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Basic Principles and Uses of GPS

Introduction
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is an important technology, which provides
unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning during movement, surveying and GIS
data capture. The GPS is a satellite-based navigation, timing and positioning system. There
are 24 satellites, known as GPS satellites that orbit at 11,000 nautical miles above the
Earth. They are continuously monitored by ground stations located worldwide. The
satellites transmit signals that can be detected by anyone with a GPS receiver. GPS
satellites circle the earth twice a day and transmit signal information to earth. GPS
receivers take this information and calculate the user's exact location. The GPS provides
continuous three-dimensional positioning 24 hrs a day throughout the world. The basic
GPS service provides commercial users with an accuracy of 10-15 meters, 95% of the time
anywhere on the earth. The GPS technology has tremendous amount of applications in GIS
data collection, surveying, and mapping.

The components of GPS

The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions anywhere on earth.
The GPS is based on satellite ranging. That means the position on the earth is determined
by measuring the distance from a group of satellites in space. The basic principle behind
GPS is really simple, even though the system employs some of the most high-tech
equipment ever developed. In order to understand GPS basics, the system can be
categorized into three.
a. Space segment: This is consisted of the group of satellites as already mentioned
above.
b. Ground control segment: This comprises of five ground level monitor stations all
around the world at Colorado Springs, Ascesion Island, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and
Kwajalein Island. The Control Segment is the sole responsibility of the Department
of Defence who undertakes launching, maintenance and constant performance
monitoring of all GPS satellites. These continuously monitor track all these 24
satellites and feed the information to the master control station at Colorado.
c. User segment: This is basically you or me; the user with the GPS receiver, which
is generally a hand-held device, that receives satellite signals to convert them into
required form such as altitude, longitude and latitude. Generally speaking the user
segment is the total of user and supplier community, both civilian and military.
This segment consists of all earth-based GPS receivers. Receivers vary greatly in
size and complexity, though the basic design is rather simple. The typical receiver
is composed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor, control
and display device, data-recording unit, and power supply. The GPS receiver
decodes the timing signals from the 'visible' satellites (four or more) and, having
calculated their distances, computes its own latitude, longitude, elevation, and time.
This is a continuous process and generally the position is updated on a second-by-
second basis.

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Factors that affect your use of handheld GPS
There are a number of potential error sources that affect either the GPS signal
directly or your ability to produce optimal results:
• Number of satellites - minimum number required:
You must track at least four common satellites, to have acceptable results. Also to
achieve centimeter -level accuracy, remember you must have a fifth satellite.. This
extra satellite adds a check on the internal calculation. Any additional satellites beyond
five provide even more checks, which is always useful.
• Multipath - reflection of GPS signals near the antennae:
Multipath is simply reflection of signals similar to the phenomenon of ghosting on our
television screen. GPS signals may be reflected by surfaces near the antennae, causing
error in the travel time and therefore error in the GPS positions.
• Troposphere - change in the travel time of the signal:
Troposphere is essentially the weather zone of our atmosphere, and droplets of water
vapor in it can affect the speed of the signals. The vertical component of your GPS
(altitude calculation by GPS) is particularly sensitive to the troposphere.
• Satellite Geometry - general distribution of the satellites:
Satellite Geometry - or the distribution of satellites in the sky - effects the computation
of your position. This is often referred to as Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP).
The best results are obtained when PDOP is less than about 7.
PDOP is determined by your geographic location, the time of day you are working, and
any site obstruction, which might block satellites.
When satellites are spread out, PDOP is Low (good).
When satellites are closer together, PDOP is High (weak).
• Signal Strength - Quality of Signal:
The strength of the satellite signal depends on obstructions and the elevation of the
satellites above the horizon. To the extent it is possible, obstructions between your GPS
antennae and the sky should be avoided. Also watch out for satellites which are close
to the horizon, because the signals are weaker.
• Radio Frequency (RF) Interference:
RF interference may sometimes be a problem both for your GPS reception and your
radio system. Some sources of RF interference include:

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 o Radio towers
o Transmitters
o Satellite dishes
o Generators
One should be particularly careful of such installations and try to avoid use of GPS
near these sources which transmit either near the GPS frequencies (1227 and 1575
MHz) or near harmonics (multiples) of these frequencies.
How a GPS Receiver works?
This is a handheld device weighing about 250 grams and measuring about 15cms
by 5cms (ignoring the antenna). It looks similar to a mobile phone handset or a wireless
handset we use in the field. The antenna is the vertical stub on the right, roughly three
inches long. This unit has a small LCD screen and a set of buttons to activate its different
features (As shown in the figure below). When you turn on a GPS receiver, its first task is
to try to search the radio signals from the satellites it can “see”. Because the satellites are
so far away, their radio signals are fairly weak. Therefore for the GPS receivers to see a
satellite, the satellite must be above the horizon and unobstructed by buildings, mountains,
etc.
At any given moment at any
point on the planet there are between 6
and 9 satellites above the horizon.
On this screen, the larger circle
represents the horizon and smaller circle
represents 45 degrees. The dot in the
centre is straight overhead. The numbers
within the circles represent satellites that
are visible, and the bar chart on the
screen represents the relative strength of
the signals from the different satellites.

Once the GPS receiver has locked on to 3 satellites, it can display your longitude and
latitude to about ten meter accuracy. If the receiver can see 4 satellites it can also tell you
your altitude. With this information you know exactly where you are. Most modern GPS
receivers are able to store your track. As you move, the GPS periodically stores your position
in its internal memory. It can then show you the path you have followed on the display so
that you can see exactly where you have been. Tracks also make backtracking easy. Most
modern GPS receivers also support the concept of waypoints and routes. A waypoint is a
specific point (longitude and latitude) that you have stored in memory. A route is a series of
waypoints connected together to form a path from one point to another. A nature trekker
might store different landmarks or resting points along a trail as waypoints. The user can then
string a collection of waypoints together into a route. At the start of a trip you tell the GPS
receiver which route you want to follow. The receiver will then tell you the

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heading(direction) you need to take to get to the next waypoint in the route. As the user
passes each waypoint, the GPS receiver gives the heading to the next waypoint on the route.
Some of the newer receivers, like the GPS III shown above, have road maps stored in
memory. The unit is therefore able to show the user exactly where he is on a map of the area.
Internal maps usually show major highways. So in a nutshell the GPS receivers help the user
to:
• See exactly where he currently is
• See exactly what path he has followed using tracks
• Store and then get back to a place he has visited using waypoints
• Get from point A to point B using waypoints and routes
GPS receivers are especially useful in environments where it is easy to get lost: on the
ocean, in the woods, in the air flying at night, etc

Advantages of GPS
1. More time efficient than using the toposheets and recording information by hand
2. Very accurate
3. Easy to use
4. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day.
5. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS
6. MAKES LIFE OF FORESTER MUCH EASIER!

Limitations
1. Since a GPS can able to provide information based on the number of satellites, it
becomes mandatory that it must not be used in a closed surrounding such as: inside a
building, shadowed by tall trees or blocked by high mountains etc. However it can be
used inside a building or from inside a vehicle provided that the GPS is connected
with a cable to an external antennae to receive the signals.
2. Good handheld GPS receivers are expensive, ranging from few thousands to even
sometimes fifty thousands.

GPS Applications
One of the most significant and unique features of the Global Positioning Systems is
the fact that it is available to users in any position worldwide at any time. Due to its
versatility it is a highly preferred modern tool in any kind of activity which involves;
surveying or identifying geographical locations. Many police, fire, and emergency medical
service units use GPS receivers to determine the police car, fire truck, or ambulance nearest
to an emergency. Automobile manufacturers are also offering moving-map displays guided

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by GPS receivers as an option on new vehicles, for use in planning a trip (of course in India,
this feature is yet to come).
Using the receiver, one can determine his location with great precision. GPS receivers
can be hand carried or installed on aircraft, ships, tanks, submarines, cars, and trucks. There
are a few of high quality GPS receiver manufacturers that produce reasonably priced GPS
products such as Garmin GPS, Tremble GPS and Magellen GPS.
There are countless GPS applications, a few important ones are as follows:

Surveying and Mapping

The high precision of GPS carrier phase measurements, together with appropriate
adjustments, provide an adequate tool for a variety of tasks for surveying and mapping. The
GPS is used to map blocks, road alignments, and environmental hazards such as landslides,
forest fires, and oil spills. Applications, such as land mapping, needing a high degree of
accuracy also can be carried out using high grade GPS receivers.

Navigation
Navigation using GPS can save countless hours in the field. Any feature, even if it is
under water, can be located up to one hundred meters simply by taking coordinates from a
map, entering waypoints, and going directly to the site. Examples include road intersections,
bridges, stream bends, accident sites, geological formations, and so on. GPS navigation in
helicopters, in vehicles, or in a ship can provide an easy means of navigation with substantial
savings.

Use of GPS in Forestry

1. In Boundary Survey and Demarcation

2. Locating of plantation sites.
3. Navigating to a known point, e.g. plantation area, nursery, boundary pillar, etc.
4. Monitoring of movement of timber by roads using trucks, the NDMC example of
monitoring the movement of garbage disposal trucks in Delhi.
5. Transect delineation for wildlife census operations
6. Regeneration plots
7. For forest protection purposes i.e. exact location in the field of the offence. If the
flying squad goes and catches some wood the exact location can be given for the
extraction of wood etc.
8. In working Plan for Pilot and resource survey, boundary demarcation, encroachment
survey and for area of compartments.
9. For mapping purposes and finding exact location for GIS.
10. For forest road alignment and length measurements
11. Insect and disease tracing
12. Forest fires monitoring
13. Research Plots
14. Vehicle movements
15. Other than forestry the use of GPS is increasing in various fields like public safety,
agriculture, automobile, mining, telecommunication, civil engineering, intelligence
and police etc.

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Some GPS Field Exercises
A. FINDING OUT LATITUDE, LONGITUDE AND HIEGHT OF A PLACE

The most basic and easiest use of a handheld GPS set is to determine the latitude, longitude
and height (altitude) of a place.

B. CALCULATING AREA OF A PLACE

1. Select a suitable area about 2 to 4 hector in Size.

2. Survey the area with Chain and Compass Survey.
3. Fix ranging roads at each of the survey stations for identification of Survey station
correctly afterwards
4. Draw the map of surveyed area on suitable sheet, indicating Length of each side,
bearing of each line and calculate the area by traditional method

This is to be done in advance by the trainers in advance with the help of Trainees. With
this the frontline staff will get a refresher knowledge of Traditional Survey techniques.

5. Now for the survey of same plot by GPS, a trainee may be asked to go to survey point
no 1 and stand exactly there.
6. Press the POWER button for 2-3 seconds so that GPS can be started.
7. Wait for about 3 to 5 minutes so that GPS can contact the satellite and get the data
and finally locate the station. Once GPS shows the location with 3D Navigation and
EPE less than 10 meter, Press the Button ‘Mark’ and record the station 1 as Waypoint
X. (May be any number)
8. Press ‘PAGE’ 2-3 times so that map page is visible on GPS Screen.
9. By pressing right arrow 2 times so that ‘opt’ is highlighted on the Map.
10. Press ‘Enter’. Then you will see, map setup and track setup. With up/down arrow,
highlight track setup and press Button ‘Enter’
11. In the next screen, at one place, there is command ‘CLEAR LOG’. With up/down
arrow, highlight it and press ‘Enter’
12. On the next screen you will find ‘WARNING’. With left/right arrow, highlight it and
press ‘Enter’
13. Then start walking straight towards station 2, by looking at ranging rod placed at
station 2.
14. Press ‘Mark’ and record the station 2 as waypoint X+1.
15. Then again walk towards point 3, 4 etc and continue to mark, various survey stations
as waypoints.
16. After reaching last Survey station and marking it as a waypoint, Press ‘GOTO’ and
highlight waypoint No. assigned to survey station 1. Then see the bearing shown by
GPS and distance of station 1 from the last station. Start walking and arrive at station
1. The bearing shown by GPS and distance between these stations are almost same as
that of recorded in field book of Chain and Compass survey.

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 17. After arriving at station 1, press ‘Page’ 2-3 times so that map page is visible on GPS
screen. Press right arrow 2 times so that ‘opt’ is highlighted on the map. Press button
‘Enter’. Then you will see, map setup and track setup. With up/down arrow, highlight
track setup and press ‘Enter’
18. In the next screen, at one place, there is command ‘CALC AREA’. With up/down
arrow, highlight it and press ‘Enter’
19. The next screen will show the area of complete traverse, in some unit. This can be
suitably converted to other units like hectare.
20. Compare the area calculated by GPS and that by chain and compass survey and check
the results. Results can be accepted as accurate, if both survey results differ by not
more than 5%.

The following are a series of hands-on learning exercises that can be used with GPS/land
navigation classes. Generally, they are designed to be used after a period of instruction and
demonstration on the particular topic. The exercises can be used with small groups that must
share GPS units and other equipment.

Be sure that all of the GPS receivers are set to the same coordinate system (usually either
UTM/UPS or Lat-Long) and to the correct map datum to match our topographic maps

Unless you are fortunate enough to have a GPS receiver for each trainee, divide the
participants into teams according to the number of receivers available. Hopefully, you would
have enough so that the each team is no larger than 4 or 5 trainees.

C. GETTING TO KNOW YOUR GPS RECEIVER BETTER

This basic field exercise is designed to teach trainees the fundamentals of operating a GPS
receiver. It is similar to the "getting started" section found in most GPS owner manuals. Each
team needs a GPS receiver and a magnetic compass.

1. Each team should mark (and name) the starting location and then freely roam the
designated site as a group with their GPS receiver.
2. Each participant should operate the GPS unit on at least one leg of the trip:
• scroll through the pages to observe their functions (speed, track, distance,
etc.).
• practice marking waypoints
• use compass to check GPS directional accuracy when stopped and at walking
speeds.
• demonstrate track&back (going and coming back to same point) at least once
during the trip
• use the go to function to return to the starting location.
3. All teams gather back together. Review any problems or questions that arose during
the field exercise.

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D. TREASURE HUNT

This is another basic field exercise that can be used in the early stages of your GPS class
since it is simply a series of go to operations. Depending on the terrain you select, a Treasure
Hunt can be as easy or as challenging as you wish to make it.

1. Prior to your class, stash small "treasure chests" (containers with some material, etc.)
in scattered locations. Make the same number of treasure stashes as your number of
teams. Mark the waypoint of each treasure chest on each of the GPS receivers.
2. Form the class into teams of "treasure hunters". Explain that xxx number of treasure
chests await them, the location of each one marked as a waypoint in their GPS
receivers. Their challenge is to race against the other teams to find the hidden
treasure.
3. Give them a specific time to return (with or without their treasure).
4. When completed, gather all teams back together. Review any problems or questions
that arose during the field exercise.

E. GPS AND TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

For foresters this field exercise develops basic skills in using GPS receivers in combination
with topographic maps. Each team will need a topographic map of the area, a GPS receiver
set to the matching coordinate system and a magnetic compass.

1. Each team should roam to several sites with distinct topographical features that would
show up on the map (junction of 2 river/rivulets, hilltop, road fork, etc.). Mark each
of these locations in the GPS receiver. Then plot each of the marked GPS waypoints
on the map, using the grid card or ruler. If everything was done correctly, the plotted
locations should closely match the on-the-ground landmarks.
2. To practice the reverse procedure, team members should view the map and measure
the coordinates of selected distinct landmarks. Enter the coordinates as waypoints in
the GPS receiver. The team should then use the GPS unit to go to these waypoints to
see if they end up at the expected locations.
3. Gather teams back together. Review any problems or questions that arose during the
field exercise.

F. NAVIGATION TRAIL

This exercise tests skills in GPS operation, topo mapping, compass, and pacing. The route is
a circular, multiple-leg trail. Each team will need a topographic map covering the field
exercise area, a magnetic compass, and a GPS receiver. Prior to your class, set up a series of
waypoint stations, each with posted instructions for navigating to the next station. The
following is a sample of the type of navigation instructions you might post. Depending on
terrain you select, number of stations, and complexity of the navigation instructions, a
Navigation Trail can be as easy or as challenging as you wish to make it.

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Station 1 (start): "Using your GPS receiver, mark and name your starting location and then
go to (provide Station 2 coordinates) to locate Station 2."

Station 2 "Using magnetic compass and pacing, go (xxx yards) on a bearing of (xxx degrees)
to locate and mark Station # 3."

Station 3 "Using your topographic map, go to intersection of xxx stream and xxx road to
locate and mark Station 4."

Station 4 "To find and mark Station 5, walk upstream from the bridge along xxx stream to a
point located on a bearing of (xxx degrees) from Station 2."

Station 5 "Using your GPS receiver, go to Station 1 to complete the navigation trail.

Follow-up Exercises

1. Plot the path of Navigation Trail on the topographic map.

2. Measure the distance walked for each leg and the total trail.
3. Compare to the distances measured by the GPS receiver.
4. Estimate the acreage enclosed by the Navigation Trail.
5. If you have a digital topographic mapping program, transfer the marked waypoint
stations and tracks from the GPS receiver to the computer's map. Then use the
mapping program to estimate the distances and acreage. Compare the results to your
earlier measurements.

G. MAKING A NATURE TRAIL

The trouble with most nature trails is that you actually need a trail. Often, existing trails are
not located near the most of our natural areas. With a "GPS Nature Trail" however, this is not
a concern (as long as the terrain is not too rugged). Each nature trail station is a marked
waypoint along a cross-country GPS route that links all the stations/waypoints. To enable
people to follow your trail, you provide a list of the coordinates for each station along with a
description of the natural feature(s) at that location. (Or you could provide them with a GPS
receiver in which you have already entered the nature trail route). You may also wish to
provide a topographic map with the station locations marked.

Creating a GPS Nature Trail is great fun. The young people search the designated area for
notable scenic spots, botanical, or zoological features. They mark the coordinates and flag
each station, and then plot the stations on a topo map. The group researches information
about the natural features and decides which ones should be included on their nature trail.
Then they create written descriptions of the selected sites. The final product is a "GPS Nature
Trail Guide" booklet with coordinates and natural history information for each station.

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H. SEARCH AND RESCUE OPERATION

GPS Search and Rescue is an exciting field exercise in which teams of "Wilderness Rescue
Rangers" (or whatever you want to call your trainees!) race to the rescue of staff /hiker/etc.
Each team will need a topographic map of the area, a magnetic compass, and a GPS receiver.
Portable two-way radios are also highly recommended. Site selection is very important.
Match the size and scale of field terrain to the age and experience level of your trainees. You
want to challenge the rescue teams ... but keep it safe!

1. First you will need a somebody at the rescue location.

2. Select a good location to place the person, secluded but not hidden, then mark and
record his coordinates.
3. Back at headquarters, gather your teams of "Wilderness Rescue foresters". Explain
the scenario and provide the coordinates. Here's an example:

"Our dispatcher just received a radio distress call from an injured staff in the XYZ
RF. Said his name was ‘PQ’. He fell out of a tree and broke his leg. Fortunately, he
didn't break his GPS receiver or his two-way radio. He reported his coordinates as
xxx before he could not speak more. Go get him!"

4. After entering the coordinates in their GPS receiver(s), each team should take time to
plot the rescue location on the topo map and then devise a rescue plan ... what route,
transportation mode(s), equipment needed, etc. Time spent in planning usually results
in time and energy savings on the trail.
5. The first team on the scene brings the person back to headquarters. Before leaving the
rescue site however, they should either wait for the other teams to arrive or leave a
message that have retrieved the injured person. You wouldn't want rescue teams
wandering around for hours searching for him.

If two-way radios are available, they would valuable for communication among the
teams and for contacting headquarters.

Variations: GPS Search and Rescue lends itself to all sorts of challenging variations.
These are limited only by our imaginations ... and risk management guidelines.

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