REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW APPLYING TO FLUID MACHINES

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Definition of Fluid

Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing vessels.

Fluids can be classified as liquids or gases (or vapors). The chief differences between liquids and gases are
(a) liquids are practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible and (b) liquids occupy definite
volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas expands until it occupies all portion of any
containing vessel.

Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity

The density ρ (rho) of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. ρ = mass / volume

The specific weight γ (gamma) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. γ = weight / volume

Specific weight related to density,

γ = ρ g / k , where: g is the local gravitational acceleration ( g is 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2 at sea level
and 45o latitude )

k is the proportionality constant.

k = 1 gm.cm = 1kgm.m = slug.ft

dyne.s2 N. s2 lbf. s2

k = 981 gm.cm = 9.81 kgm.m = 32.2 lbm. ft

gf. s2 kgf. s2 lbf. s2

Specific gravity sp.gr. is often used to determine the specific weight or density of a fluid (usually a liquid). It
is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to that of water at a reference temperature of 4oC (39.2 oF):

sp.gr.s = ρs = γs (at sea level)

ρwater γwater (at see level)

Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity of Air and Water at Standard Condition

Density ρ Specific weight γ

kg/m3 slug/ft3 N/m3 lb/ft3 Specific gravity sp.gr.

Air 1.23 0.0024 12.1 0.077 0.00123

Water 1000 1.94 9810 62.4 1

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Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid. It is a property of a fluid which can be thought of
as the internal stickiness of a fluid. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules. The
mathematical basis of Viscosity may be derived from Fig.1

U
Moving plate F

dy
y
dV
Fixed Plate

Figure 1

Referring to Fig. 1, consider two large, parallel plates a small distance y apart, the space between the plates
being filled with a fluid. To keep the upper plate moving at a constant velocity U, it is found that a constant
force F must be applied. Thus there must exist a viscous interaction between plate and fluid, manifested as drag
on the former and a shear force on the latter. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will
move at a velocity U, and the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have velocity zero. If distance y and
velocity U are not too great , the velocity profile will be a straight line. Experiments have shown that shear
force F varies with the area of the plate A, with velocity U, and inversely with distance y. Since by similar
triangles, U/y = dV/dy, we have

F α AU ; F α A dV or F α dV
y dy A dy

where τ = F/A = shear stress. If a proportionality constant μ (mu), called the absolute viscosity, the
dynamic viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid, is introduced,

τ = F = μ dV or μ = τ = shear stress (1-1)

A dy dV/dy rate of shear strain

It follows that units of μ are:

In metric system: dyne-sec = gram = 1 poise ; 1 poise = 100 centipoises (100cP)

cm2 cm-sec

In English system: lbf-sec = slug

ft2 ft-sec

The following relation is useful for conversions.

1 gram or 1 poise = 0.002089 slug

cm-sec ft-sec

also, 1 poise = 0.1 kgm = 0.1 Pa.sec

m-sec
2
Two concentric cylinders used as a viscometer in measuring viscosity

The force F required to move the upper plate in Fig. 1 at a constant velocity of V while the lower plate
remains stationary is

F=μAV (1-2)
Y
This relation can alternately be used to calculate μ when F is
measured. For example consider a fluid layer of thickness y within a small
gap between two concentric cylinders, such as thin layer of oil in a
journal bearing as shown in Fig. 2. The gap between the cylinder can be
modeled as two parallel flat plates separated by fluid. Noting that torque
is T = Fr ( force times the moment arm, which is the radius r of the inner
cylinder in this case), the tangential velocity is V =ω r (angular velocity
times the radius), and taking the wetted surface area of the inner cylinder
to be A = 2π r L by disregarding the shear stress acting on two ends of the
inner cylinders, torque can be expressed as

Figure 2 concentric cylinder

T = F r = μ A V r = μ 2π r3 ω L = μ 4 π2 r3 ns L (1-3)
y y y

where L is the length of the cylinder and ns is the number of revolution per unit time which is usually
expressed in rpm (revolution per minute). Note that the angular distance traveled during one rotation is 2π rad,
and thus the relation between the angular velocity in rad/min and rpm is ω = 2π ns. Equation 1-3 can be used to
calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity. Therefore, two concentric
cylinders can be used as a viscometer, a device that measures viscosity. If the torque is applied to the outer
cylinder, then the radius of that cylinder should be used in calculations.

The viscosity is practically independent of the pressure but it varies with temperature. Viscosities of liquids
decrease with temperature increases. The absolute viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.

Helmholtz found the viscosity of water to be

μ in poises = 0.01779
1 + 0.03368 t + 0.000221 t 2

and Grindley and Gibson found the viscosity of air to be

μ in poises = 0.0001702 ( 1 + 0.00329 t + 0.000007 t 2 )

where t for both cases is the temperature in degrees centigrade ( oC ).

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 Dynamic viscosities of some fluids at 1 atm and 20oC (unless
otherwise stated)

Dynamic Viscosity, μ
Fluid kgm/m.sec centipoise

Glycerin:
- 20oC 134.0 134000
0oC 10.5 10500
20oC 1.52 1520
40oC 0.31 310
Engine oil:
SAE 10W 0.10 101
SAE 10W30 0.17 170
SAE 30 0.29 290
SAE 50 0.86 860

Mercury 0.0015 1.5

Ethyl alcohol 0.0012 1.2
Water:
0oC 0.0018 1.8
20oC 0.0010 1.0
100oC (liquid) 0.00028 0.28
100oC (vapor) 0.000012 0.012

Blood, 37oC 0.00040 0.40

Gasoline 0.00029 0.29
Ammonia 0.00015 0.15
Air 0.000018 0.018
Hydrogen, 0oC 0.0000088 0.0088

Kinematic Viscosity v

It is sometimes more convenient to use kinematic viscosity ν (nu) ; this is the absolute viscosity divided by
the mass density or
kinematic viscosity ν = absolute viscosity μ
mass density ρ
The units of ν are:

In metric system: cm2 or stokes ; In English system: ft2

sec sec
For conversion purposes:

1 cm2 or stoke = 0.001076 ft2

sec sec

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 Values of viscosity and specific weight for two common fluids, water and air, at 59 oF
o
(15 C) and atmospheric pressure are as follows.

Absolute Viscosity μ Kinematic Viscosity ν Specific Weight γ

Fluid
poises slugs / ft-sec stokes ft2 / sec gram /cm3 lb / ft3

Air 0.1783 (10) -3 0.3723 (10) -6 0.1455 0.1566 (10) -3 0.001224 0.0765
Water 0.01144 23.890 (10) -6 0.01145 12.32 (10) -3 1.000 62.34

Liquids are frequently specified in terms of

Saybolt seconds. A Saybolt second is the time t ' in
second for 60 cc. of liquid to pass through an
opening of standard size of Saybolt Viscosimeter
(see Fig 3). To convert this into kinematic viscosity
the following relationships may be used.

ν = 0.0022 t ' - 1.8 cm.2 per sec or stokes 1-4

t'

ν = ﴾ 0.236 t ' - 194 ﴿ 10 -5 ft.2 per sec. 1-5

t'

where : t ‘ - Saybolt Second Universal (or SSU)

The above equation apply to the Universal Saybolt viscosimeter. For heavy oils a Saybolt-Furol is used;
this is the same as the Universal except that the diameter of the opening is larger. The ratio of the times
required for a given liquid to flow through the two viscosimeter is approximately 10 to 1, so that the readings on
the Furol machine should be multiplied by 10 before substituting in Eqs. 1-4 and 1-5. That is,

1 Saybolt Furol Second (or SSF) = 10 Saybolt Second Universal (or SSU)

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Sample Problems:

1.) A fluid has a viscosity of 12.0 poises and a specific gravity of 0.89. Find the kinematic viscosity of this
fluid in stokes. Ans: 0.0145 ft2/sec

2.) The dynamic viscosity of a gas is 3.4 x 10-7 lbf.s/ft2. Find the corresponding value in N.sec/m2 or Pa.sec.

3.) Using Helmholtz’s equation, determine the viscosity of water in poises for a temperature of 60 oF and
convert this into English units and SI units. If the density of water at this temperature is 1.00 gm/cm3
determine the kinematic viscosity in sets of units.

4.) Using Grindley and Gibson’s equation, determine the viscosity of air in poise for a temperature of 60 oF and
convert this in English and SI units. If the specific weight of air at this temperature is 0.0765 lb/ft3
determine the kinematic viscosity in both sets of units.

5.) No. 6 fuel oil has a viscosity of 300 Saybolt-Furol seconds and a specific gravity of approximately 1.
Determine the kinematic and absolute viscosity of the oil in English units. Ans: v = 708 (10) -5 ft2/sec; μ
= 0.0137 slug per ft-sec.

6.) The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 40-cm-long concentric
cylinders. The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 12 cm, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.15
cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 300 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.8 N.m. Determine the
viscosity of the fluid. Ans: 0.158 N.s/m2

7.) The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 3-ft-long concentric cylinders.
The inner diameter of the outlet cylinder is 6 in., and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.05 in. The
outer cylinder is rotated at 250 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.2 lbf.ft. Determine the viscosity of
the fluid. Ans: 0.000648 lbf.sec/ft