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e-ISSN: 2320–7388,p-ISSN: 2320–737X Volume 6, Issue 6 Ver. IV (Nov. - Dec. 2016), PP 01-07
www.iosrjournals.org
Abstract: This study aims at identifying the students’ metacognition level in solving mathematics problem
about sequence. The subject of the study is eight senior high school students in tenth grade. The students’
metacognition level is identified qualitatively by using test sheet, think aloud transcript, and interview. The
finding shows that in the level of tacit use, the subject is not aware of what and why thinking is used to solve the
problem. In the level of aware use, the subject is aware of what they are thinking. They are able to express why
and how thinking is used to solve the problem. While in the level of semi strategic use, the subject starts to direct
their thinking by realizing strategies to solve the problem and improve their thinking accuracy. In this level, the
subject realize that there are some mistakes, but they do not know how to correct them. In the level of strategic
use, the subject consciously uses some strategies to improve their thinking accuracy. In the level of semi
reflective use, the subject reflects partially on their problem solving process. The reflection is done on some
parts. Finally, in the level of reflective use, the subject reflects their thinking before, during, and after solving
the problem.
Keywords: metacognition, metacognition level, problem solving, sequence
I. Introduction
Metacognition plays an important role in solving a mathematics problem (Hartman, 1998; Biryukov,
2003; Aurah, et. al, 2011; Anggo, 2011). The role of metacognition in the problem solving is to help the
problem solver realize the problem, differentiate the problem, and understand how to achieve the goal or the
solution of the problem (Kuzle, 2003).
Metacognition consists of “meta” as a prefix and “cognition”. Meta is the prefix for the word
“cognition” which means after cognition (Laurens, 2010). Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest that the
prefix in the word “cognition” is used to reflect the idea that the metacognition is “about” or “after” the
cognition. This means that metacognition is cognition about cognition.
Conceptually, the metacognition is defined as knowledge or awareness of one’s thinking process, an
ability to monitor and manage the thinking process and its result, as well as evaluate the thinking process and its
result. In other words, the metacognition can be categorized into some components, namely components related
to the knowledge or self-awareness and components related to monitoring and evaluation of the thinking process
and its result (Laurens, 2010).
Lucangeli and Carnoldi (1997) state that the essential metacognitive skill in problem solving is
predicting, planning, monitoring, and evaluating. The similar view is expressed by Derry and Hawkes (1993)
who say that there are two important aspects of metacognitive skill, namely self-monitoring and planning. The
two experts agree that planning and monitoring are two essential aspects in problem solving, but there is a slight
different opinion between them. Lucangeli and Cornoldi (1997) suggest that the planning involves the ability to
analyze the problem and arrange the strategy to solve the problem, whereas Derry and Hawkes (1993) argue that
the planning refers to the attempt to break down the problem into some parts which can be solved separately to
get the final answer.
Sophianingtyas and Bambang (2013) state that to improve the metacognitive skill, students have to be
aware of their thinking process. However, every student has their own ability and awareness in responding to a
problem. Some students consciously pay attention to problem given to them and solve it in a hierarchal way,
while other students may answer carelessly when given some tasks. This is caused by the different level of
awareness or metacognition.
Swartz and Perkins (Gregory, 2005) divide the students’ metacognition level into four categories,
namely tacit use, aware use, strategic use, and reflective use. Moreover, Lauren (2010) states that the students’
metacognition level consists of tacit use, aware use, semi strategic use, strategic use, semi reflective use, and
reflective use. If we compare the metacognition level stated by the two experts, the difference is in the level of
semi strategic use and semi reflective use. Lauren adds two levels as in her preliminary study, she finds that
there are some students who do not belong the metacognition level established by Swartz and Perkins.
Furthermore, from her study, she finds out two new levels of metacognition.
Sophianingtyas and Bambang (2013) state that the metacognitive arranges the cognitive process. It
indicates that the higher the students’ cognitive ability, the higher their metacognitive level. High-intelligence
students belong to the reflective use or strategic use level of metacognition. While the moderate-intelligence
students are in the strategic use or aware use level of metacognition. The low-intelligence students may have the
aware use or tacit use level of metacognition. Yet, it cannot be generalized as there are some factors affecting
the process of problem solving.
The study by Agustina and Trineke (2013) about the students’ metacognition level in solving
mathematics problem about the circumference of square and rectangle concludes that the students who reach
high score in mathematic belong to the strategic use level of metacognitive. Meanwhile, the moderate and high
scored students are in the level of aware use and tacit use, respectively. Another researcher, Fitriyah (2013) who
does a research about the students’ metacognitive level in solving trigonometric problems, concludes that the
high-leveled students belong to the level of semi reflective use. While the moderate ones are in the level of semi
strategic use, and the lower ones are in the level of tacit use.
The two previous studies by Agustina, L. M., and Trineke, J. M. (2013) and Fitriyah (2013) shows that
there is no student in the level of reflective use when solving the mathematic problems. This arises a question
why it happens. However, it needs to be highlighted that the previous studies use mathematic materials which
tend to be deductive. In fact, some mathematic materials are inductive. On the other side, the materials used by
the previous researchers have not showed mathematics as the science of pattern and relationship yet. It indicates
that a further study about inductive mathematic materials which show the science of pattern and relationship is
needed.
One of mathematics materials which tends to have inductive characteristic and is able to reflect
mathematics as a science about pattern and relationship is sequence. In Senior High School level, this material
consists of two main sub themes, namely arithmetic sequence and geometric sequence.
On 18th March 2016, the researcher carried out a preliminary study by giving a problem solving case
about the sequence to students in X grade. The preliminary study showed that the students’ metacognition level
in solving mathematics’ problem about sequence varied a lot. Based on the preliminary result, it was identified
that there were some students who belonged to reflective use level while solving the sequence problem. This
finding supports an urgency to have a deeper study about identification of students’ metacognition level in
solving sequence problems in mathematics.
Based on the issue above and some previous references, a study entitled “Identification of Students’
Metacognition Level in Solving Mathematics Problems about Sequence” is carried out.
Based on the metacognition characteristic in the table 1, the metacognition level of the subject in
solving the problem of sequence could be identified as follows.
1. Tacit use
The research finding showed that the subjects who were in the tacit use level did not do any reflection
when they solved the problem and were not aware of what they were thinking. In this level, the subject only did
what it has to be done and did not know why they did it. This was supported by Swart and Perkins in (Gregory,
2005) who said that in the level of tacit use, one made a decision without thinking of the decision itself.
Laurens (2010) suggested that the students in the level of tacit use had so-called instrumental
understanding. The instrumental understanding was a kind of understanding of using a way without knowing or
realizing the reason of doing it. In this study, this understanding could be found in the answer of subject PML
who said that one dot could make eighteen lines so that the number of lines formed was . This subject did
not realize that this was impossible. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.1 below.
Subject PML: “…there are eighteen dots, it means eighteen, so one dot will be connected to another
one, eighteen, so there will be eighteen connection as well, so eighteen multiplies
eighteen…”
More specifically, the characteristic which indicated the subject belonged to the level of tacit use was
his/her confusion to the meaning of the problem or the difficulty in identifying or analyzing the problem despite
of the repeated reading. He/she did not realize that what he/she said was not meaningful and they merely did the
calculation as they knew and believed it as they could find the answer.
2. Aware use
The subject who belonged to the level of aware use have realized of what they were thinking. They
were able to express why and how the thinking could be used to solve the problem. For example, the subject BI
expressed that as one dot could be connected to other seventeen dots and there were eighteen dots, so the
number of lines could be made was 18 x 17. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and figure 5.2 below.
Subject BI: “… okay… actually, if there are eighteen dots. Eighteen dots, if one dot can be connected
to other seventeen dots, so eighteen dots can be connected to a lot of dots… means
that if one dot equals to seventeen dots, so eighteen dots equal to…”
Based on the Figure 5.2, it was shown that the student in this level was aware of every step he/she chose. Take a
look at the think aloud transcript as follows.
Subject B: “…using the cross multiplication. 1 times x equals to 17 times 18. Then we try the direct
multiplication, eighteen times seventeen…”
However, they are not aware of the mistakes they made in the analogy. This was shown from the x considered
as a dot.
The subject characteristic in this level was eliciting why and how the thinking was used, the
background of the decision made, and the awareness of the weakness.
3. Semi strategic use
The subject in the level of semi strategic use began to direct their thinking by realizing a strategy to
solve the problem as well as ideas to improve the thinking accuracy. Laurens (2010) stated that the awareness of
the strategy owned by the students in the level of semi strategic use was not only limited to the cognitive
strategy, but also the metacognitive strategy used to show or improve the thinking accuracy. The subject in this
level started direct their thinking by underlining steps they took or marking the answer they found and showing
the hesitation about the existing cognitive process. The statement “…I have tried many times but the answer
keeps increasing… increasing… one more and more…” and there were three alternative final answers indicating
that the subject hesitated about their final answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.3 as
follows.
Subject V: “… So… I tried many times, but the answer keeps increasing… increasing… one more and
more. So I think I need to be more careful...”
In this level, the subject has tried to check on what they were thinking. However, when they realized
that there was something wrong in their thinking, they had no idea how to correct it.
4. Strategic use
In this level, the subject consciously used various strategies to improve their thinking accuracy. This
was reflected from the subject who realized that they had to read the problem repeatedly to understand more
about it. Take a look at the think aloud transcript as follows.
Subject IZ: “… to understand more, I read it again…”
DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606040107 www.iosrjournals.org 4 | Page
Identification Of Students’ Metacognition Level In Solving Mathematics Problem About Sequence
Besides rereading the problem, the subject in this level also recalculated or checked their answer to the
information available in the problem. See the think aloud transcript and Figure 5.4 as follows.
Subject I: “…so a equals to seventeen, equals to thirty four, equals to sixty eight. If using the
pattern, it is supposed to be seventeen, thirty four, fifty one…”
The rechecking process led the awareness of the decision making. The decision making depended on
the metacognition knowledge they had (Laurens, 2010).
The metacognition characteristic in the level of strategic use was realizing their own skill, showing
their ability to defend their argument supporting their thinking accuracy, having trials, rechecking by
recalculating and revising, comparing or matching the answer to the available information, knowing how to
convince, and believing in their answer after checking the answer.
5. Semi reflective use
The subject in the level of semi reflective use have done a reflection during the problem solving
process, but only partially. The reflection done by the students in this level was only in some parts. For example,
the subject CGJA did the reflection in the first, second, and thirds steps, but not in the fourth step and after
finding the final answer. This could be seen from the mistake he/she made during the calculation. Take a look at
the Figure 5.5 below.
The same mistake was also found in subject L. Despite his/her correct steps, his calculation process was
incorrect. The mistake showed that the subject LAW did not recalculate after finding the final answer. Take a
look at the Figure 5.6 below.
However, after finding the answer, the subject LAW did the reflection even though limited in the
process of finding the answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript below.
Subject L: “…check… recheck. If the main dot connecting to other dots makes seventeen lines, then if
the main dots is replaced by the next dot, it is supposed to be seventeen lines as well,
but the line between the second and the first dot has been mentioned, so it is minus
one, sixteen. If the main dot is preplaced by the third dot, there are seventeen lines,
too. But there are two lines have been mentioned, the first line with the first dot, and
the second line with the second dot, so the rest is fifteen dots. This is the pattern.
Every new dot, what do you call it, which replaces the main dot, the line is minus
one… the pattern is seventeen, sixteen, fifteen, up to zero. After we sum up, the total
number is 160…”
Based on the finding, it could be concluded that the students in the level of semi reflective use did not
do any rechecking after finding the final answer. This was the opposite of what Laurens (2010) said. She stated
that the reflection in the level of semi reflective use only emphasized on the obtained final answer. She argued
that the subject in this level tended to reconsider the match between the result and what they knew. The students
could only reflect their thinking in the common context, which meant it was limited o the process of finding the
answer.
6. Reflective use
The main characteristic of the subject in the level of reflective use was the subject reflected their
thinking before, during, and after solving the problem. The reflection process was always carried out.
In this level, the subject identified and analyzed the problem before solving it. For instance, the subject
ZH tried to find out the pattern using the simpler case. Take a look at the Figure 5.7 and the think aloud
transcript as follows.
Subject Z: “…if there are two lines, there will be one line. If there is a line, so there is no line. And if
there are three dots, it is supposed to be three lines, and if there are four dots, the
number of lines are six…”
This was in line with the statement by Laurens (2010) who said that the thinking process used by the
students in the level of reflective use tended to be more logical and analytical. When the subject was given a
problem, they could identify the problems’ type and structures, then they analyzed it so that they could create
logic procedures that could be used to solve the problem. The metacognitive knowledge and skill were used as
the analysis process.
If the subject in this level made mistakes, they would immediately make a revision to the steps or the
answer. Take a look at the think aloud transcript and the work of subject RPR in Figure 5.8 below.
Subject R: “…one line seventeen. If there are eighteen dots, it means eighteen times seventeen...
correct… oh wait, this is already, so no need to… oh… the first one seventeen, the
second one must be reduced… this is not needed… one two three… sixteen… so three
fifteen… four… four.. fourteen…”
IV. Conclusion
Based on the analysis, it can be concluded that the subject in the level of tacit use do not realize about
what and why the thinking is employed to solve the problem. In the level of aware use, the subject are aware of
what they are thinking. They are able to express why and how the thinking is used to solve the problem. In the
level of semi strategic use, the subject begin to direct their thinking by realizing that there is a strategy to
improve their thinking accuracy. In this level, the subject are aware of their mistakes, but they do not know how
to revise it. In the level of strategic use, the subject are conscious to use various strategies to improve their
thinking accuracy. In the level of semi reflective use, the subject do the reflection during the problem solving
process, not in the whole process. The reflection is only done in some parts. In the level of reflective use, the
subject reflect on their thinking before, during, and after solving the problem.
Suggestion
The study about the identification of the students’ metacognition level in solving the mathematics
problem about sequence needs to be developed more, so the characteristic of the metacognition level is more
valid.
References
[1]. Hartman, H.J.: 1998. Metacognition in Teaching and Learning: an Introduction. Instructional Science. International Journal of
Learning and cognition, 26, 1-3
[2]. Biryukov, P. 2003. Metacognitive aspect of solving combinatorics problems. [Online].
Tersedia:http://www.cimt.pymouth.ac.uk/journal/biryukov.pdf. diakses pada 20 September 2015
[3]. Aurah et al. 2011. The role of metacognition in everyday problem solving among primary students in Kenya. Problems of Education
in the 21th Century Vol 30
[4]. Anggo, M. 2011. Pelibatan metakognisi dalam pemecahan masalah matematika. Edumatika Volume 01 No 1
[5]. Kuzle, A. 2013. Patterns of metacognitive behavior during mathematics problem-solving in dynamic geometry environment.
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education Vol. 8, no. 1, pages 20-40.
[6]. Laurens, T. 2010. Penjenjangan Metakognisi Siswa yang Valid dan Reliabilitas. Jurnal Pendidikan & Pembelajaran Vol.17, No 2
[7]. Lucangeli, D., dan Cornoldi, C. 1997. Mathematics and metacognition : what is the nature of the relationship? Mathematical
Cognition, 3, 121-139
[8]. Derry, S.J. dan Hawkes, L.W. 1993. Local cognitive model of problem-solving behavior: An application of fuzzy theory.
Computers as cognitive tools. Lajoie, Susanne P. and Derry, Sharon J. (eds.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[9]. Sophianingtyas, F., dan Bambang. S. 2013. Identifikasi level metakognitif siswa dalam memecahkan masalah materi perhitungan
kimia. Unesa Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 2, No 1
[10]. Gregory, G. H. 2005. Differentiating instruction with style: aligning teacher and learner intelligences for maximum achievement.
California: Corwin Press
[11]. Agustina, L. M., dan Trineke, J.M. 2013. Identifikasi tingkat metakognisi siswa dalam memecahkan masalah matematika
berdasarkan perbedaan skor matematika. MATHEdunesa Vol 2 No 1
[12]. Fitriyah, R. 2013. Identifikasi level metakognitif siswa MA Muhammadiyah 1 Malang dalam memecahkan masalah matematika.
[Online]. Diakses melalui http://eprints.umm.ac.id/15779/ pada 1 Desember 2015
Abstract: This study aims to describe: (1) the communication of mathematics verbal male studentof
prospective teacher in teaching mathematics and (2) the communication of mathematics verbal a female
student of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice. This research is exploratory research with a
qualitative approach. Subjects in this study are 2 students consisting of one male student mathematics of
prospective teacher and 1 female student mathematics of prospective teacher who meet the criteria set by the
researcher. The researcher is as the main instrument to make observations and interviews directly to the
subject. The data was obtained by the observation of the subject teaching practice 3 times, followed by
interviews. Criterion validity of the data was done by using credibility, transferability, dependability, and
conformability. Based on the results of the study, the researchers can conclude that 1) a description of
mathematical communication verbala male student prospective teachers of mathematics in teaching practice is
correct and clear when pronouncing the name / term mathematical objects relating to the material sense
conveyed, but wrong in saying the reduction operation with the notation "negatives" that should be pronounced
"reduced" but pronounced "negative", and this is because custom made by the subject, giving a different
intonationwhen saying the name / term mathematical objects are given priority. The subjects are underlined
while giving emphasis when pronouncing the name / term preferred mathematical objects, and sounds can be
heard by all students in the classroom; (2) a description of mathematical communication verbal of female
student of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice is to pronounce the name / term mathematical
objects correctly and clearly, intonation flat course, there is no emphasis on the name / term mathematical
objects that take precedence over teaching practice, because the subject thinks that students already understand
the things that are important in the materials provided, and the sound can be heard by all students who are in
class
Keywords: mathematical verbal communication, student teachers of mathematics , teaching practice
I. Pendahuluan
Teachers need the communication skills to convey abstract mathematical objects to students.
Mathematics is a language, not just a means of mathematical thinking tools , tools to find patterns, but
mathematics as well as a vehicle for communication between students and communication between teachers and
students. Communication in mathematics and mathematics learning into something are needed. Mathematicsis
a language and that language as the best in the community, then it is easy to understand that communication is
essential in teaching, learning, and accessing to mathematics ([1] Rbaryans 2007) verbal communication in
mathematics to be observed is focused on the pronunciation of the name / term object mathematics , volume,
and intonation. Why should student „s mathematics verbal communication skills teachers possess? In
mathematics, it is not uncommon misconceptions about concepts that are presented to the student teacher. It is
as a result of the abstract mathematical characteristics. Therefore, pre student teachers of teaching mathematics
in practice may not only explain the material without regard to the communication aspect. Without regard to the
communication is not necessarily acceptable material presented students properly.
The symbol "8" and the word "eight" convey the same message, only the shape is different. Reading
mathematic texts should be able to read the special mathematic symbols related to the text. When we pronounce
the mathematical objects, the voice that came from the lips we must pay attention to how the tone, clarity, and
stressing . According to ([3] Borg, 2010), we communicate via voice (tone, speed, and stressing ) .When a
concept of mathematical information is given by a teacher to the student or students to get themselves through
reading, then when it is going transformation of mathematical information from the communicator to the
communicant. The response given communicant an interpretation of that information. In mathematics , the
quality of interpretation and the response were often a special problem. It is as a result of the characteristics of
the mathematics itself is loaded with terms and symbols. Therefore, communication skills of teachers in
teaching mathematics becomes into special demands. Mathematical verbal communication skills are skills that
can enclose and contain a variety of opportunities to communicate in the form: reflect the real objects, images,
or ideas of mathematics ; creating a model situation or problem using oral methods; using the term reading
skills, as well as mathematical information; responding to a statement or problem in the form of a convincing
argument. Cockroft 1986 ([4] Shadiq, 2004) states that “We believe that all these perceptions of the usefulness
of mathematics arise from the fact that mathematics provides a means of communication which is powerful,
concise, and unambiguous.” This statement shows that how is very essential for students to learn mathematics
because mathematics is a tool of communication which is very strong, clear, and accurate.
Communications related mathematics as part of interpersonal skills aspects to be observed is the pronunciation
of the mathematical objects, the sound volume in utter mathematics ematical objects, and intonation given to
mathematical objects are given priority. Therefore, teachers in communication also should pay attention to
intonation, but it also notice the volume of sound, speech intelligibility as well. Based on the above, the
researcher defined the mathematical verbal communication is the process of delivering ideas / thoughts
mathematics in oral form in the form of utterances .
2.2. Interwoven Communication Verbal Math Students Prospective Teachers of Mathematics in Practice
Teaching
Teaching requires good communication between teachers and students, and between students and other
students. ([5] National Council of Teachers of Mathematics NCTM 2000), describes ".... many of mathematics
educators believe communication is a crucial part of mathematics ". That is, many teachers of mathematics
believe that communication is an important part of mathematics. According to ([6] NCTM 2003), an aspiring
mathematics teacher should be able to communicate ideas mind mathematical orally and in writing to his
friends, teachers, and to the others, with the indicators, capable of: (1) to communicate thoughts mathematical
basis coherent and clear to his friends, teachers, and for others; (2) using mathematical language to express an
idea / ideas accurately; (3) manage the mathematical thinking through communication; and (4) analyze and
evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others. In general, the main task of a mathematics teacher
is to guide students on how to study the real and how to solve each of the problems facing her so that guidance
can be used and exploited their future.
Therefore, the long-term goal is to improve the competence of learning allowing students to leave
school when it will be able to develop themselves and be able to solve problems as they arise. According to ([7]
Kusumah, 2008) states that communication is a very important part in the learning of mathematics .
Communication through mathematical ideas can be exploited in a variety of perspectives; the way of thinking of
students can be sharpened; understanding the growth can be measured; students' thinking can be consolidated
and organized; mathematical knowledge and the development of students' problems could be improved; and
communication of mathematics can be done. One of the important factors that influences student learning
activities is communication skill. Teachers should be able to speak and choose a style of speaking, using
language as a tool to communicate. According to communication theory, intonation affects 38% of
communication. According to ([8] Sari, 2011), "volume and intonationof voice teachers in the learning process
must be heard well by learners ".So it is clear that the mathematical verbal communication skills in teaching
mathematics is a fundamental capability that must be held by teachers and users of mathematics for learning ,
teaching, and assessing the mathematics .
Based on the observations of the researcher, the subject indeed underlined the mathematical objects
which were emphasized, while pronouncing the name of an exclusive disjunction notation with a different
intonation on the word exclusive disjunction.
Based on the observations of the researcher and recording , male subject voice can be heard by all students in
the classroom practice.
The following data is already credible on the subject of female :
The female pronounces correctly all mathematical objects that exist in the material Logic, Suitable with
interviews and observations were conducted by the researcher.
.Based on the observation and recording of the researcher, sound of the subject can indeed be heard by all
students who were in class.
V. Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, the researcher can conclude that 1) a description of mathematical
communication verbal male students of prospective mathematics teachers in teaching practice is correct and
clear when pronouncing the name / term mathematics ematical objects relating to the material sense conveyed,
but wrong in saying the reduction operation with the notation "negatives" that should be pronounced "reduced"
but pronounced "negative", and this is because custom made by the subject, giving a different intonation when
saying the name / term mathematical objects are given priority. The subject underlined while giving emphasis
when pronouncing the name / term preferred mathematical objects, and sounds can be heard by all students in
the classroom; (2) a description of mathematical communication verbal female students prospective of
mathematics teachers in teaching practice is to pronounce the name / term mathematical objects correctly and
clearly, intonation flat course, there is no emphasis on the name / term mathematics ematical objects that take
precedence over teaching practice, because the subject thinks that students already understand the things that are
important in the materials provided, and the sound can be heard by all students who are in class.
Reference
[1]. Rbaryans, Komunikasi dalam matematika(http://rbaryans.wordpress.com/2007/05/30/komunikasi-dalam-matematika/, diakses tanggal 7
Sept 2011)
[2]. Armiati,Komunikasi Matematis Dan Kecerdasan Emosional. Seminar Nasional Matematika dan Pendidikan Matematika Jurusan
Pendidikan Matematika FMIPA UNY.2009
[3]. Borg, Buku Pintar Memahami Bahasa Tubuh. (Yogjakarta: Think, 2010)
[4]. Shadiq, Pemecahan Masalah, Penalaran dan Komunikasi. Diklat Instruktur/Pengembang Matematika SMA Jenjang Dasar,
(Yogyakarta, 2004)
[5]. NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics, Principles and standards for school mathematics. (Reston, VA: Author, 2000)
[6]. NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics, Programs for Initial Preparation of Mathematics Teachers. Standards for Secondary
Mathematics Teachers( http://www.nctm.org/ uploadedFiles/Math_Standards/diakses tanggal 3 Oktober 2011)
[7]. Mulyasa,Menjadi Guru Profesional Menciptakan Pembelajaran Kreatif dan Menyenangkan.(Bandung : Remaja Rosdakarya, 2005)
[8]. Sari, Penentuan Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar, (http://staff.uny. ac.id/sites/default/files/ pendidikan/Annisa%20Ratna%20Sari,
%20M.S.Ed./PPA-KBM.pdf., diakses tanggal 19 September 2011)
Abstract: The gist of this study was to assess the level of preparedness of teachers of Kiswahili in teaching
the subject using the integrated Kiswahili course in secondary schools in Kericho County, Kenya. The study
adopted the descriptive survey design and it was guided by the Needs Assessment Theory. A stratified random
sampling technique was used to draw a sample of 31 heads of departments and 62 teachers of Kiswahili
yielding a sample size of 93. Questionnaires and an interview schedule were used in collecting data, which
were then analyzed descriptively. The findings revealed that most teachers of Kiswahili were not competent in
teaching the subject using the integrated approach and the necessary resources were not adequate. The study
recommends that there should be an understanding among the teachers for the need to gain more knowledge in
preparation of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili. It is expected that the findings of
this study will be of great significance to teachers, students, policy makers and the entire stakeholders’
fraternity in improving the performance of Kiswahili in the country.[179 words]
Keywords: Preparedness, Teachers of Kiswahili, Pedagogy, Integrated Kiswahili, Course, Secondary
Schools, Kericho County, Kenya,
meant that Kiswahili was to be restricted to the coastal area. It also recommended that Kikuyu, Kalenjin,
Dholuo, Kiswahili and Luhya languages to be taught in primary schools and English be taught as a second
language (Gorman, 1970 cited in Whitely, 1974).
Commission of enquiry into the education system in Kenya, in 1949 was released. The Beecher report
recommended that Kiswahili language be used in the instruction in primary schools of towns and settled areas,
while English was to be taught in all areas irrespective of the nature of their settlement. This recommendation
demeaned the status of Kiswahili by according English a higher status.Shortly before independence, the colonial
government introduced instruction of English language from the lower primary classes. This implementation
came after the annual report of the department of education was released. The report advocated the instruction
of English language instead of Kiswahili and mother tongue arguing that it was not satisfactory to use three
languages: English, Kiswahili and mother tongue as a media of instruction in primary school. The
implementation of the report started in 1958 under what came to be known as new primary approach (Musau,
2003).
After the attainment of independence in 1964, Commission of Enquiry to Education Systems in Kenya
was appointed to review educational matters. This commission recommended in regard to Kiswahili was that the
language was to be taught as a compulsory subject but was not to be examined (Musau, 2003). Consequently,
the teachers and the students did not take the subject seriously.After Ominde commission of 1964 the, bearing of
Kenya, language policy was affected by the Watraluo commission report of 1972. About Kiswahili the
commission recommended that the members of public while seeking government services use Kiswahili as a
language of communication, in addition the report demanded that all government employees in public offices be
competent in speaking Kiswahili. However, this was not fully enforced. There after commission of inquiry to
education system in Kenya of 1976 recommended that Kiswahili language to be made compulsory and
examinable subject. However, this did not take place until when Mackay report was released. After Mackay
report of 1981 another significant commission of inquiry to Education system in Kenya of 1999, recommended
Kiswahili to remain a compulsory and examinable subject up to grade 12( Mackay Report,1999).
Kiswahili is thus one of the compulsory subjects both at primary and secondary school levels and
various tertiary institutions. Because there is close relationship between curriculum and society, as the society
changes economically, politically, technologically, so should the curriculum to reflect the stated changes in the
society. As Bennie and Newstead (1999, p.1) observes, ―The introduction of a new curriculum poses a range of
challenges to teachers [among other stakeholders] with regards to the underlying assumptions and goals, the
subject demarcations, the content, the teaching approach and the methods of assessment.‖ A curriculum is a
dynamic instrument which should change after a certain period of time. However, if it changes so quite often, it
may confuse major stakeholders in the education sector like parents, teachers, learners, publishers among others.
The ideal period for a curriculum to be revised or undergo major changes is after ten years of implementation.
After the 1992, Secondary Kiswahili Curriculum was introduced and implemented there were comments that the
curriculum required some revision or changes to be in tandem with the changing society.
The integration of Fasihi and Lugha Ya Kiswahili means that teachers are assumed to have mastery of
Lugha and also a clear understanding and appreciation of Fasihi and are able to teach each as a function of the
other. This means that teachers are expected to teach grammar (Lugha) using literary texts, and also to teach
literature (Fasihi) using the various skills of grammar (Lugha) such as listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Fafbongbe (1971) says that a teacher is a very important factor in any education innovation. In other
words implementation of the integrated Kiswahili course cannot be effectively implemented in school without
the active and competent participation of the teacher. In learning Kiswahili, a fundamental question comes into
view; namely, the path that the learner traverses in attempting to reach the goal. Many Kiswahili scholars and
enthusiasts have cited numerous factors which influence the teaching and learning of Kiswahili, especially at the
primary and secondary levels. Considering that Kiswahili is a compulsory subject at both primary and
secondary levels in Kenya, under varied conditions, situations , diverse factors influence its effective teaching
and learning. This background provided tremendous impetus to investigate the competence of graduate teachers
in teaching Kiswahili using the integrated approach.
As pointed out in the UNESCO (2008) report, Capacity Building of Teacher Training Institutions in
Sub-Saharan Africa (TTISSA), UNESCO‘s aim is to bring teacher education into alignment with national
development goals. Consequently, three approaches correspond to alternative national policy goals and visions
for the future of education. The approaches are: increase the technological uptake of students, citizens, and the
workforce by incorporating technology skills in the curriculum—or the technology literacy approach; increase
the ability of students, citizens, and the workforce to use knowledge to add value to society and the economy by
applying it to solve complex, real-world problems or the knowledge deepening approach; increase the ability of
students, citizens, and the workforce to innovate, produce new knowledge, and benefit from this new knowledge
or the knowledge creation approach.Thus through these approaches, a country‘s students and ultimately its
citizens and workforce acquire increasingly sophisticated skills needed to support economic, social, cultural, and
environmental development, as well as an improved standard of living.
diversify their lessons to meet the needs of learners of all ability levels. These teachers are capable classroom
managers and skilled at motivating students, and they perennially assess both student and personal achievement.
Not only should teachers exhibit the skills necessary for communicating ideas clearly to students, but
they must also communicate with parents, other teachers, their administrators and their communities. They must
be open, approachable and diplomatic in conveying information. In a technologically oriented world, these
teachers will use contemporary modes of communication like email and interactive websites in addition to
traditional means of communication.
With respect to professionalism, teacher excellence is reflected in a professional's efforts toward
continual improvement in his/her field. Professional teachers are marked by their personal presentation,
reflection, collaboration, the desire to advance and adaptability. These teachers believe students can learn,
understand the value of diversity in the workplace and in their classrooms, and understand the ethical
implications of working with students.
Some studies in Kenya (Mohammed 1994; Ronoh 2001,Suter 2008) found out that, despite the fact that
official course syllabuses demand an integrated approach in the teaching of Geography, Much has been written
about the role of teachers and their training in any educational change undertaking. All agree that teachers are
central to the change process and therefore their training is quite crucial. Verspoor, (1989) asserts that a well-
designed and effectively implemented teacher-training programme is the key element in the successful
implementation and institutionalization of change programmes. By comparison, another research report of
World Bank on education in fourteen countries attributed failure of intended educational change mainly to
ineffective teacher training programmes (Kellagan & Greany, 1992). It thus follows that any successful
educational change is built on effective teacher training.
From the above Literature competence is vital for effective implementation of any curriculum
innovation. As Fullan (1982) postulates, the effectiveness and efficiency in teaching and learning is determined
by teachers‘ academic and professional characteristics as well as his/her experience as a teacher. Despite the
Kiswahili teacher being qualified to teach Kiswahili, they may lack competence to implement the Kiswahili
integrated course due to how the Kiswahili syllabus is design.
Finally, teacher preparedness in Teachers‘ education is an integral component of education. It involves
the preparation of properly identified and selected individuals for the teaching profession. The teacher education
programme should be designed and administered to produce a cadre of component teachers to serve a prescribed
system of education (Bogonko, 1992). This is because teachers are key factors in contributing towards any
enhanced quality of classroom experience.
Kafu (1996) found out that the teacher education curriculum had remained narrow and rigid in nature. It
emphasized training rather than preparation of teacher. There was no attempt to make it responsive to the
emerging trends in the society and education in particular. Consequently it had continued to produce
conservative / traditional school teachers who were pervasive to change, less creative and innovative and unable
to manage modern instructional and non-instructional situations.
He advocated for a new teacher education curriculum to be designed to address the new demands of the
society and those of teaching profession. Education is a dynamic process and new trends and new change are
bound to arise. The teacher should be well placed to embrace the new trends and changes in the society. Teacher
training colleges at all levels should have the relevant resources and appropriate educational technologies that
are essential to facilitate the preparation of competent teachers.
The teacher being the most important ingredient in the effective teaching and learning of Kiswahili
using the integrated approach. It is therefore important that teachers are very well prepared to meet this new
challenge of teaching Kiswahili using the integrated approach. The success of the teacher largely depends on
his/her personal efforts and general personality Corbin Hugh (1983) in Jepkoech (2002). These characteristics
can be greatly enhanced if a teacher receives specialized training in methods of teaching Kiswahili using the
integrated approach.
Garret (1999) also agrees that teachers are the key factors in contributing towards any enhanced quality
of classroom experience. Watkins in the Oxfam Education Report, (2000) concurs with Garret by stressing that
poorly trained teachers are unable to foster a child-centered learning environment. Hendrikz (1986) emphasizes
that the teacher should use appropriate instructional methods of teaching. He found that teachers‘ knowledge of
the subject should not be over looked since it is essential for arranging for a successful learning if a teacher has a
high understanding of the subject matter.
Mwaura (2003) states that teachers find it difficult learning new strategies act across the old habit and
assumptions and invalidated hand worn skills. Teachers then need to improve on through training and in-service
courses. He further stresses that many teachers do not read after leaving college. Training is a necessary
condition for effective performance of teaching roles and responsibilities.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study was based on the needs assessment theory. Suarez (1991)
defines needs assessment as an information gathering and analyzing process in the identification of the needs of
individuals, groups, institutions and communities or societies. Witkin and Altschuld (1995) further define needs
assessment as a tool which formally identifies the gaps between the current results or outcomes/products and
required or desired results, places these gaps in priority and selects those gaps/needs of the highest priority for
action, usually through the implementation of a new or existing curriculum or management process.
The point to be noted here is that curriculum development requires systematic and specific procedures
to be followed. Various authors have proposed various curriculum development models. However it is important
to note that despite the fact there exist these various curriculum development models, all curriculum scholars
agree on the fact that whether developing a new curriculum or changing the existing one, the process begins
with needs assessment. It can be argued that any education system in any given society helps enhance the
society‘s needs and therefore, in drawing an educational program, a needs assessment is imperative. The needs
assessment allows for a careful investigation of what should be, and what is, so as to establish the discrepancy.
In this study, the needs assessment was utilized to establish the preparedness of Kiswahili teachers in
terms of the specific knowledge, skills and attitudes that they actually have and those that they require in order
to effectively teach Kiswahili using the integrated approach. The theoretical framework identifies the dependent
and independent variables. Competence was considered as the dependent variable, whereas integrated Kiswahili
curriculum was considered as independent variable. The needs assessment theory was adopted because it
focuses on identification of required competence and emphasizes that action be taken based on the finding and
recommendation so as to direct educational practices and solve problem in this case the failure of students in
Kiswahili‘ performance of Kericho district in Kericho county. The rationale for using this theory is to identify
competences that Kiswahili teachers in secondary in Kericho district have and those they should have for
effective teaching is expounded.
schools were selected using proportionate random sampling from the divisions. To obtain the number of
teachers who participated in the study, simple random sampling was used to pick one teacher of Kiswahili from
every school and the process repeated for the HoDs. A total of 93 respondents which included all (31) HoDs
Languages and 62 teachers of Kiswahili from the selected schools were selected for participation in the study.
The study sample is as shown in table 1.
Frequency
35
30
30
25
20
20
15 12
10 Frequency
5
0
Both Kiswahili Fasihi only Lugha only
Lugha and Fasihi
Further, the Kiswahili teachers were asked to give their opinion on the competencies the teachers of Kiswahili
need in order to effectively teach Kiswahili using integrated method. Table 4.5 presents the findings.
The table reveals that 46 (73.2%) of the respondents understood the reason for integrating the Kiswahili
syllabus while 12 (18.4%) did not understand the reason for integrating the Kiswahili syllabus. The remaining
were neutral. Concerning lesson planning, large percentage (86.1%) of the respondents had an understanding on
the need to gain more knowledge in lesson planning for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili whereas 6
(9.7%) of the teachers did not understand the need. The remaining percentages (3.2%) of the respondents were
neutral. The table further shows that 56 (90.4%) of the respondents understood the need to gain more knowledge
in work scheming for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6 (9.7%) did not understand the need.
It is further revealed that 26 (75.2%) of the respondents had an understanding on the need to gain more
knowledge in preparation of teaching aids for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6 (9.7%) did not
have an understanding for the need to gain such knowledge. The remaining 5 (16.1%) of the respondents were
neutral. Concerning evaluation, it is revealed that 54 (87.1%) of the respondents agreed that they understood the
need to gain more knowledge in evaluation techniques for integrated approach in teaching Kiswahili while 6
(9.7%) did not agree as 2 (3.2%) of the respondents were neutral. The findings above imply that the teachers are
not fully prepared to teach Kiswahili using the integrated course.
The Heads of departments interviewed felt that teaching using the integrated approach would enhance
the competence of teachers. However some felt that the teachers were not competent in using this method of
teaching. This finding concurs with a research report of World Bank on education in fourteen countries
attributed failure of intended educational change mainly to ineffective teacher training programmes (Kallagan &
Greany, 1992).
V. Discussions
Teacher competency in the use of integrated approach is not satisfactory since majority of the
respondents were not comfortable in its application in the instruction process. Egessa (2007) observed that from
the way some Kiswahili courses are structured in some universities, a student teacher may go through the
university and graduate having not taken some courses which are optional or elective. Yet after graduation they
are expected to teach students at secondary school the topics they missed at the university. These topics include
short story, sociolinguistics, oral literature, poetry, creative writing, emerging issues and use of integrated
approach to teaching of language and literature. The study revealed that the pre- training of Kiswahili teachers
adequately addressed work scheming appropriate for integrated method of teaching Kiswahili, but did not
adequately address use of instructional resources in the teaching.
From the interviews, it was noted that most HODs averred:
Most teachers content that at universities where trained, a Kiswahili teacher trainee is required to take
another subject so that he/she can be employable by Teachers Service Commission, the major teachers‘
employer in Kenya. Hence one may be required to have a subject combination of Kiswahili/History,
Kiswahili/Geography, Kiswahili/IRE, Kiswahili/CRE, and in some extreme cases Kiswahili/Mathematics. The
English teacher trainee is required to take only English/Literature.
Lack of the degree of depth of a topic is best captured by the remarks of one teacher regarding the
teaching of Isimujamii (sociolinguistics in Kiswahili) in secondary schools in Kenya who states:
Up-to now it is not clear where sociolinguistics (in Kiswahili) starts and ends. The syllabus and guide
to the syllabus has not made this issue clear. Personally, I suspect that the curriculum developers didn‘t
understand this area (sociolinguistics) very well when they were developing the syllabus (My translation).
A finding on instructional resources preparation revealed that majority of the respondents agreed that
their pre-services training adequately addressed instruction resource preparation appropriate for integrated
method of teaching Kiswahili. The table further reveals that more respondents felt that their pre-service training
adequately addressed use of instructional resources in the teaching of Kiswahili using integrated method.
It is further shown that most of the respondents felt that their pre-service training adequately addressed
effective lesson-preparation using integrated method of teaching Kiswahili. It can be implied that pre-service
training of majority of teachers adequately addressed lesson planning, work scheming and instruction resources
preparation. However, this was little pre-service training on use of instructional resources in teaching Kiswahili
using integrated approach and in lesson planning.
Recommendations
There is need for more in-service courses and seminars to be organized at zonal and divisional levels to
reach to many teachers in schools. This will give practicing teachers necessary skills to deal with new
developments for their subjects. The school principals and teachers should be made to be in such activities,
because at times such noble ideas are frustrated by school heads who do not allowing teachers to attend
seminars citing lack of time and funds. In addition to that, in-service training enhances the teachers‘ competency
in the use of integrated approach.
The pre-service training for teachers should develop relevant knowledge and skills for the teaching of
Kiswahili using the integrated approach. Colleges in which the teachers are trained should have more training
courses to update the skills of their students. The colleges should reconstruct both content and the methodology
in tune with content of secondary school Kiswahili curriculum. The universities should consider introducing the
teaching of Kiswahili grammar and literature as a programme for an award of bachelor of education degree.
This is because Kiswahili students take the language and another additional subject besides the professional
courses. In practice, teachers teach Kiswahili and a second teaching subject, hence have divided attention.
Specialization in the subject will promote deeper concentration in the various items and motivate the teacher.
References
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I. Introduction
1.1. Background to the study
Globally, education is one of the basic human rights and also at the center of development for all
nations. It is a form of investment that is perceived to contribute to the development of both individual and
society. Thus, it is arguable that education systems all over the world have continued to be perceived as a
dynamic process which produces human resources, instills values, and brings social cohesion based on academic
excellence (Republic of Kenya, 2002, 2011a, 2011b; UNESCO,2012; United Nations, 2012). The correlation
between school leadership and provision of holistic education can be traced historically as far back as the early
part of the 21stcentury. The interest seems to have been as a result of the widespread belief that the quality of
leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes (Ndayambaje & Orodho, 2014). In
many parts of the world, including South Africa, there is recognition that schools require effective leaders and
managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners. However, it is arguable that this
requires trained and committed teachers who in turn; need the leadership of highly effective principals and the
support of other senior and middle level managers (Marais, 2011; World Bank, 2010). Nonetheless, this field of
educational leadership and management is pluralist, with many competing perspectives and an inevitable lack of
agreement on the exact nature of the discipline (Marais, 2011) and by extension its exact contribution to holistic
education. This lack of consensus led to a desire to investigate how effective school leadership individually
and/or in combination with other dynamics contributes to holistic education of learners.
is a critical element in effective school process, both for students and staff ( UNICEF, 2000) This is because of
the widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant difference to school and student
outcomes. In many parts of the world, including South Africa, there is recognition that schools require effective
leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners.
As the global economy gathers pace, more governments are realizing that their main assets are their
people and that remaining, or becoming, competitive depends increasingly on the development of a highly
skilled workforce. This requires trained and committed teachers who also need the leadership of highly
effective principals and the support of other senior and middle managers (Marais, 2011; World Bank, 2010).The
field of educational leadership and management is pluralist, with many competing perspectives and an inevitable
lack of agreement on the exact nature of the discipline. One key debate has been whether educational leadership
is a distinct field or simply a branch of the wider studies of management (Marais, 2011).
The empirical evidence at the international level based on research done by Aubrey (1992) in the
United States of America investigated the extent to which principals leadership practices in schools that were
perceived to be effectively managed (n=34) differed from those of principals heading schools rated less effective
(n=34). Data was collected by questionnaires from principals and school committee members. The data were
analyzed by use of Mann-Whitney U-test for two independent samples. The key findings of the study were as
follows: First, principals of high performing schools reported a higher level of inspiring and encouraging
members to accomplish their goals ranging from academic and non-academic in nature. Secondly, a statistically
significant difference (p < .05) was noted between two categories of principals with regard to the extent to
which they encouraged the active participation of members of community in school affairs. The study concluded
that the effectiveness of school management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals and
impacted positively on both academic and non-academic school outcomes (Aubrey, 1992).
This finding was later supported by a study by Griffin (1996) who carried out a comparative study in
Mid-West USA on elements of schools that had been identified as exemplary (n=11) in terms of students tests
scores and other non-academic variables such as parental involvement in school matters and those that had been
classified as developing schools(n=11). Principals from exemplary schools (n=11), their teachers (n=84), and
their counterparts in developing schools comprising of 10 principals and 87 teachers responded to a survey
questionnaire. The study established that compared with developing schools principals, those leading exemplary
schools reported greater use of leadership practices of inspiring members and creating an enabling working
environment through the redistribution of power and authority within the school. Exemplary schools, the data
further revealed, produced more positive features of high academic and non-academic outcomes compared with
developing schools. There was consensus that effective management by school principals translated into a high
level students’ discipline and overall excellent school outcomes.
In another related study, James and Connolly (2008) sought to establish the changes that contributed to
improvements in school practices leading to high academic and non -academic output in Southern Wales,
United Kingdom. Data were collected from principals, teachers, pupils and parents using semi-structured
interviews and documented data. The study established that one of the critical factors that had led to the notable
improvement and enhanced academic and non-academic school outcomes was leadership. For example, most of
the principals were reported to have been newly posted. Consequently, the schools had benefited from the new
ideas and practices recently acquired during training that, to a considerable extent, triggered the new changes.
Some of the changes introduced by the principals, who in the opinion of teachers and parents enhanced their
input included improvement of school infrastructure, involvement to members of school community (teachers,
students and parents) in school matters, and constant articulation of school vision to the members of the school
community by principals.
These findings were in tandem with those of Kilpatrick, Munford, Falk and Presort (2002) who
conducted a study in Australia that sought to investigate ways in which the modes of leadership of school and
community leaders influenced the extent and nature of the schools contribution to the community. The study
revealed that the major in-school factor that enhanced school-community partnership was the principals’ open-
state leadership, which, inter alia, accommodated opportunities and ides put forward by others.
At the regional level, the role of leadership as a dynamic of holistic education has been shown to have
positive impact on students learning and other non-academic outcomes (Mike, Dowd et.al., 1998; Carron
&Chau, 1996; Pereira, 1997). Studies conducted in Malawi, for example, supervisors in the schools that showed
greater learning gains regularly evaluated teachers, contributing to professional development and improved
teaching practice (Mike, Dowd et.al., 1998). Unfortunately, however, few head teachers and administrators in
developing countries did not have any formal training in leadership functions of schools, and promotions were
not based on leadership and management skills.
Further, many heads of schools continue to have extensive pedagogical responsibilities in addition to
administrative ones. This leaves little time for supervision and support of staff (Carron &Chau, 1996). Despite
these practical constraints, programmes designed to increase professionalism in schools through management
training, such as one sponsored by SIDA and conducted in disadvantaged district in Sri Lanka, show that
interventions in this area can have a real positive impact on both academic and non-academic outcomes (Pereira,
1997).
A study by Biruk (2015) in Ethiopia on planning quality education in Ethiopian public universities
indicated that there was a strong positive relationship between performance improvement arising from good
institutional leadership and the four independent variables, namely; considering customer needs, performance
tracking, teaching methodologies and taking action in Ethiopian public universities. The main recommendation
was that in order to sustain learner educational aspirations, there was necessity to carefully improve education
quality management practices of Ethiopian public universities.
Wasonga (2015) carried out a study on the influence of head teachers leadership styles on students’
discipline, and by extension, holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Rongo District (rural
area) and Kisumu City (urban setting) in Kenya. The sample comprised 59 head teachers, 56 teacher counselors,
48 members of Parents Teachers Association (PTAs) and 400 students yielding a total sample size of 563 drawn
from 59 schools. The study established that school leadership was a significant determinant of school outcomes
in terms of the non-academic measures of students discipline and academic measures of performance in national
examinations. However, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical test revealed that there was no statistically
significant relationship between leadership styles used by principals and type of schools. These findings are in
line with those of Asunda (1983) and Kariuki (1998) which revealed that principals whose leadership styles was
more participatory tended to yield higher school outcomes in terms of academic and non-academic measures.
However, statistical ANOVA yielded values of F (3.42; 3.35) which were greater than F-values of 1.29 and .931
suggesting no significant correlation between type of school and head teachers management or leadership styles
on students’ non-academic measures of discipline and academic measures of student’s achievement in national
examinations.
out of 707 subjects(Brooks, 2013; Orodho, Khatete & Mugiraneza, 2016). The questionnaires for principals,
students and senior teachers were piloted to determine their validity and reliability prior to data collection for the
first phase. The observation checklists and interview guidelines for principals, senior teachers, members of BoM
as well as Quality Assurance and Standards Officers were similarly checked dependability by using overlapping
methods of inquiry and credibility through interactive and tactical approaches prior to data collection (Cohen &
Manion, 2012; Orodho etal.2016). Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) Computer programme version 20 to generate both descriptive and inferential statistics
(Samoah, 2014; Orodho, Ampofo, Bizimana& Ndayambaje, 2015). The qualitative data were analyzed
thematically (Orodho, 2009a, 2009b).
Table 1 shows that the mean and standard deviations for the seven items rating the influence of school
leadership on holistic education ranged from (M=2.34, SD=1.19) to (M=3.61, SD=.98). The most highly ranked
aspect of school leadership that was considered to positively influence provision of holistic education was the
act of communicating school missions effectively to staff and students ( M=3.61,SD=.98).
Well balanced leadership attribute was at second position (M=3.56, SD=1.14) and effective leadership
leads to enhanced co-curricular activities at position two and three, respectively. The practice of obtaining
concerted effort of all in school activities and meeting individually with students and staff to discuss progress of
students were placed at position five and six respectively.
The results in Figure 1 indicate that a larger percentage of respondents, constituting from National
schools considered effective leadership to positively contribute to holistic education. The respondents from
county schools also rated the contribution of effective leadership to holistic education more than their
counterparts from sub-county schools. The implication here is that although the respondents generally attached
high premium on the contribution of effective leadership to holistic education, respondents in national and
county schools rated higher than their colleagues from sub county schools.
Table 2:Chi-Square Tests: Leadership and holistic education by type of respondents in study Locale
Respondent Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Principal Pearson Chi-Square 3.333b 2 .189
Likelihood Ratio 4.740 2 .093
Linear-by-Linear Association .667 1 .414
N of Valid Cases 20
Senior Teacher Pearson Chi-Square .991c 2 .609
Likelihood Ratio .967 2 .617
Linear-by-Linear Association .212 1 .645
N of Valid Cases 76
Student Pearson Chi-Square 38.580d 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 47.553 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 8.962 1 .003
N of Valid Cases 450
Total Pearson Chi-Square 39.968a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 48.743 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 8.491 1 .004
N of Valid Cases 546
The results in Table 2 indicates that principals χ2 (df=2, N=20) =3.333, p=.189 at = .05 indicates that
the value generated by SPSS was more or greater than the level of significance p=.05 , and this led to the
retention of the null hypothesis that there was no significant influence of school leadership on provision of
holistic education of students in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties.
The results suggested that there were no significant differences between the rating of principals
regarding the contribution of school leadership to holistic education in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. The
results for senior teachers χ2 (df=2, N=76) =.991, p =.609 at p= .05 indicates that the value generated by SPSS
was more or greater than the level of significance p=.05. The finding indicates that, according to the senior
teachers, there was no significant influence of school leadership on provision of holistic education. This
suggested that the senior teachers held the position that school leadership did not significantly influence
provision of holistic education.
The results for students χ2 (df=4, N=450) = 38.58, p = .001 at p= .05 revealed that the p value = .000
generated by SPSS was less than the critical alpha = .05 and this resulted in to the rejection of the null
hypothesis at significance alpha level of .05. The rejection of the null hypothesis led to the adoption of the
alternative hypothesis that there was a significant relationship between school leadership and holistic education
in public secondary schools in Kiambu and Samburu Counties. Contrary to the views of principals and the
senior teachers, it was noted that students portrayed a strong perception that effective school leadership
contributed significantly to holistic education.
The overall finding with all respondents yielded χ2 (df=4, N=546) = 39.968, p = .001 at p= .05 finally
revealed that the p-value generated by SPSS was less than the significance level set at p=.05 and this led to the
rejection of the null hypothesis. The rejection of the null hypothesis led to the adoption of the alternative
hypothesis that all respondents were of the conviction that there was a significant relationship between
leadership and holistic education.
the effects of good leadership and governance on schools outcomes is yielding positive results. However, it is
not very clear how these skills are transforming educational outcomes especially holistic education, although
the concept of holistic education is still emerging…The ranking of school outcomes should not only be based
on academic excellence. School leadership should surely be another component (QUASO 1, Kiambu County &
QUASO 2, and Samburu County).
The sentiments of some members of Board of Management were categorical that school leadership
contributes to a great extent to holistic education.
It has been observed that the school outcomes depend on the type of principal in schools. When a school has a
principal who is actively involved in school processes and keeps the parents informed through functional
Parents Teachers Associations (PTA) , such schools have been seen to post positive and high results both in
academics and school discipline than those managed by irresponsible and absentee principals (
BoM,03,17,34.48 in Kiambu County & BoM 12,19.26 in Samburu County ).
The sentiments captured from the foregoing voices of the QUASOs and members of BoM in Kiambu
and Samburu Counties are consistent with the results of earlier scholars such as Ndayambaje and Orodho
(2014) in the context of Rwanda that there is widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant
difference to school and student outcomes . In many parts of the world, including South Africa, and some parts
of Kenya such as Kisi, results have shown that there is recognition of the fact that schools require effective
leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their learners (Mwinyipembe &
Orodho, 2015, Nyambeche & Orodho, 2014).
The foregoing notwithstanding, several principals from Kiambu County and one from Samburu County
seemed to have different opinions regarding the contribution of school leadership to holistic education when
they lamented that:
School leadership is a very complicated task that covers various aims of school that affect both
students and staff. School aims are strongly influenced by pressures from the external environment, and
particularly from the expectations of government, often expressed through legislation or formal policy
statements. Schools may be left with the residual task of interpreting external imperatives rather than
determining aims on the basis of their own assessment of learner needs (Principal 05, 08, 12 in Kiambu County
and Principal 07 in Samburu County).
The foregoing sentiments by school principals seem to be in tandem with findings from other
developing and developed countries. These studies show that many principals in schools in most of these
countries continue to have extensive pedagogical responsibilities in addition to administrative ones. This leaves
little time for supervision and support of staff (Carron &Chau, 1996).
The key issues that seem to emerge from the principals sentiments are that school managers are faced
with myriads of tasks to be achieved including modifying government policy and developing alternative
approaches based on school-level values and vision. These duties when conducted well to involve the learner
should be able to impact positively on the holistic education of the students.
The QASO in one of the study locales had the following to say:First, principals of high performing
schools reported a higher level of inspiring and encouraging members to accomplish their goals ranging from
academic and non-academic in nature. Secondly was noted between two categories of principals with regard to
the extent to which they encouraged the active participation of members of community in school affairs
(QUASO, Samburu County).
The qualitative data from interview seem to point to the fact that the effectiveness of school
management process was dependent on the leadership skills of the principals and impacted positively on both
academic and non-academic school outcomes (Aubrey, 1992).
The members of the BOM in Kiambu County and Samburu County categorically stated that:
Schools principals, those leading national and county schools produced greater use of leadership
practices of inspiring members and creating an enabling working environment through the redistribution of
power and authority within the school. These principals demonstrating effective leadership skills produced more
positive features of high academic and non-academic outcomes compared with developing schools (The BoM
05, 17, 45 from Kiambu County and 11, 23, 25 from Samburu County).
There was consensus that effective management by school principals translated into a high level
students’ discipline and overall excellent school outcomes.
The foregoing citations are in line with those of James and Connolly (2008) who had earlier established that the
changes that contributed to improvements in school practices leading to high academic and non -academic
output in Southern Wales, United Kingdom was leadership.
The sentiments were rather contrary to the interview results with BOM who noted:
Most of the principals were reported to have been newly posted. Consequently, the schools had benefited from
the new ideas and practices recently acquired during training that, to a considerable extent, triggered the new
changes. Some of the changes introduced by the principals, who in the opinion of teachers and parents
enhanced their input included improvement of school infrastructure, involvement to members of school
community (teachers, students and parents) in school matters, and constant articulation of school vision to the
members of the school community by principals (BoM, 10, 22 in Kiambu & 05 in Samburu County).
These findings were in tandem with those of Kilpatrick, John, Munford, Falk and Presort (2002) who conducted
a study in Australia that sought to investigate ways in which the modes of leadership of school and community
leaders influenced the extent and nature of the schools contribution to the community. The study revealed that
the major in-school factor that enhanced school-community partnership was the principals’ open-state
leadership, which, inter alia, accommodated opportunities and ideas put forward by others. The finding is also in
tandem with a study by Wasonga (2015) who established that there was a positive relationship between head
teachers leadership styles and the development of students’ discipline, and by extension, holistic development of
students in public secondary schools in Rongo District (rural area) and Kisumu City (urban setting) in Kenya.
The study specifically established that school leadership significantly influenced school outcomes in terms of
the non-academic measures of students discipline and academic measures of performance in national
examinations.
Based on the findings of the study from the quantitative and qualitative phases of the study it was
recommended that principals should be sensitized on the need to apply well-balanced, democratic and
transactional leadership styles that can easily bring about holistic education
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Sanders, W. L. (1997). Teacher and Classroom Context. Personnel Evaluation in Education, Vol. 11: 57-7.
Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of performance contracting in public secondary schools in Makueni
County, Kenya. The study employed the Taylor’s scientific classical management theory which advocates for job
specialization and training employees for a single task. The study employed a descriptive survey design. Both
purposiveand simple random sampling were used to select 36 principals and 216 members of Board of
Management yielding an overall sample size of 256. The major finding was that a majority of teachers and BoM
members were in agreement that performance contracting could enhance service delivery especially in external
relations, human resource management, financial management and internal organizational management
.Nonetheless, the overall practice of performance contracting was critically low and dodged with contradictions
in most schools. It was concluded that although the performance contracting has been accepted as a viable
means of enhancing service delivery, some teachers were still jittery regarding the object of the exercise. Given
this emerging mixed support for performance contracting, it was recommended that the Government through the
Ministry of Education and the County Education Officers should closely monitor the practice and assure
teachers regarding its efficacy in enhancing quality service delivery in the public service
Keywords: Performance contracting, efficacy, school management, secondary schools, Makueni County,
Kenya.
I. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
The study on performance contracting is premised on the contention advanced by Adam Smith that
productivity would increase if workers were paid according to performance (Cheche& Muathi, 2014; Simiyu,
2012). The salient implication of this argument is that measurement of performance enhances productivity both
to the individual and the organization and encourages a culture of continuous improvement (Letsoalo, 2007).
Performance measurement in public service help in gaining public confidence that tax revenues are being used
effectively (Kihara, 2013). In a similar vein, Nzuve and Njeru (2013) aptly argue that an effective performance
management system define expectations and align individual performance goals with those of an organization.
In this context, performance management may be seen as a control mechanism employed by the top
management to guide, control and monitor the actions of juniors to ensure that they contribute to the strategy of
the organization (Mackie, 2008). An effective performance management should go beyond control and focus on
performance improvement by encouraging learning (Werner & Demimonde, 2009).
Introduction of performance measurement in most organizations is influence by the presence of
tangible outputs that are easy measure and organizational environment which include support by stakeholders
and political class in the case of public entities (Dooren, 2006). Mackie (2008) is of the opinion that the aim of
performance management system is to introduce systematic controls and regulating activities of an organization
to attain agreed objectives (Kananga& Partoip, 2013.
The government of Kenya launched the first phase of public sector reforms in 1993 focused on cost
containment with staff right sizing and rationalization of government functions and structures. This phase was
mainly donors driven especially by World Bank under the Structural Adjustment Programme (Lienert & Modi,
1997; Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). In this phase, the following activities were undertaken: employment in
public service was frozen, removal of „ghost workers‟ through cleaning of payrolls, voluntary retirement, early
retirement and retrenchment and removal of government guaranteed employment to new graduates were the
main focus. The next phase focused on rationalization of government functions and structures to determine
optimal structure and size in the civil service which was linked to budgetary limits (Lienert & Modi, 1997,
Kobia & Mohammed, 2006; Mutahaba, 2011).
In 2003, the Government of Kenya formulated the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and
Employment Creation (ERWEC) covering the period 2003-2007. This policy document recognized performance
contracting as a strategy in improving performance in the public service (Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). In 2001,
the Government of Kenya launched a strategy for performance improvement in the public service whose aim
was to increase productivity and improvement in service delivery underpinned by results based management
orientation (Gatere, Keraro & Gakure, 2013).
The first attempt at PC in the public service in Kenya was made in 1984 with Kenya Railways signing
a PC while National Cereals and Produce Board signed in 1990. The initiative however floundered as there was
no political will to see it through. A strategy paper recommending re-introduction of PC in state corporations
was presented to the cabinet in 1991 but this too did not take see the light of the day (Kobia & Mohammed,
2006; Mbua & Sarisar, 2013; Obongo, 2009).
Based on lessons learnt after the failure of the first phase of implementation of public service reforms,
the focus shifted from cost containment to productivity improvement and in addition, the processes was fully
controlled by the public service itself unlike the first phase that was donor driven (Kobia & Mohammed, 2006).
During the second phase, initiatives aimed at reducing corruption and reduce wastage were introduced. The
Government of Kenya enacted the Ethics and Economic Crimes Act, 2003 that addressed issues of ethics and
corruption in the service. This was closely followed by the enactment of the Public Procurement and Disposal
Act, 2005 (Kogei, Magugui, Yano, Chepkemei & Chebet, 2013). The Government of Kenya then shifted its
attention to measuring performance in the public service.
The third and the current phase of reforms focused on improvement of service delivery rather than the
processes. This led to the birth of performance contracting in the public service in Kenya (Kobia & Mohammed,
2006; Mutahaba, 2011). The first batch of organizations to be put under PC on a pilot basis were sixteen. By
2011, a total of 468 government agencies were actively involved in performance contracting (Office of the
Prime Minister, 2012). Today all organizations in the executive arm of government that are under the national
government are under PC.
The spirited efforts by the Government of Kenya to enforce performance contracting could be
perceived as an effective way to provide quality goods and services within budget constraints (Kariuki,
2011).PC has been hugely celebrated as a success story in Kenya as it is associated with improvements in
service delivery in the public sector (Muthaura, 2010). As Dooren (2006) noted, an effective performance
management tool should not forever be an administrative tool; it need to become a political as well as a societal
tool as well. Performance contracting as a management tool was originally developed for private enterprises but
has been adopted by the public sector (Lin & Lee, 2011). The private enterprise adopted performance
contracting as they have limited resources and have to innovate to achieve higher performance. In addition, it is
easy to measure performance in the private sector as their main measure is profitability while public sector has
many and sometimes conflicting goals. It against the background of this paradox surrounding the measurements
of performance contracting that paper that examined the efficacy of performance contracting in secondary
schools in Makueni County, Kenya, was premised.
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund forced most government to reform their public service under
structural adjustment programme (Mutahaba, 2011). Larbi (2010) argues that the World Bank has been
responsible for introduction of performance contracting in several developing countries. The focus of most
reforms initiated by World Bank in public sector management was targeted at cost containment.
Swaziland enacted The Public Enterprise Act of 1989 to focus on control of semi-autonomous state agencies
sector following public outcry that they were a drain to the economy while Gambia placed strategic state
corporations and departments under PC (Mutahaba, 2011 and Kobia & Mohammed, 2006). Ghana introduced
Civil Service Performance Improvement Programme in 1996 in which staff were to engage their clients and
agree on performance improvement programme which would then form the basis on performance agreement.
those who adhere and fit the organizational culture and structure, as well as meet individual goals and objectives
are much more likely to be promoted to top leadership positions – as opposed to those who do not. This process
could be true for almost any situation; those who naturally fit well into an organization‟s mission and culture are
more apt to be selected and rewarded in some fashion.
The use of performance-based contracts has induced an increased cost consciousness. The
organizations have to develop cost-accounting systems and provide yearly financial statements.
The information provided improves the government‟s capacity to control the organizations‟ financial
practices. Up to this moment, there is no direct link between the purchased amount of services and the level of
the budget. An extended audit is needed to establish the link between objectives, outputs and inputs. However,
the outlook on better budget estimates, based on an increased knowledge of real costs, is realistic. In some cases,
transfers are corrected on the basis of achieved performance results such that a failure to meet performance
targets results in a decrease of financial transfer to government. On the other hand, there is a positive financial
return to the government in case performance results exceed set targets. These positive corrections are
dependent, however, on developments of the overall budgetary position of the government and are therefore
limited. These remarks attenuate the real impact of the budget as an incentive.
Moy (2005) in his final report to the Office of Financial Management in Washington D.C summarized
the results of their literature and state survey on the best practices and trends in performance contracting in a
number of state and local agencies in Washington D.C. indicates that the use of performance contracts and the
accompanying increase of operational autonomy had induced some developments in the internal structures of
the agencies under study. A number of questions were sent to each of the seven selected agencies and the
responses were quite interesting. Three of the four states changed to performance based contracting to achieve
better results.
The study reveals that the implementation of performance based contracting ranges from state-wide,
agency wide to specific agency divisions or programs and that its impacts in each state agency varied, but
including increased accountability for service delivery and deliverables and increased partnership between the
contractor community and the state agency. The study further indicates that states agencies had defined
performance as deliverables, outputs, outcomes, and effectiveness and efficiency, among others.
With respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in
increased client-orientedness. Performance contracting has been instrumental in helping state corporations and
government ministries to introduce instruments to monitor client satisfaction. Examples of such instruments are
the client help desks in all government ministries, accessible complaint channeling via the internet and other
avenues, and annual reporting of performance and challenges to the public (Bouckaert, Verhoest & De Corte,
1999). Performance based contracting has received mixed reactions as many people would like to know the
performance implications of altering team composition, especially in the top management team. Changes in top
management teams are becoming more and more frequent due to poor organizational performance, mergers and
acquisitions, and strategic reorientations (Leonard, 2001). This trend, in a way, reflects a desire to influence the
performance of the firm by means of altering the composition of the top management team.
According to upper echelon theory, this might be a feasible strategy since research has demonstrated a
link between attributes of top management team members and firm performance (Hambrick & Mason, 1984).
Specifically, upper echelon theory argues that individual attributes influence the preferences and attitudes of top
team members, as well as the resulting team dynamics. In turn, these affect the strategic choices managers make,
and therefore, organizational outcomes (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996).
This argument supports the importance of performance contracting in the sense that whenever there are
changes at the top level, the incoming chief executive continues to work on the set performance targets. With
respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in increased
client-orientedness. Most state corporations and government ministries in Kenya, for instance, now have
functional customer care and public relations offices. These offices have acted as valuable instruments for
introducing a client focus. However, the functioning of these offices is hampered, in some cases, by the
insufficiency of financial and human resources (Akaranga, 2008). In order to increase the reliability and validity
of performance measurements, various approaches are recommended such as multiple raters, combination of
objective and subjective criteria, and so on. For instance, Bobko and Collela (1999) suggest that performance
standards are external to the individual and for evaluative purpose and that it is different from individual goals
as a person's internal aim. They proposed the importance of the employee reaction and acceptance of
performance standards.
There is, however, need for a good definition of outputs and solid performance measures which will be
able to promote an organizations internal performance through a well customer-oriented ability of employees to
further promote the organization external performance. This requires a well-defined training program for the
public servants to support implementation of performance contracting. On the other hand, there is need to study
both the public servants‟ perceptions on the role of performance contracting in improving service delivery to the
end users and also the impact of the performance contracting on service delivery to the populace. This will
confirm whether the objectives of implementing performance contracting are being achieved in the public
sector.
attitude towards performance contracts and if signing performance contracts has an impact on human resource
management, financial resource management, internal and external relations. The interview guidewaspreferred
since it gives data which is highly reliable (Orodho, 2009b,2012) . A questionnaire was used for the school
heads as they were able to read and interpret the questions.
Piloting wasdone on 2 head teachers and 4 members of BoM from public secondary schools in the
neighboring Machakos County. The validity of the instrument was improved through expert judgment. As such,
the content validity was ascertained by lecturers in the School of Education, Mount University, Kenya. To
establish the reliability of the research instrument, the test retest method was used and a reliability co-efficient
of .895 was adequate to declare the questionnaire reliable for the study (Orodho, 2016 ; Orodho, Nzabalirwa,
Odundo, Waweru & Ndayambaje, 2016).
Permission to conduct research was provided by the National Council for Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI) as well as the Makueni County Educational Office to visit the sampled schools. The
researchers hand delivered the questionnaires to the sampled principals and collected those three days after
issuingwhich was adequate time for the questionnaires to be filled in. The research was also conducted on a face
to face interview to the sampled BOM members and their views were recorded.
After all the data had been collected, data cleaning followed for the purpose of identifying any
incomplete, inaccurate or irrelevant data for the purpose of improving on quality through correction of detected
errors and omission. Coding of the data thereafter followed and the codes were entered into a computer for the
purpose of analysis (Orodho, Khatete & Mugiraneza, 2016). Qualitative data was analyzed thematically and
correlating data were tallied together to come up with frequency counts (Orodho, 2012) . Percentages were
calculated based on total number of responses. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics
including percentages, mode, pie charts and frequency counts (Orodho, Ampofo, Bizimana & Ndayambaje,
2016).
The second area in which performance contracting was found to be effective, cited by 29.71% of all the
principals was human resource management. The principals were of the opinion that performance contracting
was making it easier to manage human resource management, teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the
students. Financial management was placed at number three in the ranking, with about 22.29% percent of
headteachers citing the critical area. The impact of performance contracting on internal organizational
management was rated fourth as cited by about 10 percent of all respondents.
Out of sampled BOM members 161 of the members cited the need for using performance contracting
procedures to regulate appropriate financial management in schools. Majority of members of the Board of
management also expressed the concern that the performance contracting could meaningfully enhance both
human resource management and external relations, especially with parents and members of the community.
Some chairpersons of the Parents Teachers Associations sampled under the Board of Management
emphasized the need for external relations in secondary schools when they averred:
With respect to changes in customer relations, new interfaces and instruments are installed, resulting in
increased client-orientedness. Performance contracting could play a role in helping secondary schools to
monitor the progress in the schools as well as client satisfaction. Examples of such applications include:
accessible complaint channeling via the internet and other avenues, and annual reporting of performance and
challenges to the public (PTA # 26, 97.124).
The research findings are in tandem with other results thathave demonstrateda goodlink between
attributes of top management team members and firm performance (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). Specifically,
upper echelon theory argues that individual attributes influence the preferences and attitudes of top team
members, as well as the resulting team dynamics. In turn, these affect the strategic choices managers make, and
therefore, organizational outcomes (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996).
With regards to human resource management, some members of the BoM noted that:
The renewal of the mandate of members of the supervisory board and the management board being
dependent on performance evaluation is a major change and may act as an important incentive. It is also
expected that outstanding performance is rewarded through promotion, pay-increase or recognition. Although
various performance contracts do not clearly spell out the pejorative measures taken against mediocre
performance, it is assumed that the punishments are clear (BoM # 09. 15 20).
The finding is in tandem with that of Lings (2004)who emphasized the importance of human resource
management when he pointed out that many researchers and employers neglect one important focus, the demand
of internal employees, especially those who directly get in touch with customers. Because the attitude and
behaviour of employees interacting with customers would influence the feeling and behaviour of the customers
when they get the service, it is quite important for managers to efficiently define and manage the way their
employees provide the service in order to make sure that their attitude and behaviour are good for providing the
service. In his study, Lings argued that, if properly executed performance contracting has a significant positive
effect on staff commitment and satisfaction.
The findings are also supported by Nahavandi (2006) whopointed outthatoutstanding performance
should be rewarded through promotion, pay-increase or recognition which should be negotiated on signing the
performance contract. He further speculates that those who adhere and fit the organizational culture and
structure, as well as meet individual goals and objectives are much more likely to be promoted to top leadership
positions – as opposed to those who do not. This process could be true for almost any situation; those who
naturally fit well into an organization‟s mission and culture are more apt to be selected and rewarded in some
fashion. With regards to financial management, most members of the BoM were in agreement that the
performance contracting could positively enhance financial practice in schools when they noted that:
The information provided through performance contracting improves the government‟s capacity to
control the organizations‟ financial practices. Up to this moment, there is no direct link between the purchased
amount of services and the level of the budget. An extended audit is needed to establish the link between
objectives, outputs and inputs. However, the outlook on better budget estimates, based on an increased
knowledge of real costs, is realistic (BoM, # 120,289)
These positive corrections are dependent, however, on developments of the overall budgetary position
of the government and are therefore limited. These remarks attenuate the real impact of the budget as an
incentive.
The foregoing results are in line with what Bobko and Collela (1999) established and suggested that
performance standards are external to the individual and for evaluative purpose and that it is different from
individual goals as a person's internal aim. They proposed the importance of the employee reaction and
acceptance of performance standards.
4.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings and discussions emanating from the study, it is recommended that:
1. Given that most principals and members of the Board of management indicated strong support for the
implementation and intensification of performance contracting, the central Government as well as the
County Education Office should monitor the current practice and evaluate its efficacy.
2. The ministry of education should integrate information technology in financial management to all schools
for the purpose of accountability.
3. The ministry of education should ensure that inspection of financial records is done more regularly. It
should also have the mandate to following and check if the recommendations made from such inspections
are implemented.
4. The government should intensify the involvement of principals in performance contractand ensure and
assure that diverse areas such as human resource management, external relations, financial management and
internal organizational management are addressed.
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Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa.
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prepared for the IPPMN Workshop on Rating and Ranking Public Services, Worcester College, Oxford, UK August 2007
[10]. Finkelstein, S., Hambrick, D.C. (1996). Strategic leadership: top executives and their effects on organizations, New York: West.
[11]. Gatere A., Keraro V. & Gakure R. (2013). The impact of performance contracts on service delivery at Teachers Service
Commission in Kenya. Prime journals of business administration and management. ISSSN; 2251-1261 Gruening, G. (2001). Origin
and theoretical basis of New Public Management. International Public Management Journal 4 (2001) 1-25.
[12]. Hambrick, D., Mason, P. (1984). Upper echelons: the organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management
Review, 9(2), 193-206
[13]. Lane, J.E. (1987). 'Public and private leadership', pp. 47-64, in J. Koopmans and K.A Eliassen (eds.), Managing public
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[14]. Leonard, B. 2001. Turnover at the top. HR Magazine May: 46-52.
[15]. Lings, I. N., (2004). Internal Market Orientation Construct and Consequences. Journal of
[16]. Moy, P. (2005). Best Practices and Trends in Performance Based Contracting. A final report submitted to Office of Financial
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Management; 210, 11 Ave. S.W.Rm.311, Olympia, Washington D.C. 98504.
[17]. Nahavandi, A. (2006). The Art and Science of Leadership. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Abstract: This article aims to describe the teacher's attention during the learning done in class to their
students. This research was conducted in several of Vocational School of Malang. Data obtained from
observations, interviews, and documents. Subjects of research selected using snowball system that the
samples was taken and than samples based on the first sample. Results from this research show that the
teacher's attention was divided into three, the teacher's attention towards thinking mathematical
students, teacher’s attention to the matter of mathematics, teacher's attention to the mathematical
knowledge of students.
Keywords: Teacher's Attention , Learning, Thinking Mathematically Students
I. Introduction
Importance key of math and science education more education is the teacher (Sherin and Van es,
2002). Everything is studied students so that students are competent depending teachers who teach in the
classroom (NCTM, 2000). Teachers are required able to be creative in giving attention to what's happening in
the classroom so that learning will be effective (Sherin and Van es, 2002). Teacher’s attention has an important
role in learning activities. From the study of theory study revealed that information processing in the absence of
attention is not possible to learn. Social learning theory states that people can learn through observation
andexperience directly. According to Sternberg (2006) state attention or conscious attention is processing a
small amount of information from a large amount of information available. According to the American Heritage
Dictionary states information can be regarded as the knowledge gained from learning, experience, or instruction.
Information obtained from the sensing, memory and the process of cognitive other. The process of attention
helps the efficiency of resource use mental limited which will then help the speed of reaction to stimuli
particular. Human mental resource is limited to process an excitatory needs help to speed up reflexes. Directing
on specific information will expedite process a mental stimuli.
Sherin and Van es (2002) designed software called VAST. VAST is designed for teachers to learn to give
an attention in the classroom. Teachers’attention in viewing VAST divided into 3 parts. First, attention to the
role of the teacher. Second teachers' attention to the dialogue between teachers and students. Third, teachers'
attention to student thinking. In that study, teachers are asked to write what had been considered in the
impressions of VAST. Sherin and Han (2004) designed a video club. Video club is designed for teachers to
learn to give an attention in the classroom. The teacher's attention in the video clubs that students' conceptions,
pedagogical teacher, math materials, and discourse. Sherin and Van es (2005) using the VAST for teachers and
prospective teachers in learning to pay attention.Attention in the VAST No 3 is the role of the teacher, thinking
of students, and dialogue of teachers and students. Sherin and Van es (2006) designed a second video for
teachers to learn to give an attention. Attention in the first video focuses on students' mathematical thinking and
the second video focuseson the events contained in the video. Star and Srickland (2008) designed a video for
prospective teachers in learning to observe events in the classroom. Van es and Sherin (2008) designed a video
for teachers to learn to givean attention. Attention in the video is focused on students' mathematical
thinking. Van es and Sherin (2009) designed a video for teachers to learn to identify and interpret mathematical
ideas of students. Jacob, Lamb, and Philip (2010) designed a video that shows some of the results of the students
work. Teachers are asked to identify, interpret, and respond to students' mathematical thinking. And then write
what the teacher notice in the video.
In this study, researchers will researchteachers’ attention in the real classroom. Researchers will observe
some of the teachers in the classroom when learning takes place. Attention teachers to situations that occur in
the classroom that will be observed by researchers. One that will be observed by researchers is the teacher's
attention to the students' mathematical thinking. According to Mason, Burton and Stacey (2010) think
mathematically is important to solve mathematical problems, learn mathematics and teaching
mathematics. Think mathematically is a framework used by PISA to support a person's mathematical literacy so
that the economic prosperity of a country will increase (PISA 2006). Therefore, it is clear that the ability to think
mathematically is very important to equip students in using mathematics at school and outside of school.
1. Selective Attention
Selective attention on situations where there is someone to monitor multiple sources of information at
once. Recipients of information shall choose one of the most important sources of information and ignore
others. Factors affecting selective attention are the expectation, stimulus, and values. Recipients of information
are expecting a particular source to provide information and give more attention to the source, select the
stimulus most effect or visible than others, and choose the source of the most importantof information.
2. Focused Attention
Focused Attention refers to situations where a person is given some input, but should focus on the
inputs only during a certain time interval. Recipients of information focusing on the source / input and not be
distracted by other disorders. Factors that influence the focus of attention is the distance and direction, as well as
interference from the surrounding environment. Recipients of information will be more easily receive
information from sources that are directly in front of him.
3. Divided Attention
Divided Attention occurs when the recipient of the information required receiving information from
various sources and doing some kind of work at once.
4. Sustained Attention
Sustained Attentiondid recipient of information that should see the signal or the source of a particular
time period long enough. In this situation it is very important for the recipient of the information to prevent
signal loss.
5. Lack of Attention
Lack of Attention is the situation in which the recipient of the information does not concentrate on his
work. This situation is caused by boredom / saturation and fatigue. The characteristics of the work that may pose
less of a concern is the job situation with short cycles, requiring little movement of the body, a warm
environment, lack of interaction with other workers, low motivation, and workplace has bad lighting.
problems. At the time of discover thinking of students, teachers provide math intervention by giving material
ever studied by students so that students can understand what is given by the teacher. Master also provides a
question that will arouse students' knowledge in solving problems during the discussion with the students so that
students can understand with his own thinking and solving mathematical problems given by the teacher.
According to Sternberg (2006) state that attention or conscious attention is processing a small amount of
information from a large amount of information available.According to the American Heritage Dictionary states
information can be regarded as the knowledge gained from learning, experience, or instruction. Information
obtained from the sensing , memory and the other process of cognitive . Attentional processes help efficient use
of resources limited mental which then will help speed the reaction to certain stimuli. Limited human mental
resources to process an excitatory needs help to speed up reflexes. Directing on a specific information will
expedite processing a mental stimuli.
Limited human mental resources to process an excitatory need help to accelerate the reaction time.
Directing on specific information will expedite processing mental stimuli. For instance in driving, the driver's
attention is directed to the situation of the highway will speed up the reaction of the brake treadle when faced
with dangerous situations. Attention was also affected by differences in age, especially in childhood
Groover said that the factors that affect perception and memory are attention. Attention is activity keep
something in mind that require mental work and concentration.
V. Conclusion
In a study conducted by several secondary math teachers in Malang city is concluded that teachers in
learning tried to explore mathematical thinking of students in solving mathematical problems with the teacher
asks each step in doing math problems. At the time of discover thinking of students, teachers provide math
intervention by giving material ever studied by students so that students can understand what is given by the
teacher. Master also provides a question that will arouse students' knowledge in solving problems during the
discussion with the students so that students can understand with his own thinking and solving mathematical
problems given by the teacher. Therefore, we can conclude that the teacher's attention during the learning takes
place including notice divided. The teacher's attention is divided into three, the teachers’ attention to the
mathematical thinking of teachers, teachers' attention to the matter of mathematics and teacher attention to
knowledge of students.
In this study, teachersgavetheir attention to 3 thus including divided attention. Divided attention occurs
when the recipient of the information required to receive information from various sources and did some kind of
work at once. From this research can be followed by tracing the thought process of teachers in giving attention
to their students.
References
[1]. Sternberg. R.J. (2006) Cognitive PsychologyBellmont,CA:Thomson Wadsworth
[2]. Jacobs, Lamb, and Philipp.(2010). Professional Noticing of Children’s Mathematical Thinking.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 41(2), 169–202
[3]. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2000. Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
[4]. Van Es, E. A., &Sherin, M. G. 2002. Learning to notice: Scaffolding new teachers’
interpretations of classroom interactions. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10,
571–596
[5]. Mason, J. Burton, L. And Stacey, K. (2010) Thinking Mathematically, Second Edition. London:
Pearson.
[6]. Creswell, John. W. 2012. Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research , Fourth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
[7]. Sherin, Miriam G. Han, Sandra Y. 2004. Teacher Learning in the Context of Video Club.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 163-183.
[8]. Sherin, Miriam G. Van es, Elizaberth A. 2005.Using Video to Support Teachers Ability to Notice
Classroom Interaction. Journal Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3), 475-491.
[9]. Van es, Elizabeth A. Sherin, Miriam G. 2006. How Different Video Club Designs Support
Teachers in Learning to Notice. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 22(4), 125-135
[10]. Star, Jon R. Srickland, Sharon K. 2008. Learning to Observe : Using Video to Improve Preservice
Mathematics Teachers Ability to Notice. Journal Math Teacher Educ, 11, 107-125.
[11]. Van Es, Elizabeth A. Sherin, Miriam G. 2008. Mathematics Teachers Learning to Notice in the
Context of a Video Club. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 244-276
[12]. Sherin, Miriam G. Van es Elizabeth A. 2009.Effects of Video Club Participation on Teachers
Professional Vision. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(1), 20-37.
Abstract: Initial teacher education is believed to be the first crucial step in the instruction journey. To form
then teachers that are able to handle effectively the teaching/learning process is supposed to be at the heart of
research. Scholars who endeavour to improve quality of education should start from the very first phase, i.e.,
pre-service teachers training. This paper in fact aims to shed light on the process of developing a syllabus for
initial teacher education with a special focus on the role of the Algerian ministry of higher education and
scientific research in the accreditation of those programmes. To meet this end, a conceptual framework besides
a detailed description of the programme, its aims, design, the areas of study and the teaching, learning
assessment strategies are provided and discussed.
Keywords: Initial teacher education, Master, programme, accreditation
I. Introduction
Teaching, the profession which is almost known for its demanding and complicating assignments is
among those favoured opportunities actual students are looking for. Nevertheless, to be appointed as a teacher is
not that easy task one would go through. To get a BA „Licence‟ in many specialties and English in particular
may help apprentices apply for teaching vacancies and positions. Again, it is not yet enough to start a very long
journey in the instruction land as a real teacher in the case they rely only on the theories they have learned
during their studies.
Central to this vision, a number of key-terms need to be discussed in this paper. Teacher training,
education and teaching quality are used to unfold the possible ways to prepare actual and prospective teachers to
enhance their professional qualifications while taking the particularities of the Algerian context into serious
consideration.
V. Areas of Study
In this suggested course, there are twelve units. Each unit is further divided into a number of modules.
For the first unit, four modules are proposed whereas for the two remaining units two modules need to be
covered. The following table summarizes the content of the study units for the first semesters.
Unit Module
Dilemmas in ESP Teaching
Needs Analysis and Identification
Unit I Syllabus Design
Applied Linguistics and TEFL
Unit II Research Methodology
Research Methods in ESP
Unit III Discourse Analysis
Cultural Studies
Table 1. The First Semester Study Units
During the second semester students are supposed to attend the following modules:
Unit Module
Academic Writing
Unit I Discourse Variation in Professional Communities
Course Design
Teacher Development
Unit II Research Methodology
Case Studies in ESP
Unit III Discourse Analysis
Intercultural Communication
Unit IV Basic Knowledge in Science and Technology
Table 2. The Second Semester Study Units
In their third semester, apprentices are trained in the following areas of research:
Unit Module
Curriculum Design
Evaluation in ESP
Unit I Programmes Management in ESP
Learners Evaluation and Assessment
Unit II Research Methodology
As for the last semester, i.e., semester four, students are asked to submit a dissertation in one of the chosen areas
of ESP research. The table below points out this idea:
Tasks Module
Task I Dissertation Writing
Table 4. The Fourth Semester Tasks
Calling subject experts to design syllabus for modules such as: ICT, Chinese language, ethics and
deontology and schools legislation is regarded as a welcome idea as they will bring new ideas and new breath to
the course. Yet, the central issue is to outline whether they are ready to teach those modules, or not. And what
language will be the medium of instruction as those experts often deliver their courses either in Arabic or
French, and at our department the language of teaching is English.
The changes asked by the experts to be performed have neglected totally to involve future teachers in
trainings or seminars and to provide them with the opportunity of teaching under the supervision of different
highly experienced staff to gain not only experience but also to have their useful insights and feedback.
The last issue we may tackle in this part is that any Initial teacher education programme needs to be
responsive to an ongoing change, yet, the following question must be answered: are we allowed as programme
designers to review our programmes and send them back to the ministry for a new accreditation after a period of
practise of around two years, or not? To put it differently, teacher preparation programmes need to be reviewed,
updated, adapted based on the context particularities in which its candidates serve besides, the real needs and
expectations of both parameters: trainers and trainees.
IX. Conclusion
To unveil the whole process of developing a course to prepare teachers effectively while paying
attention to the surrounding circumstances and issues could not be revealed in one moderate work. Therefore,
looking for the accreditation of the ministry then the implementation of the course to achieve later on quality
teaching and teacher preparation quality cannot be insured if it is relied only on the top-down process, i.e.,
applying doctrines, models as they are, without further considerations of the real needs of the teachers, learners
and even their managers. Moreover, a careful consideration of the context particularities plays an essential role
in the teaching/learning process.
As professionals, we should call for the development of programmes that meet at least the following
components; finding the curricula balance within preparation programs among content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, and monitored [classroom] experience. Extending teacher preparation into the first years of
teaching with high-quality, state-funded new teacher induction programs that includes links to the teacher
preparation institution. (PSEA, 2010: 01)
To conclude, the need to form teachers who would be fully involved in the teaching profession cannot
be achieved unless they acquire the ability to reflect critically upon the existed national policies along with
organizational features including issues of autonomy, accountability, evaluation in education systems. However,
as programme designers we still feel the need “to update our skills and knowledge continuously, not only in
response to a changing world but in response to new research and emerging knowledge about learning and
teaching.” (PSEA, 2010: 02) Then, ministry accreditation is just a first path towards a new beginning of the
whole experience in both training prospective teachers and updating the existing knowledge and competencies
of their trainers.
References
[1] Song, X. & Cheng, L. (2011). Investigating primary English immersion teachers in China: background, instructional contexts,
professional development, and perceptions. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39:2, 97-112.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2011.560647
[2] Savas, B. (2009). Role of Functional Academic Literacy in ESP Teaching: ESP Teacher Training in Turkey for sustainable
Development. Journal of International Social Research. <http://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/cilt2/sayi9pdf/savas_bekir.pdf>.
(February, 2010).
[3] Buckley, F, J. (2000). Team Teaching: What, Why and How? California: Sage Publications, Inc.
[4] PSEA. (2015). Support quality teacher preparation. USA: Pennsylvania State Education Association.
<https://www.psea.org/uploadedFiles/LegislationAndPolitics/Vision/Vision_QualityTeacherPreparation.pdf>(October, 2016).
[5] Chien, L & Kao. (2008). Collaborative Teaching in an ESP Program. Asian EFL Journal.< http://www.asian-efl-
journal.com/December_08_cnc.php> (April, 2010).
[6] Guthrie, G. (1982). Reviews of Teacher Training and Teacher Performance in Developing Countries: Beeby Revisited (2).
International Review of Education. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/3443640 >. (June, 2010)
[7] Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995). Research and the Teacher: a Qualitative Introduction to School-Based Research (2nd edn).
London: Routledge.
[8] Homer, T.R. (1953). Pre-Service Education and In-Service Training- Parallels and Contrasts. The Social Studies. 44:1; 13-19. (June,
2012).
[9] Kennedy, C. (1983). An ESP approach to EFL/ESL teacher training. The ESP Journal, Vol2, Issue 1: 73-85.
[10] Kone, Z. (2006). Pre-service ESP Teacher Training in an African French-Speaking Country: The Case of Cote Divoire.<
http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_14/Preservice_ESP_teacherTraining.htm> (March, 2010).
[11] Mebitil, N. (2015). Towards Enhancing ESP Practitioners Qualifications through Implementing In-Service Teacher Training
Programme: An Action Research on the Newly Appointed ESP Practitioner at the Physics Department of Abou-Bekr Belkaid
University, Tlemcen.” ( Unpublished Doctorate Thesis)
[12] Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[13] Richards, C, K & Rodgers, T, S (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Abstract: In Nepalese context or in our experience, Mathematics is taken as a dry subject at school level and
therefore students' achievement in mathematics has always been burning issue among the stakeholders as the
level appears lower than expectation. So if it is desired to improve Mathematics Achievement, measures have to
be taken to improve Mathematical Thinking. The study was carried out in order to find the relationship between
Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement of the grade X students in Nepal. Three districts were
selected for study area Sindhupalchok, Kathmandu and Mahottari according to the geographical figure i.e.
From the Mountain, the Hill & Valley and the Terai region respectively. 400 students were selected from the
study area through stratified random sampling. They were selected in different strata like: gender, location and
sector wise. Two types of test were developed by the researcher. The researcher tried to find the result using
Pearson Correlation Coefficient using SPSS 20.00 version. Finally, the researcher got the result: the
correlation coefficient of Mathematical Thinking with Mathematics Achievement is r = 0.731 which significant
at p<0.01. There is strongly relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievements.
Keywords: Mathematics Achievement, Mathematical Thinking, Relationship
I. Introduction
There is a huge variety of notation on meaning of Mathematical thinking. In the study of, Karadag, Z.
(2009) stated that mathematical thinking is a thinking style supported by thinking skills. This definition is not
emphasized on the attitudes of the students. So, it should be defined in another way. Mason, J.; Burton, L &
Stacy, K. stated "Mathematical thinking is a dynamic process which, by enabling us to increase the complexity
of ideas we can handle, expands our understanding” (1991). The development of mathematical thinking plays
an important role on the solution of problems faced in daily life (Pinar Bal & Ahmet, 2014). It showed
Mathematical thinking is a part of our life. C.S. Lim, C. S. & T.Y. defined mathematical thinking as a mental
operation used in solving problem affirmed by the mathematical knowledge and dispositions (2006).
Furthermore, the educators developed the definition of mathematical thinking based on their own country's
curriculum (Isoda, 2006).
Mathematical thinking is a broad term containing many perspectives and meanings. Each researcher
dealing with mathematics education has his or her own perspective on this topic. Most researchers,
mathematicians and mathematics educators define mathematical thinking as a process, which contains at least
one of the mental and math-related activities such as reasoning, abstracting, conjecturing, representing and
switching between different representations, visualizing, deducing, inducing, analyzing, synthesizing,
connecting, generalizing, and proving (Schoenfeld, 1992; Tall, 1991; Burton, 1984). In this study, Mathematical
thinking is defined as "the development of a mathematical point of view- valuing the process of
mathematization and abstraction and having the predilection to apply them; and the development of
competence with tools of the trade and using those tools in the service of the goal of understanding structure”
(Schoenfeld, 1992, p. 335)
Student achievement is seen as the most important indicator of national development. A country cannot
develop its socioeconomic situation without enhancing students' achievement (Greaney & Kellaghan,
2008b)focused to increase student achievement that is the key to alleviating poverty and improving economic
competitiveness. In the Standards for test construction achievement is viewed basically as the competence a
person have in an area of content. This competence is the result of many intellectual and nonintellectual
variables. The Mathematics Achievement is seemed as the marks obtained on mathematics subjects by the
students.
(Ma’Moon, 2005) had studied to examine relationships between mathematical thinking and
Mathematics Achievement through the use of both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data was
concerned with studying the direct relationships between performance in mathematical thinking and
Mathematics Achievement of 17 year old students in Jordan. The researcher administered two tests and two
interviews; a test of mathematical thinking, a test of Mathematics Achievement, teacher interviews and student
interviews. More than 500 students participated in the two tests, with 13 teachers participating individually in
the teacher interviews and four groups of students being involved in student interviews.
DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606044649 www.iosrjournals.org 46 | Page
Relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement
As an initial step, the relationships between the six aspects of mathematical thinking were examined
using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. The relationships of each of the six aspects and the total
score for mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement were also examined. The higher level of
correlation between the six scales and the total for mathematical thinking is to be expected, given that the score
for each aspect is included in the total score. However, the almost equally-high correlations between the six
scale scores and Mathematics Achievement are of greater interest, because the assessments made were entirely
independent with separate measuring instruments being used.
(Jaleel, 2015) had a study on finding the relationship between Mathematical Thinking and
Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School Students for total sample and relevant sub samples
based on Gender of Students. The investigator adopted survey method for the study on a sample of 112
Secondary School Students taken at random. The relationship between Mathematical Thinking and
Achievement of students at secondary level was calculated using the Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient of
Correlation. The study can be concluded that there exists significant positive relationship between Mathematical
Thinking and Achievement of students at secondary level for total sample. There exists no significant
relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School
Students gender-wise.
According to the study of (Zaman, 2011) , there was an objective to find the relationship between
mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement of the students at secondary level. The sample selected
for this study was 544 students from zone 2 and 4 comprising of 10 districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province. Stratified random sampling technique was used to take the sample for this study. On the research two
tools were used in the survey to collect data from students, a test of Mathematical Thinking and a test of
Mathematics Achievement to collect quantitative data. These instruments were supplemented by two interviews
one from students and the other from teachers to collect qualitative data. It was found the relationship between
these two main variables along with relationship of individual aspect of mathematical thinking with
Mathematics Achievement was determined using Pearson correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficients of
mathematical thinking with Mathematics Achievement is 0.49 which significant at p<0.01. All the coefficients
of different aspects of Mathematical Thinking with Mathematics Achievement were significant. The correlation
coefficients of the six aspects of Mathematical Thinking with the total score for Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement were also positive and statistically significant.
Generally it is said that our teachers just solve the problem on the board and say this one is the most
important for the examination. So students do just rote memorization of the problems. They never enhance
mathematical thinking though our curriculum alerts on developing mathematical thinking. Mathematical
Thinking can be developed through mathematics teaching learning activities. Research work on this particular
aspect, investigating reasoning and thinking ability and its relationship with Mathematics Achievement in Nepal
is necessary. So, this study was mainly concerned on the Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics
Achievement. To find relationship between the level of mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement
was the main objective of the study.
II. Methods
This research paradigm is post positivism. This study depends on deductive approaches to find the
relationship between mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement. The researcher used mixed
methods where both quantitative data i.e. test scores from test of Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics
Achievement and qualitative data i.e. interviews from students and teachers were collected simultaneously and
both types of data were adopted to address the research hypothesis. The results from both types of instruments
were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The researcher used the Multi stage sampling to
find the study area. Stratified random sampling was opted because it gives representation to different strata
along with minimizing sampling error. The 40 schools were selected from the study areas and 400 students 200
male and 200 female were selected as a sample from the total population. The information was collected directly
from the respondents of different areas by using Mathematical Thinking Test MTT (Nepal 2015), Mathematics
Achievement Test MAT (Nepal 2015) the tools that were designed as the research instruments. The relation
between every aspects of Mathematical Thinking and the Mathematics Achievement was calculated using
Pearson Correlation Coefficient.
Mathematical thinking ( Total) and Mathematics Achievement. Two types of tests one for Mathematical
Thinking and another for Mathematics Achievement were administered to 400 students among 40 schools from
3 districts of Nepal. Maximum score of Mathematical thinking was 113 and Maximum score of Mathematics
Achievement was 157. Average score of the test of the level of Mathematical Thinking was 37.9 and average
scores of Mathematics Achievement was 41.74 calculated. Every score in each aspects of level of Mathematical
thinking was calculated which was shown in the table below. The maximum mean score of all students was in
deduction which was 9.85. While the minimum scores in the aspects of induction and generalization with mean
score of 5.11 and 5.28 respectively.
Table 1 Description of Students overall Achievement in all Variables of Mathematical Thinking and
Mathematics Achievement
Scale Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Deduction 0 15 9.85 3.662
Induction 0 15 5.11 3.447
Logical Thinking 0 46 6.05 4.158
Generalization 0 15 5.28 3.656
Mathematical proof 0 20 5.83 4.863
Problem solving 0 20 6.06 4.900
Mathematical Thinking ( Total) 0 113 37.90 18.819
Mathematics Achievement 0 157 41.74 22.656
Field survey: 2015
Table 1 shows that the mean score for induction, generalization and mathematical proof (5.11, 5.28,
and 5.83) was low for all the students. It noticed that these aspects are the high level of difficulty. Similarly, The
mean score for Deduction (9.85) is high. The mean score of Mathematical Thinking (Total) is 37.90 and the
standard deviation of Mathematical thinking is 18.81. But the mean score of Mathematics Achievement is 41.74
and standard deviation of Mathematics Achievement is 22.66. This spread of score showed that students'
mathematical thinking is quiet less than Mathematic Achievement. It also indicated the variability in different
aspects in the students' abilities.
Table 2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of aspects of Mathematical Thinking, Mathematical Thinking Total and
Mathematics Achievement.
Deduction Induction Logical Generalization Mathematical Problem MTT MAT
Thinking Proof Solving
**
Deduction 1 .412 .394** .376**
.376** .320** .404 **
.612**
Induction 1 .524** .531** .555** .346** .396** .720**
Logical Thinking 1 .575** .610** .497** .614** .798**
Generalization 1 .598** .504** .574** .781**
Mathematical Proof 1 .622** .584** .849**
Problem Solving 1 .682** .759**
MTT 1 .731**
MAT 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
MTT : Mathematical Thinking Total
MTA: Mathematical Achievement Total
Field survey: 2015
Table 2 shows that correlation coefficients of mathematical thinking with Mathematics Achievement is
0.731 which is significant at p<0.01. The higher level of correlation between the six scales and the total for
mathematical thinking is to be expected, given that the score for each aspect is included in the total score. It was
hypothesized that the different aspects of Mathematical Thinking would be related to Mathematics Achievement
to varying extents. From the table, all the coefficients of different aspects of mathematical thinking with
Mathematics Achievement were significant. Deduction and Induction were the least correlated aspects to
Mathematical Thinking Total being the range .404 and .396 . All six aspects of Mathematical Thinking were
strongly correlated to Mathematics Achievement. Mathematical Proof, being in range .849, is the highest
correlated aspect and Deduction being range 0.620 is the least correlated aspect among six. In summary, the
correlations indicate that, when considered in isolation from each other, all six aspects of Mathematical
Thinking were strongly related to Mathematics Achievement. Mathematical Thinking total is strongly correlated
DOI: 10.9790/7388-0606044649 www.iosrjournals.org 48 | Page
Relationship between Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement
to Mathematics Achievements being coefficient 0.731. There is strong relationship between Mathematical
Thinking and Mathematics Achievements.
Among the 20 teachers they strongly agreed that there is highly correlation between Mathematical
Thinking and Mathematics Achievements. Among them almost teachers said Deduction and Logical Thinking
are the least difficult aspects of Mathematical Thinking and Problem Solving and Mathematical Proof are the
most difficult aspects. They all agreed all the aspects of Mathematical Thinking also be correlated to the
Mathematics Achievement separately too which support the quantitative result of the study.
This result is similar to the research (Ma’Moon, 2005; Zaman, 2011; Jaleel, 2015) that the strongly
correlation between Mathematical thinking and Mathematics Achievement. Deduction is the least correlated
among the aspects of Mathematical Thinking in the study . But In the study of (Ma’Moon, 2005) Mathematical
Proof was also the most difficult aspect, while Logical Thinking was the least difficult. The study of (Zaman,
2011) showed Generalization was the easiest aspect and Mathematical Proof was the most difficult aspect.
IV. Conclusion
The study can be concluded that mean score of the students in the test of Mathematics Achievement
was higher than mean score in the test of Mathematical Thinking .The score in the tests of Mathematical
Thinking was significantly correlated to the score in the test of Mathematics Achievement. Individual aspects of
Mathematical Thinking were all positively correlated with the score in test of mathematic achievement. All
individual aspects of Mathematical Thinking were highly correlated with Mathematical Thinking (total).
Problem solving sub scale was found to have the highest correlation with test of Mathematical Thinking while
Induction had the lowest correlation. Among the aspects, Mathematical Proof was found to be highly correlated
Mathematics Achievement while the lowest correlation was deduction with test of Mathematics Achievement.
In summary, all the aspects of Mathematical Thinking and Mathematical Thinking (total) are correlated with
Mathematics Achievement.
From above findings of the study, it can be suggested that it is necessary for students to enhance their
Mathematical Thinking. Teachers should focus on developing the aspects of Mathematical Thinking through
pedagogical instructional activities and content or knowledge of these aspects that help to increase the standard
of Mathematics Achievement. Teacher, Trainer will be concerned to run training package and conduct
Mathematics teachers' training to develop the students' mathematical Thinking. It will be fruitful to enhance the
level of the aspects of Mathematical Thinking. The book authors should pay attention to compose their matters
on the way of developing the aspects of Mathematical Thinking. It is also recommended for further research in
order to fill up the research gaps on this study.
Reference
[1] Burton, L. (1984). Mathematical thinking: The struggle for meaning. Journal for research in mathematics education , 15, 35-49.
[2] Greaney, V., & Kellaghan, T. (2008b). National assessments of educational achievement: Assessing national achievement levels in
education (Vol. 1). the World Bank.
[3] Isoda, M. (2006). Developing Mathematical Thinking in Classroom. Paper presented at the meeting of the APEC, Tsukuba
International Conference. Japan.
[4] Jaleel, S. (2015). Relationship Between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics Among Secondary School
Students . Indian journal of Research PARIPEX , 4 (11), 19-21.
[5] Karadag, Z. (2009). Analyzing Students’ Mathematical Thinking in Technology-Supported Environments . Toronto, ON.: University
Toronto.
[6] Lim, C. S., & Hwa, T. Y. (2006). Promoting Mathematical Thinking in the Malaysian classroom. the APECTsukubaInternational
Conference. Japan.
[7] Ma’Moon, M. (2005). Mathematical Thinking and Mathematics Achievement of Students in the year 11 in the scientific Stream in
Jorden. Faculty of Education and Arts. Austrilia: The University of Newcastle.
[8] Mason, J., Burton, L., & Stacy, k. (1991). Thinking mathematically. England: Addison-Wesley,Wokingham.
[9] Pinar Bal, A., & Ahmet, D. (2014). Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice , 14 (4), p1375-1384.
[10] Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think Mathematically: Problem Solving. Metacognition, and Sense Making in Mathematics.
[11] Tall, D. (1991). The Psychology of Advanced Mathematical Thinking. In D. T. (Ed)., Advanced mathematical thinking (pp. 3-21).
Norwell,MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[12] Zaman, A. (2011). Relation between Mathematical Thinking and Achievement in Mathematics among Secondary School Students of
North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Faculty of social sciences, Department of Education. Islamabad: International Islamic
University.
Abstract: The aim of this classroom action research that the model was based on Hopkins to investigate
whether practice generalization reinforcement (PGR) strategy by from example to rule type can improve
student's achievement of English grammar in the junior high school. The research subjects were students of
class VIII in the second half of 2015/2016 academic year in SMP Negeri 1 Labang, Bangkalan, East Java. The
research had two cycles. The data is collected by a formative test method. Descriptive statistics was used to
analyze the data. The result of this research gained Obtained by the achievement of average Compared to
before applying of PGR, that is pre cycle = 49, I = 62 cycles, cycle II = 76. So, the research results showed that
PGR strategy by from example to rule type can improve learning outcomes, especially to learning concept of
English grammar in junior high school.
Keywords: Instructional strategy, PGR, Classroom action research
I. Introduction
The students of secondary school (SMP) in Indonesia learn three languages for three years. The first
language which is learned is Indonesian. It has two position and function as an introduction and as national
languages constitution. The second language is the mother tongue of hundreds language and generally it is
studied in the context of local content with the primary goal. In daily communication, the family use mother
tongue to keep it from the language extinction. The third language is English, it is as a foreign language (foreign
language) and it is not as a second language (second language) like in Malaysia or in India. The third type is
packaged in the language curriculum, nationally curriculum and in school based curriculum.
English is nationally learned since students enter junior high school although in primary school
education and in kindergarten have been introduced. English was learned since in early stage because English is
international language which is often used to communicate between nations. It is the official language of the
United Nations and the dominant language used to write the results of science worldwide works.
Efforts to learn English at an early stage in the SMP are certainly very encouraging, but unfortunately
learning English in junior high school is still a lot of emphasized on the ability to understand. The logical
consequence is less to support in preparing a person to be able to use English in communication with others and
academic interest. The impact can be seen when the students in junior high school has been graduated and they
continue their studies to a higher level of education, the high school, vocational school or MA, even to college.
They are less able to provide an explanation for the selection of vocabulary (word choice), tense (tenses) and
sentence construction is good and right in accordance with the rules of English grammar.
The responsibilities for these weaknesses are not only because the scope (scope) and the sort order
(sequence) junior high school English curriculum but also because of lack of proper learning strategy, it is less
varied and attractive. The results of the interview between the author and a number of eighth grade students at
the junior high school SMP Negeri 1 Labang Bangkalan shows that the students are not familiar with specific
learning strategies is used to learn English grammar concepts. For example, the concepts of grammar in teaching
English in general were learned in conventional manner, i.e. with a pattern from rule to example (Oshima &
Hogue, 2006; 2007). Such learning patterns, potentially causing students' understanding of the concepts of
grammar are always not meaningful, more fictional (verbalistic) and not applicable.
This concept is suspected to be one of the causes in less optimal learning outcomes in English subject,
especially in mastery of grammar and four language skills (four language skills) is generally achieved by junior
high school students. In Bangkalan, for example, the achievement level of English proficiency is still considered
low. It was proven that the average score of English National Examination junior high school in Bangkalan
Regency 2014/2015 school year still reached 65.10.
According to Sharpe (2000), the general teaching of English teach four language skills, they are
reading (reading), listening (listening), speaking (speaking) and writing (writing) and also the three components
of language, they are grammar (structure), vocabulary (vocabulary) and pronunciation (pronunciation).
Learning grammar is composed of two parts: a sentence pattern (pattern) and the writing style (style). Learning
grammar is essentially learning about the concept. Learning strategies concept that has been developed over the
years primarily to learn the key ideas serves as the foundation for students' high level thinking and provides a
basis for better understanding and communicating.
Learning strategy is not designed to teach the concept of information in large numbers for the students.
Basically, without an understanding of quality in certain key ideas, learning on the broad subject area or almost
is impossible to do (Richey, 1986). Experts have developed several strategies for learning concepts, such as
learning strategy directly (direct instruction) from Tennyson (1981) and Concept Attainment of Brunner (1996).
In direct instructional strategies teachers presents carefully the order of presentation such as the method of
explanation (Expository) or examination (interrogatories) on the concept to be covered. Learning is taken
directly with advance any rule, then present examples to clarify the concept and understand the concept. This
pattern is called from rule to example (Arends, 2007).
On the other hand there is a strategy PGR (practice generalization reinforcement) which is used when
the student is ready with some ideas about a particular concept or set of concepts through the presentation of
some examples (example) of a concept, the teacher promotes a way of thinking inductive to the students and
help them build thinking process (Boardman & Frydenberg, 2002; Harmer, 2004). The implementation of this
strategy using a pattern is called from example to rule, which began to learn by presenting examples then headed
on understanding the concept of rule.
The difference between the patterns of presenting the rule to live by example on learning patterns from
example to rule on PGR strategy will lead to make differences and patterns of information processing in the
students’ cognitive structure to understand certain level of understanding (Harmer, 2004). In the pattern from the
rule to example is understood as the concept of building deductively deriving from the definition of the concept
then giving examples and non-examples, the process of understanding of the concept begins with identifying the
attributes, it contained in the concept then it compared with examples and non-examples. In contrast to the
pattern from example to rule is understood as the concept of comparison based on the data or examples
presented in early learning through the process of identifying similarities traits that they are common in the
examples, students get the guidance of teachers in trying to find a concept or rule (Merrill and Tennyson, 1983).
Thus, in using PGR strategy, student will be formed through an inductive process, whereas the direct
understanding of the concept of learning strategies established through deductive process.
Differences in the pattern of presentation can pose different concepts to understanding the concept of
learning outcomes. How and where strategies are more effective in teaching the concept of grammar (grammar)
in particular? This is an interesting question to be studied empirically.
Learning grammar through direct learning strategy or strategies PGR has a strong methodological
foundation in developing the ability to learn to understand the concept as an important scaffolding to build the
students about the various objects that learned (Scheffer, 1960). However, both strategies almost rarely applied
because the messages of the concept of learning that most of them is not learned specifically but combined with
the overall learning materials (Ismail, 2012).
Based on theoretical arguments, the authors propose the research entitled "The implementation of
Practice generalization Reinforcement (PGR) Learning Strategy to Improve English Grammar Learning
Outcomes in Junior High School”. English is a tool to communicate orally and in writing in an effort to
understand and express information, thoughts and feelings. The competence or the ability to communicate this
in essence is the ability of discourse, such as the ability of a person in understanding and creation of discourse.
Discourse is simply defined as text, both written and spoken in the context of significantly were influenced by
the situation and culture (Celce-Murcia, Domyei & Thurrel, 1995).
Linguistic competence (linguistic competence) refers to the understanding and ability to apply elements
of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling in the text correctly. Understanding the importance of
grammar in the effort to improve linguistic competence, the necessary strategy grammar learning English as a
foreign language is a learning strategy generalization Practice Reinforcement (PGR).
PGR learning strategy is a learning strategy that uses a structured investigation process in learning
English grammar, it starts from the stage of practice, generalization and reinforcement. Hammer (2004) and
Boardman & Frydenberg (2002), suggests syntax learning strategies PGR in the learning process is done as
follows: (1) practice phase, this phase teachers presents learning materials in text forms, students understand
these texts and identify the grammar and answer questions, (2) generalization phase, this phase the teacher
facilitates students to find a pattern (pattern) grammar used in the text, students work in groups to look for
patterns and presenting grammar and teachers provide confirmation, and (3) reinforcement phase, this phase the
teacher gives problems or questions relating to the grammar they have learned, students work individually with
students and teachers to confirm the answer.
Figure 2. Graph of Student Learning Outcomes in the Pre-Cycle, Cycle I and Cycle II
Based on Table 2 and Figure 1 seems clear that there are significant differences in student learning
outcomes obtained in the first cycle and the second cycle. There is increased at each cycle of learning outcomes
I and II cycle. Improved learning outcomes are very satisfactory in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference
of 8%. The result increased in satisfactory the criteria in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of 9%, the
resulting increase in average criteria in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of 9%. The resulting
increase in poor criteria on the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of -14% and increase the criteria very
poor in the second cycle to cycle I have a difference of -12%.
Based on Figure 2 data were showed that there was an average increased students’ learning outcome in
each cycle. At the time of pre-cycle average score of students’ learning outcomes were 49, experienced an
average increase in student learning outcomes by 13 points in the first cycle i.e. to 62 and increased in the
second cycle of 14 points which became by 76.
Based on these results it appears that the application of learning strategies PGR with patterns from
example to rule has an important role in the process of learning English grammar mainly to the theme Do You
Like Sport? and Could You Help Me, Please ?.
On the implementation of pre-cycle that uses learning strategies directly with the pattern from the rule
to example, a classroom atmosphere was in ordinary condition. The results of observations by the author showed
that there is no significant change in the management and behavior of student learning as just listening seriously
taking notes and not many of the questions posed and students were passive.
On the implementation of the first cycle, when teachers change instructional strategies to use learning
strategies PGR (practice generalization reinforcement) pattern from example to rule, class atmosphere began to
change. When the practice phase is still like usual, such as listening to the teacher presentation seriously and
record things that are considered important. In this phase, the teacher is only presenting the learning materials in
the form of examples of text, students understand the content of the text and identify its grammar and
occasionally answered questions. But when the generalization phase was occurred a significant event change. In
this phase the students are so busy and work together to find a pattern (pattern) grammar used in the text,
students actually work in group looking for patterns of grammar and present. It is an interesting phenomenon,
but it is still in awkward condition because for the first time they learn that way. While on the reinforcement
phase, the beginning learning process seemed fun learning because teachers do not seem to give problems or
questions relating to the grammar what they have learned. In this phase of work individually and facilitated by
the teacher.
In the second cycle learning atmosphere changed significantly. Perhaps based on the significant
experience in the first cycle, the second cycle of the learning takes place very pleasantly. Students’ readiness to
learn is visible and seems happy to enjoy the learning process.
References
[1] Arends, R.I. 2007, Learning to Teach. New York: The Mc Grow Hill Company.
[2] Boardman, C.A. & Frydenberg, J. 2002. Writing to Communicate: Paragraphs and Essays. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
[3] Brunner, J. 1996. Toward a Theory of Information. New York: Norton.
[4] Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z. & Thurrell, S. 1995. Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content
Specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6(2): 5-35.
[5] Harmer, J. 2004. How to Teach Grammar. England: Pearson Education Limited.
[6] Hopkins, D.A. 1993. A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
[7] Ismail. 2012. Pengaruh Strategi Pembelajaran Konsep melalui Direct Presentation vs Concept Attainment, Prior knowledge dan
Sikap terhadap Hasil Belajar Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial Kelas V Sekolah Dasar. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: Program
Pascasarjana UM, Malang.
[8] Merril, M.D. & Tennyson, R.D. 1983. Teaching Concept: An Introduction Design Guide. New Jersey: Educational Technology
Publications.
[9] Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. 2006. Writing Academic English. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
[10] Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. 2007. Introduction to Academic Writing. New York:
[11] Pearson Education, Inc.
[12] Poerwanti, dkk. 2008. Asesmen Pembelajaran SD. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.
[13] Richey, R. 1986. Theoritical and Conceptual Bases of Instructional Design. New York: Nicholas Publishing Company.
[14] Scheffler, I. 1960. The Language of Education. Illionis: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
[15] Sharpe, P.J. 2000. How to Prepare for the TOEFL. Woodbury NJ: Barron’s.
[16] Tennyson, R.D. 1981. Concept Learning Effectiveness Using Prototype and Skill Development Presentation Form. Paper Presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Los Angeles: Unpublished.
Abstract: While most research has been conducted on the questions related to effectiveness education in post-
secondary institutions, projects that investigate the student perceptions of both teacher and teaching
effectiveness are rare if not inexistent. This study proposes to determine organizing principles in students’
perception of educational effectiveness. In this qualitative study, the data was gathered by using open-ended
surveys. The questionnaire was conducted to 25 first year students at a university in Fes, Morocco in the 2012-
2013 academic terms. The results revealed that students’ perception of “effective teacher” and “effective
teaching” yield two set of items significantly different. So, the two concepts were not interchangeable.
The conclusions were that implications for more attention must give to wording the items questionnaire in the
way that allows us avoiding confusion and bias in student educational evaluations.
Keywords: first year students, qualitative study, effective teacher, effective teaching
I. Introduction
In all universities through the world, the quality of undergraduate teaching has become the focus of
deep discuss in the last several years, both inside and outside of the sector (Chen & Hoshower, 2003; Slate et al.,
2011). Providing teaching of quality to meet different needs of students with increasingly diverse backgrounds,
expectations and levels of preparedness (Northedge 2003; Perry 1994), it’s become preoccupation of most
institutions in higher education, that any attempt to improve student achievement is predictable by improving
teaching quality (Sanders and Horn, 1998 ; Nye et al. 2004). So, succeed these challenges; several universities at
all levels are acknowledging the need for better practice in evaluating teaching. Although the reasons for
evaluating teaching are numerous (Casey,1997) , improving teaching quality remain the main purpose (Kahn,
1993; Seldin, 1997; Remedios & Lieberman, 2008). Despite number of measures has been taken for teaching
quality improvement in higher education; however evaluation by students, generally known as students’
evaluation of teaching “SET” is by far the primarily and the most widely used approach by higher education
institutions for evaluating and improving the teaching accomplishments of their faculties (Palchik & al, 1988;
Seldin, 1997). SET is an instrument designed to assess the quality of teaching as experienced by the learner
(Ulas, 2011) .according to McKeachie, (1997) is “the single most valid source of data on teaching
effectiveness”. This practice have began early into North American universities in the mid-1920s, (Apollonia &
Abrami, 1997; Mason et al ,2002; Algozzine et al ,2004). Initiated by psychologist E.T. Guthrie (Murray 2005;
Addison and Stowell 2012 ), the “SET” are acknowledging the "golden age of research" in the1970s (Centra,
1993 cited by Algozzine, 2004)
Nowadays, SET are considered yet the most if not the only influential measure of teaching
effectiveness (Marsh, 1987; Chen & Hoshower, 2003; Emery, Kramer and Tian, 2003; Remedios and
Lieberman, 2008), widely used formatively by faculty to improve their teaching quality (Braskamp, 2000).
Thus, students particularly the current generation, appreciate being given a voice and the opportunity to express
themselves, that they seem themselves are “confident of their ability to match the effort required to meet the
expectations others place upon them and are motivated to do so as long as their own expectations of beneficial
outcomes are met” (p.36) (DeBard 2004). So, better placed, as “the only direct, daily observers of a professor's
classroom teaching performance” (Seldin, 1997), they can play an active role in the improvement of teaching
quality and their learning as well (Perry 1994, Wilson and Ryan,2012, Calaguas, 2013). according to
McKeachie (1983) “students are in class almost every day and they know what's going on, and they have
some sense of whether they are learning" (p. 38) SooHoo, S. (1993) would agree with McKeachie asserted:
“Student perceptions are valuable to our practice because they are authentic sources; they personally
experience our classrooms first hand. . . As teachers, we need to find ways to continually seek out these silent
voices because they can teach us so much about learning and learners”. (p. 389). So, this renewing emphasis on
teaching quality in higher education setting necessitates valid means of measuring this quality (Delaney et al.
2010). Thus, many of the current tools of evaluation “do not meet the overarching educational objective” (p.38)
(Emery et al 2003), there are differences in what specific instruments are intended to measure. According to
Robertson (2004) “The university SET questionnaire may not always be measuring what it is supposed to be
measuring » (p.677). There has been little systematic study of the problem of creating evaluation systems that
truly respond to the needs of those who evaluate teaching performance (Theall & Franklin 2000). Furthermore,
little attention has given to the structural nature of the evaluation (Cohen 2005). Kahn (1993) explains
«institutions rededicate themselves to enhancing teaching effectiveness, they are recognizing that efforts to
improve teaching and learning must go hand in hand with efforts to improve the evaluation of
teaching”(p.122). Also in agreement with an incremental view of teaching evaluation in higher education is
Mckeachie (1969) who cautions us as follows:
“Both the evaluation form and the procedures will, in many instances, require adjustments to make
them suitable for employment in different institutions of higher education, and within particular
institutions” (p.439). According to Hobson and Talbot (2001), well developed student evaluations with
adequate reliability and validity data may provide some of the best measures of teaching effectiveness.
Most of the previous studies, which looked at how students evaluate their teaching, confirmed the contribution
of teacher (Marsh 1981; Marsh and Bailey 1993; Husbands 1997; Lin et al 2010); or some teacher personal trait
(Sherman and Blackburn 1975; Murray & Lawrence 1980; Feldman 1986; Jones 1989) in the evaluation of
teaching quality. Muray et al. (1990) indicate:
“given that teaching is in part a social or interpersonal process, it seems reasonable to expect that
teacher personality traits might correlate significantly with rated teaching effectiveness” (p.250)
Marsh (1981) conducted a comprehensive study of student ratings using evaluations from 1364 classes. He
suggested that the effect of the teacher on student ratings of teaching effectiveness is much larger than is the
effect of the course being taught.Marsh and Bailey (1993) in their meta-analysis of student’s evaluations
revealed that the effectiveness of teaching is mainly a function of the instructor who teaches a course rather than
the course being taught. More, Lin et al. (2010) in their study exploring the relationship between teacher and
teaching they find that:“Teacher quality and teaching effectiveness are positively related, meaning the prediction
power of teaching effectiveness, with teacher quality as the predictor, is significant » (p.167).
Regarding the influence of teacher personal trait on student evaluation of teaching, Murray (1975)
reported by Murray et al. (1990) find that student ratings of new, previously unrated college instructors could be
accurately predicted from peer ratings of personality traits obtained at least 5 months prior to student assessment
of teaching. Feldman (1986) indicates that a student rating of teaching correlates moderately to high with some
aspects of instructor’ personalities. Sherman and Blackburn (1975) argue that students prefer an entertaining
performer rather than an effective educator; thus, teachers’ personality traits outweigh the importance of efforts
devoted to teaching practices, further students often equate expressiveness with good teaching, as vocal skills
and expressive movement (Murray & Lawrence, 1980), and as charisma and enthusiasm Abrami et al. (1982)
that enhance ratings of the faculty regardless of how well they know their subject matter, these phenomenon is
widely known as the Dr. Fox effect (Naftulin et al., 1973; Ware & Williams, 1975). The Dr. Fox effect has been
interpreted to mean that enthusiastic lecturers can "seduce" students into giving favorable evaluations,
even though the lectures may be devoid of meaningful content (Marsh and Roche 1997).
Furthermore Jones (1989) found that teacher’s personality have an influence on student ratings of
teaching quality, even when students have been awarded to the irrelevance of personality characteristics in
evaluating teaching. Murray et al. (1990) in their study exploring peer ratings of 29 personality traits in relation
to student ratings of teaching effectiveness, find that for any given type of course or for all types combined,
student instructional ratings were strongly related to peer ratings of instructor personality traits. Phillips’ study
(1998) reported by Ali and Sell (1998) find that students in their perceptions about the student evaluation of
teaching, they acknowledged that the personality of teacher is more present in their assessment despite that they
claimed that this was irrelevant to the question of the effectiveness of the pedagogy. For Goldstein and Benassi
(2006) students tend to evaluate perceived teaching quality in terms of the characteristics of teachers including
their enthusiasm, presentation and clarity. All these studies cited above show that the evaluation of teaching is
strongly influenced by teacher personality, thus, it can be a source of confusion and ambiguity and bias, that,
although personality attributes are likely important, they may be overemphasized in students’ recall of effective
teaching (Kraus and Sears 2008). According to Ross, Amabile and Steinmetz (1977), it’s due to Gestalt
processes and the “fundamental attribution error” in social psychology. So, using a common tool to evaluate
educational issues, it may not be considered a best practice. The evaluation items related to teacher effectiveness
must be given separately from those related to teaching effectiveness in the SET.
Additionally, the two most widely used instruments in educational evaluation, Teacher Behaviors
Checklist (TBC) Buskist et al.,( 2002) and Students’ Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) Marsh, H. W.
(1982), composed each by a set of item so different by nature and meaning. The former (TBC) measure 28 trait
of personality of effective teacher: Accessible, Approachable, Authoritative, Confident, Creative and
Interesting, effective communicator, Encourages and Cares for Students, Enthusiastic about Teaching and
about Topic, Establishes Daily and Academic Term Goals, Flexible, good listener, Happy, Humble,
Knowledgeable About Subject Matter, prepared, Presents Current Information, professional, Promotes Class
Discussion, Promotes Critical Thinking, Provides Constructive Feedback, Punctuality/Manages Class Time,
Rapport, Realistic Expectations of Students/Fair Testing and Grading, Respectful, Sensitive and Persistent,
Strives to Be a Better Teacher, Technologically Competent, Understanding. Whereas the second (SEEQ)
measures nine factors of teaching effectiveness: learning/value, enthusiasm, organization, group interaction,
individual rapport, breadth of coverage, exams, assignments, and workload/ difficulty. By bearing in mind the
components of these two instruments of measure, it may be hypothesized that educational evaluation will be
conceptualized by considering both teacher personality traits and elements of effective teaching. This assertion
can be supported by Akerlind’ findings (2004), thus, in his research undertaken from a phenomenographic
perspective of academics’ ways of experiencing being a university teacher, in contrast to the focus taken in
previous studies on academics’ experiences of teaching per se, the results indicate that a focus on academics’
experience of teaching separated from their larger experience of being a teacher may encourage over
simplification of the phenomenon of university teaching.
We hypotheses that the notion of appraising or evaluating teaching in higher education setting must
necessarily relate to views what constitutes both effective teaching and effective teacher. However, research
involving perception of educational quality has failed to separate the two concepts. This study uses a qualitative
method, an open-ended questions asking students about both teacher (person) and teaching (act) directly in
attempt to uncover what Gengler et al. (1999, p. 175) refer to as the “reasons behind the reasons”, and
understanding how students perceive teacher and teaching effectiveness and to identify the conceptual structure
that students use in their perception, this uncovering of a structure is helpful in wording the items and designing
the questionnaire and consequently, avoiding as possible any confusion in the perception of the two concepts,
that can constitute a source of bias in students evaluations of their effectiveness education.
II. Objectives
The purposes of this study were to delineate separately the characteristics of effective teachers and the
characteristics of effective teaching.The two research questions were: (a) What do select first year students
perceive as being characteristics of effective university teachers? (b) What do select first year students perceive
as being characteristics of effective teaching? The results were evaluated as whole.
III. Methodology
3.1. Design
A qualitative survey design was used in this study. Survey research has been characterized as "the
best method available to the social researcher who is interested in collecting original data for describing a
population too large to observe directly…Surveys are also excellent vehicles for measuring attitudes and
orientations in a large population."(p.270) (Babbie 2008). This approach proved successful as respondents
offered rich descriptions and detailed narratives about their experiences as students “Students were to be free to
identify the characteristics and how they are demonstrated without having their belief system influenced by
researchers’ views... Since the origins of perceptions are found in the belief systems of the students, the rich
narratives provided by the students could identify, with greater certainty, the beliefs of the participants”.(p.4)
(Delaney et al.2010) . The survey allow students to express themselves spontaneously, fully, and in their own
language rather than through the predetermined choices of the researchers Hong (1984), to identify the
characteristics that they believe are important by hand-wrote. According to Cohen et al 2000 an “open-ended
question can catch the authenticity, richness, depth of response, honesty and candor which … are the hallmarks
of qualitative data” (p.255) (Cohen et al., 2000).
3.2. Sample
Participants in this study were 25 first year students were choose randomly, to obtain a representative
sample (Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007). The average age was 19.52 years (SD = 1.12), with the youngest
student being 18 years old and the oldest person being 21 years old. They all enrolled for the L1 (licence first
year). They have the same Secondary School degree. According to Guest et al. (2006) “If the goal is to describe
a shared perception, belief, or behavior among a relatively homogeneous group, then a sample of twelve will
likely be sufficient… The more similar participants in a sample are in their experiences with respect to the
research domain, the sooner we would expect to reach saturation”(p.76) In general, sample sizes in qualitative
research should not be too large that it is difficult to extract thick, rich data (Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007).
3.3. Instrumentation
The researchers employed the use of a survey comprising demographic questions and four open-ended
questions. A general explanation of purpose was given orally for the university students. Additionally, the
instructions were typed at the top of each sheets of paper that each participant received and assured the
respondents of the confidentiality of the data and the answers they provide. Twenty five students were asked at
the end of the first semester four questions in the same questionnaire:
1. In your point of view what are the characteristics of effective teacher?
2. If are you a teacher, what qualities in your point of view, you think that your students appreciate in you?
3. How you qualify effective teaching?
4. What in your point of view are the practices that permitted effective teaching?
5. The questions 2 and 4 were added just for inciting and encouraging students to more expressiveness about
the effective teacher and effective teaching characteristics respectively.
3.4. Procedure
My thesis director, she has been in charge of administering the survey instrument with opened-ended questions
to students at the end of practical class session for in Ferber 2012. She explained the purpose of the study to
students.
IV. Resultats
Al first, the most participants’ responses given in the questions 1 and 3 were rewrite in the questions 2
and 4 respectively As shown in table 1, the 25 participants' responses yield a total of 22 and 21 verb referent
statements corresponding to effective teacher’ characteristics and effective teaching’ characteristics respectively.
The first observation that can be made from these data shows a clear distinction in the students’ responses, it’s
finds a specifics about the students’ perceptions of their educational effectiveness yielding distinct items. Thus,
regarding verb-referent statements that constitute effective teacher were shorts, one, two or three words (i.e. is
dedicated, respect students…), the most statements are traits of personality that what students hope in their
instructor as person.
Table 1: Effective teacher and teaching verb referent categories extracted from survey
Characteristics of effective teacher Characteristics of effective teaching
Verb referent statements Verb referent statements
…is good communicator ...is transmitting knowledge in a way that facilitate learning
…explain well …is respecting students and treating them with sympathy
…is punctual …is a course content allow acquisition of new and valued
knowledge
…is understanding …is an environment conducive to learning
…is encouraging students to participate in discussions and to
…is honest share ideas
…is dedicated ...is course well prepared and clearly explained
…is persevering …is mastering of matter teaching
…is flexible …is involving students in the course
…is serious …is showing good impression toward students
…is smiling …is providing (by teacher) support and helps to students
…possesses a sense of humor …is inciting a students to be explorers of knowledge
…is modest …is adapting a course content to the research progress in the
subject
…is patient …is integrating support to facilitate learning
…respect students …is initiating students to research
…is well presented …is having a genuine interest and concern in students needs
…have strong personality …is reading attention (teachers) to the need of student (academic
and personal)
…is self-confident …is treating students equitably and without discrimination by a
teacher
…is approachable …is availability (teacher) to any student consultation
…is accessible …is availability (teacher) for any re-explanation in case of need
…is model for students …is giving an evaluation in relation to what is taught
…is well prepared …is giving an Evaluation/correction of exams with
responsibility
In many studies concerning teaching quality evaluation the researchers prefer to “list define” teaching
processes by outlining extensive characteristics, behaviors or skills that may be used to determine if teaching is
occurring such SEEQ and BTC questionnaires . However, these lists of items or categories often show a
preoccupation with the teacher personality trait or factor of teaching. Considering each list solely would not
reveal a total picture of the teaching process. So, in order to improve teaching quality in higher education,
student evaluations must be obtained by distinguishing between the elements that constitute characteristics of
effective teacher and those of effective teaching. Proceeding in this way permit us to minimize confusion and
bias that can be occurring in the SET, as reveled by Tagomori and Bishop’ (1995) analysis of the content of 200
instruments used in student evaluation of college teaching. Perhaps Marsh and Roche (1997) summarize the
challenge facing the use of students evaluation of teaching quality by saying that “Confusion about the validity
and the effectiveness of SETs will continue as long as the various distinct components of students'
ratings are treated as a single "puree" rather than as the "apples and oranges"” (p.1195). Ongoing the
finding of this study is a clear indication that appraising educational effectiveness in higher education setting
must necessarily separate the effective teacher’s characteristics to those of effective teaching in a way to avoid
as possible any confusion that can bias students’ perception of teaching process.
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