how subjects after
percieved different headings. In the fall of 2002, students Size 150 75 45 30
at Mälardalen University in Sweden were asked to
Number
carefully study and then rank six variants of layouts 10 5 3 2
of lines
(Pettersson, 2003a, p. 45).
The research material comprised two A4-pages with
text. The text was the first part of a chapter in a textbook To the “better group” belongs: classic book typog-
that the students used. In order to make room for four levels raphy (average ranking 2.5), the x-law with normal
of legends on both pages, it was necessary to shorten the bodytype (average ranking 2.6) and Pettersson’s model
text some. The type width was increased from 135 milli- for study books (average ranking 2.8). These three
meters to 150 millimeters and the type was centered on variants are considered clearly better than the ones that
the pages. The body type was Palatino in 12 points. It was belong to the “not as good” group.
 The “not as good” group consists of the X-law with
bold texttype (average ranking 3.8), and the two layout
variants that are based on the principle of the Golden Ratio
(average ranking 4.6; and 4.7).
In the alternative that was considered best the
headlines were 30, 24, 18 and 12 points (see Figure 6).
In the two lowest ranked alternatives, that both are based
on the principle of the Golden Ratio, the headline types
were 50, 30, 20 and 12 points. The principle of the Golden
Ratio apparently gave too much difference between the
type sizes. Also note that the two variants with bold
headlines belong to the ”not as good” group.
Study Of Book Pages
In order to study if, or and to what degree, the Golden
Ratio is a good principle when it comes to design of
harmonious book pages, we have carried out a study in
two parts. In the fall of 2004 students at Mälardalen
University were asked to fold a white paper, size 45x45
cm, to a book page that they felt was the most harmonious.
There was no time limit. The folded papers were anony-
mously handed over to a Research Assistant. The students
were asked to mark their gender on top of the page, a K
for kvinna (woman), and a M for a man (man). Before
the test started we formulated three hypothesis:
1. Most pages will not have the proportions of the
Golden Ratio.
2. There is no difference in perception between men
and women of what is considered the most harmoni-
ous book page.
3. Adults can be prejudiced by the proportions of the
Golden Ratio when it comes to harmonious book for-
mats.
A Research Asisstant measured all pages and noted
the students’ gender, as well as the height and width of
the pages, in an Excel spread sheet. The Excel program
calculated the index and the area of each page. The
program also calculated mean values, mean indexes for
the women pages, the men’s pages, and for the whole
group (see Figures 7–11).
Of all 126 subjects, 120 chose a vertical format. The
mean index was 137. This format is close to the European
standard of office format (141). As noted earlier, a book
page designed with the principle of the Golden Ratio has
index 62 in a horizontal format, and 162 in a vertical
format. The first hypothesis was thereby confirmed. Most
students did not create book pages according to the
principle of the Golden Ratio.
At first sight one gets the impression that the men and
the women that participated in our survey have different
preferences when it comes to the size of harmonious book
pages. The women’s most harmonious book page is 22.4
cm high and 16.2 cm wide. The area of this page is 368
square centimeters.
Figure 7
The Most Harmonious Area Of A Book Page
50
40
30
Number
of
subjects
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
cm2
The most harmonious page for the male participants
is 23.6 cm high and 17.4 cm wide. The area is 423 square
centimeters. The “male” book page is larger (115%) than
the womens mean page. However, the difference is not
statistically significant. The difference may be attributed
to chance. (Average ranking for men = 69.38 and for
women 60.00. A Mann-Whitney test gives z = 1.40, p =
0.163).
It is very clear however, that all the variables, height,
width, area, and index, clearly differ from a normal distri-
bution. Let us therefor look at the spread of median values
for men and for women.
The median value for the women’s most harmonious
book page is 22.5 cm high, and 15.5 cm wide. Here the
area is 337.5 square centimeters, which is less than the
mean value of 368 square centimeters.
The median value for the men’s most harmonious
book page is 22.5 cm high, and 16.0 cm wide. The area
here is 360 square centimeters, which is less than the mean
value of 423 square centimeters.
The median value for the whole group’s most harmo-
nious book page is 22.5 cm high, and 15.8 cm wide. The
median value for the whole group is 344.2 square centi-
meters, which is less than the mean value of 389 square
centimeters.
 Figure 8 What happens then in a country with a different
Index Values For Selected Boook Formats commonly used paper format? The USA is not using the
A-series. The common format is US-letter. This format
Frequency is slightly lower and slightly wider than the A-series. The
50 size is 279.5 mm high and 216 mm wide, which gives an
index of 129.4. This is even farther from the proportions
of the Golden Ratio than for the A- and G-formats.
40 We therefore extended the study to include American
subjects. American colleagues asked their students to
participate in our project. The American students got a
30 short written instruction. They were asked to get a big
Number
of square paper, and fold this into a harmonious book page.
subjects Then they were asked to measure the height and width
20 of the folded paper, and e-mail the results to a Research
Assistent. The students also marked the paper with a W
for women, and with a M for men.
10 A Research Assistant noted the subject’s gender, and
the height and width of the harmonious book pages in
another Excel file. All 44 subjects chose a vertical format.
0 The mean index was 136, which is equivalent to the
0 60 90 120 150 180 210
Swedish results. There was no notable difference between
Index
women (137) and men (135) when it came to their choice
There is no significant difference between women of harmonious book formats (Figure 10).
(index = 138) and men (136) when it comes to page
formats (Figure 9). This small difference is not statisti- Figure 10
cally significant. (Average order of rank for men = 69.11, Opinions From Subjects In USA
and for women 60.16. Mann-Whitney test gives z = 1.33,
p = .183). Thereby also the second hypothesis is Mean Mean Mean
confirmed. There is no difference between the perceptions Mean
Gender Number height width area
of women and men when it comes to a harmonious format index
(cm) (cm) (cm2)
on a book page.
Women 27 21.4 15.6 333 137
Figure 9 Men 17 23.1 17.1 395 135
Opinions From Subjects In Sweden.
All 44 22.1 16.2 363 136

Mean Mean Mean

Mean American men and women did not show any signif-
Gender Number height width area
index
(cm) (cm) (cm2) icant preference when it came to the size of book pages.
The most harmonious book page format for the women
Women 79 22,4 16,2 368 138
was 21.4 cm high and 15.6 cm wide. The area is 333 square
Men 47 23,6 17,4 423 136 centimeters. The male subject’s most harmonious format
All 126 22,9 16,7 389 137 was 23.1 cm high and 17.1 cm wide. The area is 395 square
centimeters. American men chose slightly larger book
formats (119%) than women.
If we erase the extreme values and calculate the When it comes to harmonious formats of book pages
median value the sum is 142 for the whole group, which there are apparently no significant differences between
is very close to the index for commonly used office papers. subjects that live in Sweden compared to those that live
It is easy to believe that our perception of the proportions in the USA (Figure 11). The third hypothesis was not
for a harmonious book page is affected by the paper we confirmed. We did not find that adults are prejudiced by
use daily. In Sweden the A-paper format is common. For the proportions of the Golden Ratio when it comes to
both the A-series and the G-series the index is 141. harmonious book formats.
 Figure 11
Opinions From All Subjects In The Study.
Mean Mean Mean
Mean
Country Number height width area
index
(cm) (cm) (cm2)
Sweden 126 22.9 16.7 389 137
USA 44 22.1 16.2 363 136
All 170 22.7 16.6 382 137
Discussion
In an earlier study, groups of subjects were asked to
evaluate the importance of research results regarding
sender processes respective to reciever processes, in text
design, in image design and in graphic design (Pettersson,
2003b). The results from this study showed that the
perception of the importance of research results in graphic
design were very divided among the different participants.
This study showed a wide spread of values, and it was not
at all possible to make a clear ranking of the different
variables. The area of graphic design was mainly charac-
terized by strong disagreements between the groups of
subjects. It was obvious that people have their individual
opinions regarding graphic design.
Now we have two extensive studies of the perception
of the Golden Ratio. The first study was about the
perception of various levels of legends. The second study
was about the perception of a harmonious book page. In
this study we found that there is a large variety in the values
of what a harmonious book page is; we also found some
“extreme values”.
Still, it is possible to see clear results when it comes
to perceptions of the Golden Ratio. Not in any cases did
any one of the subjects choose an alternative that is built
on the principle of the Golden Ratio. In both studies the
subjects have chosen alternatives with a lot less differ-
ences between the sizes of legends and the heights and
widths of book pages. Our opening question was whether
the principle of the Golden Ratio is a good principle when
it comes to book design. Our answer is “No, the Golden
Ratio is not a good principle when it comes to book
design.”
Our next natural step is to study the use of different
formats of pictures in books, in magazines and in other
publications as also here it is often recommended to use
the Golden Ratio as a good principle of design.
Notes
1. The term “golden schnitt” (Golden Ratio), may have
been used for the first time in 1835 in the second edi-
tion of Martin Ohm’s book Die Reine Elementar
Mathematik (Livio 2002, p. 6).
2. Euclid is called the founder of geometry as a formal-
ized deductive system.
3. The National Encyclopedia.
4. Zeising is the author of one of the most extensive
works on the Golden Ratio, Der Goldene Snitt, pub-
lished in 1884 (Livio, 2002, p. 73).
5. In the Didot system 12 points = .1780 inch. In the
Pica system 12 points = .1667 inch.
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