Classical Fields : Stress-Energy-Momentum tensor

April 19, 2016

1 Scalar field action and associated symmetries

A theory of the scalar field, Φ(x) can be described by the action,
ˆ
I [Φ(x)] = d4 x L,

where the Lagrangian L is a function of the scalar, Φ and it’s spacetime derivatives ∂µ Φ,

L = L (Φ(x), ∂µ Φ(x)) .

The integration range is over all space and time.

For the free scalar field, the Lagrangian can be taken to be,
1 1
L = − ∂µ Φ ∂ µ Φ − m2 Φ2 . (1)
2 2
This form is dictated by Lorentz/Poincare invariance and the funny factors of − 12 are there so that
the kinetic terms come with the right sign and right factor, e.g. 12 Φ̇2 . m is invariant quantity with
the dimensions of mass (or energy). Upon quantizing the system, the parameter, m will turn out
to be the mass of the scalar field quanta/particles.

The symmetries/invariances of the scalar field action are:

• Lorentz invariance x → x0 = Λx, Φ(x) → Φ0 (x0 ) = Φ(x).
• Translational invariance x → x0 = x + a, Φ(x) → Φ0 (x0 ) = Φ(x).

Check:
• Lorentz invariance is rather obvious because most terms in the action is Lorentz invariant,
d4 x, m2 , Φ2 . Even the kinetic term, ∂µ Φ ∂ µ Φ, is because the Lorentz index µ is contracted,
viz:
∂µ Φ(x) → ∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 ) = Λµ ν ∂ν Φ(x),

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 =⇒ ∂µ Φ(x) ∂ µ Φ(x) → ∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 )∂ 0µ Φ0 (x0 ) = Λµ ν ∂ν Φ(x) Λµ α ∂ α Φ(x)
= (Λµ ν ) (Λµ α ) ∂ν Φ(x) ∂ α Φ(x)
= δαν ∂ν Φ(x) ∂ α Φ(x)
= ∂ν Φ(x) ∂ ν Φ(x).

Thus the action

ˆ  
0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0µ 0 0 1 2 0 2
I [Φ (x )] = d x − ∂µ Φ (x )∂ Φ (x ) − m Φ (x)
2 2
ˆ  
4 1 µ 1 2 2
= d x − ∂ µ Φ(x)∂ Φ(x) − m Φ(x)
2 2
= I [Φ(x)] ,

remains invariant.

• Translation invariance is also obvious because the action integral being defined over all space
and time i.e ranges of integration being (−∞, ∞), is independent of the origin of coordinates
and there is no explicit dependence on the coordinates, x.

2 Noether’s theorem and conserved charges

We will use Noether’s theorem to construct the conserved charges for the free scalar system.
Recall that Noether’s theorem states that conserved charges only appear for global symmetries i.e.
when the symmetry transformation is same all over spacetime. In the present case, we see that
the parameters Λµ ν and aµ are indeed constants and not functions of spacetime. So Noether’s
theorem applies in these cases and tells us that there must be conserved charges. Here we obtain
the expressions for those charges using the so called “Noether procedure”, where we first assume
that the symmetry parameters are functions of spacetime, i.e. Λµ ν = Λµ ν (x) = δνµ + ω µ ν (x) and
aµ = aµ (x). Then (to lowest order), the change in the action integral should be,
ˆ
δI = d4 x (∂µ aν ) Tµ ν

or ˆ
δI = d4 x (∂ρ ω µ ν ) M µ νρ .

This form is consistent with our expectation that in the special case when a and ω are constants
these expressions must vanish as the action is invariant under the global/constant changes. The

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companion terms i.e. T µ ν or M µ νρ which are some functions of scalar field and it’s derivatives are
the conserved quantities. This can be inferred from the above expressions by a simple integration
by parts and abandoning the total derivative term. For example for the translation invariance:
ˆ
δI = d4 x (∂µ aν ) Tµ ν
ˆ ˆ
= d x ∂µ (a T ν ) − d4 x (∂µ Tµ ν ) aν
4 ν µ

ˆ
= − d4 x (∂µ Tµ ν ) aν .

Now when we go to the global case, i.e. aν becomes a constant, it can be dragged out of the
integral and we have the expression,
ˆ
ν
δI = −a d4 x (∂µ Tµ ν ) .

Since the change in the action for this global aν is zero, the integrand must vanish. The vanishing
of the integrand is nothing but the continuity equation,
∂µ Tµ ν = 0,
in other words, T µ ν is a conserved current. In the following we use the Noether procedure to
extract the conserved quantities, M µνρ and Tµ µν
ν explicitly in terms of Φ and it’s derivatives, ∂µ Φ.

2.1 Translation symmetry and the conserved “Stress-Energy-Momentum”

tensor
The conserved quantity corresponding to translation/shift symmetry of the scalar field system is
called the Stress-Energy-Momentum tensor and is denoted by T µν . We use the Noether procedure
to extract this as follows. First step is to turn the shift parameter to be not global, but instead a
function of spacetime,
aµ = aµ (x).
So we have new coordinates,
x → x0µ = xµ + aµ (x).
The Jacobian matrix components for the change of variables, x → x0 are,
µ ∂x0µ
J ν= ν
= δνµ + ∂ν aµ ,
∂x
i.e. it is a sum of the identity matrix and a small change, ∂ν aµ . Hence to first order of the shift,
the Jacobian determinant is,
|J| = 1 + trace(∂ν aµ )
= 1 + ∂ρ aρ . (2)

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The derivatives transform like,
∂xν
∂µ → ∂µ0 = ∂ν
∂x0µ
= δµν − ∂µ aν ∂ν

= ∂µ − ∂µ aν ∂ν . (3)

Now let’s look at the change in Φ and it’s derivatives, ∂µ Φ. We have,

Φ0 (x0 ) = Φ(x),

while,
∂xν
∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 ) = ∂ν Φ(x)
∂x0µ
= ∂µ Φ(x) − ∂µ aν ∂ν Φ(x). (4)

Hence the action after the translation becomes,

ˆ
0 0
d4 x0 L Φ0 (x0 ), ∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 )


I [Φ (x )] =
ˆ
= d4 x |J| L (Φ(x), ∂µ Φ(x) − ∂µ aν ∂ν Φ(x))
ˆ  
4 ρ ν ∂L 2
= d x (1 + ∂ρ a ) L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) − ∂µ a ∂ν Φ(x) + O(a )
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)
ˆ  
4 ρ ν ∂L 2
= d x L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) + ∂ρ a L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) − ∂µ a ∂ν Φ(x) + O(a )
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)
ˆ  
4 ρ ν ∂L
= I [Φ(x)] + d x ∂ρ a L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) − ∂µ a ∂ν Φ(x) + O(a2 ),
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)

This implies, to first order in a

ˆ  
0 0 4 ρ ν ∂L
δI ≡ I [Φ (x )] − I [Φ(x)] = d x ∂ρ a L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) − ∂µ a ∂ν Φ(x)
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)
ˆ  
4 ν µ ∂L
= d x ∂µ a δν L (Φ(x), ∂ µ Φ(x)) − ∂ν Φ(x)
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)
ˆ
= d4 x ∂µ aν Tµ ν ,

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where we have identified the conserved current,
∂L
Tµ ν ≡ δνµ L − ∂ν Φ(x) .
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)

Raising the ν-index we arrive at the expression of the canonical stress-energy-momentum tensor,
∂L
Tµν = η µν L − ∂ ν Φ(x),
∂ (∂µ Φ(x)
= η µν L − (∂ µ Φ) (∂ν Φ) . (5)

We note couple of things about this canonical stress tensor,

• One can go ahead and check that charges corresponding to the current is nothing but the
four-momentum, P µ , i.e. ˆ
P = d3 x T0ν .
ν

Let’s evaluate the 00-component i.e. energy density, T00 ,

∂L
T00 = η 00 L − ∂ 0 Φ(x)
∂ (∂0 Φ(x)

2
= −L + ∂ 0 Φ(x)
1 1
2
= ∂µ Φ ∂ µ + m2 Φ2 + ∂ 0 Φ(x)
2 2
1 1 1
= − (∂0 Φ) + (∇Φ)2 + m2 Φ2 + (∂0 Φ)2
2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
= (∂0 Φ) + (∇Φ) + m Φ .
2 2 2
This expression being a sum of squares is manifestly positive. This is reassuring because we
would want a free system to have energy positive semi-definite.

• This tensor is symmetric between the indices, µ, ν. This is only true for scalar fields. For
the Maxwell field, we will see that the corresponding stress tensor will not be symmetric.

• Note that the stress-energy-momentum is non-unique to some extent. One can always add
a term like, ∂λ B λµν where B is a tensor that has the following antisymmetric properties,

B λµν = −B µλν .

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 The new quantity1 ,
T µν = Tµν + ∂λ B λµν
is also conserved,
∂µ T µν = ∂µ Tµν + ∂µ ∂λ B λµν = 0.
For the Maxwell field, one can exploit this ambiguity to define a stress tensor which is
symmetric in the indices, µ and ν,
T µν = T νµ .
Before we do that we need to first obtain the expression for the charges conserved as a result
of Lorentz invariance.

2.2 Conserved charges for Lorentz symmetry

We use the Noether method to extract the charges conserved as a result of Lorentz symmetry of
the scalar field action. The first step is to make the Lorentz transformation spacetime dependent,

Λµ ν → Λµ ν (x)

In the infinitesimal form we have,

Λµ ν (x) = δνµ + ω µ ν (x).

So the Jacobian matrix is,

∂x0µ
Jµ ν ≡ = δνµ + ω µ ν (x) + (∂ν ω µ ρ (x)) xρ
∂xν
and the Jacobian determinant is,

|J| = 1 + ω ρ ρ + xρ ∂σ ω σ ρ
= 1 + xρ ∂ σ ω σ ρ . (6)

Under this the scalar transforms like,

Φ(x) → Φ0 (x0 ) = Φ(x),

while the derivatives transform to,

∂xν
∂µ Φ(x) → ∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 ) = ∂ν Φ(x)
∂x0µ
= ∂µ Φ(x) + ωµ ν ∂ν Φ(x) + (∂µ ωρ ν ) xρ ∂ν Φ(x). (7)
1
For those who are interested there is a special “symmetrizing improvement term”, B λµν is called the Belinfante-
Rosenfield term after the two people who independently arrived at the expression. For the Maxwell field we will
see that the variation of action under Lorentz transformation automatically gives us the improved symmetric stress
tensor.

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The corresponding change in the action integral is,
ˆ
0 0
d4 x0 L Φ0 (x0 ), ∂µ0 Φ0 (x0 )


I [Φ (x )] =
ˆ
= d4 x (1 + xρ ∂σ ω σ ρ ) L (Φ(x), ∂µ Φ(x) + ωµ ν ∂ν Φ(x) + (∂µ ωρ ν ) xρ ∂ν Φ(x))
ˆ 
∂L(x)
= d x (1 + x ∂σ ω ρ ) L (Φ(x), ∂µ Φ(x)) + ωµ ν ∂ν Φ(x)
4 ρ σ
∂(∂µ Φ(x))

ν ρ ∂L(x) 2
+ (∂µ ωρ ) x ∂ν Φ(x) + O(ω )
∂(∂µ Φ(x))
ˆ ˆ  
4 4 ρ σ ν ρ ∂L
= d x L (Φ(x), ∂µ Φ(x)) + d x x ∂σ ω ρ L + ∂µ ωρ x ∂ν Φ + . . . + O(ω 2 ).
∂(∂µ Φ)

where in the last line steps we have only bothered to show the terms which contain derivatives
of ω because the non-derivative terms integrate out to zero. Thus the first order variation in the
action,
ˆ  
0 0 4 ρ σ ν ρ ∂L
δI ≡ I [Φ (x )] − I [Φ(x)] = d x x ∂σ ω ρ L + ∂µ ωρ x ∂ν Φ
∂(∂µ Φ)
ˆ  
4 ρ µν ∂L ν
= d x ∂µ ωνρ x η L − ∂ Φ
∂(∂µ Φ)
ˆ
= d4 x ∂ρ ωµν xν Tρµ
ˆ
= d4 x ∂ρ ωµν (xν Tρµ − xµ Tρν ) .

Thus we have a set of conserved currents for Lorentz transformations,

∂ρ M µνρ = 0, M µνρ (xµ Tρν − xν Tρµ ) . (8)

This object is antisymmetric in the first pair of indices, i.e. µ, ν while it is symmetric in the
exchange of the third index, ρ with any one of the first pair of indices i.e. µ or ν .
´ ´
One can check that the charges i.e., Lµν ≡ d3 x M µν0 = d3 x (xµ T0ν − xν T0µ ) are simply the
components of the angular momentum and the boost generators.

3 Free Maxwell Field

The action for the free (i.e. sourceless) Maxwell gauge fields is,
ˆ
1
I = d4 x L(Aµ , ∂µ Aν ), L = − Fµν F µν .
4

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Again, the action is symmetric under translations,

x → x0 = x + a,
Aµ (x) → A0µ (x0 ) = Aµ (x).

since the integration range is all over spacetime and there is no explicit dependence on x (only
implicit dependence on x via the fields). As a result there exists a conserved current, Tµν , which
can be extracted thru the Noether procedure,
∂L
Tµν = η µν L − ∂ ν Aρ ,
∂ (∂µ Aρ )
1
= − η µν Fρσ F ρσ + F µρ ∂ ν Aρ . (9)
4
Evidently this is not symmetric under µ ↔ ν.

Let’s evaluate the energy density component, T00 ,

1
T00 = − η 00 Fρσ F ρσ + F 0ρ ∂ 0 Aρ
4
1
F0i F 0i + Fi0 F i0 + Fij F ij + F 0i ∂ 0 Ai


=
4
1
= − E2 − B2 − E · Ȧ,


2
1 2
E + B2 + E · ∇ϕ


=
2
1 2
E + B2 + ∇ · (Eϕ) − ϕ∇ · E.


=
2
The last two terms don’t contribute as one is a surface term and the other is proportional to charge
density via the Maxwell equation, ∇ · E = 4πρ. So the energy density is,
1 2
T00 = E + B2 .


2
This is exactly what we obtain in electrodynamics through other means (Newton’s law).

What about the angular momentum and boost generators? Here we need to remind ourselves
that the Maxwell field carries spin-1 hence the angular momentum must get a contribution from
internal spin in addition to orbital term and hence would look different from the scalar example
(8). One can go thru the similar steps, and obtain,
ˆ
1
δI = d4 x ∂µ ωνρ [− (xν F µα F ρ α − xρ F µα F ν α ) + (η µν xρ L − η µρ xν L)]
2
ˆ
1
= d4 x ∂µ ωνρ [xρ (η µν L + F µα F ν α ) − ν ↔ ρ ] .
2

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So this last line helps us identify a conserved current, M ρνµ which are the Lorentz generators

∂µ M ρνµ = 0,

So we see that the Lorentz generators for the Maxwell field are can be expressed as,

M µνρ ≡ xµ T νρ − xν T µρ ,

in terms of a symmetric tensor, T

T µν ≡ η µν L + F µα F ν α
1
= − η µν Fρσ F ρσ + F µα F ν α . (10)
4
This tensor is evidently different from the canonical stress tensor for the Maxwell field (9). In the
following exercise you will prove that this symmetric tensor, T µν is a “new and improved” stress
tensor for Maxwell fields i.e. it is conserved and it gives us right expression fro energy density and
momentum density of EM field.

Homework:

1. Check that T µν is conserved i.e. it is diveregenceless ∂µ T µν = 0.

2. Check that indeed components of these coincide with energy density and momentum density
of the Maxwell field, i.e. , T 00 = 12 (E2 + B2 ) and T 0i = E × B.

3. Check that T µν is traceless, i.e. Tµµ = 0. 2

2
This is a a result of scale invariance of the Maxwell action. A scale transformation is given by scaling all fields
and coordinates by their mass (energy) dimensions x0 → λx, Aµ → λ−1 Aµ . The scalar action is not invariant under
this scaling symmetry due to the “mass term” 21 m2 φ2 which does not scale properly because m is a parameter and
not a field.