LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 1

HYDROCARBON AND HYDROXY COMPOUNDS

A. REACTIONS OF HYDROCARBONS

OBJECTIVE(S): To study the properties of HC and Hydroxy compounds

DATA/RESULTS
Observation
Test
Cyclohexane, C6H12 Cyclohexene, C6H10
1 Addition of water
Formation of 2 layers Formation of 2 layers

2 Ignition Burned with more sooty

Burned with less sooty flame
flame

3 Bromine (CH2Cl2) Brown color of bromine Brown color of bromine

(a) In the dark remains discharged

(b) In sunlight Brown color of bromine Brown color of bromine

discharged discharged

4 KMnO4(aq) The purple color of Mn(VII) The purple color of Mn(VII)

H+(aq), cold ions remains ions turn to colorless Mn(II)
ions

5 KMnO4(aq)
H+(aq), hot The purple color of Mn(VII) The purple color of Mn(VII)
ions remains ions turn to colorless Mn(II)
ions

[2] any two completed testing

DISCUSSION
Addition of water : Hydrocarbons insoluble in H2O , HC is a non polar substance
and less dense than water [1] (any one point)

1
Ignition : C6H12 + 9 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6H10 + 17/2 O2 → 6 CO2 + 5 H2O more sooty flame
Bromination:
C6H12 + Br2 in CH2Cl2 uv
C6H11Br + HBr
C6H10 + Br2 in CH2Cl2 → C6H10Br2

Oxidation:
C6H10 + MnO4- cold
C6H10(OH)2 + Mn2+ @ MnO2 (brown ppt)
purple colorless

C6H10 + MnO4- heat

HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COOH + Mn2+
Purple colorless
[1] on observation OR equation

2
B. REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS

OBJECTIVE(S):

DATA/RESULTS:
Observation
Test 2-methyl
1-propanol 2-butanol
-2-propanol
1 PCl5(s) White fumes White fumes White fumes
produced produced produced

3 K2Cr2O7(aq) The orange color The orange color The orange color
changes to changes to remains
green/blue color green/blue color

4 Lucas test No white ppt White ppt formed White ppt formed
formed at room after 5 minutes immediately
temperature (10-30 mins) (<5 mins)
5 Iodoform test No formation of yellow ppt wt No formation of
yellow ppt wt antiseptic smell yellow ppt wt
antiseptic smell antiseptic smell

[2] any two completed testings

DISCUSSION:

PCl5 :
CH3CH2CH2OH + PCl5 → CH3CH2CH2Cl + POCl3 + HCl (White fume)

CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 + PCl5 → CH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3 + POCl3 + HCl (White fume)

CH3C(OH)(CH3)2 + PCl5 → CH3C(Cl)(CH3)2 + POCl3 + HCl (White fume)

Oxidation, K2Cr2O7 (aq) :

CH3CH2CH2OH + Cr2O72- + 8H+ → CH3CH2COOH + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
orange green

CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 + Cr2O72- + 8H+ → CH3CH2COCH3 + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

orange green
Lucas test:

3
CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 + ZnCl2 + HCl → CH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3 + H2O + [Zn(OH)Cl2]
cloudy
CH3C(OH)(CH3)2 + ZnCl2 + HCl → CH3C(Cl)(CH3)2 + H2O + [Zn(OH)Cl2]
cloudy
rate of formation of cloudiness: 30 > 20 >10 alcohols

Iodoform test:
CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 + I2 + NaOH → CH3CH2COO-Na+ + CHI3 + NaI + H2O [1]
yellow ppt with antiseptic smell

CONCLUSION [1] (any 1)

1. Cyclohexene is an unsaturated compound and is more reactive than cyclohexane.
2. Cyclohexene undergoes halogenation with or without uv light and can be
oxidized. Whereas cyclohexane only undergoes halogenation with the presence of
uv light and cannot be oxidized.
3. Confirmatory test for alcohol: PCl 5
4. Only 1o and 2o alcohol can be oxidized.
5. Iodoform test is used to test methyl alcohol.

REFLECTION
‘See you not that Allâh sends down water (rain) from the sky, and We produce
therewith fruits of varying colours, and among the mountains are streaks white and
red, of varying colours and (others) very black’ (35:27)
This verse shows the variety of Allah creation in this world. Each and every creation
has its own significance and play roles in the world.

REFERENCES
1. Tan Yin Toon, Chemistry for Matriculation Semester 2, Oxford Fajar Sdn.Bhd.
(pg. 114-210)
2. Holy Quran; Text and Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (pg 426)

TOTAL MARKS 8

4
 LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 2

CARBONYL COMPOUND AND PHENOL

OBJECTIVE(S):To study the properties of carbonyl and phenol

A. REACTIONS OF CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

DATA/RESULTS:

Observation
Test
Ethanal Propanone Benzaldehyde
1 Brady’s reagent Yellow orange Yellow orange Yellow orange
precipitate is precipitate is precipitate is
formed formed formed

2 K2Cr2O7(aq) Orange colour of Orange colour of Orange colour of

K2Cr2O7(aq) turns K2Cr2O7(aq) K2Cr2O7(aq) turns
green remains green

3 Tollen’s reagent Silver mirror is The solution Silver mirror is

formed on the wall remains colourless formed on the wall
of the test of the test
tube/grayish black tube/grayish black
precipitate precipitate
4 Fehling’s reagent Blue colour Blue colour Blue colour
changes to brick remains remains
red

5 Iodoform test Yellow precipitate Yellow precipitate Colourless solution

with anticeptic with anticeptic
smell is formed smell is formed

[any one correct testing and observations √1M]

5
DATA/RESULTS:
Observation
Test
Unknown
1 Brady’s reagent Yellow orange precipitate is formed

2 K2Cr2O7(aq) Orange colour remains

3 Tollen’s reagent The solution remains colourless

4 Fehling’s reagent Blue colour remains

5 Iodoform test Yellow precipitate with antiseptic

smell is formed

Class/Family of unknown: Ketone @ aldehyde

[any one correct testing and observations √1M]

B. REACTIONS OF PHENOL
DATA/RESULTS
Test Observations

Phenol

1 Addition of Emulsion (cloudiness) is formed and colourless homogeneous

water solution formed in hot water bath.

2 Acidity
(a) Litmus (a)Blue litmus paper turns red
paper
(b) (i) NaOH (b)(i) homogeneous solution formed
(ii) HCl (ii) emulsion formed

3 Iron(III) Blue violet/purple solution formed

chloride

4 Bromine water White precipitate formed/ brown colour of bromine discharged

[any one correct testing and observations √1M]

6
DISCUSSIONS:
Reaction of carbonyl compound
1. Brady’s Reagent [√1M for equation OR observation]
a. Ethanal
O2 N
O O2 N

CH3 CH + NH2 NH NO2 CH3 CH NNH N2 O + H2 O

ethanal-2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone
(yellow precipitate )

b. Propanone
O2 N
O O2 N

CH3 CCH3 + NH2 NH NO2 CH3 C(CH3 ) NNH N2 O + H O

2

propanone-2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone
(yellow precipitate)

c. Benzaldehyde

O2 N
O2 N

C6H5COH + NH2 NH NO2 C6H5CH + H O

NNH N2 O 2

benzaldehyde-2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone
(yellow precipitate)

2. K2Cr2O7 [√1M for equation OR observation]

a. Ethanal

O O
K C r O /H +/w ar m
2 2 7
CH CH CH COH + Cr3+ (green/blue)
3 3
ethanoic acid

b. Benzaldehyde

O O
CH COH
+
K2 Cr2 O7 /H /warm

+ Cr3+ (green/blue)
benzoic acid

7
3. Tollen’s reagent [√1M for equation OR observation]

a. Ethanal

O O

CH3 CH + 2 [Ag(NH3 )2 ]
+
+
-
3 OH CH3 CO
-
+ 2Ag(s)+ 4NH3 + H2 O
Silver mirror

b. Benzaldehyde

O O
CH CO
-

+ 2 [Ag(NH3 )2 ]
+
+ 3 OH
-
+ 2Ag(s)+ 4NH3 + H2 O
Silver mirror

4. Fehling’s reagent [√1M for equation OR observation]

~ positive for aliphatic aldehyde
a. Ethanal

O
O
-
CH3 CH + 2Cu2+ + 5OH CH3 CO
-
+ Cu2 O (s) + 3 H2 O
Brick red precipitate

5. Iodoform test [√1M for equation OR observation]

a. Ethanal

O O
CH3 CH + 3I 2 + 4 NaOH CH3 CONa + 3 NaI + H2 O

+ CHI3
Yellow precipitate with antiseptic smell

8
 b. Propanone

O O
CH3 CCH3 + 3I2 + 4 NaOH CH3 CONa + 3 NaI + H2 O

+ CHI3
Yellow precipitate with antiseptic smell

Reaction of Phenol

1. Addition of water:
Phenol partially soluble in water. √1M

2. Acidity
(a) phenol is an acidic compound

C6H5OH + H2O ⇌ C6H5O- + H3O+

phenoxide ion

(b) (i) C6H5OH + NaOH  C6H5O- + Na+ + H2O

phenoxide ion(soluble)

(ii) C6H5O- + H+  C6H5OH

cloudy as phenol precipitate out

3. Iron (III) chloride

OH OH
FeCl3
+ FeCl3 →

Blue violet soln

9
4. Bromine in water [√1M for equation OR observation]

OH OH
Br Br

Br2 (aq)

Br
White ppt (2,4,6-tribromophenol)

CONCLUSION:
1. Carbonyl compounds undergo nucleophilic addition reaction
2. Aldehyde can be oxidized/reducing agent to carboxylic acid whereas ketones
cannot be oxidized
3. Ethanal and propanone can be distinguish from benzaldehyde by using
Iodoform test due to the carbonyl group being bonded to the methyl group
4. Phenol is an acidic compound which partially soluble in water.

REFLECTION:
‘He knows that which goes into the earth and that which comes forth from it, and
that which descend from the heaven and that which ascends to it. And He is the Most
Merciful, the Oft¬Forgiving ‘ (34:2)
Allah knows everything that happens around us, we as the caliph should observe the
change in the reaction to know actually happening.

REFERENCES:
1. Tan Yin Toon, Chemistry for Matriculation Semester 2, Oxford Fajar Sdn.Bhd.
(pg. 219-250)
2. Holy Quran; Text and Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (pg 416)
TOTAL MARKS 10

10
 LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 3

HESS’S LAW - ADDITIVITY OF HEAT OF REACTION

OBJECTIVE : To calculate the heat of reaction, H based on the Hess’s law

RESULTS :

Experimental data

Reaction I Reaction II Reaction III

1 Mass of solid NaOH (g) 2.0000 2.0000 -

2 Volume NaOH (mL) - - 50.0

3 Volume water (mL) 100.0 - -

4 Volume HCl (mL) - 100.0 50.0

5 Total mass of solution (g) 102.0 102.0 150.0 √1M

6 Final temperature (C) 25.6 31.7 26.0

7 Initial temperature (C) 20.9 20.6 20.7

8 Change in temperature, T (C) 4.7 11.1 5.3

9 Heat, qreaction (kJ) 2.0 4.73 3.3

10 No. of moles of NaOH/mol 0.050000 0.050000 0.0500 √1M

11 H (kJ/mol) -40 -94.6 -66

[√1M for H (kJ/mol) with –ve sign and correct arrangement (Rxn II>Rxn1 &RxnIII) ]

Answers to the questions

1. (a) NaOH(s) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

11
 (b) Heat of reaction I + heat of reaction III
= [-40 + (-72)] kJ/mol
= -106 kJ/mol
Heat of reaction II = -94.6 kJ/mol

2. % Error = Theoretical H – Experimental H x 100%

Theoretical H
= (94.6 - 106 )kJ/mol  100%
94.6 kJ/mol
= 12 % √1M

DISCUSSIONS:

Theory √1M

 Heat, q is a transfer of energy between two objects at different temperature

 Enthalpy change, H is the energy changes that occur in a chemical reaction
at constant pressure.
 First law of thermodynamic:
- The law of conservation of energy
- Energy can be changed from one form into another
- It can neither be created nor destroyed
 Hess’s law states that when reactants are converted to products, the change
in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a
series of steps.
 Hsoln is the enthalpy change when 1 mol of solute dissolves in a solvent.

Observations √1M
 As the reaction occurs, the temperature of the solution increases/exothermic
rxn.

Sources of error √1M

 Did not stir the solution simultaneously.

 Did not add the NaOH(s) into the solution immediately.
 Did not cover the styroform cup properly, thus some heat escape to the
surrounding.

12
Precautionary steps √1M

 NaOH(s) is very hygroscopic (easily absorbed moisture from the air). Thus
weigh it and proceed to the next step without delay.
 Constantly stir the solution.
 The two solutions must be at the same temperature.
 Cover the styroform cup properly to avoid the escape of heat to the
surrounding.

CONCLUSION:

 The experimental value for the heat of reaction, H for the reaction between
NaOH(s) + HCl(aq)  H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) is -92.8 kJ/mol

 Based on the Hess’s law, the heat of reaction, H for the reaction between
NaOH(s) + HCl(aq)  H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) is -85.1 kJ/mol

REFLECTION:

‘The Day that we roll up the heavens like a scroll rolled up for books(completed)-
even as We produced the first creation, so shall We produced a new one: a promise
We have undertaken; truly shall We fulfill it.’

(21:104)

This is about the Day of Judgment, where Allah promised how he created at the
beginning, He created the same for the last.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Brown, Lemay and Bursten; Chemistry: The Central Science, 10 th edition,

Pearson Prentice Hall, page 176-178
2. Holy Quran; Text and Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, page 393.

TOTAL MARKS 8

13
 LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 4

DISTURBING THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM – LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

OBJECTIVES : √1M

- To analyze the effect of concentration (common ion) and temperature on the

equilibrium position.
- To explain the change of equilibrium position based on the Le Chatelier’s
principle
RESULTS :

PART A: Effect of Temperature Change on a Physical System

Test conditions Observations

Cooling to 0.0C White crystals formed √1M

Warming to room temperature White crystals dissolved

PART B: Common Ion Effect on a Chemical System

Test
Conditions Observations
tube

1 Equilibrium without stress Orange

2 Increase H+ added from H2SO4 Darker orange

3 Decrease H+ from added NaOH Yellow √1M

4 After addition of H2SO4 to solution that Darker orange

was added NaOH previously

14
PART C: Common Ion Effect on a Chemical System

Test
Ions added Observations
tube

1 Control Orange

2 Fe3+ Darker orange √1M

3 SCN- Blood red

4 K+ and Cl- Pale yellow OR Pale orange

5 OH- Light yellow OR Light orange

6 Ag+ Pale yellow /cloudy

DISCUSSIONS:

Theory

 Equilibrium occurs when the concentrations of reactants and products remain

constant.
 Equilibrium is established when the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of
backward reaction.
 Factors that affect equilibrium:
- Concentration
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Catalyst
 Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a
change (stress), the equilibrium tends to shift so as to minimize the effect of
change (relieve the stress).

Observations and explanations

PART A √1M
 The equilibrium as written is endothermic in the forward direction. When the
temperature is decreased, white crystal formed. This shows that the
equilibrium has shifted to the left (in the exothermic direction), therefore
releasing heat. When the temperature is increased, white crystal dissolves as
the equilibrium shifts to the right.

PART B√1M

 Adding more acid will increase the concentration of H +(aq) ions. The
equilibrium position will shift to the right where some of the extra H + ions
added react with the CrO42- ions to form orange Cr2O72- ions and so minimize
the increased in the concentration of H+(aq).

15
  Adding base (containing OH- ions) will reduce the H+(aq) concentration by
neutralization:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l)
The equilibrium position will shift to the left to minimize the decrease in
H+(aq) ion concentration, forming yellow CrO42- ions.

PART C√2M

 Adding more FeCl3 will increase the concentration of Fe3+(aq) ions. As a

response, the equilibrium position will shift to the right where some of the
extra Fe3+ ions added react with the SCN- ions to form blood red [Fe(SCN)]2+
ions and so minimize the increased in the concentration of Fe 3+(aq).
 Adding more KSCN will increase the concentration of SCN -(aq) ions. As a
response, the equilibrium position will shift to the right where some of the
extra SCN- ions added react with the Fe3+ ions to form blood red [Fe(SCN)]2+
ions and so minimize the increased in the concentration of SCN-(aq).
 Adding KCl (containing Cl - ions) will reduce the Fe3+(aq) concentration by a
reaction:
Cl-(aq) + Fe3+(aq)  FeCl3(s)
The equilibrium position will shift to the left to increase the Fe3+(aq) ion
concentration again, forming pale yellow solution.
 Adding NaOH (containing OH- ions) will reduce the Fe3+(aq) concentration by
a reaction:
Fe3+(aq) + OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)3(s)
The equilibrium position will shift to the left to minimize the decrease in
Fe3+(aq) ion concentration, forming yellow solution.
 Adding AgNO3 (containing Ag+ ions) will reduce the SCN-(aq) concentration by
a reaction:
Ag+(aq) + SCN-(aq)  AgSCN(s)
The equilibrium position will shift to the left to minimize the decrease in SCN-
(aq) ion concentration, forming yellow solution.

Sources of error
 Do not wait until the brown precipitate of Fe(OH) 3 and white solid of AgSCN
to settle down , thus difficult to identify the color the resulting solution.
 Use the same dropper for different solution may cause contamination.

Precautionary steps

 Wait until the brown precipitate of Fe(OH) 3 and white solid of AgSCN to settle
down to see the color of the solution clearly.

16
CONCLUSION :

 An increased in temperature shifts equilibrium in the endothermic direction; a

@decrease in temperature shifts equilibrium in the exothermic direction.
Equilibrium will shift to the right when the concentration of a reactant is
increased or the concentration of the product is decreased.
@
 Equilibrium will shift to the left when the concentration of a product is
increased or the concentration of the reactant is decreased.

REFLECTION:

‘Glory to Allah who created in pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their
own (human) and things of which they have no knowledge’
(Yaasin:36)

This experiment is one proved that everything created is in pairs. Like this
experiment that observed the equilibrium system, forward and reverse reaction,
there would be shift to the left or right in order to achieve a new equilibrium.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Chemistry, Principle and Reactions, Masterton and Hurley, 5th edition, page
335.
2. Brown, Le May and Bursten; Chemistry: The Central Science, 10 th edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall, page 649-655.

TOTAL MARKS 8

17
 LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 5

ACID-BASE TITRATION

OBJECTIVES:

 To determine the molarity of acetic acid used

 To obtain the shape the titration curve using interface
 To determine the pH of solution at equivalence point through the graph

RESULTS:
Molarity of NaOH used/M
0.100 M
Volume of NaOH used/mL
(At equivalence point) 25.60 mL

Volume of CH3CO2H used/mL

25.0 mL

Table 1: Before equivalence point

Volume of 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
NaOH
added/mL
pH of 3.9 4.4 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7
solution

Volume of 18.00 mL 20.00 mL 22.00 mL 23.00 mL 2 drops 2 drops 2 drops 2 drops

added (23.10 (23.20 (23.30 (23.40
NaOH mL) mL) mL) mL)
pH of 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8
solution

Volume of 2 drops 2 drops 2 drops At end point

NaOH (23.50 (23.60 (23.70 (permanent pale pink)
added mL) mL) mL) Volume = ___25.60_ mL
pH of 6.9 7.0 7.1 9.1
solution
√1M pH value at equivalence point

Table 2: After equivalence point

Volume of 2.00 mL 4.00 mL 6.00 mL 8.00 mL 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
NaOH mL mL mL mL mL
added
pH of 11.9 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.9 13.0 13.0
solution

Volume of 20.00 mL
NaOH
added
pH of 13.1
solution

18
CALCULATIONS:

1. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH from this experiment.

Moles NaOH = (0.100 mol/L)(25.60 mL)(1 L/1000 mL)
= 2.56 × 10-3 mol √1M

2. Calculate the molarity of acetic acid used in this experiment.

Moles CH3COOH = (2.56 × 10-3 mol NaOH)(1 mol CH3COOH/ 1 mol NaOH)
= 2.56 × 10-3 mol
Molarity CH3COOH = (2.56 × 10-3 mol)(25.0 mL) (1 L/1000 mL)
= 0.102 M √1M

3. Based on your graph, what is the pH of solution at equivalence point? Label it

on your graph. √1M graph with correct shape

The pH of solution at equivalence point is 8.1

4. Is the pH of the solution acidic, basic or neutral? Explain your answer briefly.
Basic √1M
The acetate ion that is dissociated from the sodium acetate salt can
undergo hydrolysis in water to produce OH  ion. √1M

DISCUSSIONS:
Theory
 Titration curve is a plot of pH against volume of added base or added acid.
 It shows the pH changes that occur when an aqueous acid reacts with an
aqueous base.
 Phenophtalein is used as an indicator because its color changes around pH 8-
10.

Observation √1M

 As NaOH is added to the acid, a gradual increase in the pH is observed until

the solution gets close to the equivalence point.
 Near the equivalence point, a rapid change in pH occurs.
 Beyond the equivalent point, where more bases have been added than acid,
more gradual changes in pH are observed.
 The end point is reached when the solution turns to permanent pale pink,
which is about 25.0 mL NaOH added.
 The changes of pH around the equivalent point occur at pH 7-11.

Sources of error
 Do not rinse the pH sensor with distilled water before and after measuring
each value of pH of solution.

Precautionary step
 Rinse the pH sensor with distilled water before and after measuring each
value of pH of solution.
 Constantly stir the solution.

19
CONCLUSION: √1M
 The molarity of CH3COOH from the experiment is 0.102 M

REFLECTION
‘And He has cast in the earth anchorages (mountains standing firm) so that it should
not reel with you, and rivers and roads that possibly you would be guided’ (16:15)

This verse mentions many signs of creation that give evidence of the divinity of Allah
as reflected in the greatness of His creation. The Surah also mentions the many
blessings of Allah on His worshippers in His perfect knowledge, the greatness of His
wisdom and His precise planning.

REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Silberberg, Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 5 th Edition,
page 841-850.
2. Holy Quran; Text and Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, page 626.
TOTAL MARKS 8

20
 LABORATORY REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 6

REDUCTION POTENTIALS IN MICRO–VOLTAIC CELL

OBJECTIVES √1M
 To measure the reduction potential of micro-voltaic cells
 To rank metals according to measured reduction potentials

RESULTS
Data Table 1: Copper as the Reference Metal

No. Combination Potential (V) Metal for Red (+) Tip Metal for Black (-) Tip

1 Copper/Zinc 0.784 Copper Zinc

2 Copper/Lead 0.201 Copper Lead

3 Copper/Silver 0.796 Silver Copper

4 Copper/Iron 0.507 Copper Iron

√1M All values +ve

Data Table 2: Rank the Metals

Metal Lowest (-) Reduction Potential, Eo (V)

Zinc -0.784 V

Iron -0.507 V

Lead -0.201 V

Copper 0.000 V

Silver +0.796 V

Highest (+) Reduction Potential, Eo (V)

√1M For arrangement of metals according to measured potentials

*For reference: Theoretical electrode reduction potentials Eo

Metal Zinc Iron Lead Copper Silver

Eo (V) - 0.762 - 0.409 - 0.127 + 0.339 + 0.799

21
Data Table 3: Predictions and Results
Half-Cell Predicted Potentials (V) Measured Percent Error
Combination Potential (V) (%)

Zinc/Lead -0.201 – (-0.784) = 0.583 0.576 1.20

Zinc/Silver 0.796 – (-0.784) = 1.580 1.523 3.61

Zinc/Iron -0.507 – (-0.784) = 0.277 0.292 5.40

Lead/Silver 0.796 – (-0.201) = 0.997 0.938 5.92

Lead/Iron -0.201 – (-0.507) = 0.306 0.315 2.94

Iron/Silver 0.796 – (-0.507) = 1.303 1.280 1.77

√1M for any correct

calculation in predicted
potential columns

QUESTIONS

In a galvanic cell, what happen at the anode and cathode?

Anode: Oxidation √1M Cathode: Reduction √1M

What is the direction of electron flow? Explain.

Electrons flow out from the negative anode (electrons are released in the
oxidation process) through the external wire to the positive cathode (where
the electrons are accepted in the reduction process). √1M

DISCUSSIONS
Theory
 A voltaic cell uses a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction to produce
electrical energy. Placing a piece of metal into a solution containing a cation
of the metal produces half-cells.
 In this micro-version of a voltaic cell, the half-cell is a small piece of metal
placed into three drops of corresponding cation solution on a piece of filter
paper.
 A porous barrier or a salt bridge normally separates the two half-reactions.
Here, the salt bridge is made from several drops of aqueous sodium nitrate
(NaNO3) placed on the filter paper linking the two half-cells.

22
Observations

 When the tip of the red(+) end of the voltage sensor is touched to one metal
and the tip of the black(-) end is touched to the other metal the positive
voltage reading is observed. By the way, the ends of the voltage sensor is
reversed if the voltage drops to negative value.

Sources of error
 The piece of metal is not completely sand with sand paper.
 The drops of each solution are not enough.
 The addition of sodium nitrate solution is not enough.

Precautions √2M
 Top side of the metals should be kept dry.
 Carefully sand each piece of metal on both sides.
 Dampen the filter paper with more NaNO3 solution from time to time during
the experiment.
 The voltage reading must be positive as the redox reaction that occurs in the
voltaic cell is spontaneous.

CONCLUSION

The reduction potential sequence for the metals is:

Zinc, Iron, Lead, Copper, Silver.

REFLECTION √1M
‘For all there will be degrees (or ranks) according to what they did. And your Lord is
not unaware of what they do’ (6:132)

Allah has arranged and ranked everything in the world at their own place, shows that
Allah is very precise in everything (Al-Khabir-The Most Meticulous)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Silberberg, Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 5 th Edition,

page 933-943.
2. Holy Quran; Text and Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, page 130.
TOTAL MARKS 10

END

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