Mathematics 17 1st Sem AY 2014-2015

Functions LHBMonterde, 2014

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

DEF. Let A and B be nonempty sets. A relation R from A to B, is any subset of A × B. The elements
of a relation R is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. We define the domain of R as
dom(R) = { x | (x, y) ∈ R} and the range of R as ran(R) = { y | (x, y) ∈ R}. Note that when A = B, we
call R a relation on A.
There are different ways of describing a relation. We can use verbal statements, lists, equations and
inequalities. However, we can utilize tables, diagrams and graphs for illustrations.

Remarks. Let A be a set, a, b, c ∈ A and R be a relation on A.

1. If (a, a) ∈ R then R is reflexive.

2. If (a, b), (b, a) ∈ R then R is symmetric.
3. If (a, b), (b, c), (c, a) ∈ R then R is transitive.
4. A relation need not be reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
5. A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation.

DEF. Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A to B is a relation such that for every a ∈ A there
corresponds a unique b ∈ B. In symbols, we write f : A → B.

Remarks.

1. A relation is not a function if a single element in the domain corresponds to at least two elements
in the range.
2. There are four kinds of relations: one to one, one to many, many to one and many to many.
3. However there are only two kinds of functions: one to one and many to one.

DEF. The vertical line test is an examination of the graph of a relation. Suppose we graph a given relation
on the xy plane and draw vertical lines at each point on its graph. If all vertical lines intersect the graph of
the relation in at most one point, then the relation is a function. Otherwise, it is not a function.
SPECIAL TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

1. Polynomial Functions (also known as univariate polynomials in the variable x) are of the form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 where n ∈ Z+ and an , . . . , a1 , a0 ∈ R.

Remarks.

1. The domain of any polynomial function is always R. However, the range varies depending on degree
of the polynomial.
2. A polynomial function of degree n has at most n − 1 turns.
3. Let f be a polynomial function of odd degree. Then f has at least one x-intercept and ranf = R.

(a) Linear Functions are of the form f (x) = mx + b, where m, b ∈ R and y 6= 0. They are polynomial
functions of degree 1. The range is given by

R , if m 6= 0;
ran f =
{b} , if m = 0.

Remarks. Suppose f (x) = mx + b, where m, b ∈ R and y 6= 0.

 1. As |m| → ∞, the line converges to the y-axis.
2. As |m| → 0, the line converges to the x-axis.
3. Vertical translation of a line is equivalent to a horizontal translation and vice versa.
4. All lines are isomorphic.
(b) Quadratic Functions are of the form f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k where a 6= 0 and (h, k) is the vertex.
They are polynomial functions of degree 2. The range of a quadratic function is given by

y ≥ k , if a > 0;
ran f =
y ≤ k , if a < 0.

Remarks. Suppose f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where a 6= 0 and (h, k) is the vertex.
1. As |a| → ∞, the parabola converges to the axis of symmetry x = h.
2. As |a| → 0, the parabola converges to y = k.
3. The graphs of f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k and g(x) = ax2 are isomorphic for any h, k ∈ R.
p
2. Radical Functions are of the form y = n g(x) where n ∈ Z+ and g(x) is an algebraic expression. The
range of this type of function is a case to case basis. The domain however, is determined by the index
of the radical. That is,

{x | g(x) ≥ 0} , if n ∈ E;
dom f =
dom g , if n ∈ O
p
(a) Semicircles are of the form f (x) = k + a r2 − (x − h)2 where a = ±1, r ∈ R+ is the radius
and (h, k) is the center. They are derived from circles. The domain of a semicircle is given by
[h − r, h + r]. The range is given by

[ k, k + r ] , if a = 1;
ran f =
[ k − r, k ] , if a = −1.
p
(b) Half Parabolas are of the form f (x) = k + a b(x − h) where a = ±1, b 6= 0 and (h, k) is the
endpoint. They are derived from horizontal parabolas. The domain is given by

[ h, +∞) , if b > 0;
dom f =
(−∞, h ] , if b < 0.

While the range is given by


[ k, +∞) , if a = 1;
ran f =
(−∞, k ] , if a = −1.

Remarks.

1. The radicand of a semicircle is quadratic while the radicand of a half parabola is linear.
√
2. Not all radical functions are semicircles and half parabolas. Take for instance f (x) = x2 − 1.
p √
3. The graphs of f (x) = k + a r2 − (x − h)2 and g(x) = a r2 − x2 are isomorphic for any h, k ∈ R.
p √
4. The graphs of f (x) = k + a b(x − h) and g(x) = a bx are isomorphic for any h, k ∈ R.

3. Absolute-Value Functions are of the form f (x) = |g(x)| where g(x) is a function.
Remarks. Let f (x) = |g(x)| where g(x) is a function.

1. If g is a polynomial function then dom f = R.

2. Reflecting all the negative y-values of g with respect to the x-axis will give the graph of f .
 (a) Linear Case. Linear functions with absolute values are of the form f (x) = |a(x − h)| + k where
a 6= 0 and (h, k) is the cusp. Note that a series of absolute values may be defined given a linear
function. This results to more cusps.

Remarks.
1. As |a| → ∞, the graph of f (x) = |a(x − h)| + k converges to the axis of symmetry, x = h.
2. As |a| → 0, the graph of f (x) = |a(x − h)| + k converges to y = k.
3. The graphs of f (x) = |a(x − h)| + k and g(x) = |ax| are isomorphic for any h, k ∈ R.

P (x)
4. Rational Functions are of the form f (x) = where P (x) and Q(X) are polynomial functions.
Q(x)
The domain of the rational function is given by dom f = {x | Q(x) 6= 0}. For the range, rename f (x)
as y, then reverse the values of x and y, solve for y in terms of x and finally rename x by f 0 (x). This
will yield a different denominator Q0 (x). The range is given by ran f = dom f 0 = {x | Q0 (x) 6= 0}.
DEF. In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve
and the line approaches zero as they tend to infinity. There are two kinds of asymptotes: horizontal
and vertical.
Let f (x) be a rational function in lowest terms. Then x = c is a vertical asymptote of f if Q(c) = 0. If
c is of even multiplicity, then as the values of x approach from the left and from the right of c, function
values from the left and right of c will either curve up or down the line x = c. If c has odd multiplicity,
then one side of the curve will go up and the other will go down the line x = c.
P (x)
Let f (x) = be a rational function with deg P (x) = m, deg Q(x) = n, am and an are the leading
Q(x)
coefficients of P (x) and Q(x) respectively. The horizontal asymptote of f is

 0a
 , if m < n;
m
y = , if m = n;
 an

none , if m > n.

P (x)
Remarks. Let f (x) = be a rational function.
Q(x)
1. If f 0 (x) is the lowest terms of f (x) with P (c) = Q(c) = 0 then c ∈
/ dom f , f 0 (c) ∈
/ ran f and
0
(c, f (c)) is a hole in the graph of f .
2. If x = c is a vertical asymptote of f with even (odd) multiplicity, then the the graph of f converges
to (diverges at) x = c.

5. Conditional Functions, also known as Piecewise Functions, are functions defined using several
functions with nonoverlapping domains.

Theorem. Suppose g(x) is a function.

1. The graph of f (x) = g(x − h) + k is the graph of g(x) translated on R2 . If h > 0 then the graph is
moved |h| units to the right but if h < 0 then the graph is moved |h| units to the left. If k > 0 then the
graph is moved |k| units upward but if k < 0 then the graph is moved |k| units downward.

2. The graphs of f (x) = g(x − h) + k and g(x) are isomorphic for any h, k ∈ R.

Assignment. Suppose we have R = {(x, y) | x ∈ R, y = 0 if x ∈ Q0 or y = 1 if x ∈ Q}. Express R as a

conditional function and determine its domain and range. Is R a function?
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
DEF. Let f and g be functions. We define the
 1. the sum/difference of f and g, denoted f + g as (f + g)(x) = f (x) ± g(x)

2. the product of f and g, denoted f g as (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

 
f f f (x)
3. the quotient of f and g, denoted as (x) = , g(x) 6= 0
g g g(x)
4. the composition of f and g, denoted f ◦ g as (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

Remarks. Let f, g be functions. Then

1. dom(f ± g) = dom(f g) = dom f ∩ dom g

2. dom(f /g) = (dom f ∩ dom g) − {x | g(x) = 0}

3. dom(f ◦ g) = {x | x ∈ dom g and g(x) ∈ dom f }

PARITY OF FUNCTIONS
Def. A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x). It is odd if f (−x) = −f (x).
Remarks.

1. The graphs of f (x) and g(x) = f (−x) are symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

2. The graphs of f (x) and g(x) = −f (x) are symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

3. The graphs of f (x) and g(x) = −f (−x) are symmetric with respect to the origin.

4. A function f is even if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

5. A function f is odd if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

6. The only function which is both odd and even is f (x) = 0.

7. There are functions which are neither even nor odd.

8. Suppose f and g are even functions. Then f ± g, f g, f /g and f ◦ g are even.

9. Suppose f and g are odd functions. Then f ± g and f ◦ g are odd while f g and f /g are even.

10. Suppose f is even, g is odd. Then f ± g is neither odd nor even, f ◦ g is even and f g and f /g are odd.

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
In this part, we will focus on how to get the zeroes of a polynomial function.

Remainder Theorem. If p(x) is a polynomial and r ∈ R, then the remainder when p(x) is divided by
x − r is given by p(r).

Factor Theorem. Suppose p(x) is a polynomial and r ∈ R. The linear polynomial x − r is a factor of p(x)
if and only if p(r) = 0.

Rational Zeroes Theorem (Rational Roots Theorem): Let p(x) be a polynomial function of degree n of
the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

p
where an , . . . , a0 are integers and an 6= 0. If the rational number(which is in lowest terms) is a zero
q
of p(x), then p is a factor of the constant term a0 and q is a factor of the leading coefficient an .

Remarks.
 1. To find rational zeroes of a polynomial function f , use RZT to find the PRZ (possible rational zeroes)
p
of f by taking all possible combinations in lowest terms, where p is a factor of the constant term a0
q
and q is a factor of the leading coefficient an . Then proceed by using the Factor Theorem or Synthetic
Division to test if the possible zeroes are indeed zeroes of f .

2. If f has no rational zeroes then it does not imply that f has no real zeroes.

INVERSE FUNCTION
Def. Let f be a function.

1. f is said to be one-to-one if for all a, b ∈ dom f with a 6= b then f (a) 6= f (b).

2. f is said to be many-to-one if for some a, b ∈ dom f with a 6= b then f (a) = f (b).

Remarks. Let f be one-to-one and g be many-to-one.

1. If a, b ∈ dom f such that f (a) = f (b) then a = b.

2. If a, b ∈ dom f such that f (a) = f (b) then a and b may not be equal.

Def. The horizontal line test is an examination of the graph of a function. Suppose we graph a function f
on the xy plane and draw horizontal lines at each point its graph. If all horizontal lines intersect the graph
of the function in at most one point then the function is one-to-one. Otherwise, it is many-to-one.

Def. The function f (x) = x or y = x is called the identity function, denoted I.

Remarks. Let f be any function and I be the identity function. Then f ◦ I = f and I ◦ f = f .

Def. Suppose f is a relation with y = f (x). The inverse of f , denoted f −1 , is the relation with elements
(y, x) defined by x = f −1 (y).

Remarks. Let f be a relation with inverse f −1 . Then (∗)

1. The inverse relation of f is f −1 and the inverse relation of f −1 is f . That is, (f −1 )−1 = f .
2. dom f = ran f −1 and ran f = dom f −1 .
3. f ◦ f −1 = I = f −1 ◦ f .
4. The graphs of f and f −1 are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

Remarks. Let f be a function. Then f −1 is not necessarily a function.

Def. Suppose f is a function. If the inverse f −1 of f is a function then we say that f is invertible and f −1
is the inverse function of f . If f −1 = f then we call f a self-invertible function.

Remarks. Let f be a function. If f is invertible then so is f −1 . Moreover (f −1 )−1 . Actually, all remarks
from (∗) hold.

Theorem. A function f is invertible if and only if f is one-to-one.

Remarks. The horizontal line test can be used to determine the invertibility of functions.

Remarks. By the HLT, the following functions are NEVER invertible:

1. Quadratic Functions 3. Rational Functions with VA of even multiplicity

2. Semicircles 4. Even Functions

Question. What can be done to functions which are never invertible to produce an invertible function?
 Remark. If f is not invertible then it is not one-to-one. That is, the graph of f violates the HLT. Thus
remove parts of the domain so that the graph of f will now satisfy the HLT. We call this restriction of
the domain of f .

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Def. Let x ∈ R, 1 6= a ∈ R+ . If y = ax then we call y the exponential of x to the base a. If y = ax then we

define the logarithm of y to the base a as x = loga y.

Remarks.

1. If a = e = 2.718 . . . ∈ Q0 , then we write y = loge x simply as y = ln x read as y is the natural

logarithm of x.
2. If a = 10, then we write y = log10 x simply as y = log x.

The Exponential Function

Def. Let 1 6= a ∈ R+ . The exponential function of x to the base a is defined as f (x) = ax .

Properties of the Graph of the Exponential Function:

1. The domain is R while the range is R+ .

2. It crosses the point (0,1).
3. If a > 1, it is increasing, decreasing if 0 < a < 1.
4. The x-axis is the horizontal asymptote.

The Logarithmic Function

Def. Let 1 6= a ∈ R+ and af (x) = x. The logarithmic function of x to the base a is defined as f (x) = loga x.x
If a = e = 2.718 . . ., we have f (x) = lnx, where ln x is read as the natural logarithm of x.

Properties of the Graph of the Logarithmic Function:

1. The domain is R+ while the range is R.

2. It crosses the point (1,0).
3. If a > 1, it is increasing, decreasing if 0 < a < 1.
4. The y-axis is the vertical asymptote.

Remarks. Let 1 6= a ∈ R+ with f (x) = ax and g(x) = loga x.

1. For any h, k ∈ R, the graphs of f 0 (x) = a(x−h) + k and f (x) are isomorphic.

2. For any h, k ∈ R, the graphs of g 0 (x) = loga (x − h) + k and g(x) are isomorphic.

3. For all a, f and g are one-to-one. Thus f and g are both invertible functions.

4. For a particular a, the graphs of f and g are symmetric wrt y = x.

5. Note that g ◦ f = I = f ◦ g.

6. Also, dom g = ran f and ran g = dom f .

Theorem. Let 1 6= a ∈ R+ . Then f (x) = ax is invertible with inverse f −1 (x) = loga x.

Properties of Logarithms
Let 1 6= b, u, v ∈ R+ , p, q, r ∈ R. Then the following holds:
 q
1. logb (uv) = logb u + logb v 5. logbp (uq ) = logb u
p
2. logb (up ) = p logb u 1
6. logbr (up v q ) = (p logb u + q logb v)
r
u
3. logb = logb u − logb v 1
v 7. logb u =
logu b
1 logb u
4. logbp u = logb u 8. logv u =
p logb v

Remarks. Let 1 6= b ∈ R+ .

1. logb 1 = 0 5. aloga x = x for all x ∈ R+

2. logb b = 1 6. loga ax = x for all x ∈ R
3. log 10 = 1 7. eln x = x for all x ∈ R+
4. ln e = 1 8. ln ex = x for all x ∈ R