Accreditation of Initial Teacher Eduction Programmes in Algeria by Dr. MEBITIL

IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME)
e-ISSN: 2320–7388,p-ISSN: 2320–737X Volume 6, Issue 6 Ver. IV (Nov. - Dec. 2016), PP 01-07
www.iosrjournals.org
Identification of Students’ Metacognition Level in Solving

Mathematics Problem about Sequence
Danang Setyadi1,2, Subanji3, Makbul Muksar3
1
Master Students Of The State University Of Malang, Indonesia
2
Department Of Mathematics Education, Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia
3
Department Of Mathematics, State University Of Malang, Indonesia
Abstract: This study aims at identifying the students’ metacognition level in solving mathematics problem
about sequence. The subject of the study is eight senior high school students in tenth grade. The students’
metacognition level is identified qualitatively by using test sheet, think aloud transcript, and interview. The
finding shows that in the level of tacit use, the subject is not aware of what and why thinking is used to solve the
problem. In the level of aware use, the subject is aware of what they are thinking. They are able to express why
and how thinking is used to solve the problem. While in the level of semi strategic use, the subject starts to direct
their thinking by realizing strategies to solve the problem and improve their thinking accuracy. In this level, the
subject realize that there are some mistakes, but they do not know how to correct them. In the level of strategic
use, the subject consciously uses some strategies to improve their thinking accuracy. In the level of semi
reflective use, the subject reflects partially on their problem solving process. The reflection is done on some
parts. Finally, in the level of reflective use, the subject reflects their thinking before, during, and after solving
the problem.
Keywords: metacognition, metacognition level, problem solving, sequence
I. Introduction
Metacognition plays an important role in solving a mathematics problem (Hartman, 1998; Biryukov,
2003; Aurah, et. al, 2011; Anggo, 2011). The role of metacognition in the problem solving is to help the
problem solver realize the problem, differentiate the problem, and understand how to achieve the goal or the
solution of the problem (Kuzle, 2003).
Metacognition consists of “meta” as a prefix and “cognition”. Meta is the prefix for the word
“cognition” which means after cognition (Laurens, 2010). Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest that the
prefix in the word “cognition” is used to reflect the idea that the metacognition is “about” or “after” the
cognition. This means that metacognition is cognition about cognition.
Conceptually, the metacognition is defined as knowledge or awareness of one’s thinking process, an
ability to monitor and manage the thinking process and its result, as well as evaluate the thinking process and its
result. In other words, the metacognition can be categorized into some components, namely components related
to the knowledge or self-awareness and components related to monitoring and evaluation of the thinking process
and its result (Laurens, 2010).
Lucangeli and Carnoldi (1997) state that the essential metacognitive skill in problem solving is
predicting, planning, monitoring, and evaluating. The similar view is expressed by Derry and Hawkes (1993)
who say that there are two important aspects of metacognitive skill, namely self-monitoring and planning. The
two experts agree that planning and monitoring are two essential aspects in problem solving, but there is a slight
different opinion between them. Lucangeli and Cornoldi (1997) suggest that the planning involves the ability to
analyze the problem and arrange the strategy to solve the problem, whereas Derry and Hawkes (1993) argue that
the planning refers to the attempt to break down the problem into some parts which can be solved separately to
get the final answer.
Sophianingtyas and Bambang (2013) state that to improve the metacognitive skill, students have to be
aware of their thinking process. However, every student has their own ability and awareness in responding to a
problem. Some students consciously pay attention to problem given to them and solve it in a hierarchal way,
while other students may answer carelessly when given some tasks. This is caused by the different level of
awareness or metacognition.
Swartz and Perkins (Gregory, 2005) divide the students’ metacognition level into four categories,
namely tacit use, aware use, strategic use, and reflective use. Moreover, Lauren (2010) states that the students’
metacognition level consists of tacit use, aware use, semi strategic use, strategic use, semi reflective use, and
reflective use. If we compare the metacognition level stated by the two experts, the difference is in the level of
semi strategic use and semi reflective use. Lauren adds two levels as in her preliminary study, she finds that
DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 1 | Page

Identification Of Students’ Metacognition Level In Solving Mathematics Problem About Sequence
there are some students who do not belong the metacognition level established by Swartz and Perkins.
Furthermore, from her study, she finds out two new levels of metacognition.
Sophianingtyas and Bambang (2013) state that the metacognitive arranges the cognitive process. It
indicates that the higher the students’ cognitive ability, the higher their metacognitive level. High-intelligence
students belong to the reflective use or strategic use level of metacognition. While the moderate-intelligence
students are in the strategic use or aware use level of metacognition. The low-intelligence students may have the
aware use or tacit use level of metacognition. Yet, it cannot be generalized as there are some factors affecting
the process of problem solving.
The study by Agustina and Trineke (2013) about the students’ metacognition level in solving
mathematics problem about the circumference of square and rectangle concludes that the students who reach
high score in mathematic belong to the strategic use level of metacognitive. Meanwhile, the moderate and high
scored students are in the level of aware use and tacit use, respectively. Another researcher, Fitriyah (2013) who
does a research about the students’ metacognitive level in solving trigonometric problems, concludes that the
high-leveled students belong to the level of semi reflective use. While the moderate ones are in the level of semi
strategic use, and the lower ones are in the level of tacit use.
The two previous studies by Agustina, L. M., and Trineke, J. M. (2013) and Fitriyah (2013) shows that
there is no student in the level of reflective use when solving the mathematic problems. This arises a question
why it happens. However, it needs to be highlighted that the previous studies use mathematic materials which
tend to be deductive. In fact, some mathematic materials are inductive. On the other side, the materials used by
the previous researchers have not showed mathematics as the science of pattern and relationship yet. It indicates
that a further study about inductive mathematic materials which show the science of pattern and relationship is
needed.
One of mathematics materials which tends to have inductive characteristic and is able to reflect
mathematics as a science about pattern and relationship is sequence. In Senior High School level, this material
consists of two main sub themes, namely arithmetic sequence and geometric sequence.
On 18th March 2016, the researcher carried out a preliminary study by giving a problem solving case
about the sequence to students in X grade. The preliminary study showed that the students’ metacognition level
in solving mathematics’ problem about sequence varied a lot. Based on the preliminary result, it was identified
that there were some students who belonged to reflective use level while solving the sequence problem. This
finding supports an urgency to have a deeper study about identification of students’ metacognition level in
solving sequence problems in mathematics.
Based on the issue above and some previous references, a study entitled “Identification of Students’
Metacognition Level in Solving Mathematics Problems about Sequence” is carried out.
II. Research Methodology

This study is a descriptive and explorative study which aims at describing the students’ metacognition
level in solving the mathematics problem about sequence. The subject of this study is eight senior high school
students in tenth grade in the academic year of 2016-2017. The subject is chosen based on the test result and the
students’ ability to communicate their thinking process. The test result is categorized into four categories based
on the students’ ability to solve the problem, namely high, upper moderate, lower moderate, and low. From each
category, two students are chosen as the subject of the research.
The data are obtained by the written test, think aloud, and interview. The written test consists of one
problem solving task about the sequence material. When the subject does the written test, they are asked to
express their problem solving ideas verbally. When the researcher thinks that the data obtained from the think
aloud are not enough yet, they interview the subjects to know deeper about the students’ metacognition level
after they finish doing the written test. After that, the subject is asked to fill in the metacognitive journal.
III. Findings and discussion

The students’ metacognition characteristic in solving the mathematic problem varied. The
metacognition characteristics of each subject based on their ability to solve the problems are as follows.
Table 1. The data of the subject’s metacognition characteristic

The data of metacognition characteristic in the high category
Subject CGJA Subject LAW
1. Consciously using the cognitive planning 1. Using repeated attempt strategy
strategy in understanding the problem 2. Showing his/her ability to give
(rereading and reading the important part) supporting argument for his/her
2. Reflecting after finding the answer or in the end thinking.
of the problem solving process, but it was not 3. Rethinking of his/her work during the
done continuously. problem solving process and finding the
3. Using various strategies to show his/her answer.

thinking accuracy (recalculating, rereading the 4. Using various strategy to show his/her
answer). thinking accuracy (recalculating).
4. Making decision towards the cognitive process 5. Reflecting while the problem solving
after doing reflection on the answer. process, but partially.
6. Believing that his/her answer is true
after doing some reflection towards
his/her choices of stages.
The data of metacognition characteristic in the upper-moderate category
Subject RPR Subject ZH
1. Always checking every step and revising in the 1. Using the cognitive planning strategy
problem solving process and after finding the (taking a lot of time to think before
final answer solving the problem).
2. Directing his/her thinking to solve the problem 2. Planning the problem solving strategy
by utilizing the cognitive planning activity. by identifying and analyzing the
3. Using various strategies to show or improve problem before accomplishing it.
his/her thinking accuracy (looking at the 3. Always checking his/her step in solving
picture, rechecking, matching the answer, and the problem.
recalculating). 4. Using various strategies to show or
Believing that his/her answer is correct after improve his/her thinking accuracy by
rechecking. using the pattern and manual.
5. Reflecting on his/her thinking during
and after solving the problem.
The data of metacognition characteristic in the lower-moderate category

Subject V Subject IZ
1. Directing his/her thinking by reading the 1. Utilizing the cognitive planning activity
problem repeatedly. by directing his/her thinking consciously
2. Trying to check what he/she has done. to read the problem repeatedly.
3. Realizing that there is a mistake, but not 2. Utilizing the cognitive monitoring
knowing how to correct it. activity by recalculating and comparing
4. Showing hesitation towards his/her answer. his answer to the available information.
5. Trying to show his/her thinking accuracy by 3. Trying to show his thinking accuracy by
marking the answer despite of his/her marking the answer.
hesitation. 4. Using various strategies to believe in
his/her thinking accuracy.
5. Believing that his/her answer is correct
after rechecking.
The data of metacognition characteristic in the low category
Subject BI Subject PML
1. Understanding the problem but not mastering 1. Not knowing that what he/she writes is
any basic materials underlying the problem. not meaningful.
2. Consciously finding the way to be used to 2. Calculating partially based on what
solve the problem. he/she knows, yet believing it as he/she
3. Giving reason to the decision or steps made. finds the final answer.
4. Believing that his/her answer is correct.
5. No reflection during the problem solving
process or after finding the final answer.
Based on the metacognition characteristic in the table 1, the metacognition level of the subject in
solving the problem of sequence could be identified as follows.
1. Tacit use
The research finding showed that the subjects who were in the tacit use level did not do any reflection
when they solved the problem and were not aware of what they were thinking. In this level, the subject only did
what it has to be done and did not know why they did it. This was supported by Swart and Perkins in (Gregory,
2005) who said that in the level of tacit use, one made a decision without thinking of the decision itself.
Laurens (2010) suggested that the students in the level of tacit use had so-called instrumental
understanding. The instrumental understanding was a kind of understanding of using a way without knowing or
realizing the reason of doing it. In this study, this understanding could be found in the answer of subject PML
who said that one dot could make eighteen lines so that the number of lines formed was . This subject did
not realize that this was impossible. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.1 below.
Subject PML: “…there are eighteen dots, it means eighteen, so one dot will be connected to another
one, eighteen, so there will be eighteen connection as well, so eighteen multiplies
eighteen…”
Figure 5.1 the Answer of Subject PML

More specifically, the characteristic which indicated the subject belonged to the level of tacit use was
his/her confusion to the meaning of the problem or the difficulty in identifying or analyzing the problem despite
of the repeated reading. He/she did not realize that what he/she said was not meaningful and they merely did the
calculation as they knew and believed it as they could find the answer.
2. Aware use
The subject who belonged to the level of aware use have realized of what they were thinking. They
were able to express why and how the thinking could be used to solve the problem. For example, the subject BI
expressed that as one dot could be connected to other seventeen dots and there were eighteen dots, so the
number of lines could be made was 18 x 17. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and figure 5.2 below.
Subject BI: “… okay… actually, if there are eighteen dots. Eighteen dots, if one dot can be connected
to other seventeen dots, so eighteen dots can be connected to a lot of dots… means
that if one dot equals to seventeen dots, so eighteen dots equal to…”
Figure 5.2 the Answer of Subject BI
Based on the Figure 5.2, it was shown that the student in this level was aware of every step he/she chose. Take a
look at the think aloud transcript as follows.
Subject B: “…using the cross multiplication. 1 times x equals to 17 times 18. Then we try the direct
multiplication, eighteen times seventeen…”
However, they are not aware of the mistakes they made in the analogy. This was shown from the x considered
as a dot.
The subject characteristic in this level was eliciting why and how the thinking was used, the
background of the decision made, and the awareness of the weakness.
3. Semi strategic use
The subject in the level of semi strategic use began to direct their thinking by realizing a strategy to
solve the problem as well as ideas to improve the thinking accuracy. Laurens (2010) stated that the awareness of
the strategy owned by the students in the level of semi strategic use was not only limited to the cognitive
strategy, but also the metacognitive strategy used to show or improve the thinking accuracy. The subject in this
level started direct their thinking by underlining steps they took or marking the answer they found and showing
the hesitation about the existing cognitive process. The statement “…I have tried many times but the answer
keeps increasing… increasing… one more and more…” and there were three alternative final answers indicating
that the subject hesitated about their final answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.3 as
follows.
Subject V: “… So… I tried many times, but the answer keeps increasing… increasing… one more and
more. So I think I need to be more careful...”
Figure 5.3. The Answer of Subject V
In this level, the subject has tried to check on what they were thinking. However, when they realized
that there was something wrong in their thinking, they had no idea how to correct it.
4. Strategic use
In this level, the subject consciously used various strategies to improve their thinking accuracy. This
was reflected from the subject who realized that they had to read the problem repeatedly to understand more
about it. Take a look at the think aloud transcript as follows.
Subject IZ: “… to understand more, I read it again…”
Besides rereading the problem, the subject in this level also recalculated or checked their answer to the
information available in the problem. See the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.4 as follows.
Subject I: “…so a equals to seventeen, equals to thirty four, equals to sixty eight. If using the
pattern, it is supposed to be seventeen, thirty four, fifty one…”
Figure 5.4 the Answer of Subject IZ
The rechecking process led the awareness of the decision making. The decision making depended on
the metacognition knowledge they had (Laurens, 2010).
The metacognition characteristic in the level of strategic use was realizing their own skill, showing
their ability to defend their argument supporting their thinking accuracy, having trials, rechecking by
recalculating and revising, comparing or matching the answer to the available information, knowing how to
convince, and believing in their answer after checking the answer.
5. Semi reflective use
The subject in the level of semi reflective use have done a reflection during the problem solving
process, but only partially. The reflection done by the students in this level was only in some parts. For example,
the subject CGJA did the reflection in the first, second, and thirds steps, but not in the fourth step and after
finding the final answer. This could be seen from the mistake he/she made during the calculation. Take a look at
the Figure 5.5 below.
Figure 5.5. The answer of subject CGJA
The same mistake was also found in subject L. Despite his/her correct steps, his calculation process was
incorrect. The mistake showed that the subject LAW did not recalculate after finding the final answer. Take a
look at the Figure 5.6 below.
Figure 5.6. The answer of subject LAW
However, after finding the answer, the subject LAW did the reflection even though limited in the
process of finding the answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript below.

Subject L: “…check… recheck. If the main dot connecting to other dots makes seventeen lines, then if
the main dots is replaced by the next dot, it is supposed to be seventeen lines as well,
but the line between the second and the first dot has been mentioned, so it is minus
one, sixteen. If the main dot is preplaced by the third dot, there are seventeen lines,
too. But there are two lines have been mentioned, the first line with the first dot, and
the second line with the second dot, so the rest is fifteen dots. This is the pattern.
Every new dot, what do you call it, which replaces the main dot, the line is minus
one… the pattern is seventeen, sixteen, fifteen, up to zero. After we sum up, the total
number is 160…”
Based on the finding, it could be concluded that the students in the level of semi reflective use did not
do any rechecking after finding the final answer. This was the opposite of what Laurens (2010) said. She stated
that the reflection in the level of semi reflective use only emphasized on the obtained final answer. She argued
that the subject in this level tended to reconsider the match between the result and what they knew. The students
could only reflect their thinking in the common context, which meant it was limited o the process of finding the
answer.
6. Reflective use
The main characteristic of the subject in the level of reflective use was the subject reflected their
thinking before, during, and after solving the problem. The reflection process was always carried out.
In this level, the subject identified and analyzed the problem before solving it. For instance, the subject
ZH tried to find out the pattern using the simpler case. Take a look at the Figure 5.7 and the think aloud
transcript as follows.
Figure 5.7. The Analysis done by the subject ZH
Subject Z: “…if there are two lines, there will be one line. If there is a line, so there is no line. And if
there are three dots, it is supposed to be three lines, and if there are four dots, the
number of lines are six…”
This was in line with the statement by Laurens (2010) who said that the thinking process used by the
students in the level of reflective use tended to be more logical and analytical. When the subject was given a
problem, they could identify the problems’ type and structures, then they analyzed it so that they could create
logic procedures that could be used to solve the problem. The metacognitive knowledge and skill were used as
the analysis process.
If the subject in this level made mistakes, they would immediately make a revision to the steps or the
answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and the work of subject RPR in Figure 5.8 below.
Subject R: “…one line seventeen. If there are eighteen dots, it means eighteen times seventeen...
correct… oh wait, this is already, so no need to… oh… the first one seventeen, the
second one must be reduced… this is not needed… one two three… sixteen… so three
fifteen… four… four.. fourteen…”
Figure 5.7. The Answer of Subject RPR

IV. Conclusion
Based on the analysis, it can be concluded that the subject in the level of tacit use do not realize about
what and why the thinking is employed to solve the problem. In the level of aware use, the subject are aware of
what they are thinking. They are able to express why and how the thinking is used to solve the problem. In the
level of semi strategic use, the subject begin to direct their thinking by realizing that there is a strategy to
improve their thinking accuracy. In this level, the subject are aware of their mistakes, but they do not know how
to revise it. In the level of strategic use, the subject are conscious to use various strategies to improve their
thinking accuracy. In the level of semi reflective use, the subject do the reflection during the problem solving
process, not in the whole process. The reflection is only done in some parts. In the level of reflective use, the
subject reflect on their thinking before, during, and after solving the problem.
Suggestion
The study about the identification of the students’ metacognition level in solving the mathematics
problem about sequence needs to be developed more, so the characteristic of the metacognition level is more
valid.
References
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Learning and cognition, 26, 1-3
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Tersedia:http://www.cimt.pymouth.ac.uk/journal/biryukov.pdf. diakses pada 20 September 2015
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in the 21th Century Vol 30
[4]. Anggo, M. 2011. Pelibatan metakognisi dalam pemecahan masalah matematika. Edumatika Volume 01 No 1
[5]. Kuzle, A. 2013. Patterns of metacognitive behavior during mathematics problem-solving in dynamic geometry environment.
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education Vol. 8, no. 1, pages 20-40.
[6]. Laurens, T. 2010. Penjenjangan Metakognisi Siswa yang Valid dan Reliabilitas. Jurnal Pendidikan & Pembelajaran Vol.17, No 2
[7]. Lucangeli, D., dan Cornoldi, C. 1997. Mathematics and metacognition : what is the nature of the relationship? Mathematical
Cognition, 3, 121-139
[8]. Derry, S.J. dan Hawkes, L.W. 1993. Local cognitive model of problem-solving behavior: An application of fuzzy theory.
Computers as cognitive tools. Lajoie, Susanne P. and Derry, Sharon J. (eds.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[9]. Sophianingtyas, F., dan Bambang. S. 2013. Identifikasi level metakognitif siswa dalam memecahkan masalah materi perhitungan
kimia. Unesa Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 2, No 1
[10]. Gregory, G. H. 2005. Differentiating instruction with style: aligning teacher and learner intelligences for maximum achievement.
California: Corwin Press
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berdasarkan perbedaan skor matematika. MATHEdunesa Vol 2 No 1
[12]. Fitriyah, R. 2013. Identifikasi level metakognitif siswa MA Muhammadiyah 1 Malang dalam memecahkan masalah matematika.
[Online]. Diakses melalui http://eprints.umm.ac.id/15779/ pada 1 Desember 2015

Description Verbal Mathematics Communication of Students

Prospective Mathematics Teacher in Teaching Practice
Wiwin Sri Hidayati1
1
Program Studi Pendidikan Matematika, STKIP PGRI Jombang, Indonesia
Abstract: This study aims to describe: (1) the communication of mathematics verbal male studentof
prospective teacher in teaching mathematics and (2) the communication of mathematics verbal a female
student of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice. This research is exploratory research with a
qualitative approach. Subjects in this study are 2 students consisting of one male student mathematics of
prospective teacher and 1 female student mathematics of prospective teacher who meet the criteria set by the
researcher. The researcher is as the main instrument to make observations and interviews directly to the
subject. The data was obtained by the observation of the subject teaching practice 3 times, followed by
interviews. Criterion validity of the data was done by using credibility, transferability, dependability, and
conformability. Based on the results of the study, the researchers can conclude that 1) a description of
mathematical communication verbala male student prospective teachers of mathematics in teaching practice is
correct and clear when pronouncing the name / term mathematical objects relating to the material sense
conveyed, but wrong in saying the reduction operation with the notation "negatives" that should be pronounced
"reduced" but pronounced "negative", and this is because custom made by the subject, giving a different
intonationwhen saying the name / term mathematical objects are given priority. The subjects are underlined
while giving emphasis when pronouncing the name / term preferred mathematical objects, and sounds can be
heard by all students in the classroom; (2) a description of mathematical communication verbal of female
student of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice is to pronounce the name / term mathematical
objects correctly and clearly, intonation flat course, there is no emphasis on the name / term mathematical
objects that take precedence over teaching practice, because the subject thinks that students already understand
the things that are important in the materials provided, and the sound can be heard by all students who are in
class
Keywords: mathematical verbal communication, student teachers of mathematics , teaching practice
I. Pendahuluan
Teachers need the communication skills to convey abstract mathematical objects to students.
Mathematics is a language, not just a means of mathematical thinking tools , tools to find patterns, but
mathematics as well as a vehicle for communication between students and communication between teachers and
students. Communication in mathematics and mathematics learning into something are needed. Mathematicsis
a language and that language as the best in the community, then it is easy to understand that communication is
essential in teaching, learning, and accessing to mathematics ([1] Rbaryans 2007) verbal communication in
mathematics to be observed is focused on the pronunciation of the name / term object mathematics , volume,
and intonation. Why should student „s mathematics verbal communication skills teachers possess? In
mathematics, it is not uncommon misconceptions about concepts that are presented to the student teacher. It is
as a result of the abstract mathematical characteristics. Therefore, pre student teachers of teaching mathematics
in practice may not only explain the material without regard to the communication aspect. Without regard to the
communication is not necessarily acceptable material presented students properly.
II. Theoritical Review

1.1. Mathematical Verbal Communication
According to ([2] Armiati, 2009), to be able to communicate needs the necessary tools. The main tool
in their communication is language. Mathematics is a language that can be used in communication. Mathematics
is a universal language, which for one symbol in mathematics can be understood by any persons with any
language in the world, for example in mathematics to express the amount of use the symbol of Σ, and everybody
understands that the emblem is declared the total of quantity.Mathematics as a tool for other sciences is well
known and is not in doubt. Mathematics is not just a tool for science, but more than that mathematics is the
language. Mathematics is a language that symbolizes the range of meaning of the statement that we want to
convey. The symbols which are artificial new mathematics has meaning after a meaning given to it, without it
just a collection of mathematics formulas is functionless. As a language, mathematics is a way of expressing
or explaining a certain way. In this case that is used by the language of mathematics is by using symbols
Description Verbal Mathematics Communication of Students Prospective Mathematics Teacher in
The symbol "8" and the word "eight" convey the same message, only the shape is different. Reading
mathematic texts should be able to read the special mathematic symbols related to the text. When we pronounce
the mathematical objects, the voice that came from the lips we must pay attention to how the tone, clarity, and
stressing . According to ([3] Borg, 2010), we communicate via voice (tone, speed, and stressing ) .When a
concept of mathematical information is given by a teacher to the student or students to get themselves through
reading, then when it is going transformation of mathematical information from the communicator to the
communicant. The response given communicant an interpretation of that information. In mathematics , the
quality of interpretation and the response were often a special problem. It is as a result of the characteristics of
the mathematics itself is loaded with terms and symbols. Therefore, communication skills of teachers in
teaching mathematics becomes into special demands. Mathematical verbal communication skills are skills that
can enclose and contain a variety of opportunities to communicate in the form: reflect the real objects, images,
or ideas of mathematics ; creating a model situation or problem using oral methods; using the term reading
skills, as well as mathematical information; responding to a statement or problem in the form of a convincing
argument. Cockroft 1986 ([4] Shadiq, 2004) states that “We believe that all these perceptions of the usefulness
of mathematics arise from the fact that mathematics provides a means of communication which is powerful,
concise, and unambiguous.” This statement shows that how is very essential for students to learn mathematics
because mathematics is a tool of communication which is very strong, clear, and accurate.
Communications related mathematics as part of interpersonal skills aspects to be observed is the pronunciation
of the mathematical objects, the sound volume in utter mathematics ematical objects, and intonation given to
mathematical objects are given priority. Therefore, teachers in communication also should pay attention to
intonation, but it also notice the volume of sound, speech intelligibility as well. Based on the above, the
researcher defined the mathematical verbal communication is the process of delivering ideas / thoughts
mathematics in oral form in the form of utterances .
2.2. Interwoven Communication Verbal Math Students Prospective Teachers of Mathematics in Practice
Teaching
Teaching requires good communication between teachers and students, and between students and other
students. ([5] National Council of Teachers of Mathematics NCTM 2000), describes ".... many of mathematics
educators believe communication is a crucial part of mathematics ". That is, many teachers of mathematics
believe that communication is an important part of mathematics. According to ([6] NCTM 2003), an aspiring
mathematics teacher should be able to communicate ideas mind mathematical orally and in writing to his
friends, teachers, and to the others, with the indicators, capable of: (1) to communicate thoughts mathematical
basis coherent and clear to his friends, teachers, and for others; (2) using mathematical language to express an
idea / ideas accurately; (3) manage the mathematical thinking through communication; and (4) analyze and
evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others. In general, the main task of a mathematics teacher
is to guide students on how to study the real and how to solve each of the problems facing her so that guidance
can be used and exploited their future.
Therefore, the long-term goal is to improve the competence of learning allowing students to leave
school when it will be able to develop themselves and be able to solve problems as they arise. According to ([7]
Kusumah, 2008) states that communication is a very important part in the learning of mathematics .
Communication through mathematical ideas can be exploited in a variety of perspectives; the way of thinking of
students can be sharpened; understanding the growth can be measured; students' thinking can be consolidated
and organized; mathematical knowledge and the development of students' problems could be improved; and
communication of mathematics can be done. One of the important factors that influences student learning
activities is communication skill. Teachers should be able to speak and choose a style of speaking, using
language as a tool to communicate. According to communication theory, intonation affects 38% of
communication. According to ([8] Sari, 2011), "volume and intonationof voice teachers in the learning process
must be heard well by learners ".So it is clear that the mathematical verbal communication skills in teaching
mathematics is a fundamental capability that must be held by teachers and users of mathematics for learning ,
teaching, and assessing the mathematics .
III. Research Methodology

This research is exploratory research with a qualitative approach. The subjects in this study are
students in mathematics education study program who are taking courses Pre Teacher Experience Program
(PPL). The criteria for selection based on the subject of equality either half or cumulative grade point (GPA) is
1st semester to semester 6, then randomly selected to obtain one of male subjects and one female subjects. The
main instrument is the researcher herself and the supporting instruments are observation sheet verbal
communication skills and a recorder. The validity of the data is using a triangulation, then the data is analyzed to
get a credible description of verbal communication skills student teachers in teaching practice.

IV. Finding and Discussion

When the subject male and female are practice teaching, the researcher was recordedthe subjects ‟
activity from start to finish. This following of male subject exposure to the data and the subject of female
when the teaching practice as well as interviews with researchers who have credible. The male data was
credible after three times of teaching practice and interviews. Likewise, the female data was credible after 3
times the practice of teaching and interviews . The following data had already been credible on the male
subject.Mathematical objects was pronounced correctly. Among conjunction, disjunction, implication and
bimplication, negation, complex sentences, the statement, 5 is prime, but the subject is wrong in saying x2 -4, x
squared is negative 4
Based on the observations of the researcher, the subject indeed underlined the mathematical objects
which were emphasized, while pronouncing the name of an exclusive disjunction notation with a different
intonation on the word exclusive disjunction.
Based on the observations of the researcher and recording , male subject voice can be heard by all students in
the classroom practice.
The following data is already credible on the subject of female :
The female pronounces correctly all mathematical objects that exist in the material Logic, Suitable with
interviews and observations were conducted by the researcher.

.Based on the observation and recording of the researcher, sound of the subject can indeed be heard by all
students who were in class.
V. Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, the researcher can conclude that 1) a description of mathematical
communication verbal male students of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice is correct and
clear when pronouncing the name / term mathematics ematical objects relating to the material sense conveyed,
but wrong in saying the reduction operation with the notation "negatives" that should be pronounced "reduced"
but pronounced "negative", and this is because custom made by the subject, giving a different intonation when
saying the name / term mathematical objects are given priority. The subject underlined while giving emphasis
when pronouncing the name / term preferred mathematical objects, and sounds can be heard by all students in
the classroom; (2) a description of mathematical communication verbal female students prospective of
mathematics teachers in teaching practice is to pronounce the name / term mathematical objects correctly and
clearly, intonation flat course, there is no emphasis on the name / term mathematics ematical objects that take
precedence over teaching practice, because the subject thinks that students already understand the things that are
important in the materials provided, and the sound can be heard by all students who are in class.
Reference
[1]. Rbaryans, Komunikasi dalam matematika(http://rbaryans.wordpress.com/2007/05/30/komunikasi-dalam-matematika/, diakses tanggal 7
Sept 2011)
[2]. Armiati,Komunikasi Matematis Dan Kecerdasan Emosional. Seminar Nasional Matematika dan Pendidikan Matematika Jurusan
Pendidikan Matematika FMIPA UNY.2009
[3]. Borg, Buku Pintar Memahami Bahasa Tubuh. (Yogjakarta: Think, 2010)
[4]. Shadiq, Pemecahan Masalah, Penalaran dan Komunikasi. Diklat Instruktur/Pengembang Matematika SMA Jenjang Dasar,
(Yogyakarta, 2004)
[5]. NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics, Principles and standards for school mathematics. (Reston, VA: Author, 2000)
[6]. NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics, Programs for Initial Preparation of Mathematics Teachers. Standards for Secondary
Mathematics Teachers( http://www.nctm.org/ uploadedFiles/Math_Standards/diakses tanggal 3 Oktober 2011)
[7]. Mulyasa,Menjadi Guru Profesional Menciptakan Pembelajaran Kreatif dan Menyenangkan.(Bandung : Remaja Rosdakarya, 2005)
[8]. Sari, Penentuan Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar, (http://staff.uny. ac.id/sites/default/files/ pendidikan/Annisa%20Ratna%20Sari,
%20M.S.Ed./PPA-KBM.pdf., diakses tanggal 19 September 2011)

Preparedness of Teachers of Kiswahili in Teaching Using

Integrated Kiswahili Course in Secondary Schools in
Kericho County, Kenya
Ms. Cheruto Anneth and John Aluko Orodho*
Is a doctorate student in the Department of Educational Management, Policy and Curriculum Studies, School of
Education, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
*
Is an Associate Professor of Research and Statistics student in the Department of Educational Management,
Policy and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Abstract: The gist of this study was to assess the level of preparedness of teachers of Kiswahili in teaching
the subject using the integrated Kiswahili course in secondary schools in Kericho County, Kenya. The study
adopted the descriptive survey design and it was guided by the Needs Assessment Theory. A stratified random
sampling technique was used to draw a sample of 31 heads of departments and 62 teachers of Kiswahili
yielding a sample size of 93. Questionnaires and an interview schedule were used in collecting data, which
were then analyzed descriptively. The findings revealed that most teachers of Kiswahili were not competent in
teaching the subject using the integrated approach and the necessary resources were not adequate. The study
recommends that there should be an understanding among the teachers for the need to gain more knowledge in
preparation of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili. It is expected that the findings of
this study will be of great significance to teachers, students, policy makers and the entire stakeholders’
fraternity in improving the performance of Kiswahili in the country.[179 words]
Keywords: Preparedness, Teachers of Kiswahili, Pedagogy, Integrated Kiswahili, Course, Secondary
Schools, Kericho County, Kenya,
I. Background to the Problem

Language is a means of communication for every society and all societies have their written and oral
forms of language communication. A society must therefore have its language since this is the way each group
defines itself (Mazrui, 1990). Kiswahili originated in the coastal region of Kenya and spread to other Eastern
and Central Africa through slave trade and trade in ivory by early Arab traders. Kiswahili language is spoken by
over 65% of the Kenyan population (Mazrui 1995). In 1969, the then ruling party, Kenya National African
Union (KANU), gave Kiswahili a formal recognition as the national language, therefore, taking cognizance of
its role in nation building. Yet it was not until 1971 that the language was officially declared the national
language of Kenya.
The decision by Kenya to use Kiswahili as the national language immediately after independence came
as a need to foster human resource development. This is because Kiswahili is the language of inter-ethnic
communication in Kenya where it bridges the linguistic gap between communities. Kiswahili has the oldest
uninterrupted history as an African written language compared to other African languages used in the country.
Its written literary history is over a span of almost three centuries. Therefore, the language has a significant role
to play in all levels of education including higher education for purposes of equipping trainees and future
professionals with communicative skills needed to foster national development.
The ideal role of a language in any society is to be able to serve as many of its speakers as possible.
Kiswahili can adequately perform this role because it is non-ethnic. This means that as per now, there is no
particular community that can claim ownership of this language. Because of this neutrality, Kiswahili has
enjoyed the support of East African governments and Non-Governmental Organizations, and is spoken in many
countries in the world. The East African region, for example, is part of the global village, which is currently
undergoing fundamental transformations on the basis of intensive competition (Mazrui, 1995).
The teaching and learning of Kiswahili has had a long history from the pre-independence times to the
post-independence Kenya. The place of Kiswahili in the instruction of education has continued to change since
the pre-colonial era. During the pre-colonial era, its place in the curriculum kept on changing for instance, in
1900, Charles Elliot advocated for the use of mother tongue. He objected the use of Kiswahili arguing that it
would have been better to use mother tongue in the instruction in 1909. This idea was reversed through the
united missionary conference in 1909. It was argued that instructions of Kiswahili should start in standard four
and five. This policy was later abolished through the recommendation of Phelps Stoke Commission of 1925.
The commission recommended that Kiswahili be instructed like any other vernacular language. This therefore

Preparedness of Teachers of Kiswahili in Teaching Using Integrated Kiswahili Course in ..
meant that Kiswahili was to be restricted to the coastal area. It also recommended that Kikuyu, Kalenjin,
Dholuo, Kiswahili and Luhya languages to be taught in primary schools and English be taught as a second
language (Gorman, 1970 cited in Whitely, 1974).
Commission of enquiry into the education system in Kenya, in 1949 was released. The Beecher report
recommended that Kiswahili language be used in the instruction in primary schools of towns and settled areas,
while English was to be taught in all areas irrespective of the nature of their settlement. This recommendation
demeaned the status of Kiswahili by according English a higher status.Shortly before independence, the colonial
government introduced instruction of English language from the lower primary classes. This implementation
came after the annual report of the department of education was released. The report advocated the instruction
of English language instead of Kiswahili and mother tongue arguing that it was not satisfactory to use three
languages: English, Kiswahili and mother tongue as a media of instruction in primary school. The
implementation of the report started in 1958 under what came to be known as new primary approach (Musau,
2003).
After the attainment of independence in 1964, Commission of Enquiry to Education Systems in Kenya
was appointed to review educational matters. This commission recommended in regard to Kiswahili was that the
language was to be taught as a compulsory subject but was not to be examined (Musau, 2003). Consequently,
the teachers and the students did not take the subject seriously.After Ominde commission of 1964 the, bearing of
Kenya, language policy was affected by the Watraluo commission report of 1972. About Kiswahili the
commission recommended that the members of public while seeking government services use Kiswahili as a
language of communication, in addition the report demanded that all government employees in public offices be
competent in speaking Kiswahili. However, this was not fully enforced. There after commission of inquiry to
education system in Kenya of 1976 recommended that Kiswahili language to be made compulsory and
examinable subject. However, this did not take place until when Mackay report was released. After Mackay
report of 1981 another significant commission of inquiry to Education system in Kenya of 1999, recommended
Kiswahili to remain a compulsory and examinable subject up to grade 12( Mackay Report,1999).
Kiswahili is thus one of the compulsory subjects both at primary and secondary school levels and
various tertiary institutions. Because there is close relationship between curriculum and society, as the society
changes economically, politically, technologically, so should the curriculum to reflect the stated changes in the
society. As Bennie and Newstead (1999, p.1) observes, ―The introduction of a new curriculum poses a range of
challenges to teachers [among other stakeholders] with regards to the underlying assumptions and goals, the
subject demarcations, the content, the teaching approach and the methods of assessment.‖ A curriculum is a
dynamic instrument which should change after a certain period of time. However, if it changes so quite often, it
may confuse major stakeholders in the education sector like parents, teachers, learners, publishers among others.
The ideal period for a curriculum to be revised or undergo major changes is after ten years of implementation.
After the 1992, Secondary Kiswahili Curriculum was introduced and implemented there were comments that the
curriculum required some revision or changes to be in tandem with the changing society.
The integration of Fasihi and Lugha Ya Kiswahili means that teachers are assumed to have mastery of
Lugha and also a clear understanding and appreciation of Fasihi and are able to teach each as a function of the
other. This means that teachers are expected to teach grammar (Lugha) using literary texts, and also to teach
literature (Fasihi) using the various skills of grammar (Lugha) such as listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Fafbongbe (1971) says that a teacher is a very important factor in any education innovation. In other
words implementation of the integrated Kiswahili course cannot be effectively implemented in school without
the active and competent participation of the teacher. In learning Kiswahili, a fundamental question comes into
view; namely, the path that the learner traverses in attempting to reach the goal. Many Kiswahili scholars and
enthusiasts have cited numerous factors which influence the teaching and learning of Kiswahili, especially at the
primary and secondary levels. Considering that Kiswahili is a compulsory subject at both primary and
secondary levels in Kenya, under varied conditions, situations , diverse factors influence its effective teaching
and learning. This background provided tremendous impetus to investigate the competence of graduate teachers
in teaching Kiswahili using the integrated approach.
As pointed out in the UNESCO (2008) report, Capacity Building of Teacher Training Institutions in
Sub-Saharan Africa (TTISSA), UNESCO‘s aim is to bring teacher education into alignment with national
development goals. Consequently, three approaches correspond to alternative national policy goals and visions
for the future of education. The approaches are: increase the technological uptake of students, citizens, and the
workforce by incorporating technology skills in the curriculum—or the technology literacy approach; increase
the ability of students, citizens, and the workforce to use knowledge to add value to society and the economy by
applying it to solve complex, real-world problems or the knowledge deepening approach; increase the ability of
students, citizens, and the workforce to innovate, produce new knowledge, and benefit from this new knowledge
or the knowledge creation approach.Thus through these approaches, a country‘s students and ultimately its

citizens and workforce acquire increasingly sophisticated skills needed to support economic, social, cultural, and
environmental development, as well as an improved standard of living.
II. Review of Related Literature

According to Simanu- Klutz Luafata (1997), integrated curriculum refers to the fusion of knowledge
from different disciplines; the approach to learning and teaching from a variety of world views, strategies and
resources; and tapping of real- life situations for problem solving and critical thinking in the classroom. Tyler
(1949) sees integration as the horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences, in that the organization of these
experiences should be such that they help the student get a unified view and also unify his/her behaviours in
relation to the elements dealt with. The popularity of integrated curricula has waxed and waned over years. In
the integration subject matter may be organized on the basis of separate disciplines with their own time blocks.
This type of integration is the best in that there is a correlation of subjects to one another. This helps the learners
to integrate the knowledge into their own behavior. In relation to Kiswahili the teacher teaching the subject
should integrate Grammar and Literature
Implementation of an integrated curriculum provides many benefits for students and teachers alike. The
curriculum design is centered on themes that address learners‘ concerns and the activities that are generated
from this type of approach to teaching and learning are constructed to promote thinking skills and increase
students‘ interests in learning. Achievement of an integrated curriculum has been established by research and
classroom records of the teachers who have put the method into action. Hunkins (1985) in Kitito (2007)
supports the use of an interdisciplinary curriculum to promote critical thinking and to prepare children for
lifelong learning.
The rationale for integrating related subjects, according to Thabo (1984) ideally all knowledge can be
looked upon as a comic totality. According to this view all knowledge can be looked upon as dealing with man
and or his environment. The main aim of education is to train the intellect of the child and all other aims follow
from this. On the basis of this, all school subjects are directed towards this primary goal to educate the whole
child. Hence there is need for integrating related subjects.
In support to the above Taylor (1990) advocated that the whole primary school day be integrated. In the
view of Taylor, this type of approach can afford the child time to pursue something in depth even though it may
take several days. As he works, problems common to various subjects will arise but within the integrated
framework he can make easy transition between any areas of learning.
Lewy (1991) also argues that integration increases learners, motivation. Students are more interested in
learning content that seems related and meaningful, as opposed to content that is fragmented and not related at
all. Form this view it can be concluded that the integrated method results into more inclusive learning which
enables the learner to confront problems that are ignored or slighted by the separate disciplines. It is also
efficient, time saving and eliminates redundancy.
Oketch (2005) argues that integration is practical and that every lesson requires enough learner
involvement and the teachers strives always to make learning as interesting and meaningful to the learners‘ as
possible. Teachers also use teaching materials comprising of textbooks and pictures. From this view, concerns
about national achievement levels and need for good performance in educational institutions have put the
spotlight an any educational change that can lead to an increased student success. Therefore there is a realization
that curriculum integration may be an effective element in making education manageable, relevant and
successful.
The movements towards a global economy and international connections as well as the rapid change in
technology are pushing education towards integration. The ability to make connections, to solve problems by
looking at multiple perspectives and to incorporate information from different fields will be an essential
ingredient for success in the future.
With regards to teacher competency, Hewton (1988) says that competency refers to appropriate prior
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and abilities in a given context that adjust and develop with time and needs in order
to effectively and efficiently accomplish a task and that are measured against a minimum standard. Hewton
(1988) further lists the following as Characteristics of Teacher Competencies: content area knowledge,
pedagogical capabilities, communication skills, professionalism, and teacher preparedness.
With regards to content area knowledge, it is arguable that in addition to a mastery of basic skills,
effective teachers are expected to demonstrate a thorough understanding of the content of their curricular areas.
They should be able to communicate this content material to students using methodologies that are appropriate
for the age and abilities of the learners. These teachers are competent planners, seek to incorporate other
disciplines into their lessons and stay abreast of changes and advancements in their specialty areas.
Pedagogical capabilities, successful teachers are expected to be knowledgeable about multiple methods
of instruction. They understand levels of human development, both typical and atypical, and should be able to

diversify their lessons to meet the needs of learners of all ability levels. These teachers are capable classroom
managers and skilled at motivating students, and they perennially assess both student and personal achievement.
Not only should teachers exhibit the skills necessary for communicating ideas clearly to students, but
they must also communicate with parents, other teachers, their administrators and their communities. They must
be open, approachable and diplomatic in conveying information. In a technologically oriented world, these
teachers will use contemporary modes of communication like email and interactive websites in addition to
traditional means of communication.
With respect to professionalism, teacher excellence is reflected in a professional's efforts toward
continual improvement in his/her field. Professional teachers are marked by their personal presentation,
reflection, collaboration, the desire to advance and adaptability. These teachers believe students can learn,
understand the value of diversity in the workplace and in their classrooms, and understand the ethical
implications of working with students.
Some studies in Kenya (Mohammed 1994; Ronoh 2001,Suter 2008) found out that, despite the fact that
official course syllabuses demand an integrated approach in the teaching of Geography, Much has been written
about the role of teachers and their training in any educational change undertaking. All agree that teachers are
central to the change process and therefore their training is quite crucial. Verspoor, (1989) asserts that a well-
designed and effectively implemented teacher-training programme is the key element in the successful
implementation and institutionalization of change programmes. By comparison, another research report of
World Bank on education in fourteen countries attributed failure of intended educational change mainly to
ineffective teacher training programmes (Kellagan & Greany, 1992). It thus follows that any successful
educational change is built on effective teacher training.
From the above Literature competence is vital for effective implementation of any curriculum
innovation. As Fullan (1982) postulates, the effectiveness and efficiency in teaching and learning is determined
by teachers‘ academic and professional characteristics as well as his/her experience as a teacher. Despite the
Kiswahili teacher being qualified to teach Kiswahili, they may lack competence to implement the Kiswahili
integrated course due to how the Kiswahili syllabus is design.
Finally, teacher preparedness in Teachers‘ education is an integral component of education. It involves
the preparation of properly identified and selected individuals for the teaching profession. The teacher education
programme should be designed and administered to produce a cadre of component teachers to serve a prescribed
system of education (Bogonko, 1992). This is because teachers are key factors in contributing towards any
enhanced quality of classroom experience.
Kafu (1996) found out that the teacher education curriculum had remained narrow and rigid in nature. It
emphasized training rather than preparation of teacher. There was no attempt to make it responsive to the
emerging trends in the society and education in particular. Consequently it had continued to produce
conservative / traditional school teachers who were pervasive to change, less creative and innovative and unable
to manage modern instructional and non-instructional situations.
He advocated for a new teacher education curriculum to be designed to address the new demands of the
society and those of teaching profession. Education is a dynamic process and new trends and new change are
bound to arise. The teacher should be well placed to embrace the new trends and changes in the society. Teacher
training colleges at all levels should have the relevant resources and appropriate educational technologies that
are essential to facilitate the preparation of competent teachers.
The teacher being the most important ingredient in the effective teaching and learning of Kiswahili
using the integrated approach. It is therefore important that teachers are very well prepared to meet this new
challenge of teaching Kiswahili using the integrated approach. The success of the teacher largely depends on
his/her personal efforts and general personality Corbin Hugh (1983) in Jepkoech (2002). These characteristics
can be greatly enhanced if a teacher receives specialized training in methods of teaching Kiswahili using the
integrated approach.
Garret (1999) also agrees that teachers are the key factors in contributing towards any enhanced quality
of classroom experience. Watkins in the Oxfam Education Report, (2000) concurs with Garret by stressing that
poorly trained teachers are unable to foster a child-centered learning environment. Hendrikz (1986) emphasizes
that the teacher should use appropriate instructional methods of teaching. He found that teachers‘ knowledge of
the subject should not be over looked since it is essential for arranging for a successful learning if a teacher has a
high understanding of the subject matter.
Mwaura (2003) states that teachers find it difficult learning new strategies act across the old habit and
assumptions and invalidated hand worn skills. Teachers then need to improve on through training and in-service
courses. He further stresses that many teachers do not read after leaving college. Training is a necessary
condition for effective performance of teaching roles and responsibilities.

III. Statement of the Problem

Many analyses done concerning Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) reveal that candidates
sitting for Kiswahili paper perform poorly with various reasons attributed to this dismal performance. Some of
these reasons related to teacher preparation include material provision, inadequate administrative support
resulting into questionable instructional methodological approaches. Although the failure of classroom practices
to reflect new innovations in teaching could be attributed to a multitude of varied factors, no other variable
appears to be more central to this phenomenon than the teacher. Competence in the context of this study refers
to the ability of the Kiswahili teacher to integrate Fasihi content into Lugha and vise-versa and the application of
a variety of instructional methods. There is a growing need for teachers in Kericho District of Kericho County to
be informed of the intended changes in education for it to achieve its desired objectives. On the other hand,
some schools post better performance which underscores the importance of training in relation to competence,
change of attitudes and awareness of the teacher in instruction.This could be an indication that teachers are
ignorant of procedures and skills of disseminating content to the learners. The unclear situation as far as teacher
competence is concerned calls for further investigation to establish the real problem and solution especially the
teaching of Kiswahili using the integrated approach. It is against this background that this study sought to assess
the competence of graduate teachers in teaching Kiswahili using the integrated approach.
The objectiveof the Studywas to assess the level of preparedness of secondary school teachers of
Kiswahili in teaching the subject using the integrated Kiswahili course in Kericho County, Kenya.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study was based on the needs assessment theory. Suarez (1991)
defines needs assessment as an information gathering and analyzing process in the identification of the needs of
individuals, groups, institutions and communities or societies. Witkin and Altschuld (1995) further define needs
assessment as a tool which formally identifies the gaps between the current results or outcomes/products and
required or desired results, places these gaps in priority and selects those gaps/needs of the highest priority for
action, usually through the implementation of a new or existing curriculum or management process.
The point to be noted here is that curriculum development requires systematic and specific procedures
to be followed. Various authors have proposed various curriculum development models. However it is important
to note that despite the fact there exist these various curriculum development models, all curriculum scholars
agree on the fact that whether developing a new curriculum or changing the existing one, the process begins
with needs assessment. It can be argued that any education system in any given society helps enhance the
society‘s needs and therefore, in drawing an educational program, a needs assessment is imperative. The needs
assessment allows for a careful investigation of what should be, and what is, so as to establish the discrepancy.
In this study, the needs assessment was utilized to establish the preparedness of Kiswahili teachers in
terms of the specific knowledge, skills and attitudes that they actually have and those that they require in order
to effectively teach Kiswahili using the integrated approach. The theoretical framework identifies the dependent
and independent variables. Competence was considered as the dependent variable, whereas integrated Kiswahili
curriculum was considered as independent variable. The needs assessment theory was adopted because it
focuses on identification of required competence and emphasizes that action be taken based on the finding and
recommendation so as to direct educational practices and solve problem in this case the failure of students in
Kiswahili‘ performance of Kericho district in Kericho county. The rationale for using this theory is to identify
competences that Kiswahili teachers in secondary in Kericho district have and those they should have for
effective teaching is expounded.
Research Design and Methodology

This study used Descriptive Survey research design. This design gathers data at a particular point in
time with the intention of describing the nature of the existing conditions, identifying the standards against
which existing conditions can be compared and determining the relationship that exists between specific events
(Orodho, 2008a, 2012; Orodho, Nzabalirwa, Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje,2016). Descriptive Survey
research design was suitable in this study since the population studied was too large to be observed directly.
Target Population and Sampling

The study targeted public secondary schools in Kericho District where Heads of Department
(languages) and teachers of Kiswahili participated in the study. This population was involved in the study
because it is directly involved in the instructional process. Apart from that, this population directly influences
the performance of the learners in Kiswahili and so is an essential population for this study. Records in the
District Education office indicated that there are 62 public secondary schools in the district. For the purpose of
getting a representative sample, the researcher stratified the schools into 4 educational divisions: Ainamoi,
Chagaik, Soin and Waldai. In the District, there are a total of 62 schools and from this, 31 (50%) secondary

schools were selected using proportionate random sampling from the divisions. To obtain the number of
teachers who participated in the study, simple random sampling was used to pick one teacher of Kiswahili from
every school and the process repeated for the HoDs. A total of 93 respondents which included all (31) HoDs
Languages and 62 teachers of Kiswahili from the selected schools were selected for participation in the study.
The study sample is as shown in table 1.
Table 1 Study Sample

Division Total No of No of Schools No. of Heads of No. of
Schools selected Departments Teachers
Ainamoi 16 8 8 16
Chagaik 8 4 4 8
Soin 20 10 10 20
Waldai 18 9 9 18
Total 62 31 31 62
Data Collection Instruments

The study used questionnaires and interview schedule in data collection. In this study, structured and
semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect valuable information from Kiswahili teachers. The
questionnaire was divided into two sections: the first captured the background information of the respondents
and the second section on the teacher competencies. The questionnaire was intended to elicit information on the
use of integrated approach of teaching Kiswahili.
To ensure the reliability of the questionnaire, a pilot study was carried out in the neighboring Bureti
District. This area was used for piloting because the two districts share similar conditions. The research
instruments were administered to the same pilot group twice after an interval of two weeks and the results
compared (Orodho, 2009a, 2016). The Pearson Product Moment formula was used to calculate the correlation
coefficient. A correlation coefficient of 0.75 was obtained which was considered high enough to test reliability
(Orodho, Khatete & Mugiraneza, 2016).
Validity, which is the degree to which results obtained from analysis of the data actually represents the
phenomenon under study (Orodho, 2009a,2009b) was determined using expert judgment. The feedback obtained
from the pilot study assisted the researcher to ensure that it covered the variables investigated in the research(
Orodho,2016) . The main reason for piloting the questionnaires was to ensure as far as possible that the items
would detect the kind of responses the researcher intends to get, that they are acceptable in terms of their content
and they adequately covered any aspect of the unit which the researcher particularly wished to explore (Orodho,
2016).
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

Prior to data collection, the researcher obtained an authorization letters and permits from relevant
authorities such as departments and the National Commission for Science Technology and Innovation
(NACOSTI). After acquiring the permit the researcher further sought permission from the District
Commissioner and from the District Education Officer which enabled the applicants to conduct research in the
selected schools. Further the researchers sought permission from the head teachers of the selected schools for
the study. On the actual date of the study, the researcher visited individual schools to conduct the research. The
research tools were personally administered to the respondents. Data were analyzed as per question given.
Copies of questionnaire were sorted, coded categorized and tabulated. In addition, data from interview guides
and documents were analyzed thematically. Descriptive methods generated using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) were employed in analyzing the qualitative data where frequencies and percentages were used
in interpreting the data (Orodho, Ampofo, Bizimana & Ndayambaje, 2015).
IV. Findings and Discussion

Teacher Competency
The teachers were requested to state whether they were comfortable, handling Kiswahili and Fasihi,
Fasihi only or Lugha only. The findings are shown in Table 2.
The table reveals that 30 (48.4%) of the respondents were comfortable handling both Kiswahili Lugha
and Fasihi whereas 20 (32.3%) were comfortable with Fasihi only. The remaining 19.4% (12) reported that they
were comfortable with Lugha only. This implies that less than half of the teachers are comfortable to handle
both Kiswahili Lugha and Fasihi. This finding concurs with Kitito, M. (2007) in his study he found out that
most teachers where comfortable in teaching both Kiswahili Lugha and Fasihi.

Frequency
35
30
30
25
20
20
15 12
10 Frequency
5
0
Both Kiswahili Fasihi only Lugha only
Lugha and Fasihi
Further, the Kiswahili teachers were asked to give their opinion on the competencies the teachers of Kiswahili
need in order to effectively teach Kiswahili using integrated method. Table 4.5 presents the findings.
Table 4.5 Competencies required by Teachers of Kiswahili

Key: A –Agree ; D – Disagree; U – Undecided
Statement A U D TOTAL
F % F % F % f %
I understand the reason for integrating the Kiswahili syllabus 46 73.2 4 6.5 12 18.4 62 100
I understand the need to gain more knowledge in lesson 54 86.1 2 3.2 6 9.7 62 100
planning for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili
I understand the need to gain more knowledge in work 56 90.4 0 0 6 9.7 62 100
scheming for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili
I understand the need to gain more knowledge in preparation 26 75.2 10 16.1 6 9.7 62 100
of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili
I understand the need to gain more knowledge in evaluation 54 87.1 2 3.2 6 9.7 62 100
technique for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili
The table reveals that 46 (73.2%) of the respondents understood the reason for integrating the Kiswahili
syllabus while 12 (18.4%) did not understand the reason for integrating the Kiswahili syllabus. The remaining
were neutral. Concerning lesson planning, large percentage (86.1%) of the respondents had an understanding on
the need to gain more knowledge in lesson planning for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili whereas 6
(9.7%) of the teachers did not understand the need. The remaining percentages (3.2%) of the respondents were
neutral. The table further shows that 56 (90.4%) of the respondents understood the need to gain more knowledge
in work scheming for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6 (9.7%) did not understand the need.
It is further revealed that 26 (75.2%) of the respondents had an understanding on the need to gain more
knowledge in preparation of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6 (9.7%) did not
have an understanding for the need to gain such knowledge. The remaining 5 (16.1%) of the respondents were
neutral. Concerning evaluation, it is revealed that 54 (87.1%) of the respondents agreed that they understood the
need to gain more knowledge in evaluation techniques for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6
(9.7%) did not agree as 2 (3.2%) of the respondents were neutral. The findings above imply that the teachers are
not fully prepared to teach Kiswahili using the integrated course.
The Heads of departments interviewed felt that teaching using the integrated approach would enhance
the competence of teachers. However some felt that the teachers were not competent in using this method of
teaching. This finding concurs with a research report of World Bank on education in fourteen countries
attributed failure of intended educational change mainly to ineffective teacher training programmes (Kallagan &
Greany, 1992).
V. Discussions
Teacher competency in the use of integrated approach is not satisfactory since majority of the
respondents were not comfortable in its application in the instruction process. Egessa (2007) observed that from
the way some Kiswahili courses are structured in some universities, a student teacher may go through the

university and graduate having not taken some courses which are optional or elective. Yet after graduation they
are expected to teach students at secondary school the topics they missed at the university. These topics include
short story, sociolinguistics, oral literature, poetry, creative writing, emerging issues and use of integrated
approach to teaching of language and literature. The study revealed that the pre- training of Kiswahili teachers
adequately addressed work scheming appropriate for integrated method of teaching Kiswahili, but did not
adequately address use of instructional resources in the teaching.
From the interviews, it was noted that most HODs averred:
Most teachers content that at universities where trained, a Kiswahili teacher trainee is required to take
another subject so that he/she can be employable by Teachers Service Commission, the major teachers‘
employer in Kenya. Hence one may be required to have a subject combination of Kiswahili/History,
Kiswahili/Geography, Kiswahili/IRE, Kiswahili/CRE, and in some extreme cases Kiswahili/Mathematics. The
English teacher trainee is required to take only English/Literature.
Lack of the degree of depth of a topic is best captured by the remarks of one teacher regarding the
teaching of Isimujamii (sociolinguistics in Kiswahili) in secondary schools in Kenya who states:
Up-to now it is not clear where sociolinguistics (in Kiswahili) starts and ends. The syllabus and guide
to the syllabus has not made this issue clear. Personally, I suspect that the curriculum developers didn‘t
understand this area (sociolinguistics) very well when they were developing the syllabus (My translation).
A finding on instructional resources preparation revealed that majority of the respondents agreed that
their pre-services training adequately addressed instruction resource preparation appropriate for integrated
method of teaching Kiswahili. The table further reveals that more respondents felt that their pre-service training
adequately addressed use of instructional resources in the teaching of Kiswahili using integrated method.
It is further shown that most of the respondents felt that their pre-service training adequately addressed
effective lesson-preparation using integrated method of teaching Kiswahili. It can be implied that pre-service
training of majority of teachers adequately addressed lesson planning, work scheming and instruction resources
preparation. However, this was little pre-service training on use of instructional resources in teaching Kiswahili
using integrated approach and in lesson planning.
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations

respondents were not comfortable in its application in the instruction process. Various scholars in curriculum
studies like Hawes (1972), Bishop (1985), Urevbu (1992) and Syomwene (2003) authenticate the important role
of teachers in curriculum implementation. The 2002 SKC was designed and implemented when the teacher
training institutions namely colleges and universities had not satisfactorily prepared Kiswahili teachers for the
2002 SKC. This is because at the university, some of the topics in 2002 SKC were and are still optional hence
some teacher-trainees graduated having not taken the units or courses. The study found out that almost half of
the teachers are comfortable to handle both Kiswahili Lugha and Fasihi.
To some of the teachers, integrated approach to Kiswahili teaching is a new and complex concept and
the truth is that they do not know how to implement the 2002 SKC. This leaves a lot of try and error approach
teaching of Kiswahili which is dangerous to the learners. There is need to revise and harmonize the Kiswahili
courses offered in the universities in Kenya to be in tandem with the requirements of the secondary school
curriculum for students taking Kiswahili as a teaching subject. The study revealed that there is need for more
knowledge among the Kiswahili teachers in preparation of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching
Kiswahili and understanding for the need to gain such knowledge.
Because there is close relationship between curriculum and society, as the society changes
economically, politically, technologically, so should the curriculum to reflect the stated changes in the society.
As Bennie and Newstead (1999, p.1) observes, ―The introduction of a new Kiswahili curriculum poses a range
of challenges to teachers [among other stakeholders] with regards to the underlying assumptions and goals, the
subject demarcations, the content, the teaching approach and the methods of assessment.‖ A curriculum is a
dynamic instrument which should change after a certain period of time and teachers should adequately be
involved.
respondents were not comfortable in its application in the instruction process. Egessa (2007) observed that from
the way some Kiswahili courses are structured in some universities, a student teacher may go through the
university and graduate having not taken some courses which are optional or elective. Yet after graduation they
are expected to teach students at secondary school the topics they missed at the university. These topics include
short story, sociolinguistics, oral literature, poetry, creative writing, emerging issues and use of integrated
approach to teaching of language and literature. The study revealed that the pre- training of Kiswahili teachers
adequately addressed work scheming appropriate for integrated method of teaching Kiswahili, but did not
adequately address use of instructional resources in the teaching.

From the interviews, it was noted that most HODs averred:

Most teachers content that at universities where trained, a Kiswahili teacher trainee is required to take
another subject so that he/she can be employable by Teachers Service Commission, the major teachers’
employer in Kenya. Hence one may be required to have a subject combination of Kiswahili/History,
Kiswahili/Geography, Kiswahili/IRE, Kiswahili/CRE, and in some extreme cases Kiswahili/Mathematics. The
English teacher trainee is required to take only English/Literature.
Lack of the degree of depth of a topic is best captured by the remarks of one teacher regarding the
teaching of Isimujamii (sociolinguistics in Kiswahili) in secondary schools in Kenya who states: Up-to now it is
not clear where sociolinguistics (in Kiswahili) starts and ends. The syllabus and guide to the syllabus has not
made this issue clear. Personally, I suspect that the curriculum developers didn’t understand this area
(sociolinguistics) very well when they were developing the syllabus (My translation). A finding on instructional
resources preparation revealed that majority of the respondents agreed that their pre-services training
adequately addressed instruction resource preparation appropriate for integrated method of teaching Kiswahili.
The table further reveals that more respondents felt that their pre-service training adequately addressed use of
instructional resources in the teaching of Kiswahili using integrated method.
It is further shown that most of the respondents felt that their pre-service training adequately addressed
effective lesson-preparation using integrated method of teaching Kiswahili. It can be implied that pre-service
training of majority of teachers adequately addressed lesson planning, work scheming and instruction resources
preparation. However, this was little pre-service training on use of instructional resources in teaching Kiswahili
using integrated approach and in lesson planning.
A teacher is a key player to successful implementation of any educational curriculum. As Clandinin
and Connelly (1992, p.363) rightly observes ―the teacher is an integral part of the curriculum constructed and
enacted in classrooms‖. The success of Kiswahili curriculum implementation to a large extent depends on the
teachers. Therefore teachers should be actively involved in various stages of curriculum development like
design, implementation and evaluation. Teachers should also actively participate in pilot study or pretesting of
any new or revised curriculum. All this requires training and in-servicing teachers so that they can interpret and
implement the curriculum effectively. Teachers, as major stakeholders in the education sector, must be in the
involved in all aspects of syllabus design, implementation and evaluation.
Recommendations
There is need for more in-service courses and seminars to be organized at zonal and divisional levels to
reach to many teachers in schools. This will give practicing teachers necessary skills to deal with new
developments for their subjects. The school principals and teachers should be made to be in such activities,
because at times such noble ideas are frustrated by school heads who do not allowing teachers to attend
seminars citing lack of time and funds. In addition to that, in-service training enhances the teachers‘ competency
in the use of integrated approach.
The pre-service training for teachers should develop relevant knowledge and skills for the teaching of
Kiswahili using the integrated approach. Colleges in which the teachers are trained should have more training
courses to update the skills of their students. The colleges should reconstruct both content and the methodology
in tune with content of secondary school Kiswahili curriculum. The universities should consider introducing the
teaching of Kiswahili grammar and literature as a programme for an award of bachelor of education degree.
This is because Kiswahili students take the language and another additional subject besides the professional
courses. In practice, teachers teach Kiswahili and a second teaching subject, hence have divided attention.
Specialization in the subject will promote deeper concentration in the various items and motivate the teacher.
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School Leadership Practices: What are their Implications on

Provision of Holistic of Education in Secondary Schools in
Kiambu and Samburu Counties, Kenya?
Mr. Waweru Peter Ndirangu, Dr. Ruth Thinguri & Dr. Mary MugweChui
Abstract: This paper is premised on the background that majority of researchers and education ists who have
contributed to the discourse on provision of education seem to be in agreement that effective school leadership
is a critical ingredient for the achievement of holistic education. This study examined the application of school
leadership practiceson holistic education in Kiambu and Samburu Counties, Kenya. The study employed an
explanatory mixed methods research design, using a sample size of 707 respondents. The main research
instruments used to collect data were questionnaires, interview guides and observation checklists. The findings
revealed mixed results with principals attaching higher premium on the role of school leadership on facilitating
holistic education than teachers and members of the board of management. On the overall, it was concluded
that the effectiveness of school management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals
which impacted positively on both academic and non-academic school outcomes. It was recommended that
principals should be sensitized on the need to apply well-balanced, democratic and transactional leadership
styles that can easily bring about holistic education.
Keywords: Education, Environment, Physical facilities, sustainable development, Kenya.
I. Introduction
1.1. Background to the study
Globally, education is one of the basic human rights and also at the center of development for all
nations. It is a form of investment that is perceived to contribute to the development of both individual and
society. Thus, it is arguable that education systems all over the world have continued to be perceived as a
dynamic process which produces human resources, instills values, and brings social cohesion based on academic
excellence (Republic of Kenya, 2002, 2011a, 2011b; UNESCO,2012; United Nations, 2012). The correlation
between school leadership and provision of holistic education can be traced historically as far back as the early
part of the 21stcentury. The interest seems to have been as a result of the widespread belief that the quality of
leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes (Ndayambaje & Orodho, 2014). In
many parts of the world, including South Africa, there is recognition that schools require effective leaders and
managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners. However, it is arguable that this
requires trained and committed teachers who in turn; need the leadership of highly effective principals and the
support of other senior and middle level managers (Marais, 2011; World Bank, 2010). Nonetheless, this field of
educational leadership and management is pluralist, with many competing perspectives and an inevitable lack of
agreement on the exact nature of the discipline (Marais, 2011) and by extension its exact contribution to holistic
education. This lack of consensus led to a desire to investigate how effective school leadership individually
and/or in combination with other dynamics contributes to holistic education of learners.
1.2 State of the Art Review

Literature reviewed from the international, regional, national and the local context indicate that there
are five currently known possible indicators of holistic education. These are dichotomized into the academic and
non-academic dynamics (United Nations, 2015; Republic of Kenya, 2011a). The non-academic dynamics of
holistic education developed by the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards include: the school
leadership in terms of the commonly used leadership styles such as democratic, autocratic, transactional and
transformational leadership ; the co-curricular activities such as participation in out-of-class activities such as
games, sports and drama; physical facilities including the availability of physical infrastructure in school as
well as the peace education including promotion of peaceful co-existence in and out of school. The academic
dynamics are the traditionally known formal curriculum with examinable subjects being taught (Republic of
Kenya/UNICEF, 2012).
This paper focusses on school leadership which is the first non-academic indicator of meriting schools
suggested by the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards is (Orodho, 2016). No doubt, there has been
great interest in educational leadership over the years spanning back in history as far the early part of the
21stcentury. Literature indicates that school leadership in terms of administrative support and good governance

School Leadership Practices: What are their Implications on Provision of Holistic of Education in….
is a critical element in effective school process, both for students and staff ( UNICEF, 2000) This is because of
the widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant difference to school and student
outcomes. In many parts of the world, including South Africa, there is recognition that schools require effective
leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners.
As the global economy gathers pace, more governments are realizing that their main assets are their
people and that remaining, or becoming, competitive depends increasingly on the development of a highly
skilled workforce. This requires trained and committed teachers who also need the leadership of highly
effective principals and the support of other senior and middle managers (Marais, 2011; World Bank, 2010).The
field of educational leadership and management is pluralist, with many competing perspectives and an inevitable
lack of agreement on the exact nature of the discipline. One key debate has been whether educational leadership
is a distinct field or simply a branch of the wider studies of management (Marais, 2011).
The empirical evidence at the international level based on research done by Aubrey (1992) in the
United States of America investigated the extent to which principals leadership practices in schools that were
perceived to be effectively managed (n=34) differed from those of principals heading schools rated less effective
(n=34). Data was collected by questionnaires from principals and school committee members. The data were
analyzed by use of Mann-Whitney U-test for two independent samples. The key findings of the study were as
follows: First, principals of high performing schools reported a higher level of inspiring and encouraging
members to accomplish their goals ranging from academic and non-academic in nature. Secondly, a statistically
significant difference (p < .05) was noted between two categories of principals with regard to the extent to
which they encouraged the active participation of members of community in school affairs. The study concluded
that the effectiveness of school management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals and
impacted positively on both academic and non-academic school outcomes (Aubrey, 1992).
This finding was later supported by a study by Griffin (1996) who carried out a comparative study in
Mid-West USA on elements of schools that had been identified as exemplary (n=11) in terms of students tests
scores and other non-academic variables such as parental involvement in school matters and those that had been
classified as developing schools(n=11). Principals from exemplary schools (n=11), their teachers (n=84), and
their counterparts in developing schools comprising of 10 principals and 87 teachers responded to a survey
questionnaire. The study established that compared with developing schools principals, those leading exemplary
schools reported greater use of leadership practices of inspiring members and creating an enabling working
environment through the redistribution of power and authority within the school. Exemplary schools, the data
further revealed, produced more positive features of high academic and non-academic outcomes compared with
developing schools. There was consensus that effective management by school principals translated into a high
level students’ discipline and overall excellent school outcomes.
In another related study, James and Connolly (2008) sought to establish the changes that contributed to
improvements in school practices leading to high academic and non -academic output in Southern Wales,
United Kingdom. Data were collected from principals, teachers, pupils and parents using semi-structured
interviews and documented data. The study established that one of the critical factors that had led to the notable
improvement and enhanced academic and non-academic school outcomes was leadership. For example, most of
the principals were reported to have been newly posted. Consequently, the schools had benefited from the new
ideas and practices recently acquired during training that, to a considerable extent, triggered the new changes.
Some of the changes introduced by the principals, who in the opinion of teachers and parents enhanced their
input included improvement of school infrastructure, involvement to members of school community (teachers,
students and parents) in school matters, and constant articulation of school vision to the members of the school
community by principals.
These findings were in tandem with those of Kilpatrick, Munford, Falk and Presort (2002) who
conducted a study in Australia that sought to investigate ways in which the modes of leadership of school and
community leaders influenced the extent and nature of the schools contribution to the community. The study
revealed that the major in-school factor that enhanced school-community partnership was the principals’ open-
state leadership, which, inter alia, accommodated opportunities and ides put forward by others.
At the regional level, the role of leadership as a dynamic of holistic education has been shown to have
positive impact on students learning and other non-academic outcomes (Mike, Dowd et.al., 1998; Carron
&Chau, 1996; Pereira, 1997). Studies conducted in Malawi, for example, supervisors in the schools that showed
greater learning gains regularly evaluated teachers, contributing to professional development and improved
teaching practice (Mike, Dowd et.al., 1998). Unfortunately, however, few head teachers and administrators in
developing countries did not have any formal training in leadership functions of schools, and promotions were
not based on leadership and management skills.
Further, many heads of schools continue to have extensive pedagogical responsibilities in addition to
administrative ones. This leaves little time for supervision and support of staff (Carron &Chau, 1996). Despite
these practical constraints, programmes designed to increase professionalism in schools through management

training, such as one sponsored by SIDA and conducted in disadvantaged district in Sri Lanka, show that
interventions in this area can have a real positive impact on both academic and non-academic outcomes (Pereira,
1997).
A study by Biruk (2015) in Ethiopia on planning quality education in Ethiopian public universities
indicated that there was a strong positive relationship between performance improvement arising from good
institutional leadership and the four independent variables, namely; considering customer needs, performance
tracking, teaching methodologies and taking action in Ethiopian public universities. The main recommendation
was that in order to sustain learner educational aspirations, there was necessity to carefully improve education
quality management practices of Ethiopian public universities.
Wasonga (2015) carried out a study on the influence of head teachers leadership styles on students’
discipline, and by extension, holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Rongo District (rural
area) and Kisumu City (urban setting) in Kenya. The sample comprised 59 head teachers, 56 teacher counselors,
48 members of Parents Teachers Association (PTAs) and 400 students yielding a total sample size of 563 drawn
from 59 schools. The study established that school leadership was a significant determinant of school outcomes
in terms of the non-academic measures of students discipline and academic measures of performance in national
examinations. However, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical test revealed that there was no statistically
significant relationship between leadership styles used by principals and type of schools. These findings are in
line with those of Asunda (1983) and Kariuki (1998) which revealed that principals whose leadership styles was
more participatory tended to yield higher school outcomes in terms of academic and non-academic measures.
However, statistical ANOVA yielded values of F (3.42; 3.35) which were greater than F-values of 1.29 and .931
suggesting no significant correlation between type of school and head teachers management or leadership styles
on students’ non-academic measures of discipline and academic measures of student’s achievement in national
examinations.
1.3 The Statement of the Problem

Despite the rationale for the advocacy for the use of a combination of academic and non-academic
dynamics in fostering holistic education for the learner, many researchers and educationists seem to be in
agreement that a clear conceptualization of holistic education is not yet clear. It is also arguable that the
correlation between holistic education and holistic education have not been clearly established. These
conceptual difficulties notwithstanding, the need to develop holistic dynamics and clear indicators of holistic
education cannot be underestimated. This emphasizes a major policy lapse highlighted by DQUASO regarding
the evaluation of the education system largely based on academic indicators as being certainly narrow as it does
not take cognizant of other domains of education such as the affective and psychomotor which in combination
constitute holistic education.
This problem is contextualized in the two counties of Kiambu and Samburu that seem to be sending
mixed signals regarding the existence and magnitude of the variables of interest to this study. The two counties
exhibit very diverse characteristics regarding the chosen study variables that are likely to have a significant
impact on the dynamics of academic and non-academic indicators on holistic education of students in public
secondary schools in the two counties. Against the background of this study isolated school leadership to find
out its likely contribution to holistic education of the learners.
1.4 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

This study examined the contribution of school leadership on holistic education of students in public
secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu counties, Kenya. The objective of the Study was to find out the
relationship between school leadership and holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Kiambu
and Samburu Counties.
1.5. Research Hypotheses

The null hypothesis tested at α = .05 level of statistical significance was that:
HO: There is no significant relationship between school leadership and holistic education of students in public
secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties.
II. Research Design And Methodology

An explanatory sequential mixed methods research design which uses quantitative and qualitative
approaches sequentially was adopted for the study (Creswell, 2005, 2012). Quantitative data was collected
using questionnaires while qualitative data employed use of interviews and focus group discussions (Brooks,
2009; Orodho, 2009a, 2009b; Orodho, Nzabalirwa, Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje, 2016). Using Slovenes
formula, a sample of 20 principals, 76 senior teachers, 533 Form III students, 76 BoM and two QUASO was
drawn yielding a total sample size of 707. Stratified random with equal allocation was employed to select 624

out of 707 subjects(Brooks, 2013; Orodho, Khatete & Mugiraneza, 2016). The questionnaires for principals,
students and senior teachers were piloted to determine their validity and reliability prior to data collection for the
first phase. The observation checklists and interview guidelines for principals, senior teachers, members of BoM
as well as Quality Assurance and Standards Officers were similarly checked dependability by using overlapping
methods of inquiry and credibility through interactive and tactical approaches prior to data collection (Cohen &
Manion, 2012; Orodho etal.2016). Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) Computer programme version 20 to generate both descriptive and inferential statistics
(Samoah, 2014; Orodho, Ampofo, Bizimana& Ndayambaje, 2015). The qualitative data were analyzed
thematically (Orodho, 2009a, 2009b).
III. Findings And Discussion

3.1 School Leadership Styles and Holistic Education
The main objective of this study was to examine the influence of school leadership styles on provision
of holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. To achieve this
objective, a questionnaire with items based on leadership styles commonly used and respondents ranking
regarding their level of contribution to holistic education were employed. The items in the questionnaires for
principals, teachers and students were structured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1= Never, 2=
Rarely 3= Occasionally 4= frequently and 5= Very frequently were used. For data analysis, means and standard
deviations were used to summarize the respondents’ level of rating regarding the influence of school leadership
on provision of holistic education. The greater the mean score, the closer the dynamic become a significant
influence on the provision of holistic education.
3.1.1. Ranking of Leadership attributes and holistic education

The results of the rankings are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Influence of School Leadership Styles on holistic education
Leadership Style Mean SD Rank
Communicates school mission effectively to staff and students 3.61 .98 1
Meets individually with students to discuss progress 2.34 1.19 6
Effective leadership leads to enhanced co-curricular activities 2.91 .94 3
Effective leadership results into enhanced physical facilities 2.86 1.07 4
Obtains concerted effort of all in school activities 2.41 1.06 5
Well balanced leadership contributes to holistic education 3.56 1.14 2
Table 1 shows that the mean and standard deviations for the seven items rating the influence of school
leadership on holistic education ranged from (M=2.34, SD=1.19) to (M=3.61, SD=.98). The most highly ranked
aspect of school leadership that was considered to positively influence provision of holistic education was the
act of communicating school missions effectively to staff and students ( M=3.61,SD=.98).
Well balanced leadership attribute was at second position (M=3.56, SD=1.14) and effective leadership
leads to enhanced co-curricular activities at position two and three, respectively. The practice of obtaining
concerted effort of all in school activities and meeting individually with students and staff to discuss progress of
students were placed at position five and six respectively.
4.2.3. Leadership and holistic education by school classification

An attempt was made to investigate the extent to which the perceptions of respondents regarding the
influence of effective leadership on provision of holistic education varied across various types of school
classifications. A cross-tabulation of responses by type of schools was performed and results depicted in Figure
1.
Figure 1: Leadership and holistic education by type of school classification

The results in Figure 1 indicate that a larger percentage of respondents, constituting from National
schools considered effective leadership to positively contribute to holistic education. The respondents from
county schools also rated the contribution of effective leadership to holistic education more than their
counterparts from sub-county schools. The implication here is that although the respondents generally attached
high premium on the contribution of effective leadership to holistic education, respondents in national and
county schools rated higher than their colleagues from sub county schools.
3.2 Testing the null hypothesis on leadership and holistic education

i. Ho: There is no significant influence of school leadership on holistic education of students in public secondary
schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. The chi-square test of homogeneity of association was used to test
the relationship between school leadership and holistic education. Table 2 shows the results of the chi-square
test.
Table 2:Chi-Square Tests: Leadership and holistic education by type of respondents in study Locale
Respondent Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Principal Pearson Chi-Square 3.333b 2 .189
Likelihood Ratio 4.740 2 .093
Linear-by-Linear Association .667 1 .414
N of Valid Cases 20
Senior Teacher Pearson Chi-Square .991c 2 .609
Likelihood Ratio .967 2 .617
Linear-by-Linear Association .212 1 .645
N of Valid Cases 76
Student Pearson Chi-Square 38.580d 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 8.962 1 .003
N of Valid Cases 450
Total Pearson Chi-Square 39.968a 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 8.491 1 .004
N of Valid Cases 546
The results in Table 2 indicates that principals χ2 (df=2, N=20) =3.333, p=.189 at = .05 indicates that
the value generated by SPSS was more or greater than the level of significance p=.05 , and this led to the
retention of the null hypothesis that there was no significant influence of school leadership on provision of
holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties.
The results suggested that there were no significant differences between the rating of principals
regarding the contribution of school leadership to holistic education in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. The
results for senior teachers χ2 (df=2, N=76) =.991, p =.609 at p= .05 indicates that the value generated by SPSS
was more or greater than the level of significance p=.05. The finding indicates that, according to the senior
teachers, there was no significant influence of school leadership on provision of holistic education. This
suggested that the senior teachers held the position that school leadership did not significantly influence
provision of holistic education.
The results for students χ2 (df=4, N=450) = 38.58, p = .001 at p= .05 revealed that the p value = .000
generated by SPSS was less than the critical alpha = .05 and this resulted in to the rejection of the null
hypothesis at significance alpha level of .05. The rejection of the null hypothesis led to the adoption of the
alternative hypothesis that there was a significant relationship between school leadership and holistic education
in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. Contrary to the views of principals and the
senior teachers, it was noted that students portrayed a strong perception that effective school leadership
contributed significantly to holistic education.
The overall finding with all respondents yielded χ2 (df=4, N=546) = 39.968, p = .001 at p= .05 finally
revealed that the p-value generated by SPSS was less than the significance level set at p=.05 and this led to the
rejection of the null hypothesis. The rejection of the null hypothesis led to the adoption of the alternative
hypothesis that all respondents were of the conviction that there was a significant relationship between
leadership and holistic education.
3.3. Triangulating, Interpretation and Discussions

The second phase of the explanatory mixed methods research study generated qualitative data from
interviews and observation checklists to explain some of the quantitative data generated in first phase. The
Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (QUASO) in the locales averred:
The policy of the Ministry of Education, through the Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI) is to train
school head teachers on effective leadership. Based on this evolving trajectory of reports from training sessions

the effects of good leadership and governance on schools outcomes is yielding positive results. However, it is
not very clear how these skills are transforming educational outcomes especially holistic education, although
the concept of holistic education is still emerging…The ranking of school outcomes should not only be based
on academic excellence. School leadership should surely be another component (QUASO 1, Kiambu County &
QUASO 2, and Samburu County).
The sentiments of some members of Board of Management were categorical that school leadership
contributes to a great extent to holistic education.
It has been observed that the school outcomes depend on the type of principal in schools. When a school has a
principal who is actively involved in school processes and keeps the parents informed through functional
Parents Teachers Associations (PTA) , such schools have been seen to post positive and high results both in
academics and school discipline than those managed by irresponsible and absentee principals (
BoM,03,17,34.48 in Kiambu County & BoM 12,19.26 in Samburu County ).
The sentiments captured from the foregoing voices of the QUASOs and members of BoM in Kiambu
and Samburu Counties are consistent with the results of earlier scholars such as Ndayambaje and Orodho
(2014) in the context of Rwanda that there is widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant
difference to school and student outcomes . In many parts of the world, including South Africa, and some parts
of Kenya such as Kisi, results have shown that there is recognition of the fact that schools require effective
leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners (Mwinyipembe &
Orodho, 2015, Nyambeche & Orodho, 2014).
The foregoing notwithstanding, several principals from Kiambu County and one from Samburu County
seemed to have different opinions regarding the contribution of school leadership to holistic education when
they lamented that:
School leadership is a very complicated task that covers various aims of school that affect both
students and staff. School aims are strongly influenced by pressures from the external environment, and
particularly from the expectations of government, often expressed through legislation or formal policy
statements. Schools may be left with the residual task of interpreting external imperatives rather than
determining aims on the basis of their own assessment of learner needs (Principal 05, 08, 12 in Kiambu County
and Principal 07 in Samburu County).
The foregoing sentiments by school principals seem to be in tandem with findings from other
developing and developed countries. These studies show that many principals in schools in most of these
countries continue to have extensive pedagogical responsibilities in addition to administrative ones. This leaves
little time for supervision and support of staff (Carron &Chau, 1996).
The key issues that seem to emerge from the principals sentiments are that school managers are faced
with myriads of tasks to be achieved including modifying government policy and developing alternative
approaches based on school-level values and vision. These duties when conducted well to involve the learner
should be able to impact positively on the holistic education of the students.
The QASO in one of the study locales had the following to say:First, principals of high performing
schools reported a higher level of inspiring and encouraging members to accomplish their goals ranging from
academic and non-academic in nature. Secondly was noted between two categories of principals with regard to
the extent to which they encouraged the active participation of members of community in school affairs
(QUASO, Samburu County).
The qualitative data from interview seem to point to the fact that the effectiveness of school
management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals and impacted positively on both
academic and non-academic school outcomes (Aubrey, 1992).
The members of the BOM in Kiambu County and Samburu County categorically stated that:
Schools principals, those leading national and county schools produced greater use of leadership
practices of inspiring members and creating an enabling working environment through the redistribution of
power and authority within the school. These principals demonstrating effective leadership skills produced more
positive features of high academic and non-academic outcomes compared with developing schools (The BoM
05, 17, 45 from Kiambu County and 11, 23, 25 from Samburu County).
There was consensus that effective management by school principals translated into a high level
students’ discipline and overall excellent school outcomes.
The foregoing citations are in line with those of James and Connolly (2008) who had earlier established that the
changes that contributed to improvements in school practices leading to high academic and non -academic
output in Southern Wales, United Kingdom was leadership.
The sentiments were rather contrary to the interview results with BOM who noted:
Most of the principals were reported to have been newly posted. Consequently, the schools had benefited from
the new ideas and practices recently acquired during training that, to a considerable extent, triggered the new

changes. Some of the changes introduced by the principals, who in the opinion of teachers and parents
enhanced their input included improvement of school infrastructure, involvement to members of school
community (teachers, students and parents) in school matters, and constant articulation of school vision to the
members of the school community by principals (BoM, 10, 22 in Kiambu & 05 in Samburu County).
These findings were in tandem with those of Kilpatrick, John, Munford, Falk and Presort (2002) who conducted
a study in Australia that sought to investigate ways in which the modes of leadership of school and community
leaders influenced the extent and nature of the schools contribution to the community. The study revealed that
the major in-school factor that enhanced school-community partnership was the principals’ open-state
leadership, which, inter alia, accommodated opportunities and ideas put forward by others. The finding is also in
tandem with a study by Wasonga (2015) who established that there was a positive relationship between head
teachers leadership styles and the development of students’ discipline, and by extension, holistic development of
students in public secondary schools in Rongo District (rural area) and Kisumu City (urban setting) in Kenya.
The study specifically established that school leadership significantly influenced school outcomes in terms of
the non-academic measures of students discipline and academic measures of performance in national
examinations.
IV. Conclusions And Recommendations

This study that examined contribution of school leadership to holistic education led to the main
conclusion that majority of principals, senior teachers and students in Samburu County considered the use of
effective school leadership styles to influence provision of holistic education unlike their counterparts in
Kiambu County. It also emerged from the test of hypothesis that contrary to the views of principals, majority of
senior teachers and students exhibited a strong positive influence of school leadership on holistic education.
From these major conclusions several specific conclusions emerged:
1. There are several aspects of school leadership that could positively foster inculcation of holistic education.
Some of these school leadership attributes include: the act of effectively communicating school vision and
mission to students and staff, use of well-balanced leadership styles especially the democratic and
transactional approaches, soliciting and fostering concerted effort amongst all education stake holders and
forging close relationships among students, staff and members of the Board of Management while
discussing student progress specifically and school generally.
2. Principals in national and county schools exercised more appropriate leadership styles that combined
democratic and transactional approaches that could lead to holistic education compared to their counterparts
in sub-county schools.
3. The test of null hypothesis led to the conclusion that there was no significant influence of school leadership
on holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. The
implication of the results was that principals concurred regarding the contribution of school leadership to
holistic education in Kiambu and Samburu Counties.
4. The results from the qualitative phase of the study from the interviews with Quality Assurance and
Standards Officers made an attempt to explain the quantitative results from a policy perspective. They
contended that the Ministry of Education, through the Kenya Education Staff Institute trains school teachers
in effective school leadership that can transform the overall development of the staff and students through
holistic education.
5. The sentiments of several members of Board of Management in both Kiambu County and Samburu County
were categorical that school leadership influenced to a great extent on holistic education. They concurred
with the results of earlier scholars who contended that there were widespread belief that the quality of
leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes. In many parts of the world,
including South Africa, there is recognition that schools require effective leaders and managers if they are
to provide the best possible education for their learners.
6. Several principals from Kiambu County and Samburu County seemed to have different opinions regarding
the contribution of school leadership to holistic education when they stated that School leadership was a
very complicated task that covers various aims of school that affect both students and staff. They strongly
argued that the school aims are strongly influenced by pressures from the external environment, and
particularly from the expectations of government, often expressed through legislation or formal policy
statements. Schools may be left with the residual task of interpreting external imperatives rather than
determining aims on the basis of their own assessment of learner needs. On the overall, it was concluded
from both the quantitative and the qualitative data from interview which concur that the effectiveness of
school management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals and impacted
positively on both academic and non-academic school outcomes.

Based on the findings of the study from the quantitative and qualitative phases of the study it was
recommended that principals should be sensitized on the need to apply well-balanced, democratic and
transactional leadership styles that can easily bring about holistic education
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Performance Contracting: What Is Their Efficacy in

Management of Secondary Schools in Makueni
County, Kenya?
Jackson Musya Mulei1, John Aluko Orodho2
1
is a Doctorate Student in the Department of Educational Management, Policy and Curriculum Studies, School
of Education, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
2
is an Associate Professor of Research and Statistics in the Department of Educational Management, Policy
and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of performance contracting in public secondary schools in Makueni
County, Kenya. The study employed the Taylor’s scientific classical management theory which advocates for job
specialization and training employees for a single task. The study employed a descriptive survey design. Both
purposiveand simple random sampling were used to select 36 principals and 216 members of Board of
Management yielding an overall sample size of 256. The major finding was that a majority of teachers and BoM
members were in agreement that performance contracting could enhance service delivery especially in external
relations, human resource management, financial management and internal organizational management
.Nonetheless, the overall practice of performance contracting was critically low and dodged with contradictions
in most schools. It was concluded that although the performance contracting has been accepted as a viable
means of enhancing service delivery, some teachers were still jittery regarding the object of the exercise. Given
this emerging mixed support for performance contracting, it was recommended that the Government through the
Ministry of Education and the County Education Officers should closely monitor the practice and assure
teachers regarding its efficacy in enhancing quality service delivery in the public service
Keywords: Performance contracting, efficacy, school management, secondary schools, Makueni County,
Kenya.
I. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
The study on performance contracting is premised on the contention advanced by Adam Smith that
productivity would increase if workers were paid according to performance (Cheche& Muathi, 2014; Simiyu,
2012). The salient implication of this argument is that measurement of performance enhances productivity both
to the individual and the organization and encourages a culture of continuous improvement (Letsoalo, 2007).
Performance measurement in public service help in gaining public confidence that tax revenues are being used
effectively (Kihara, 2013). In a similar vein, Nzuve and Njeru (2013) aptly argue that an effective performance
management system define expectations and align individual performance goals with those of an organization.
In this context, performance management may be seen as a control mechanism employed by the top
management to guide, control and monitor the actions of juniors to ensure that they contribute to the strategy of
the organization (Mackie, 2008). An effective performance management should go beyond control and focus on
performance improvement by encouraging learning (Werner & Demimonde, 2009).
Introduction of performance measurement in most organizations is influence by the presence of
tangible outputs that are easy measure and organizational environment which include support by stakeholders
and political class in the case of public entities (Dooren, 2006). Mackie (2008) is of the opinion that the aim of
performance management system is to introduce systematic controls and regulating activities of an organization
to attain agreed objectives (Kananga& Partoip, 2013.
The government of Kenya launched the first phase of public sector reforms in 1993 focused on cost
containment with staff right sizing and rationalization of government functions and structures. This phase was
mainly donors driven especially by World Bank under the Structural Adjustment Programme (Lienert & Modi,
1997; Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). In this phase, the following activities were undertaken: employment in
public service was frozen, removal of „ghost workers‟ through cleaning of payrolls, voluntary retirement, early
retirement and retrenchment and removal of government guaranteed employment to new graduates were the
main focus. The next phase focused on rationalization of government functions and structures to determine
optimal structure and size in the civil service which was linked to budgetary limits (Lienert & Modi, 1997,
Kobia & Mohammed, 2006; Mutahaba, 2011).

Performance Contracting: What Is Their Efficacy In Management of Secondary Schools in Makueni ..
In 2003, the Government of Kenya formulated the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and
Employment Creation (ERWEC) covering the period 2003-2007. This policy document recognized performance
contracting as a strategy in improving performance in the public service (Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). In 2001,
the Government of Kenya launched a strategy for performance improvement in the public service whose aim
was to increase productivity and improvement in service delivery underpinned by results based management
orientation (Gatere, Keraro & Gakure, 2013).
The first attempt at PC in the public service in Kenya was made in 1984 with Kenya Railways signing
a PC while National Cereals and Produce Board signed in 1990. The initiative however floundered as there was
no political will to see it through. A strategy paper recommending re-introduction of PC in state corporations
was presented to the cabinet in 1991 but this too did not take see the light of the day (Kobia & Mohammed,
2006; Mbua & Sarisar, 2013; Obongo, 2009).
Based on lessons learnt after the failure of the first phase of implementation of public service reforms,
the focus shifted from cost containment to productivity improvement and in addition, the processes was fully
controlled by the public service itself unlike the first phase that was donor driven (Kobia & Mohammed, 2006).
During the second phase, initiatives aimed at reducing corruption and reduce wastage were introduced. The
Government of Kenya enacted the Ethics and Economic Crimes Act, 2003 that addressed issues of ethics and
corruption in the service. This was closely followed by the enactment of the Public Procurement and Disposal
Act, 2005 (Kogei, Magugui, Yano, Chepkemei & Chebet, 2013). The Government of Kenya then shifted its
attention to measuring performance in the public service.
The third and the current phase of reforms focused on improvement of service delivery rather than the
processes. This led to the birth of performance contracting in the public service in Kenya (Kobia & Mohammed,
2006; Mutahaba, 2011). The first batch of organizations to be put under PC on a pilot basis were sixteen. By
2011, a total of 468 government agencies were actively involved in performance contracting (Office of the
Prime Minister, 2012). Today all organizations in the executive arm of government that are under the national
government are under PC.
The spirited efforts by the Government of Kenya to enforce performance contracting could be
perceived as an effective way to provide quality goods and services within budget constraints (Kariuki,
2011).PC has been hugely celebrated as a success story in Kenya as it is associated with improvements in
service delivery in the public sector (Muthaura, 2010). As Dooren (2006) noted, an effective performance
management tool should not forever be an administrative tool; it need to become a political as well as a societal
tool as well. Performance contracting as a management tool was originally developed for private enterprises but
has been adopted by the public sector (Lin & Lee, 2011). The private enterprise adopted performance
contracting as they have limited resources and have to innovate to achieve higher performance. In addition, it is
easy to measure performance in the private sector as their main measure is profitability while public sector has
many and sometimes conflicting goals. It against the background of this paradox surrounding the measurements
of performance contracting that paper that examined the efficacy of performance contracting in secondary
schools in Makueni County, Kenya, was premised.
1.2 The State of the Art Review

1.2.1 Genesis of Performance Contract on the global scene
The concept of performance contracting has attracted considerable attention from scholars due to its
potential to transform service delivery (Gruening, 2001; Mutaha, 2011; Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). Most of
the available literature has focused on employee awareness and participation, the linkage between PC and
individual targets, linkage between PC and reward systems, effects of PC on performance, training and the
theories that underpin the concept.
The first practitioners of NPM emerged in United Kingdom (UK), New Zealand and Australia, the
United States of America (USA) and eventually to the rest of the world (Gruering, 2001). According to
Gruening (2001) and Mutahaba (2011), NPM was identified as having the following characteristics; outsourcing
of non-core functions, budget cuts, user charges, separation of politics and administration, improved financial
management, accountability, performance auditing, privatization, use of information technology and improved
accounting. France in the late 1960s was the first country to introduce PC as a performance improvement tool in
the public service before it was adopted in Pakistan, Korea and later India. By 1990s, PC model had been
adopted in management of public service in many countries (Kobia & Mohammed, 2006).
In Africa, the end of colonialism brought with it tremendously expansion of public service.
Employment in to the public service was used by leaders to reward cronies for loyalty and as a way of ensuring
that crucial services were not left in the hands of foreigners (Mutahaba, 2011). This situation led to ballooning
of wage bill relative to Gross domestic product leading governments to borrow from multi-lateral lenders to
meet operational costs (Lienert & Modi, 1997). The inability of governments to meet operational costs leading
to borrowing from multilateral donors was the trigger to public service reforms as the lenders specifically the

World Bank and the International Monetary Fund forced most government to reform their public service under
structural adjustment programme (Mutahaba, 2011). Larbi (2010) argues that the World Bank has been
responsible for introduction of performance contracting in several developing countries. The focus of most
reforms initiated by World Bank in public sector management was targeted at cost containment.
Swaziland enacted The Public Enterprise Act of 1989 to focus on control of semi-autonomous state agencies
sector following public outcry that they were a drain to the economy while Gambia placed strategic state
corporations and departments under PC (Mutahaba, 2011 and Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). Ghana introduced
Civil Service Performance Improvement Programme in 1996 in which staff were to engage their clients and
agree on performance improvement programme which would then form the basis on performance agreement.
1.2.2. Secondary school management and administration in Kenya

The Basic Education Act (2013) defines a manager as any person or body of persons responsible for
the management and conduct of a school, and includes a (Republic of Kenya,2013) . The Act, read together with
the Teachers Service Commission Act, Cap. 212, confers extensive powers on the Minister of Education, the
Cabinet secretary, the County Education Board and the Board of Management (BoM) over the management and
regulation of education in Kenya. The boards and committees are responsible for the hire and remuneration of
support and subordinate staff in public schools. The boards also act as the custodians and trustees of the
movable and immovable property of their respective schools.
According to section 59 of the Basic Education Act, the functions of the BoM are well outlined and include,
amongst others.( Republic of Kenya,2013).
a. Promotion of the best interest of the institution and ensure development;
b. Promote quality education for all pupils in accordance with the standards set under this Act;
c. Ensure and assure the provision of adequate physical facilities for the institution;
d. Manage the institution in accordance with the rules and regulations governing occupational safety and
health.
The principals of these institutions serve as the secretaries and executive officers to the Boards of Management
(BoM) or school committees as the case may be.
1.2.3. The impact of performance contracting

The principle of performance contracting provides an original combination of increased operational
autonomy in the field of service delivery and a better strategic control by the organization. But what are the
effects of such an increase of the operational autonomy on the internal management of the organization and its
external relations? Performance contracting has a direct bearing on the productivity of the organization. This
effect can be examined from four fronts: Human Resource Management, Financial Management and Cost
Consciousness, Internal Organization and External Relations (Bouckaert, et al., 1999).
The new personnel statutes have improved the performance of human resources management and
increased the flexibility of allocating the right person to the right job. The renewal of the mandate of members
of the supervisory board and the management board being dependent on performance evaluation is a major
change and may act as an important incentive. It is also expected that outstanding performance is rewarded
through promotion, pay-increase or recognition. Although various performance contracts do not clearly spell out
the pejorative measures taken against mediocre performance, it is assumed that the punishments are clear. With
the creation of affiliated companies with widespread contractual employment, there are increasing concerns
about the legal position of the personnel and about the growing fragmentation of employment regimes. This may
affect mobility between the different business units (Republic of Kenya, 2005).
Lings (2004) emphasized the importance of human resource management when he pointed out that
many researchers and employers neglect one important focus, the demand of internal employees, especially
those who directly get in touch with customers. Because the attitude and behaviour of employees interacting
with customers would influence the feeling and behaviour of the customers when they get the service, it is quite
important for managers to efficiently define and manage the way their employees provide the service in order to
make sure that their attitude and behaviour are good for providing the service. In his study, Lings argued that, if
properly executed performance contracting has a significant positive effect on staff commitment and
satisfaction. The study through the evidence-based research results found that the company applying internal
market orientation strategy viewpoint could benefit to promote the organization internal and external
performance. Hence it could benefit the service industries to establish perfect human resources management
strategy with marketing viewpoint, and maintain the value goals of continuous survival, high growth and high
profit in practice. On the other hand, Slater (1999) reiterated that performance contracting if well executed may
increase real speed in decision making and builds self-confidence in employees.
Nahavandi (2006) points out that outstanding performance should be rewarded through promotion, pay-increase
or recognition which should be negotiated on signing the performance contract. He further speculates that

those who adhere and fit the organizational culture and structure, as well as meet individual goals and objectives
are much more likely to be promoted to top leadership positions – as opposed to those who do not. This process
could be true for almost any situation; those who naturally fit well into an organization‟s mission and culture are
more apt to be selected and rewarded in some fashion.
The use of performance-based contracts has induced an increased cost consciousness. The
organizations have to develop cost-accounting systems and provide yearly financial statements.
The information provided improves the government‟s capacity to control the organizations‟ financial
practices. Up to this moment, there is no direct link between the purchased amount of services and the level of
the budget. An extended audit is needed to establish the link between objectives, outputs and inputs. However,
the outlook on better budget estimates, based on an increased knowledge of real costs, is realistic. In some cases,
transfers are corrected on the basis of achieved performance results such that a failure to meet performance
targets results in a decrease of financial transfer to government. On the other hand, there is a positive financial
return to the government in case performance results exceed set targets. These positive corrections are
dependent, however, on developments of the overall budgetary position of the government and are therefore
limited. These remarks attenuate the real impact of the budget as an incentive.
Moy (2005) in his final report to the Office of Financial Management in Washington D.C summarized
the results of their literature and state survey on the best practices and trends in performance contracting in a
number of state and local agencies in Washington D.C. indicates that the use of performance contracts and the
accompanying increase of operational autonomy had induced some developments in the internal structures of
the agencies under study. A number of questions were sent to each of the seven selected agencies and the
responses were quite interesting. Three of the four states changed to performance based contracting to achieve
better results.
The study reveals that the implementation of performance based contracting ranges from state-wide,
agency wide to specific agency divisions or programs and that its impacts in each state agency varied, but
including increased accountability for service delivery and deliverables and increased partnership between the
contractor community and the state agency. The study further indicates that states agencies had defined
performance as deliverables, outputs, outcomes, and effectiveness and efficiency, among others.
With respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in
increased client-orientedness. Performance contracting has been instrumental in helping state corporations and
government ministries to introduce instruments to monitor client satisfaction. Examples of such instruments are
the client help desks in all government ministries, accessible complaint channeling via the internet and other
avenues, and annual reporting of performance and challenges to the public (Bouckaert, Verhoest & De Corte,
1999). Performance based contracting has received mixed reactions as many people would like to know the
performance implications of altering team composition, especially in the top management team. Changes in top
management teams are becoming more and more frequent due to poor organizational performance, mergers and
acquisitions, and strategic reorientations (Leonard, 2001). This trend, in a way, reflects a desire to influence the
performance of the firm by means of altering the composition of the top management team.
According to upper echelon theory, this might be a feasible strategy since research has demonstrated a
link between attributes of top management team members and firm performance (Hambrick & Mason, 1984).
Specifically, upper echelon theory argues that individual attributes influence the preferences and attitudes of top
team members, as well as the resulting team dynamics. In turn, these affect the strategic choices managers make,
and therefore, organizational outcomes (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996).
This argument supports the importance of performance contracting in the sense that whenever there are
changes at the top level, the incoming chief executive continues to work on the set performance targets. With
respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in increased
client-orientedness. Most state corporations and government ministries in Kenya, for instance, now have
functional customer care and public relations offices. These offices have acted as valuable instruments for
introducing a client focus. However, the functioning of these offices is hampered, in some cases, by the
insufficiency of financial and human resources (Akaranga, 2008). In order to increase the reliability and validity
of performance measurements, various approaches are recommended such as multiple raters, combination of
objective and subjective criteria, and so on. For instance, Bobko and Collela (1999) suggest that performance
standards are external to the individual and for evaluative purpose and that it is different from individual goals
as a person's internal aim. They proposed the importance of the employee reaction and acceptance of
performance standards.
There is, however, need for a good definition of outputs and solid performance measures which will be
able to promote an organizations internal performance through a well customer-oriented ability of employees to
further promote the organization external performance. This requires a well-defined training program for the
public servants to support implementation of performance contracting. On the other hand, there is need to study
both the public servants‟ perceptions on the role of performance contracting in improving service delivery to the

end users and also the impact of the performance contracting on service delivery to the populace. This will
confirm whether the objectives of implementing performance contracting are being achieved in the public
sector.
1.3 Statement of the problem

Secondary schools in Kenya are governed by a board of management. Despite the fact that the
Government of Kenya provides for management structures and standards through the EducationAct (2013)
which has given BoM the power to carry out management activities in all public secondary schools, the effect of
performance contracting has not been examined. Instead, literature seems to indicate that there exists inadequate
capacity of BoM in financial and human resource management has brought conflict with other stake holders in
Makueni County hence raising questions related to efficacy of performance contract in secondary school
management in Makueni County.
1.4 Purpose and Objectives of the study

The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which the signing performancecontract affectedservice
deliveryin public secondary schools management in Makueni County, Kenya.
1.5 Theoretical frame work

The theoretical framework underlying this study is based on Taylor‟s scientific classical management
theory. The classical theory was devised to increase productivity and efficiency. It advocated for training
employees in a single task, creating work performance records and competence records. This theory is directly
related to the research in the sense that for an institution to achieve its goals the management plays an important
role. The management is entrusted with such roles as financial management, human resource management
among others. It requires high level of competence and transparency for one to execute such duties.This calls for
appointing members of high integrity, job specialization and members who are competent in their area of
specialization. Also the main concept of performance contract is ensuring that the desired results are
achievedand improve efficiency. The theory ignores the element of motivation hence very important to the study
since these members are not enumerated but only given some allowances. Some elements of the behavioural
management theory were used in the study. Some elements like human relations which are the main
characteristic of the Mayo‟s theory were used.
II. Research Design and Methodology

2.1 Research Design
The study employed a combination of desk survey involving literature review exploratory approach
using a descriptive survey design to find out the impact of performance contracts in secondary school
management. Descriptive survey designs are used in preliminary and exploratory studies (Orodho, 2009a, 2012
)to allow researchers to gather information, summarise, present and interpret for the purpose of clarification
(Orodho, Nzabalirwa, Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje, 2016). According to Borg and Gall (1989) and Orodho
(2016) descriptive survey research is intended to produce statistical information about aspects of education that
interest policy makers and educators. According to Orodho, Nzabalirwa, Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje
(2016) the survey design covers a large field extensively because it involves a question thrown to many people,
therefore providing a compressive analytical evidence to inform.The study was conducted in public secondary
schools in Makueni County. This was because of increase in the number of cases of poor management reported
by stake holders to county director of education in the county.
2.2. Target population and Sampling

The target population for this study consisted of250 principals of all public secondary schools in
Makueni County and the BoM members of these schools.Makueni County has nine districts and since the
researcher targeted the whole county, a purposive sampling technique was applied to select 36 secondary
schools as sampling units. From the 36 schools, head teachers, six members of the Board of Management per
school yielding 216 members were selected yielding a sample size of 256 respondents.
2.3.Research instrument, Data Collection and Analysis

Questionnaires for Principals and interview schedules for members of the Board of Management were
used to collect data. The justification for the choice of the research instruments was that Principals were literate
and knowledgeable and could easily generatequick and rich data through questionnaires while most of the
members of the Board of Management were not as endowed in the use of questionnaires and therefore
interviews were the better instruments to use in collecting data from them (Orodho, 2016) . An interview guide
was used in this study to collect information about BoM members‟ knowledge ofperformance contracts, their

attitude towards performance contracts and if signing performance contracts has an impact on human resource
management, financial resource management, internal and external relations. The interview guidewaspreferred
since it gives data which is highly reliable (Orodho, 2009b,2012) . A questionnaire was used for the school
heads as they were able to read and interpret the questions.
Piloting wasdone on 2 head teachers and 4 members of BoM from public secondary schools in the
neighboring Machakos County. The validity of the instrument was improved through expert judgment. As such,
the content validity was ascertained by lecturers in the School of Education, Mount University, Kenya. To
establish the reliability of the research instrument, the test retest method was used and a reliability co-efficient
of .895 was adequate to declare the questionnaire reliable for the study (Orodho, 2016 ; Orodho, Nzabalirwa,
Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje, 2016).
Permission to conduct research was provided by the National Council for Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI) as well as the Makueni County Educational Office to visit the sampled schools. The
researchers hand delivered the questionnaires to the sampled principals and collected those three days after
issuingwhich was adequate time for the questionnaires to be filled in. The research was also conducted on a face
to face interview to the sampled BOM members and their views were recorded.
After all the data had been collected, data cleaning followed for the purpose of identifying any
incomplete, inaccurate or irrelevant data for the purpose of improving on quality through correction of detected
errors and omission. Coding of the data thereafter followed and the codes were entered into a computer for the
purpose of analysis (Orodho, Khatete & Mugiraneza, 2016). Qualitative data was analyzed thematically and
correlating data were tallied together to come up with frequency counts (Orodho, 2012) . Percentages were
calculated based on total number of responses. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics
including percentages, mode, pie charts and frequency counts (Orodho, Ampofo, Bizimana & Ndayambaje,
2016).
III. Research Findings and Discussions

3.1 Signing of performance contract
Many principals supported the idea of signing performance contract whereby 66.67% were to the view
that signing performance contract which positively affected their management duties. At the same time out of
196 members who had knowledge about performance contract, 164 of them which were 83.67% were to the
opinion that signing performance contract would improve their service delivery. This response shows that many
principals and BOM members were willing to sign performance contract as it could ensure that quality services
were delivered.It was also a key to note that 61.11% of the principal had a conflict with stake holders with
68.18% of these principals suggesting that the conflict was a result of poor financial management.
3.2 Effect of Performance Contracting on Service Delivery in Secondary Schools

The school principals were requested to indicate the extent to which they considered performance
contracting to be influencing service delivery in their respective secondary schools. The results are presented in
Figure 1. The results indicate that the performance contracting were more effective in establishing external
relations, with over one third (43.29%) of all respondents citing the variable.
Figure 1: performance contracting on service delivery in Makueni County, Kenya.

The second area in which performance contracting was found to be effective, cited by 29.71% of all the
principals was human resource management. The principals were of the opinion that performance contracting
was making it easier to manage human resource management, teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the
students. Financial management was placed at number three in the ranking, with about 22.29% percent of
headteachers citing the critical area. The impact of performance contracting on internal organizational
management was rated fourth as cited by about 10 percent of all respondents.
Out of sampled BOM members 161 of the members cited the need for using performance contracting
procedures to regulate appropriate financial management in schools. Majority of members of the Board of
management also expressed the concern that the performance contracting could meaningfully enhance both
human resource management and external relations, especially with parents and members of the community.
Some chairpersons of the Parents Teachers Associations sampled under the Board of Management
emphasized the need for external relations in secondary schools when they averred:
With respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in
increased client-orientedness. Performance contracting could play a role in helping secondary schools to
monitor the progress in the schools as well as client satisfaction. Examples of such applications include:
accessible complaint channeling via the internet and other avenues, and annual reporting of performance and
challenges to the public (PTA # 26, 97.124).
The research findings are in tandem with other results thathave demonstrateda goodlink between
attributes of top management team members and firm performance (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). Specifically,
upper echelon theory argues that individual attributes influence the preferences and attitudes of top team
members, as well as the resulting team dynamics. In turn, these affect the strategic choices managers make, and
therefore, organizational outcomes (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996).
With regards to human resource management, some members of the BoM noted that:
The renewal of the mandate of members of the supervisory board and the management board being
dependent on performance evaluation is a major change and may act as an important incentive. It is also
expected that outstanding performance is rewarded through promotion, pay-increase or recognition. Although
various performance contracts do not clearly spell out the pejorative measures taken against mediocre
performance, it is assumed that the punishments are clear (BoM # 09. 15 20).
The finding is in tandem with that of Lings (2004)who emphasized the importance of human resource
management when he pointed out that many researchers and employers neglect one important focus, the demand
of internal employees, especially those who directly get in touch with customers. Because the attitude and
behaviour of employees interacting with customers would influence the feeling and behaviour of the customers
when they get the service, it is quite important for managers to efficiently define and manage the way their
employees provide the service in order to make sure that their attitude and behaviour are good for providing the
service. In his study, Lings argued that, if properly executed performance contracting has a significant positive
effect on staff commitment and satisfaction.
The findings are also supported by Nahavandi (2006) whopointed outthatoutstanding performance
should be rewarded through promotion, pay-increase or recognition which should be negotiated on signing the
performance contract. He further speculates that those who adhere and fit the organizational culture and
structure, as well as meet individual goals and objectives are much more likely to be promoted to top leadership
positions – as opposed to those who do not. This process could be true for almost any situation; those who
naturally fit well into an organization‟s mission and culture are more apt to be selected and rewarded in some
fashion. With regards to financial management, most members of the BoM were in agreement that the
performance contracting could positively enhance financial practice in schools when they noted that:
The information provided through performance contracting improves the government‟s capacity to
control the organizations‟ financial practices. Up to this moment, there is no direct link between the purchased
amount of services and the level of the budget. An extended audit is needed to establish the link between
objectives, outputs and inputs. However, the outlook on better budget estimates, based on an increased
knowledge of real costs, is realistic (BoM, # 120,289)
These positive corrections are dependent, however, on developments of the overall budgetary position
of the government and are therefore limited. These remarks attenuate the real impact of the budget as an
incentive.
The foregoing results are in line with what Bobko and Collela (1999) established and suggested that
performance standards are external to the individual and for evaluative purpose and that it is different from
individual goals as a person's internal aim. They proposed the importance of the employee reaction and
acceptance of performance standards.

IV. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions
The gist of this study was to establish the effectiveness of performance contracting in service delivery
in secondary schools in Makueni County, Kenya. The results of the study has established that the process of
performance contracting has been accepted as a viable means of enhancing service delivery although majority of
principals and teachers were still jittery regarding the object of the exercise.
It is evident from the reviewed literature and the principals as well as members of BoM reached in the
study that there is a lot that has been done in the area of performance contracting although a lot more need to be
done. The principals and members of the Board of management reported that areas to be targeted, in decreasing
order of magnitude of mention were: improvement of external relations, human resource management, financial
management and internal management of individual institutions.
The overall finding was that allall schools had trained principals and had management committees
which mostly met as per the government policy. The study also established that the school kept management
records. It was important to note that the greatest percentage of principals were for signing performance
contract, although they felt that focus should be more on external relations, effective human resource
management as well as financial and internal organizational management.The foregoing notwithstanding, clarity
regarding the extent to which stakeholders and employees are involved in setting of performance contracting
targets and whether their involvement has any impact on implementation of the targets was still rather blurred.
4.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings and discussions emanating from the study, it is recommended that:
1. Given that most principals and members of the Board of management indicated strong support for the
implementation and intensification of performance contracting, the central Government as well as the
County Education Office should monitor the current practice and evaluate its efficacy.
2. The ministry of education should integrate information technology in financial management to all schools
for the purpose of accountability.
3. The ministry of education should ensure that inspection of financial records is done more regularly. It
should also have the mandate to following and check if the recommendations made from such inspections
are implemented.
4. The government should intensify the involvement of principals in performance contractand ensure and
assure that diverse areas such as human resource management, external relations, financial management and
internal organizational management are addressed.
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[51]. Waweru .P, N & Orodho,A.J. (2013).Management practices and students‟ academic performance in national examinations in public
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Jomo Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.
[55]. Slater, R. (1999). Jack Welch and the GE Way; Management insights and leadership secretsof the legendary CEO; McGraw-Hill,
New York.

Divided Attention Of Teachers To Their Students In Learning

Syaifuddin 1, Purwanto 2, Sudirman 3, Makbul Muksar 4
1
Lecturer, FITK, State Islamic University of Malang (UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang), Indonesia
2
Lecturer of Mathematics, State University of Malang Indonesia
3
Lecturer of Mathematics Educations, State University of Malang Indonesia
4
Lecturer of Mathematics, University of Malang Indonesia
Abstract: This article aims to describe the teacher's attention during the learning done in class to their
students. This research was conducted in several of Vocational School of Malang. Data obtained from
observations, interviews, and documents. Subjects of research selected using snowball system that the
samples was taken and than samples based on the first sample. Results from this research show that the
teacher's attention was divided into three, the teacher's attention towards thinking mathematical
students, teacher’s attention to the matter of mathematics, teacher's attention to the mathematical
knowledge of students.
Keywords: Teacher's Attention , Learning, Thinking Mathematically Students
I. Introduction
Importance key of math and science education more education is the teacher (Sherin and Van es,
2002). Everything is studied students so that students are competent depending teachers who teach in the
classroom (NCTM, 2000). Teachers are required able to be creative in giving attention to what's happening in
the classroom so that learning will be effective (Sherin and Van es, 2002). Teacher’s attention has an important
role in learning activities. From the study of theory study revealed that information processing in the absence of
attention is not possible to learn. Social learning theory states that people can learn through observation
andexperience directly. According to Sternberg (2006) state attention or conscious attention is processing a
small amount of information from a large amount of information available. According to the American Heritage
Dictionary states information can be regarded as the knowledge gained from learning, experience, or instruction.
Information obtained from the sensing, memory and the process of cognitive other. The process of attention
helps the efficiency of resource use mental limited which will then help the speed of reaction to stimuli
particular. Human mental resource is limited to process an excitatory needs help to speed up reflexes. Directing
on specific information will expedite process a mental stimuli.
Sherin and Van es (2002) designed software called VAST. VAST is designed for teachers to learn to give
an attention in the classroom. Teachers’attention in viewing VAST divided into 3 parts. First, attention to the
role of the teacher. Second teachers' attention to the dialogue between teachers and students. Third, teachers'
attention to student thinking. In that study, teachers are asked to write what had been considered in the
impressions of VAST. Sherin and Han (2004) designed a video club. Video club is designed for teachers to
learn to give an attention in the classroom. The teacher's attention in the video clubs that students' conceptions,
pedagogical teacher, math materials, and discourse. Sherin and Van es (2005) using the VAST for teachers and
prospective teachers in learning to pay attention.Attention in the VAST No 3 is the role of the teacher, thinking
of students, and dialogue of teachers and students. Sherin and Van es (2006) designed a second video for
teachers to learn to give an attention. Attention in the first video focuses on students' mathematical thinking and
the second video focuseson the events contained in the video. Star and Srickland (2008) designed a video for
prospective teachers in learning to observe events in the classroom. Van es and Sherin (2008) designed a video
for teachers to learn to givean attention. Attention in the video is focused on students' mathematical
thinking. Van es and Sherin (2009) designed a video for teachers to learn to identify and interpret mathematical
ideas of students. Jacob, Lamb, and Philip (2010) designed a video that shows some of the results of the students
work. Teachers are asked to identify, interpret, and respond to students' mathematical thinking. And then write
what the teacher notice in the video.
In this study, researchers will researchteachers’ attention in the real classroom. Researchers will observe
some of the teachers in the classroom when learning takes place. Attention teachers to situations that occur in
the classroom that will be observed by researchers. One that will be observed by researchers is the teacher's
attention to the students' mathematical thinking. According to Mason, Burton and Stacey (2010) think
mathematically is important to solve mathematical problems, learn mathematics and teaching
mathematics. Think mathematically is a framework used by PISA to support a person's mathematical literacy so

Divided Attention of Teachers to Their Students in Learning
that the economic prosperity of a country will increase (PISA 2006). Therefore, it is clear that the ability to think
mathematically is very important to equip students in using mathematics at school and outside of school.
II. Theoritical Study

Sternberg (2006) state attention or conscious attention is processing a small amount of
information from a large amount of information available. According to the American Heritage Dictionary
states information can be regarded as the knowledge gained from learning, experience, or instruction.
Information obtained from the sensing, memory and the process of cognitive other. The process of attention
helps the efficiency of resource use mental limited which will then help the speed of reaction to stimuli
particular. Human mental resource is limited to process an excitatory needs help to speed up reflexes. Directing
on specific information will expedite process a mental stimuli.
Attention is an activity to keep something in mind that requires mental work and concentration. There
are five attentions
1. Selective Attention
Selective attention on situations where there is someone to monitor multiple sources of information at
once. Recipients of information shall choose one of the most important sources of information and ignore
others. Factors affecting selective attention are the expectation, stimulus, and values. Recipients of information
are expecting a particular source to provide information and give more attention to the source, select the
stimulus most effect or visible than others, and choose the source of the most importantof information.
2. Focused Attention
Focused Attention refers to situations where a person is given some input, but should focus on the
inputs only during a certain time interval. Recipients of information focusing on the source / input and not be
distracted by other disorders. Factors that influence the focus of attention is the distance and direction, as well as
interference from the surrounding environment. Recipients of information will be more easily receive
information from sources that are directly in front of him.
3. Divided Attention
Divided Attention occurs when the recipient of the information required receiving information from
various sources and doing some kind of work at once.
4. Sustained Attention
Sustained Attentiondid recipient of information that should see the signal or the source of a particular
time period long enough. In this situation it is very important for the recipient of the information to prevent
signal loss.
5. Lack of Attention
Lack of Attention is the situation in which the recipient of the information does not concentrate on his
work. This situation is caused by boredom / saturation and fatigue. The characteristics of the work that may pose
less of a concern is the job situation with short cycles, requiring little movement of the body, a warm
environment, lack of interaction with other workers, low motivation, and workplace has bad lighting.
III. The Method Of Study

The study was conducted in secondary education Malang. The study was conducted starting on May 4,
2016 to September 30, 2016. Subjects selected by using the system snowball. According to Creswell (2012)
snowball system that samples were taken of the samples again based on the first sample to find subjects in
learning mathematical thinking student attention. Data obtained from observations, interviews, and documents.
Researchers studied the learning undertaken by the subject. Researchers studied the notice of teachers during the
learning takes place. Then after learning finished researchers conducted interviews to the subject and find
documents that support and search other references to match the data obtained during the observation,
interviews, and field notes. Observations on the subject carried out continuously in order to obtain the focus of
attention of the teacher in the learning
IV. The Result Of Study And Discussion

In this study, researchers obtained the findings that the teacher's attention is the divided attention. Teachers'
attention when learning takes place is divided into 3. First, teachers’ attention to the students' mathematical
thinking.Second, teachers’ attentionto the matter of mathematics.Third, teachers’ attentionto students'
mathematical knowledge. Teachers try to explore students' mathematical thinking in solving mathematical
Divided Attention of Teachers to Their Students in Learning
problems. At the time of discover thinking of students, teachers provide math intervention by giving material
ever studied by students so that students can understand what is given by the teacher. Master also provides a
question that will arouse students' knowledge in solving problems during the discussion with the students so that
students can understand with his own thinking and solving mathematical problems given by the teacher.
According to Sternberg (2006) state that attention or conscious attention is processing a small amount of
information from a large amount of information available.According to the American Heritage Dictionary states
information can be regarded as the knowledge gained from learning, experience, or instruction. Information
obtained from the sensing , memory and the other process of cognitive . Attentional processes help efficient use
of resources limited mental which then will help speed the reaction to certain stimuli. Limited human mental
resources to process an excitatory needs help to speed up reflexes. Directing on a specific information will
expedite processing a mental stimuli.
Limited human mental resources to process an excitatory need help to accelerate the reaction time.
Directing on specific information will expedite processing mental stimuli. For instance in driving, the driver's
attention is directed to the situation of the highway will speed up the reaction of the brake treadle when faced
with dangerous situations. Attention was also affected by differences in age, especially in childhood
Groover said that the factors that affect perception and memory are attention. Attention is activity keep
something in mind that require mental work and concentration.
V. Conclusion
In a study conducted by several secondary math teachers in Malang city is concluded that teachers in
learning tried to explore mathematical thinking of students in solving mathematical problems with the teacher
asks each step in doing math problems. At the time of discover thinking of students, teachers provide math
intervention by giving material ever studied by students so that students can understand what is given by the
teacher. Master also provides a question that will arouse students' knowledge in solving problems during the
discussion with the students so that students can understand with his own thinking and solving mathematical
problems given by the teacher. Therefore, we can conclude that the teacher's attention during the learning takes
place including notice divided. The teacher's attention is divided into three, the teachers’ attention to the
mathematical thinking of teachers, teachers' attention to the matter of mathematics and teacher attention to
knowledge of students.
In this study, teachersgavetheir attention to 3 thus including divided attention. Divided attention occurs
when the recipient of the information required to receive information from various sources and did some kind of
work at once. From this research can be followed by tracing the thought process of teachers in giving attention
to their students.
References
[1]. Sternberg. R.J. (2006) Cognitive PsychologyBellmont,CA:Thomson Wadsworth
[2]. Jacobs, Lamb, and Philipp.(2010). Professional Noticing of Children’s Mathematical Thinking.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 41(2), 169–202
[3]. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2000. Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
[4]. Van Es, E. A., &Sherin, M. G. 2002. Learning to notice: Scaffolding new teachers’
interpretations of classroom interactions. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10,
571–596
[5]. Mason, J. Burton, L. And Stacey, K. (2010) Thinking Mathematically, Second Edition. London:
Pearson.
[6]. Creswell, John. W. 2012. Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research , Fourth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
[7]. Sherin, Miriam G. Han, Sandra Y. 2004. Teacher Learning in the Context of Video Club.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 163-183.
[8]. Sherin, Miriam G. Van es, Elizaberth A. 2005.Using Video to Support Teachers Ability to Notice
Classroom Interaction. Journal Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3), 475-491.
[9]. Van es, Elizabeth A. Sherin, Miriam G. 2006. How Different Video Club Designs Support
Teachers in Learning to Notice. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 22(4), 125-135
[10]. Star, Jon R. Srickland, Sharon K. 2008. Learning to Observe : Using Video to Improve Preservice
Mathematics Teachers Ability to Notice. Journal Math Teacher Educ, 11, 107-125.
[11]. Van Es, Elizabeth A. Sherin, Miriam G. 2008. Mathematics Teachers Learning to Notice in the
Context of a Video Club. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 244-276
[12]. Sherin, Miriam G. Van es Elizabeth A. 2009.Effects of Video Club Participation on Teachers
Professional Vision. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(1), 20-37.

Accreditation of Initial Teacher Education Programmes in

Algeria
Dr. Nawal Mebitil
(English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters and Languages/ Mustapha Stambouli University Mascara,
Algeria)
Abstract: Initial teacher education is believed to be the first crucial step in the instruction journey. To form
then teachers that are able to handle effectively the teaching/learning process is supposed to be at the heart of
research. Scholars who endeavour to improve quality of education should start from the very first phase, i.e.,
pre-service teachers training. This paper in fact aims to shed light on the process of developing a syllabus for
initial teacher education with a special focus on the role of the Algerian ministry of higher education and
scientific research in the accreditation of those programmes. To meet this end, a conceptual framework besides
a detailed description of the programme, its aims, design, the areas of study and the teaching, learning
assessment strategies are provided and discussed.
Keywords: Initial teacher education, Master, programme, accreditation
I. Introduction
Teaching, the profession which is almost known for its demanding and complicating assignments is
among those favoured opportunities actual students are looking for. Nevertheless, to be appointed as a teacher is
not that easy task one would go through. To get a BA „Licence‟ in many specialties and English in particular
may help apprentices apply for teaching vacancies and positions. Again, it is not yet enough to start a very long
journey in the instruction land as a real teacher in the case they rely only on the theories they have learned
during their studies.
Central to this vision, a number of key-terms need to be discussed in this paper. Teacher training,
education and teaching quality are used to unfold the possible ways to prepare actual and prospective teachers to
enhance their professional qualifications while taking the particularities of the Algerian context into serious
consideration.
II. Conceptual Framework

Before tackling the programme of initial teacher education offered at the Master level in the English
language and literature department here in Algeria, one should provide a conceptual framework on which the
current study stands on.
Training as a process is about „the formal preparation of prospective teachers‟ that may entail two
phases, namely pre-service and in-service training courses. Taking language teachers as a case study, it can be
said that they need to be trained before being engaged in the teaching situation. Later on, while involved in such
a situation they may call for having an in-service training which should suit their needs and the field they are
involved in.
Our central issue as language teachers is that those programmes offered as a part of teachers‟ initial
education are pre-determined by „the decision-makers‟. Those latter, in most of the cases, are far from real
contexts. This could have a negative impact on its quality as the main aim which stands behind undertaking a
pre-service preparation is “to help them [future teachers] enhance and improve language abilities, pedagogical
skills, and cultural knowledge.” (Song, et al, 2011: 100)
As mentioned previously, pre-service teacher training is of great importance for prospective teachers.
Yet, for those who are already involved in teaching situations, in-service teacher training may constitute a
tremendous help for them. This can be achieved through attending workshops and seminars by which they seek
to cater for a better professional development. Along the same line, Savas (2009:402) writes: “Language
teachers and prospective language teachers can attend professional development workshops to let themselves
acquire a second field of expertise, such as medicine, engineering or law.” Taking part in such training is
fruitful as “new teachers learn from veterans. They become oriented more quickly and effectively.” Buckley
(2000:12)

Accreditation of Initial Teacher Education Programmes in Algeria
III. The Programme and its Aim

The actual paper aims to shed light on the different phases a Master programme intended to prepare our
future Algerian teachers go through from the design phase to its accreditation. To meet this end, the course
components are discussed below. As a first step, I may say that students at the level of the English language and
literature department who hold a BA in English can apply for MA position. This latter tends to prepare them to
pursue their studies and involve in a Master and Doctorate research in a more specialized areas of teaching
English. It also aims to equip them as future instructors with a sound preparation while combining
systematically those needed skills including: the professional and cross-professional competences they are
required to have, to be effective language tutors.
IV. The Programme Design

In this phase, it should be said that the course should undergo two different steps prior to its
implementation, i.e., before and after ministry accreditation. In other words, the course is somehow pre-
determined by the Algerian ministry of higher education and scientific research. It is organised around four
semesters where students‟ attendance is a must. The first three semesters are devoted to gaining knowledge in
the field. The fourth semester, however, is dedicated to writing and submitting their thesis.
In its first step, the course designer is required to work in collaboration with a number of teachers and
outline those areas of studies seem useful to their students. Whenever the overall curriculum is ready, teachers
will be asked to provide a detailed programme for each area of study including the list of suggested materials.
Before being sent to the ministry of higher education for accreditation, the programme is filled in a
predetermined template which should be downloaded from the website of the ministry. Apart from the syllabus,
other elements should be included notably; the learners profile, the course objectives, structure, possibilities of
employment, teachers‟ qualifications, experience and expertise, etc.
In what follows, the areas of study suggested in the first phase are highlighted, later on, to gain ministry
accreditation a number of elements need to be changed.
V. Areas of Study
In this suggested course, there are twelve units. Each unit is further divided into a number of modules.
For the first unit, four modules are proposed whereas for the two remaining units two modules need to be
covered. The following table summarizes the content of the study units for the first semesters.
Unit Module
Dilemmas in ESP Teaching
Needs Analysis and Identification
Unit I Syllabus Design
Applied Linguistics and TEFL
Unit II Research Methodology
Research Methods in ESP
Unit III Discourse Analysis
Cultural Studies
Table 1. The First Semester Study Units
During the second semester students are supposed to attend the following modules:
Unit Module
Academic Writing
Unit I Discourse Variation in Professional Communities
Course Design
Teacher Development
Case Studies in ESP
Unit III Discourse Analysis
Intercultural Communication
Unit IV Basic Knowledge in Science and Technology
Table 2. The Second Semester Study Units
In their third semester, apprentices are trained in the following areas of research:
Unit Module
Curriculum Design
Evaluation in ESP
Unit I Programmes Management in ESP
Learners Evaluation and Assessment

Language Planning and Education
Unit III Psycho pedagogy
Basic Knowledge in Computing Science
Unit IV Basic Knowledge in Business
Development of a Research Proposal
Table 3. The Third Semester Study Units
As for the last semester, i.e., semester four, students are asked to submit a dissertation in one of the chosen areas
of ESP research. The table below points out this idea:
Tasks Module
Task I Dissertation Writing
Table 4. The Fourth Semester Tasks
VI. Assessment Strategies

This is done through the use of the following methods:
 Final exams;
 viva mini-projects and projects at the end of the study;
 individual works such as: submitting papers and writing reports;
 tests of short duration (continuous assessment during the semester);
 submitting dissertations.
VII. The Programme Design after Ministry Accreditation

To be accredited by the ministry of higher education and scientific research a number of changes were
asked to be performed. This can be done mainly to achieve a national harmonization of the programmes in the
field of teaching foreign languages in general and the teaching of English for specific purposes in particular.
The changes asked to be performed can be summarized in the following lines:
Experts have asked us to include a number of modules during the three semesters. In the first semester,
they have insisted on the inclusion of a foreign language. The pedagogical committee then decided upon the
introduction of Chinese to respond positively to the demands of the Algerian market. Alongside, Chinese the
language, we were asked to include specialised translation techniques and strategies as a module, too. This can
be explained by the fact that in ESP context learners are the primary knower of their field and the teacher is
supposed to help them transfer their knowledge from L1 to L2. To fulfil this task, translation is the adequate
solution. In the same semester, oral written communication is regarded as a must. To help students communicate
effectively in the target context is supposed to be a pre-requisite.
What is surprising is that for the first time the experts in the Algerian ministry of higher education and
scientific research have called for the integration of Ethics and deontology as a module which has never been
done before. They have justified this by the authority will to form members of community who are aware of the
moral values and who are ready to be fully involved in better modern society.
In the second semester, Ethics and deontology were replaced by Information, Communication and
Technology. The inclusion of this module can be motivated by the fact that ICTs are not only regarded as a
facilitating tools but also as a prerequisite if we would like to form new generation of professionals with new
and fresh competencies.
In the third semester, ICT module is replaced by school legislation. This latter has never been included
in a curriculum at the faculty of letter and languages before and especially at the department of English language
and literature. Experts have asked to introduce a module that the trainers‟ team is not familiar with. To design
then its content a subject specialist is invited to collaborate in the programme. The new partner in this course
explained the importance of incorporating such a module by the fact that changing the behaviours of individuals
cannot be done unless they are aware of their own rights and duties within the school context.
VIII. Issues in Initial Teacher Education in Algeria

To respond positively to the demands of the ministry experts, we faced a number of issues as
programme designers. Experts have asked us to change time allocation for a number of modules per week. For
instance, in research methodology, learners are supposed to sit for seven hours and half per week. Though for
many years, research methodology was only three hours per week; one hour and half for a lecture and one hour
and a half for a practical session.
The next difficulty was about including totally new modules, we as trainers teams are not familiar with.
As a matter of fact, it has never been done before at our faculty and to a lower extent in our department that
modules such as: ethics and deontology besides, school legislation are taught. This has called us to look for
collaboration with subject specialists to help us develop a detailed course.

Calling subject experts to design syllabus for modules such as: ICT, Chinese language, ethics and
deontology and schools legislation is regarded as a welcome idea as they will bring new ideas and new breath to
the course. Yet, the central issue is to outline whether they are ready to teach those modules, or not. And what
language will be the medium of instruction as those experts often deliver their courses either in Arabic or
French, and at our department the language of teaching is English.
The changes asked by the experts to be performed have neglected totally to involve future teachers in
trainings or seminars and to provide them with the opportunity of teaching under the supervision of different
highly experienced staff to gain not only experience but also to have their useful insights and feedback.
The last issue we may tackle in this part is that any Initial teacher education programme needs to be
responsive to an ongoing change, yet, the following question must be answered: are we allowed as programme
designers to review our programmes and send them back to the ministry for a new accreditation after a period of
practise of around two years, or not? To put it differently, teacher preparation programmes need to be reviewed,
updated, adapted based on the context particularities in which its candidates serve besides, the real needs and
expectations of both parameters: trainers and trainees.
IX. Conclusion
To unveil the whole process of developing a course to prepare teachers effectively while paying
attention to the surrounding circumstances and issues could not be revealed in one moderate work. Therefore,
looking for the accreditation of the ministry then the implementation of the course to achieve later on quality
teaching and teacher preparation quality cannot be insured if it is relied only on the top-down process, i.e.,
applying doctrines, models as they are, without further considerations of the real needs of the teachers, learners
and even their managers. Moreover, a careful consideration of the context particularities plays an essential role
in the teaching/learning process.
As professionals, we should call for the development of programmes that meet at least the following
components; finding the curricula balance within preparation programs among content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, and monitored [classroom] experience. Extending teacher preparation into the first years of
teaching with high-quality, state-funded new teacher induction programs that includes links to the teacher
preparation institution. (PSEA, 2010: 01)
To conclude, the need to form teachers who would be fully involved in the teaching profession cannot
be achieved unless they acquire the ability to reflect critically upon the existed national policies along with
organizational features including issues of autonomy, accountability, evaluation in education systems. However,
as programme designers we still feel the need “to update our skills and knowledge continuously, not only in
response to a changing world but in response to new research and emerging knowledge about learning and
teaching.” (PSEA, 2010: 02) Then, ministry accreditation is just a first path towards a new beginning of the
whole experience in both training prospective teachers and updating the existing knowledge and competencies
of their trainers.
References
[1] Song, X. & Cheng, L. (2011). Investigating primary English immersion teachers in China: background, instructional contexts,
professional development, and perceptions. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39:2, 97-112.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2011.560647
[2] Savas, B. (2009). Role of Functional Academic Literacy in ESP Teaching: ESP Teacher Training in Turkey for sustainable
Development. Journal of International Social Research. <http://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/cilt2/sayi9pdf/savas_bekir.pdf>.
(February, 2010).
[3] Buckley, F, J. (2000). Team Teaching: What, Why and How? California: Sage Publications, Inc.
[4] PSEA. (2015). Support quality teacher preparation. USA: Pennsylvania State Education Association.
<https://www.psea.org/uploadedFiles/LegislationAndPolitics/Vision/Vision_QualityTeacherPreparation.pdf>(October, 2016).
[5] Chien, L & Kao. (2008). Collaborative Teaching in an ESP Program. Asian EFL Journal.< http://www.asian-efl-
journal.com/December_08_cnc.php> (April, 2010).
[6] Guthrie, G. (1982). Reviews of Teacher Training and Teacher Performance in Developing Countries: Beeby Revisited (2).
International Review of Education. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/3443640 >. (June, 2010)
[7] Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995). Research and the Teacher: a Qualitative Introduction to School-Based Research (2nd edn).
London: Routledge.
[8] Homer, T.R. (1953). Pre-Service Education and In-Service Training- Parallels and Contrasts. The Social Studies. 44:1; 13-19. (June,
2012).
[9] Kennedy, C. (1983). An ESP approach to EFL/ESL teacher training. The ESP Journal, Vol2, Issue 1: 73-85.
[10] Kone, Z. (2006). Pre-service ESP Teacher Training in an African French-Speaking Country: The Case of Cote Divoire.<
http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_14/Preservice_ESP_teacherTraining.htm> (March, 2010).
[11] Mebitil, N. (2015). Towards Enhancing ESP Practitioners Qualifications through Implementing In-Service Teacher Training
Programme: An Action Research on the Newly Appointed ESP Practitioner at the Physics Department of Abou-Bekr Belkaid
University, Tlemcen.” ( Unpublished Doctorate Thesis)
[12] Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[13] Richards, C, K & Rodgers, T, S (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics

Achievement
Binod Nepal
PhD Scholar, Dr. K.N. Modi University, Newai, Rajasthan, India
Abstract: In Nepalese context or in our experience, Mathematics is taken as a dry subject at school level and
therefore students' achievement in mathematics has always been burning issue among the stakeholders as the
level appears lower than expectation. So if it is desired to improve Mathematics Achievement, measures have to
be taken to improve Mathematical Thinking. The study was carried out in order to find the relationship between
Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement of the grade X students in Nepal. Three districts were
selected for study area Sindhupalchok, Kathmandu and Mahottari according to the geographical figure i.e.
From the Mountain, the Hill & Valley and the Terai region respectively. 400 students were selected from the
study area through stratified random sampling. They were selected in different strata like: gender, location and
sector wise. Two types of test were developed by the researcher. The researcher tried to find the result using
Pearson Correlation Coefficient using SPSS 20.00 version. Finally, the researcher got the result: the
correlation coefficient of Mathematical Thinking with Mathematics Achievement is r = 0.731 which significant
at p<0.01. There is strongly relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievements.
Keywords: Mathematics Achievement, Mathematical Thinking, Relationship
I. Introduction
There is a huge variety of notation on meaning of Mathematical thinking. In the study of, Karadag, Z.
(2009) stated that mathematical thinking is a thinking style supported by thinking skills. This definition is not
emphasized on the attitudes of the students. So, it should be defined in another way. Mason, J.; Burton, L &
Stacy, K. stated "Mathematical thinking is a dynamic process which, by enabling us to increase the complexity
of ideas we can handle, expands our understanding” (1991). The development of mathematical thinking plays
an important role on the solution of problems faced in daily life (Pinar Bal & Ahmet, 2014). It showed
Mathematical thinking is a part of our life. C.S. Lim, C. S. & T.Y. defined mathematical thinking as a mental
operation used in solving problem affirmed by the mathematical knowledge and dispositions (2006).
Furthermore, the educators developed the definition of mathematical thinking based on their own country's
curriculum (Isoda, 2006).
Mathematical thinking is a broad term containing many perspectives and meanings. Each researcher
dealing with mathematics education has his or her own perspective on this topic. Most researchers,
mathematicians and mathematics educators define mathematical thinking as a process, which contains at least
one of the mental and math-related activities such as reasoning, abstracting, conjecturing, representing and
switching between different representations, visualizing, deducing, inducing, analyzing, synthesizing,
connecting, generalizing, and proving (Schoenfeld, 1992; Tall, 1991; Burton, 1984). In this study, Mathematical
thinking is defined as "the development of a mathematical point of view- valuing the process of
mathematization and abstraction and having the predilection to apply them; and the development of
competence with tools of the trade and using those tools in the service of the goal of understanding structure”
(Schoenfeld, 1992, p. 335)
Student achievement is seen as the most important indicator of national development. A country cannot
develop its socioeconomic situation without enhancing students' achievement (Greaney & Kellaghan,
2008b)focused to increase student achievement that is the key to alleviating poverty and improving economic
competitiveness. In the Standards for test construction achievement is viewed basically as the competence a
person have in an area of content. This competence is the result of many intellectual and nonintellectual
variables. The Mathematics Achievement is seemed as the marks obtained on mathematics subjects by the
students.
(Ma’Moon, 2005) had studied to examine relationships between mathematical thinking and
Mathematics Achievement through the use of both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data was
concerned with studying the direct relationships between performance in mathematical thinking and
Mathematics Achievement of 17 year old students in Jordan. The researcher administered two tests and two
interviews; a test of mathematical thinking, a test of Mathematics Achievement, teacher interviews and student
interviews. More than 500 students participated in the two tests, with 13 teachers participating individually in
the teacher interviews and four groups of students being involved in student interviews.
Relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement
As an initial step, the relationships between the six aspects of mathematical thinking were examined
using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. The relationships of each of the six aspects and the total
score for mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement were also examined. The higher level of
correlation between the six scales and the total for mathematical thinking is to be expected, given that the score
for each aspect is included in the total score. However, the almost equally-high correlations between the six
scale scores and Mathematics Achievement are of greater interest, because the assessments made were entirely
independent with separate measuring instruments being used.
(Jaleel, 2015) had a study on finding the relationship between Mathematical Thinking and
Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School Students for total sample and relevant sub samples
based on Gender of Students. The investigator adopted survey method for the study on a sample of 112
Secondary School Students taken at random. The relationship between Mathematical Thinking and
Achievement of students at secondary level was calculated using the Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient of
Correlation. The study can be concluded that there exists significant positive relationship between Mathematical
Thinking and Achievement of students at secondary level for total sample. There exists no significant
relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School
Students gender-wise.
According to the study of (Zaman, 2011) , there was an objective to find the relationship between
mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement of the students at secondary level. The sample selected
for this study was 544 students from zone 2 and 4 comprising of 10 districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province. Stratified random sampling technique was used to take the sample for this study. On the research two
tools were used in the survey to collect data from students, a test of Mathematical Thinking and a test of
Mathematics Achievement to collect quantitative data. These instruments were supplemented by two interviews
one from students and the other from teachers to collect qualitative data. It was found the relationship between
these two main variables along with relationship of individual aspect of mathematical thinking with
Mathematics Achievement was determined using Pearson correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficients of
mathematical thinking with Mathematics Achievement is 0.49 which significant at p<0.01. All the coefficients
of different aspects of Mathematical Thinking with Mathematics Achievement were significant. The correlation
coefficients of the six aspects of Mathematical Thinking with the total score for Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement were also positive and statistically significant.
Generally it is said that our teachers just solve the problem on the board and say this one is the most
important for the examination. So students do just rote memorization of the problems. They never enhance
mathematical thinking though our curriculum alerts on developing mathematical thinking. Mathematical
Thinking can be developed through mathematics teaching learning activities. Research work on this particular
aspect, investigating reasoning and thinking ability and its relationship with Mathematics Achievement in Nepal
is necessary. So, this study was mainly concerned on the Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics
Achievement. To find relationship between the level of mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement
was the main objective of the study.
II. Methods
This research paradigm is post positivism. This study depends on deductive approaches to find the
relationship between mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement. The researcher used mixed
methods where both quantitative data i.e. test scores from test of Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics
Achievement and qualitative data i.e. interviews from students and teachers were collected simultaneously and
both types of data were adopted to address the research hypothesis. The results from both types of instruments
were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The researcher used the Multi stage sampling to
find the study area. Stratified random sampling was opted because it gives representation to different strata
along with minimizing sampling error. The 40 schools were selected from the study areas and 400 students 200
male and 200 female were selected as a sample from the total population. The information was collected directly
from the respondents of different areas by using Mathematical Thinking Test MTT (Nepal 2015), Mathematics
Achievement Test MAT (Nepal 2015) the tools that were designed as the research instruments. The relation
between every aspects of Mathematical Thinking and the Mathematics Achievement was calculated using
Pearson Correlation Coefficient.
III. Result And Discussion

1. Description of Students overall Achievement in all Variables of Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement
Assessment of Mathematics Achievement and mathematical thinking will be discussed in this for all
students by measuring their mean score and standard deviation in all aspects of Mathematical thinking (
Deduction, Induction, logical Thinking, Generalization, Mathematical Proof and Problem solving),

Mathematical thinking ( Total) and Mathematics Achievement. Two types of tests one for Mathematical
Thinking and another for Mathematics Achievement were administered to 400 students among 40 schools from
3 districts of Nepal. Maximum score of Mathematical thinking was 113 and Maximum score of Mathematics
Achievement was 157. Average score of the test of the level of Mathematical Thinking was 37.9 and average
scores of Mathematics Achievement was 41.74 calculated. Every score in each aspects of level of Mathematical
thinking was calculated which was shown in the table below. The maximum mean score of all students was in
deduction which was 9.85. While the minimum scores in the aspects of induction and generalization with mean
score of 5.11 and 5.28 respectively.
Table 1 Description of Students overall Achievement in all Variables of Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement
Scale Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Deduction 0 15 9.85 3.662
Induction 0 15 5.11 3.447
Logical Thinking 0 46 6.05 4.158
Generalization 0 15 5.28 3.656
Mathematical proof 0 20 5.83 4.863
Problem solving 0 20 6.06 4.900
Mathematical Thinking ( Total) 0 113 37.90 18.819
Mathematics Achievement 0 157 41.74 22.656
Field survey: 2015
Table 1 shows that the mean score for induction, generalization and mathematical proof (5.11, 5.28,
and 5.83) was low for all the students. It noticed that these aspects are the high level of difficulty. Similarly, The
mean score for Deduction (9.85) is high. The mean score of Mathematical Thinking (Total) is 37.90 and the
standard deviation of Mathematical thinking is 18.81. But the mean score of Mathematics Achievement is 41.74
and standard deviation of Mathematics Achievement is 22.66. This spread of score showed that students'
mathematical thinking is quiet less than Mathematic Achievement. It also indicated the variability in different
aspects in the students' abilities.
2. Relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement of grade X students.

The main objective of this study was to find the relationship between Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement. There are six aspects of Mathematical thinking and single aspects of Mathematics
Achievement. The relation between every aspects of Mathematical Thinking and the Mathematics Achievement
was calculated using Pearson Correlation Coefficient. The determined values are shown in the table below.
Table 2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of aspects of Mathematical Thinking, Mathematical Thinking Total and
Mathematics Achievement.
Deduction Induction Logical Generalization Mathematical Problem MTT MAT
Thinking Proof Solving
**
Deduction 1 .412 .394** .376**
.376** .320** .404 **
.612**
Induction 1 .524** .531** .555** .346** .396** .720**
Logical Thinking 1 .575** .610** .497** .614** .798**
Generalization 1 .598** .504** .574** .781**
Mathematical Proof 1 .622** .584** .849**
Problem Solving 1 .682** .759**
MTT 1 .731**
MAT 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
MTT : Mathematical Thinking Total
MTA: Mathematical Achievement Total
Field survey: 2015
Table 2 shows that correlation coefficients of mathematical thinking with Mathematics Achievement is
0.731 which is significant at p<0.01. The higher level of correlation between the six scales and the total for
mathematical thinking is to be expected, given that the score for each aspect is included in the total score. It was
hypothesized that the different aspects of Mathematical Thinking would be related to Mathematics Achievement
to varying extents. From the table, all the coefficients of different aspects of mathematical thinking with
Mathematics Achievement were significant. Deduction and Induction were the least correlated aspects to
Mathematical Thinking Total being the range .404 and .396 . All six aspects of Mathematical Thinking were
strongly correlated to Mathematics Achievement. Mathematical Proof, being in range .849, is the highest
correlated aspect and Deduction being range 0.620 is the least correlated aspect among six. In summary, the
correlations indicate that, when considered in isolation from each other, all six aspects of Mathematical
Thinking were strongly related to Mathematics Achievement. Mathematical Thinking total is strongly correlated
to Mathematics Achievements being coefficient 0.731. There is strong relationship between Mathematical
Thinking and Mathematics Achievements.
Among the 20 teachers they strongly agreed that there is highly correlation between Mathematical
Thinking and Mathematics Achievements. Among them almost teachers said Deduction and Logical Thinking
are the least difficult aspects of Mathematical Thinking and Problem Solving and Mathematical Proof are the
most difficult aspects. They all agreed all the aspects of Mathematical Thinking also be correlated to the
Mathematics Achievement separately too which support the quantitative result of the study.
This result is similar to the research (Ma’Moon, 2005; Zaman, 2011; Jaleel, 2015) that the strongly
correlation between Mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement. Deduction is the least correlated
among the aspects of Mathematical Thinking in the study . But In the study of (Ma’Moon, 2005) Mathematical
Proof was also the most difficult aspect, while Logical Thinking was the least difficult. The study of (Zaman,
2011) showed Generalization was the easiest aspect and Mathematical Proof was the most difficult aspect.
IV. Conclusion
The study can be concluded that mean score of the students in the test of Mathematics Achievement
was higher than mean score in the test of Mathematical Thinking .The score in the tests of Mathematical
Thinking was significantly correlated to the score in the test of Mathematics Achievement. Individual aspects of
Mathematical Thinking were all positively correlated with the score in test of mathematic achievement. All
individual aspects of Mathematical Thinking were highly correlated with Mathematical Thinking (total).
Problem solving sub scale was found to have the highest correlation with test of Mathematical Thinking while
Induction had the lowest correlation. Among the aspects, Mathematical Proof was found to be highly correlated
Mathematics Achievement while the lowest correlation was deduction with test of Mathematics Achievement.
In summary, all the aspects of Mathematical Thinking and Mathematical Thinking (total) are correlated with
Mathematics Achievement.
From above findings of the study, it can be suggested that it is necessary for students to enhance their
Mathematical Thinking. Teachers should focus on developing the aspects of Mathematical Thinking through
pedagogical instructional activities and content or knowledge of these aspects that help to increase the standard
of Mathematics Achievement. Teacher, Trainer will be concerned to run training package and conduct
Mathematics teachers' training to develop the students' mathematical Thinking. It will be fruitful to enhance the
level of the aspects of Mathematical Thinking. The book authors should pay attention to compose their matters
on the way of developing the aspects of Mathematical Thinking. It is also recommended for further research in
order to fill up the research gaps on this study.
Reference
[1] Burton, L. (1984). Mathematical thinking: The struggle for meaning. Journal for research in mathematics education , 15, 35-49.
[2] Greaney, V., & Kellaghan, T. (2008b). National assessments of educational achievement: Assessing national achievement levels in
education (Vol. 1). the World Bank.
[3] Isoda, M. (2006). Developing Mathematical Thinking in Classroom. Paper presented at the meeting of the APEC, Tsukuba
International Conference. Japan.
[4] Jaleel, S. (2015). Relationship Between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics Among Secondary School
Students . Indian journal of Research PARIPEX , 4 (11), 19-21.
[5] Karadag, Z. (2009). Analyzing Students’ Mathematical Thinking in Technology-Supported Environments . Toronto, ON.: University
Toronto.
[6] Lim, C. S., & Hwa, T. Y. (2006). Promoting Mathematical Thinking in the Malaysian classroom. the APECTsukubaInternational
Conference. Japan.
[7] Ma’Moon, M. (2005). Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement of Students in the year 11 in the scientific Stream in
Jorden. Faculty of Education and Arts. Austrilia: The University of Newcastle.
[8] Mason, J., Burton, L., & Stacy, k. (1991). Thinking mathematically. England: Addison-Wesley,Wokingham.
[9] Pinar Bal, A., & Ahmet, D. (2014). Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice , 14 (4), p1375-1384.
[10] Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think Mathematically: Problem Solving. Metacognition, and Sense Making in Mathematics.
[11] Tall, D. (1991). The Psychology of Advanced Mathematical Thinking. In D. T. (Ed)., Advanced mathematical thinking (pp. 3-21).
Norwell,MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[12] Zaman, A. (2011). Relation between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School Students of
North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Faculty of social sciences, Department of Education. Islamabad: International Islamic
University.

The Implementation of Practice Generalization Reinforcement

(PGR) Learning Strategy to Improve English Grammar Learning
Outcomes in Junior High School
Supriyo
The Principal of SMP Negeri 1 Labang, Bangkalan East Java Indonesia
Abstract: The aim of this classroom action research that the model was based on Hopkins to investigate
whether practice generalization reinforcement (PGR) strategy by from example to rule type can improve
student's achievement of English grammar in the junior high school. The research subjects were students of
class VIII in the second half of 2015/2016 academic year in SMP Negeri 1 Labang, Bangkalan, East Java. The
research had two cycles. The data is collected by a formative test method. Descriptive statistics was used to
analyze the data. The result of this research gained Obtained by the achievement of average Compared to
before applying of PGR, that is pre cycle = 49, I = 62 cycles, cycle II = 76. So, the research results showed that
PGR strategy by from example to rule type can improve learning outcomes, especially to learning concept of
English grammar in junior high school.
Keywords: Instructional strategy, PGR, Classroom action research
I. Introduction
The students of secondary school (SMP) in Indonesia learn three languages for three years. The first
language which is learned is Indonesian. It has two position and function as an introduction and as national
languages constitution. The second language is the mother tongue of hundreds language and generally it is
studied in the context of local content with the primary goal. In daily communication, the family use mother
tongue to keep it from the language extinction. The third language is English, it is as a foreign language (foreign
language) and it is not as a second language (second language) like in Malaysia or in India. The third type is
packaged in the language curriculum, nationally curriculum and in school based curriculum.
English is nationally learned since students enter junior high school although in primary school
education and in kindergarten have been introduced. English was learned since in early stage because English is
international language which is often used to communicate between nations. It is the official language of the
United Nations and the dominant language used to write the results of science worldwide works.
Efforts to learn English at an early stage in the SMP are certainly very encouraging, but unfortunately
learning English in junior high school is still a lot of emphasized on the ability to understand. The logical
consequence is less to support in preparing a person to be able to use English in communication with others and
academic interest. The impact can be seen when the students in junior high school has been graduated and they
continue their studies to a higher level of education, the high school, vocational school or MA, even to college.
They are less able to provide an explanation for the selection of vocabulary (word choice), tense (tenses) and
sentence construction is good and right in accordance with the rules of English grammar.
The responsibilities for these weaknesses are not only because the scope (scope) and the sort order
(sequence) junior high school English curriculum but also because of lack of proper learning strategy, it is less
varied and attractive. The results of the interview between the author and a number of eighth grade students at
the junior high school SMP Negeri 1 Labang Bangkalan shows that the students are not familiar with specific
learning strategies is used to learn English grammar concepts. For example, the concepts of grammar in teaching
English in general were learned in conventional manner, i.e. with a pattern from rule to example (Oshima &
Hogue, 2006; 2007). Such learning patterns, potentially causing students' understanding of the concepts of
grammar are always not meaningful, more fictional (verbalistic) and not applicable.
This concept is suspected to be one of the causes in less optimal learning outcomes in English subject,
especially in mastery of grammar and four language skills (four language skills) is generally achieved by junior
high school students. In Bangkalan, for example, the achievement level of English proficiency is still considered
low. It was proven that the average score of English National Examination junior high school in Bangkalan
Regency 2014/2015 school year still reached 65.10.
According to Sharpe (2000), the general teaching of English teach four language skills, they are
reading (reading), listening (listening), speaking (speaking) and writing (writing) and also the three components
of language, they are grammar (structure), vocabulary (vocabulary) and pronunciation (pronunciation).
Learning grammar is composed of two parts: a sentence pattern (pattern) and the writing style (style). Learning

The Implementation of Practice Generalization Reinforcement (PGR) Learning Strategy to Improve….
grammar is essentially learning about the concept. Learning strategies concept that has been developed over the
years primarily to learn the key ideas serves as the foundation for students' high level thinking and provides a
basis for better understanding and communicating.
Learning strategy is not designed to teach the concept of information in large numbers for the students.
Basically, without an understanding of quality in certain key ideas, learning on the broad subject area or almost
is impossible to do (Richey, 1986). Experts have developed several strategies for learning concepts, such as
learning strategy directly (direct instruction) from Tennyson (1981) and Concept Attainment of Brunner (1996).
In direct instructional strategies teachers presents carefully the order of presentation such as the method of
explanation (Expository) or examination (interrogatories) on the concept to be covered. Learning is taken
directly with advance any rule, then present examples to clarify the concept and understand the concept. This
pattern is called from rule to example (Arends, 2007).
On the other hand there is a strategy PGR (practice generalization reinforcement) which is used when
the student is ready with some ideas about a particular concept or set of concepts through the presentation of
some examples (example) of a concept, the teacher promotes a way of thinking inductive to the students and
help them build thinking process (Boardman & Frydenberg, 2002; Harmer, 2004). The implementation of this
strategy using a pattern is called from example to rule, which began to learn by presenting examples then headed
on understanding the concept of rule.
The difference between the patterns of presenting the rule to live by example on learning patterns from
example to rule on PGR strategy will lead to make differences and patterns of information processing in the
students’ cognitive structure to understand certain level of understanding (Harmer, 2004). In the pattern from the
rule to example is understood as the concept of building deductively deriving from the definition of the concept
then giving examples and non-examples, the process of understanding of the concept begins with identifying the
attributes, it contained in the concept then it compared with examples and non-examples. In contrast to the
pattern from example to rule is understood as the concept of comparison based on the data or examples
presented in early learning through the process of identifying similarities traits that they are common in the
examples, students get the guidance of teachers in trying to find a concept or rule (Merrill and Tennyson, 1983).
Thus, in using PGR strategy, student will be formed through an inductive process, whereas the direct
understanding of the concept of learning strategies established through deductive process.
Differences in the pattern of presentation can pose different concepts to understanding the concept of
learning outcomes. How and where strategies are more effective in teaching the concept of grammar (grammar)
in particular? This is an interesting question to be studied empirically.
Learning grammar through direct learning strategy or strategies PGR has a strong methodological
foundation in developing the ability to learn to understand the concept as an important scaffolding to build the
students about the various objects that learned (Scheffer, 1960). However, both strategies almost rarely applied
because the messages of the concept of learning that most of them is not learned specifically but combined with
the overall learning materials (Ismail, 2012).
Based on theoretical arguments, the authors propose the research entitled "The implementation of
Practice generalization Reinforcement (PGR) Learning Strategy to Improve English Grammar Learning
Outcomes in Junior High School”. English is a tool to communicate orally and in writing in an effort to
understand and express information, thoughts and feelings. The competence or the ability to communicate this
in essence is the ability of discourse, such as the ability of a person in understanding and creation of discourse.
Discourse is simply defined as text, both written and spoken in the context of significantly were influenced by
the situation and culture (Celce-Murcia, Domyei & Thurrel, 1995).
Linguistic competence (linguistic competence) refers to the understanding and ability to apply elements
of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling in the text correctly. Understanding the importance of
grammar in the effort to improve linguistic competence, the necessary strategy grammar learning English as a
foreign language is a learning strategy generalization Practice Reinforcement (PGR).
PGR learning strategy is a learning strategy that uses a structured investigation process in learning
English grammar, it starts from the stage of practice, generalization and reinforcement. Hammer (2004) and
Boardman & Frydenberg (2002), suggests syntax learning strategies PGR in the learning process is done as
follows: (1) practice phase, this phase teachers presents learning materials in text forms, students understand
these texts and identify the grammar and answer questions, (2) generalization phase, this phase the teacher
facilitates students to find a pattern (pattern) grammar used in the text, students work in groups to look for
patterns and presenting grammar and teachers provide confirmation, and (3) reinforcement phase, this phase the
teacher gives problems or questions relating to the grammar they have learned, students work individually with
students and teachers to confirm the answer.

II. Research Method

The method of this study used classroom action research (CAR), which consists of two cycles and
collaborative between researchers and collaborators. CAR was conducted in two cycles with four stages, they
were planning (planning), implementation (acting), observation (observing) and reflection (reflecting).
Reflections on the first cycle were used as a reference to the action plan on the second cycle. CAR design cycle
model used is the spiral developed by Hopkins (1993). Classroom action research was a spiral consisting of four
phases including planning, implementation, observation and reflection.
The subjects were students of class VIII SMP Negeri 1 Labang, Bangkalan, East Java, the second
semester of the school year 2015/2016. The theme of learning that became the content of this research is the
Show Me How for the pre-cycle, Do you like Sport? for the first cycle, and Could You Help Me, Please? for the
second cycle. Pre-stage cycle use direct learning strategies (direct instruction) with a pattern from rule to
example, whereas in the first cycle and the second cycle uses PGR strategy with patterns from example to rule.
Data were collected through a formative test at the end of each cycle. The data analysis used
descriptive statistical analysis and presented in percentage form of tables, graphs and diagrams. Data are
summarized in percentage by the following criteria.
Table 1. Criteria Mastery Learning Outcomes

No. Learning outcomes Classification
1. 80-100 Very satisfactory
2. 70-79 Satisfactory
3. 60-69 Average
4. 50-59 Poor
5. 0-49 Very Poor
(Source: Poerwanti, 2008)
III. Result and Discussion

The Results of this research of students’ learning outcome can be seen in Table 2 and Figure 1. The
results of students’ mastery learning are presented in Figure 2.
Table 2. Improved Learning Outcomes Cycle I and Cycle II

No. Criteria Learning Outcomes first cycle cycle II Difference Cycle I - II
1. Very satisfactory 15% 23% 8%
2. satisfactory 38% 47% 9%
3. Average 17% 26% 9%
4. Poor 18% 4% -14%
5. Very Poor 12% 0% -12%
amount 100% 100% 0,00%
Figure 1. Comparison of the Achievement Learning Outcomes cycle I and II

Figure 2. Graph of Student Learning Outcomes in the Pre-Cycle, Cycle I and Cycle II
Based on Table 2 and Figure 1 seems clear that there are significant differences in student learning
outcomes obtained in the first cycle and the second cycle. There is increased at each cycle of learning outcomes
I and II cycle. Improved learning outcomes are very satisfactory in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference
of 8%. The result increased in satisfactory the criteria in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of 9%, the
resulting increase in average criteria in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of 9%. The resulting
increase in poor criteria on the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of -14% and increase the criteria very
poor in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of -12%.
Based on Figure 2 data were showed that there was an average increased students’ learning outcome in
each cycle. At the time of pre-cycle average score of students’ learning outcomes were 49, experienced an
average increase in student learning outcomes by 13 points in the first cycle i.e. to 62 and increased in the
second cycle of 14 points which became by 76.
Based on these results it appears that the application of learning strategies PGR with patterns from
example to rule has an important role in the process of learning English grammar mainly to the theme Do You
Like Sport? and Could You Help Me, Please ?.
On the implementation of pre-cycle that uses learning strategies directly with the pattern from the rule
to example, a classroom atmosphere was in ordinary condition. The results of observations by the author showed
that there is no significant change in the management and behavior of student learning as just listening seriously
taking notes and not many of the questions posed and students were passive.
On the implementation of the first cycle, when teachers change instructional strategies to use learning
strategies PGR (practice generalization reinforcement) pattern from example to rule, class atmosphere began to
change. When the practice phase is still like usual, such as listening to the teacher presentation seriously and
record things that are considered important. In this phase, the teacher is only presenting the learning materials in
the form of examples of text, students understand the content of the text and identify its grammar and
occasionally answered questions. But when the generalization phase was occurred a significant event change. In
this phase the students are so busy and work together to find a pattern (pattern) grammar used in the text,
students actually work in group looking for patterns of grammar and present. It is an interesting phenomenon,
but it is still in awkward condition because for the first time they learn that way. While on the reinforcement
phase, the beginning learning process seemed fun learning because teachers do not seem to give problems or
questions relating to the grammar what they have learned. In this phase of work individually and facilitated by
the teacher.
In the second cycle learning atmosphere changed significantly. Perhaps based on the significant
experience in the first cycle, the second cycle of the learning takes place very pleasantly. Students’ readiness to
learn is visible and seems happy to enjoy the learning process.

IV. Conclusion And Suggestion

Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that the learning strategy PGR (practice
generalization reinforcement) from example to rule patterns can improve student learning outcomes, especially
in learning English grammar concepts in Junior High School. It is recommended for the teachers to consider
implementing learning strategies PGR pattern from example to rule in learning English grammar concepts in
middle school with its own improvisation.
Based on these results, it is also suggested that teachers look for alternative learning strategies and
other patterns that emphasize more on student centered strategy (student centered), not solely centered on the
teacher (teacher centered). Learning English grammar concepts is not only rote or verbalistic but also it is more
meaningful and more applicable.
References
[1] Arends, R.I. 2007, Learning to Teach. New York: The Mc Grow Hill Company.
[2] Boardman, C.A. & Frydenberg, J. 2002. Writing to Communicate: Paragraphs and Essays. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
[3] Brunner, J. 1996. Toward a Theory of Information. New York: Norton.
[4] Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z. & Thurrell, S. 1995. Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content
Specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6(2): 5-35.
[5] Harmer, J. 2004. How to Teach Grammar. England: Pearson Education Limited.
[6] Hopkins, D.A. 1993. A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
[7] Ismail. 2012. Pengaruh Strategi Pembelajaran Konsep melalui Direct Presentation vs Concept Attainment, Prior knowledge dan
Sikap terhadap Hasil Belajar Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial Kelas V Sekolah Dasar. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: Program
Pascasarjana UM, Malang.
[8] Merril, M.D. & Tennyson, R.D. 1983. Teaching Concept: An Introduction Design Guide. New Jersey: Educational Technology
Publications.
[9] Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. 2006. Writing Academic English. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
[10] Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. 2007. Introduction to Academic Writing. New York:
[11] Pearson Education, Inc.
[12] Poerwanti, dkk. 2008. Asesmen Pembelajaran SD. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.
[13] Richey, R. 1986. Theoritical and Conceptual Bases of Instructional Design. New York: Nicholas Publishing Company.
[14] Scheffler, I. 1960. The Language of Education. Illionis: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
[15] Sharpe, P.J. 2000. How to Prepare for the TOEFL. Woodbury NJ: Barron’s.
[16] Tennyson, R.D. 1981. Concept Learning Effectiveness Using Prototype and Skill Development Presentation Form. Paper Presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Los Angeles: Unpublished.

First year Student Perceptions of Teacher and Teaching

Effectiveness a new Approach in the Evaluation of Educational
Process
Said Mkhdramine and Khadija Essafi
Didactic, innovation and curricular laboratory
Faculty of Sciences, Univesity of Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fes, Morocco
Abstract: While most research has been conducted on the questions related to effectiveness education in post-
secondary institutions, projects that investigate the student perceptions of both teacher and teaching
effectiveness are rare if not inexistent. This study proposes to determine organizing principles in students’
perception of educational effectiveness. In this qualitative study, the data was gathered by using open-ended
surveys. The questionnaire was conducted to 25 first year students at a university in Fes, Morocco in the 2012-
2013 academic terms. The results revealed that students’ perception of “effective teacher” and “effective
teaching” yield two set of items significantly different. So, the two concepts were not interchangeable.
The conclusions were that implications for more attention must give to wording the items questionnaire in the
way that allows us avoiding confusion and bias in student educational evaluations.
Keywords: first year students, qualitative study, effective teacher, effective teaching
I. Introduction
In all universities through the world, the quality of undergraduate teaching has become the focus of
deep discuss in the last several years, both inside and outside of the sector (Chen & Hoshower, 2003; Slate et al.,
2011). Providing teaching of quality to meet different needs of students with increasingly diverse backgrounds,
expectations and levels of preparedness (Northedge 2003; Perry 1994), it’s become preoccupation of most
institutions in higher education, that any attempt to improve student achievement is predictable by improving
teaching quality (Sanders and Horn, 1998 ; Nye et al. 2004). So, succeed these challenges; several universities at
all levels are acknowledging the need for better practice in evaluating teaching. Although the reasons for
evaluating teaching are numerous (Casey,1997) , improving teaching quality remain the main purpose (Kahn,
1993; Seldin, 1997; Remedios & Lieberman, 2008). Despite number of measures has been taken for teaching
quality improvement in higher education; however evaluation by students, generally known as students’
evaluation of teaching “SET” is by far the primarily and the most widely used approach by higher education
institutions for evaluating and improving the teaching accomplishments of their faculties (Palchik & al, 1988;
Seldin, 1997). SET is an instrument designed to assess the quality of teaching as experienced by the learner
(Ulas, 2011) .according to McKeachie, (1997) is “the single most valid source of data on teaching
effectiveness”. This practice have began early into North American universities in the mid-1920s, (Apollonia &
Abrami, 1997; Mason et al ,2002; Algozzine et al ,2004). Initiated by psychologist E.T. Guthrie (Murray 2005;
Addison and Stowell 2012 ), the “SET” are acknowledging the "golden age of research" in the1970s (Centra,
1993 cited by Algozzine, 2004)
Nowadays, SET are considered yet the most if not the only influential measure of teaching
effectiveness (Marsh, 1987; Chen & Hoshower, 2003; Emery, Kramer and Tian, 2003; Remedios and
Lieberman, 2008), widely used formatively by faculty to improve their teaching quality (Braskamp, 2000).
Thus, students particularly the current generation, appreciate being given a voice and the opportunity to express
themselves, that they seem themselves are “confident of their ability to match the effort required to meet the
expectations others place upon them and are motivated to do so as long as their own expectations of beneficial
outcomes are met” (p.36) (DeBard 2004). So, better placed, as “the only direct, daily observers of a professor's
classroom teaching performance” (Seldin, 1997), they can play an active role in the improvement of teaching
quality and their learning as well (Perry 1994, Wilson and Ryan,2012, Calaguas, 2013). according to
McKeachie (1983) “students are in class almost every day and they know what's going on, and they have
some sense of whether they are learning" (p. 38) SooHoo, S. (1993) would agree with McKeachie asserted:
“Student perceptions are valuable to our practice because they are authentic sources; they personally
experience our classrooms first hand. . . As teachers, we need to find ways to continually seek out these silent
voices because they can teach us so much about learning and learners”. (p. 389). So, this renewing emphasis on
teaching quality in higher education setting necessitates valid means of measuring this quality (Delaney et al.
2010). Thus, many of the current tools of evaluation “do not meet the overarching educational objective” (p.38)

First year Student Perceptions of Teacher and Teaching Effectiveness a new Approach in ….
(Emery et al 2003), there are differences in what specific instruments are intended to measure. According to
Robertson (2004) “The university SET questionnaire may not always be measuring what it is supposed to be
measuring » (p.677). There has been little systematic study of the problem of creating evaluation systems that
truly respond to the needs of those who evaluate teaching performance (Theall & Franklin 2000). Furthermore,
little attention has given to the structural nature of the evaluation (Cohen 2005). Kahn (1993) explains
«institutions rededicate themselves to enhancing teaching effectiveness, they are recognizing that efforts to
improve teaching and learning must go hand in hand with efforts to improve the evaluation of
teaching”(p.122). Also in agreement with an incremental view of teaching evaluation in higher education is
Mckeachie (1969) who cautions us as follows:
“Both the evaluation form and the procedures will, in many instances, require adjustments to make
them suitable for employment in different institutions of higher education, and within particular
institutions” (p.439). According to Hobson and Talbot (2001), well developed student evaluations with
adequate reliability and validity data may provide some of the best measures of teaching effectiveness.
Most of the previous studies, which looked at how students evaluate their teaching, confirmed the contribution
of teacher (Marsh 1981; Marsh and Bailey 1993; Husbands 1997; Lin et al 2010); or some teacher personal trait
(Sherman and Blackburn 1975; Murray & Lawrence 1980; Feldman 1986; Jones 1989) in the evaluation of
teaching quality. Muray et al. (1990) indicate:
“given that teaching is in part a social or interpersonal process, it seems reasonable to expect that
teacher personality traits might correlate significantly with rated teaching effectiveness” (p.250)
Marsh (1981) conducted a comprehensive study of student ratings using evaluations from 1364 classes. He
suggested that the effect of the teacher on student ratings of teaching effectiveness is much larger than is the
effect of the course being taught.Marsh and Bailey (1993) in their meta-analysis of student’s evaluations
revealed that the effectiveness of teaching is mainly a function of the instructor who teaches a course rather than
the course being taught. More, Lin et al. (2010) in their study exploring the relationship between teacher and
teaching they find that:“Teacher quality and teaching effectiveness are positively related, meaning the prediction
power of teaching effectiveness, with teacher quality as the predictor, is significant » (p.167).
Regarding the influence of teacher personal trait on student evaluation of teaching, Murray (1975)
reported by Murray et al. (1990) find that student ratings of new, previously unrated college instructors could be
accurately predicted from peer ratings of personality traits obtained at least 5 months prior to student assessment
of teaching. Feldman (1986) indicates that a student rating of teaching correlates moderately to high with some
aspects of instructor’ personalities. Sherman and Blackburn (1975) argue that students prefer an entertaining
performer rather than an effective educator; thus, teachers’ personality traits outweigh the importance of efforts
devoted to teaching practices, further students often equate expressiveness with good teaching, as vocal skills
and expressive movement (Murray & Lawrence, 1980), and as charisma and enthusiasm Abrami et al. (1982)
that enhance ratings of the faculty regardless of how well they know their subject matter, these phenomenon is
widely known as the Dr. Fox effect (Naftulin et al., 1973; Ware & Williams, 1975). The Dr. Fox effect has been
interpreted to mean that enthusiastic lecturers can "seduce" students into giving favorable evaluations,
even though the lectures may be devoid of meaningful content (Marsh and Roche 1997).
Furthermore Jones (1989) found that teacher’s personality have an influence on student ratings of
teaching quality, even when students have been awarded to the irrelevance of personality characteristics in
evaluating teaching. Murray et al. (1990) in their study exploring peer ratings of 29 personality traits in relation
to student ratings of teaching effectiveness, find that for any given type of course or for all types combined,
student instructional ratings were strongly related to peer ratings of instructor personality traits. Phillips’ study
(1998) reported by Ali and Sell (1998) find that students in their perceptions about the student evaluation of
teaching, they acknowledged that the personality of teacher is more present in their assessment despite that they
claimed that this was irrelevant to the question of the effectiveness of the pedagogy. For Goldstein and Benassi
(2006) students tend to evaluate perceived teaching quality in terms of the characteristics of teachers including
their enthusiasm, presentation and clarity. All these studies cited above show that the evaluation of teaching is
strongly influenced by teacher personality, thus, it can be a source of confusion and ambiguity and bias, that,
although personality attributes are likely important, they may be overemphasized in students’ recall of effective
teaching (Kraus and Sears 2008). According to Ross, Amabile and Steinmetz (1977), it’s due to Gestalt
processes and the “fundamental attribution error” in social psychology. So, using a common tool to evaluate
educational issues, it may not be considered a best practice. The evaluation items related to teacher effectiveness
must be given separately from those related to teaching effectiveness in the SET.
Additionally, the two most widely used instruments in educational evaluation, Teacher Behaviors
Checklist (TBC) Buskist et al.,( 2002) and Students’ Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) Marsh, H. W.
(1982), composed each by a set of item so different by nature and meaning. The former (TBC) measure 28 trait
of personality of effective teacher: Accessible, Approachable, Authoritative, Confident, Creative and
Interesting, effective communicator, Encourages and Cares for Students, Enthusiastic about Teaching and

about Topic, Establishes Daily and Academic Term Goals, Flexible, good listener, Happy, Humble,
Knowledgeable About Subject Matter, prepared, Presents Current Information, professional, Promotes Class
Discussion, Promotes Critical Thinking, Provides Constructive Feedback, Punctuality/Manages Class Time,
Rapport, Realistic Expectations of Students/Fair Testing and Grading, Respectful, Sensitive and Persistent,
Strives to Be a Better Teacher, Technologically Competent, Understanding. Whereas the second (SEEQ)
measures nine factors of teaching effectiveness: learning/value, enthusiasm, organization, group interaction,
individual rapport, breadth of coverage, exams, assignments, and workload/ difficulty. By bearing in mind the
components of these two instruments of measure, it may be hypothesized that educational evaluation will be
conceptualized by considering both teacher personality traits and elements of effective teaching. This assertion
can be supported by Akerlind’ findings (2004), thus, in his research undertaken from a phenomenographic
perspective of academics’ ways of experiencing being a university teacher, in contrast to the focus taken in
previous studies on academics’ experiences of teaching per se, the results indicate that a focus on academics’
experience of teaching separated from their larger experience of being a teacher may encourage over
simplification of the phenomenon of university teaching.
We hypotheses that the notion of appraising or evaluating teaching in higher education setting must
necessarily relate to views what constitutes both effective teaching and effective teacher. However, research
involving perception of educational quality has failed to separate the two concepts. This study uses a qualitative
method, an open-ended questions asking students about both teacher (person) and teaching (act) directly in
attempt to uncover what Gengler et al. (1999, p. 175) refer to as the “reasons behind the reasons”, and
understanding how students perceive teacher and teaching effectiveness and to identify the conceptual structure
that students use in their perception, this uncovering of a structure is helpful in wording the items and designing
the questionnaire and consequently, avoiding as possible any confusion in the perception of the two concepts,
that can constitute a source of bias in students evaluations of their effectiveness education.
II. Objectives
The purposes of this study were to delineate separately the characteristics of effective teachers and the
characteristics of effective teaching.The two research questions were: (a) What do select first year students
perceive as being characteristics of effective university teachers? (b) What do select first year students perceive
as being characteristics of effective teaching? The results were evaluated as whole.
III. Methodology
3.1. Design
A qualitative survey design was used in this study. Survey research has been characterized as "the
best method available to the social researcher who is interested in collecting original data for describing a
population too large to observe directly…Surveys are also excellent vehicles for measuring attitudes and
orientations in a large population."(p.270) (Babbie 2008). This approach proved successful as respondents
offered rich descriptions and detailed narratives about their experiences as students “Students were to be free to
identify the characteristics and how they are demonstrated without having their belief system influenced by
researchers’ views... Since the origins of perceptions are found in the belief systems of the students, the rich
narratives provided by the students could identify, with greater certainty, the beliefs of the participants”.(p.4)
(Delaney et al.2010) . The survey allow students to express themselves spontaneously, fully, and in their own
language rather than through the predetermined choices of the researchers Hong (1984), to identify the
characteristics that they believe are important by hand-wrote. According to Cohen et al 2000 an “open-ended
question can catch the authenticity, richness, depth of response, honesty and candor which … are the hallmarks
of qualitative data” (p.255) (Cohen et al., 2000).
3.2. Sample
Participants in this study were 25 first year students were choose randomly, to obtain a representative
sample (Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007). The average age was 19.52 years (SD = 1.12), with the youngest
student being 18 years old and the oldest person being 21 years old. They all enrolled for the L1 (licence first
year). They have the same Secondary School degree. According to Guest et al. (2006) “If the goal is to describe
a shared perception, belief, or behavior among a relatively homogeneous group, then a sample of twelve will
likely be sufficient… The more similar participants in a sample are in their experiences with respect to the
research domain, the sooner we would expect to reach saturation”(p.76) In general, sample sizes in qualitative
research should not be too large that it is difficult to extract thick, rich data (Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007).
3.3. Instrumentation
The researchers employed the use of a survey comprising demographic questions and four open-ended
questions. A general explanation of purpose was given orally for the university students. Additionally, the

instructions were typed at the top of each sheets of paper that each participant received and assured the
respondents of the confidentiality of the data and the answers they provide. Twenty five students were asked at
the end of the first semester four questions in the same questionnaire:
1. In your point of view what are the characteristics of effective teacher?
2. If are you a teacher, what qualities in your point of view, you think that your students appreciate in you?
3. How you qualify effective teaching?
4. What in your point of view are the practices that permitted effective teaching?
5. The questions 2 and 4 were added just for inciting and encouraging students to more expressiveness about
the effective teacher and effective teaching characteristics respectively.
3.4. Procedure
My thesis director, she has been in charge of administering the survey instrument with opened-ended questions
to students at the end of practical class session for in Ferber 2012. She explained the purpose of the study to
students.
3.5. Data Analysis

The descriptors extracted from the students’ responses were sorted into conceptual items based on
Walls et al.’s verb-referent methodology (2002) presented in the table. A conceptual item consisted of a verb
followed by that verb’s referent. Examples of these verb-referent statements are: Is punctual; Respects students,
and so on. After careful analysis of the descriptive corpus, emergent categories of verb-referent statements of
effective teaching and effective teacher were captured. Two item pools were generated, one represent what
constitutes effective teacher and another represent of what constitutes effective teaching from the overall
perspectives of the respondents.
IV. Resultats
Al first, the most participants’ responses given in the questions 1 and 3 were rewrite in the questions 2
and 4 respectively As shown in table 1, the 25 participants' responses yield a total of 22 and 21 verb referent
statements corresponding to effective teacher’ characteristics and effective teaching’ characteristics respectively.
The first observation that can be made from these data shows a clear distinction in the students’ responses, it’s
finds a specifics about the students’ perceptions of their educational effectiveness yielding distinct items. Thus,
regarding verb-referent statements that constitute effective teacher were shorts, one, two or three words (i.e. is
dedicated, respect students…), the most statements are traits of personality that what students hope in their
instructor as person.
Table 1: Effective teacher and teaching verb referent categories extracted from survey
Characteristics of effective teacher Characteristics of effective teaching
Verb referent statements Verb referent statements
…is good communicator ...is transmitting knowledge in a way that facilitate learning
…explain well …is respecting students and treating them with sympathy
…is punctual …is a course content allow acquisition of new and valued
knowledge
…is understanding …is an environment conducive to learning
…is encouraging students to participate in discussions and to
…is honest share ideas
…is dedicated ...is course well prepared and clearly explained
…is persevering …is mastering of matter teaching
…is flexible …is involving students in the course
…is serious …is showing good impression toward students
…is smiling …is providing (by teacher) support and helps to students
…possesses a sense of humor …is inciting a students to be explorers of knowledge
…is modest …is adapting a course content to the research progress in the
subject
…is patient …is integrating support to facilitate learning
…respect students …is initiating students to research
…is well presented …is having a genuine interest and concern in students needs
…have strong personality …is reading attention (teachers) to the need of student (academic
and personal)
…is self-confident …is treating students equitably and without discrimination by a
teacher
…is approachable …is availability (teacher) to any student consultation
…is accessible …is availability (teacher) for any re-explanation in case of need
…is model for students …is giving an evaluation in relation to what is taught
…is well prepared …is giving an Evaluation/correction of exams with
responsibility

…is expert in subject
Whereas verb-referent statements concerning effective teaching were expressed with long phrases
(i.e.…is treating students with respect and sympathy by teachers,…is mastering matter teaching), that constitute
what students expect from their instructor and what he must affords to them.
V. Discussion and Conclusion

The aims of the study were to clarify the way how the first year students conceptualised both “
effective teacher” and “effective teaching” in their perception, project that has not been addressed in the wide
body of literature on student perception of educational effectiveness. Most of earlier studies (Bail and Mina
1981; Stevens et al 1981; Feldens and Duncan 1986; Raymond 2008; Khandelwal 2009; Allen et al 2009) used
teacher and teaching interchangeably although they are not identical (Miron & Segal 1978). By asking the
respondents only what the characteristics of effective teaching limits the range of effective teacher
characteristics that can be included and vice versa, and thus impose inherent limitations on evaluation of
teaching or teacher. For example, as evaluation of effective teaching forms can assess mainly those
characteristics that are related to the fact “doing”, on the contrary, asking such a question: what are the
characteristics of an effective teacher?, conduct us above mainly to the personal characteristics of the teacher
that are reflect the “being” more than the “doing”. Thus we must admit at the outset that evaluation of teaching
process is incomplete and lacking in scope, and must always be complemented by each other the two sources of
data on teaching and teacher. Again, we see that if we rely solely on evaluation of teaching effectiveness or
teacher effectiveness as a measure of instruction effectiveness, we will inevitably make some mistakes. For
example Students are in a good position to judge humans characteristics of the teacher such approachability,
empathy, respect…. these qualities were the core of the teaching practice, have a strong impact on student
learning. But the expert or pair not.
So, as we can notice, the results in this study show that the respondents expressed differently their
perceptions. Thus, the importance seen here of “effective teacher” and “effective teaching” as a distinct concepts
in the students’ perception is significant. The ways in which students answer to open-ended questions shows
that their responses have been influenced by the content of questions (teacher or teaching) facing them in the
survey, each question generated a mental representation of what each implies and then, bring immediately to
mind an answer (Robertson, 2004). The difference of these mental representations reflects a difference in the
students’ perceptions, and then a difference in the categories that constitutes characteristics of effective teacher
and those of effective teaching. So, using a common tool for evaluation of educational issues without precise
what exactly (teacher or teaching or course…) may not be the best practice, we can’t know exactly what items
are related directly to the act (teaching) and those who related directly to the person who teach (teacher). This
ambiguity was too reveled by Marsh (2007) who stated “An important, unresolved controversy is whether the
SET instruments measure effective teaching or merely behaviors or teaching styles” (p.322). So, the selection of
evaluation questions is an essential factor in ensuring that evaluations are valid measures. As Marsh and Roche
(1997) argue:
The validity and usefulness of SET information depend on the content and the coverage of the items.
Poorly worded or inappropriate items will not provide useful information, whereas scores averaged across an ill-
defined assortment of items offer no basis for knowing what is being measured (p. 1187). Additionally, Cohen’
study (2005), using Factor analysis and a Smallest Space Analysis (SSA) to discover organizing principles in
students’ evaluations, finds that the course and the teacher’s effectiveness may be considered separate categories
of evaluation, because its comprised distinct elements independent of their relationship with the student, he
concludes “Distinguishing between these categories could be helpful in identifying or correcting bias in student
evaluations” (p.123). According to Kraus and Sears (2008), Students who are asked to describe excellent
teachers “may naturally focus on the personality of such teachers and overlook the context and techniques used
in the classroom”, however “asking students about teaching techniques directly may yield practical suggestions
for techniques that help build the sense of community that students value” (p.33). We can suggest that in their
perception of “effective teacher”, students are concerned with questions such as “How will teacher behave with
me?”, so in their perception of “effective teaching”, they are concerned with questions such as “How will
teacher behave with all students?”, so, it means that in the first year level, the teacher must strive to meet
different personal needs of different students.
The findings of this study could be considered as an expanding to these funding above. We suggest that
there needs to be a specific set of items for evaluating the effectiveness of instructor and another set of items for
evaluating effective teaching. The respondents’ opinions will reflect the all. Questionnaire design may take care
to separate items related to teacher from those related to teaching, this distinction may help in avoiding
confusion and biases in the educational evaluation particularly those due to the lenient grading Greenwald and
Gillmore (1997) and Dr Fox effect (seducer teacher). Gravestock and Gregor-Greenleaf (2008) write that
“Design of the instrument also plays an important role in ensuring validity” (p.30).

In many studies concerning teaching quality evaluation the researchers prefer to “list define” teaching
processes by outlining extensive characteristics, behaviors or skills that may be used to determine if teaching is
occurring such SEEQ and BTC questionnaires . However, these lists of items or categories often show a
preoccupation with the teacher personality trait or factor of teaching. Considering each list solely would not
reveal a total picture of the teaching process. So, in order to improve teaching quality in higher education,
student evaluations must be obtained by distinguishing between the elements that constitute characteristics of
effective teacher and those of effective teaching. Proceeding in this way permit us to minimize confusion and
bias that can be occurring in the SET, as reveled by Tagomori and Bishop’ (1995) analysis of the content of 200
instruments used in student evaluation of college teaching. Perhaps Marsh and Roche (1997) summarize the
challenge facing the use of students evaluation of teaching quality by saying that “Confusion about the validity
and the effectiveness of SETs will continue as long as the various distinct components of students'
ratings are treated as a single "puree" rather than as the "apples and oranges"” (p.1195). Ongoing the
finding of this study is a clear indication that appraising educational effectiveness in higher education setting
must necessarily separate the effective teacher’s characteristics to those of effective teaching in a way to avoid
as possible any confusion that can bias students’ perception of teaching process.
VI. Implication and Recommendations

The focus taken in this study on the first-year students’ perception of both effective teacher
characteristics and effective teaching characteristics should highlighted new aspects of university teaching that
can support the “news students” in their transition, adjustment, persistence and success in the university settings.
These findings are significants, as previous studies of perceptions of teaching process by students have not
highlighted the existing differences between the two concepts: effective teacher and effective teaching. So, the
study reinforces that, in the educational process, there are complementarities between the characteristics of
teacher as person and the characteristics of teaching as act. This study holds exciting potential for developing
more complex understandings of teaching process in the post secondary institutions, which in turn has
implications for the improvement of university-level teaching. Hopefully, these findings should be considered
one of the other possibilities of building a useful knowledge base for teaching in the tertiary level, so that serve
as tool to the development of university academics as teachers and novice teachers may benefit, and the study
will be the beginning of a more extensive research agenda in the area of educational effectiveness at the higher
education.
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Accreditation of Initial Teacher Eduction Programmes in Algeria by Dr. MEBITIL

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IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME)

Identification of Students’ Metacognition Level in Solving

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 1 | Page

II. Research Methodology

III. Findings and discussion

Table 1. The data of the subject’s metacognition characteristic

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 2 | Page

The data of metacognition characteristic in the lower-moderate category

Figure 5.1 the Answer of Subject PML

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 3 | Page

Figure 5.2 the Answer of Subject BI

Figure 5.3. The Answer of Subject V

Figure 5.4 the Answer of Subject IZ

Figure 5.5. The answer of subject CGJA

Figure 5.6. The answer of subject LAW

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 5 | Page

Figure 5.7. The Analysis done by the subject ZH

Figure 5.7. The Answer of Subject RPR

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 7 | Page

Description Verbal Mathematics Communication of Students

II. Theoritical Review

III. Research Methodology

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040811 www.iosrjournals.org 9 | Page

IV. Finding and Discussion

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040811 www.iosrjournals.org 10 | Page

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040811 www.iosrjournals.org 11 | Page

Preparedness of Teachers of Kiswahili in Teaching Using

I. Background to the Problem

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 12 | Page

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 13 | Page

II. Review of Related Literature

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 14 | Page

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 15 | Page

III. Statement of the Problem

Research Design and Methodology

Target Population and Sampling

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 16 | Page

Table 1 Study Sample

Data Collection Instruments

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

IV. Findings and Discussion

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 17 | Page

Table 4.5 Competencies required by Teachers of Kiswahili

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 18 | Page

VI. Conclusions and Recommendations

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 19 | Page

From the interviews, it was noted that most HODs averred:

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 20 | Page

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606041221 www.iosrjournals.org 21 | Page

School Leadership Practices: What are their Implications on

1.2 State of the Art Review

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606042229 www.iosrjournals.org 22 | Page

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606042229 www.iosrjournals.org 23 | Page

1.3 The Statement of the Problem

1.4 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

1.5. Research Hypotheses

II. Research Design And Methodology

DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606042229 www.iosrjournals.org 24 | Page

III. Findings And Discussion

3.1.1. Ranking of Leadership attributes and holistic education

4.2.3. Leadership and holistic education by school classification

Figure 1: Leadership and holistic education by type of school classification

3.2 Testing the null hypothesis on leadership and holistic education

3.3. Triangulating, Interpretation and Discussions