Instrument Handout

Instrument FAR AIM Essentials:

1. Applicant Requirements for Instrument Rating
a. FAR 61.65:
i. 50 hours of cross-country flight time as PIC, of which at least 10 hours
must be in airplanes
ii. 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time (on the areas of
opertation specified) 20 of which must be in the airplane.
iii. 15 hours of instrument flight training from an authorized instructor in the
aircraft category for which the instrument rating is sought.
iv. 3 hours of instrument training appropriate for the practical test
v. 250 nm cross country, conducted under IFR, including 3 different kinds
of approaches
2. Logging Instrument Time:
a. FAR 61.51 g(1): A person may log instrument time only for that flight time
when the person operates the aircraft solely by reference to the instruments under actual
or simulated instrument flight conditions. (2)- an authorized instructor may long
instrument time when conducting instrument flight instructions in actual instrument
conditions.
b. FAR 61.51 g(3i-ii)(4): Location and type of each approach, safty pilot if
required. A flight simulator may be used by a person to log instrument time provided an
authorized instructor is present during the simulated flight.

3. Recency experience requirements to act PIC.

a. FAR 61.57c: Within 6 months you must conduct 6 instrument approaches,
intercept and track navigational courses, and perform holding procedures. 66HIT
b. FAR 61.57d: Have an additional six months after PIC currency expires to
complete these requirements before an instruments proficiency check (IPC) is required.
c. Safty pilot must be rated in the same category and class of aircraft, with a current
medical and private certificate.

4. Passenger Currency:
a. FAR 61.57: Same 90 day rule. You may be instrument current, but not carry
passengers if you haven't in the last 90 days performed 3 takeoffs and landings (full stop
if tail dragged) in the same category, class and type if it is required.
b. Night currency: 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop, 1 hour after sunset to 1
hour before sunrise in the same category, class and type if it is required.

5. When Must We File an Alternate IFR Flight Plan: The 1-2-3 Rule
a. FAR 91.169: When within 1 hour before ETA to 1 hour after ETA, the weather
is forecasted to be less than 2000 ft and 3 miles visibility.
b. If your airport of intended landing has only GPS approaches, you must file an
alternate.
6. What are Standard Alternate Minimums:
a. FAR 91.169:
i. Precision Approach: 600 ft and 2 miles visibility at ETA
ii. Non Precision Approach: 800 ft and 2 miles visibility at ETA
iii. Visibility Approach: descent from MEA and approach and landing done
in VFR conditions (forecasted ceilings greater than MEA).
iv. Non Standard: front pages of NOS, on airport diagrams in JEPP plates.

7. What are Fuel Requirements For IFR Flight:

a. FAR 91.167: Enough to fly to the first airport of intended landing, and then from
there to the alternate airport, and thereafter for another 45 minutes at normal cruising
speed.

8. Instrument Pre-Flight Requirements:

a. FAR 91.205d: including all day VFR REQUIREMENTS
b. G- generator/alternator
c. R- radio (2 way comm. and nav approp)
d. A- altimeter (pressure sensitive)
e. B- ball
f. C- clock with second hand
g. A- attitude indicator
h. R- rate of turn indicator
i. D- directional gyro
j. D- DME above 24,000 ft
k. *** IFR night = VFR day + VFR night + grabcard

9. VOR Equipment Check For IFR

a. FAR 91.171
b. VOT (VHF Omnidirectional Test): +/- 4 degrees. Published in A/FD, tune to
108.0 MHZ, 180 TO / 360 FROM
c. Ground Checkpoint: +/- 4 degrees, specific point on airport listed in A/FD.
d. Airborne Checkpoint: +/- 6 degrees, located over easily identifiable terrain of
features on the ground, listed in the A/FD
e. VOR/VOR: +/- 4 degrees, dual check in the air
f. VOR radial on airway centerline over identifiable ground point: +/- 6 degrees
g. Radiated test signal by A&P only

10. Preflight Action Must Know for IFR Flight:

a. FAR 91.103
b. N- NOTAMS
c. W- Weather
d. K- Known traffic delays
e. R- Runway Lengths
f. A- Alternate if needed
g. F- Fuel Requirements (include alt.)
h. T- Takeoff/Landing Distances

11. Mode C Transponder Requirements

a. FAR 91.215
 b. Class A, B, and C airspace
c. Within 30 NM of Class B (Mode C veil)
d. Above the ceiling within the lateral boundaries of Class B of Class C up to
10,000 ft MSL
e. ALL airspace at and above 10,000 ft MSL, excluding that airspace below 2,500
ft AGL
f. ****other scenarios do exist on less frequent basis****

12. 3 Different Definitions of Night & What They Are Used For
a. Sunset FAR 91.209: beacons go on (plane and airport)
b. Evening Civil Twilight FAR 1.1: Generally 30 minutes after sunset (30 minutes
before sunrise), this is used for logging night flight hours.
c. 1 Hour after Sunset to 1 Hour Before Sunrise FAR 61.57b: If not night
current, must be on the ground 59 minutes after sunset. The time however is where we
can gain our night passenger currency by:
i. 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop, acting as a sole manipulated of the
controls, and aircraft was sane category, class and type if it was required

13. Standard Lost Communications Procedure- FAR 91.185

a. VFR (FAR 91.185b): If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR
conditions are encountered after failure, each pilot shall continue he flight under VFR
and land as soon as practicable.
b. IFR (FAR 91.185c(1&2)):
i. ALTITUDE- fly the highest of these in this order
ii. M- Minimum Enroute Altitude
iii. E- Expected altitude
iv. A- Assigned

v. ROUTE- fly in order of:

vi. A- Assigned
vii. V- Vectored
viii. E- Expected
ix. F- Filed

14. Oxygen Requirements FAR 91.211

a. Cabin pressure altitudes of 12,500 ft MSL up to and including 14,000 ft MSL,
required minimum flight crew provided and use O2 for that portion of the flight greater
than 30 minutes
b. Cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 ft MSL minimum flight crew provided O2
entire flight
c. Cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 ft MSL, O2 used by all crew and supplied
to passengers

15. Clearance Limit FAR 91.185c

a. Defined: the fix, point, or location to which an aircraft is cleared when issued an
air traffic clearance. Only leave clearance limit when:
i. If clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins (AN IAF),
commence descent or descent and approach as a close as possible to expect
further clearance time if one has been recieved, or if one has not been recieved,
 as close as possible to estimated time of arrival as calculated from the from the
filed or amended estimated time enroute.
ii. If clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the
clearance limit at the EFC time if one has been recieved, or if none has been
recieved, upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from which
an approach begins and commence descent or descent and approach as close as
possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed or amended
estimated time enroute.

16. When is a Procedure Turn Not Required? AIM 5-4-9

a. When there is a "NoPT" remark at the IAP
b. Otherwise directed by ATC
c. Radar vectored to final
d. Timed approaches from a holding fix
e. Holding or teardrop depicted in lieu of PT

17. What is VDP & How is it Calculated? FAR 91.175

a. VDP def: visual decent point
b. A defined point on the final approach course of a non-precision straight in
approach procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the runaway
touchdown point may be commenced, provided the runway enviroment is clearly visible
to the pilot.
c. Essentially, it is the decision making point whether we can make a normal safe
approach and landing, or if the field is still not insight, we will execute a missed
approach at MAP because we could not use normal maneuvers to a safe landing.
d. CALCULATIONS:
i. HAT: Height Above Touchdown
ii. (MDA-TDZE) / 300 = VDP IN dist.
1. Ex. 900/300 = 3 NM. At a DME of 3 NM this is our VDP point
iii. VDP with time from FAF = Missed Approach Time - (10% of HAT)
iv. ***NOT USE VDP ON AN APPROACH THAT IS NOT A STRAIGHT
IN APPROACH***

18. Aircraft Approach Categories. FAR 97.3

a. Calculate by 1.3 x Vso
b. Category A: 0-90 kts
c. Category B: 91-120 kts
d. Category C: 121-140 kts
e. Category D: 141-165 kts
f. Category E: 165 kts and above
g. **if flying a Category A aircraft at a Category B approach speeds, Category B
approaches minima apply. The reverse is not true.

19. To Descend Out of DH or MDA, The Following Must Be Met

a. FAR 91.175
b. The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on
the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers.
(Part 121 and 135 unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occurr within the
touchdown zone of the runway of intended landing)
 c. The flight visibility is not less than the the visibility prescribed in the standard
instrument approach being used.
d. At least one of the following 12 visual references for the intended runway is
distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:
i. The threshold
ii. The threshold markings
iii. The threshold lights
iv. The touchdown zone
v. The touchdown zone markings
vi. The touchdown zone lights
vii. The runway
viii. The runway markings
ix. Runway lights
x. The runway end identifier lights
xi. The visual approach slope indicator
xii. Approach lighting system EXCEPT:
1. Can only descend to 100 ft above TDZE using the approach lights
as a reference unless the red terminating bars or the red side row bars are
also distinctly visible and identifiable.

20. Takeoff and Landing in IFR Conditions

a. FAR 91.175
b. Must use instrument approach when in IFR
c. Must use DA or MDA in IFR conditions
d. There are no takeoff restrictions for part 91 pilots, but for safty should use part
135 of 121 minimums

21. Minimum IFR Altitudes

a. FAR 91.177
b. Non-mountainous: greater than 1000 ft above the highest obstruction within 4
nm of course.
c. Mountainous: greater than 2000 ft above the highest obstruction within 4 nm of
course.
d. Not below MEA or MOCA if on airway
e. Climb immediately after passing point where minimums increase

Instrument Departures: Always on a Flight Plan

Departure Procedures (DP's):
· FIND: Either in front of NOS plates or right behind specific approach. Must have a textual
description as a minimum in order to accept a Departure Procedure. If you do not want a DP, write "no
DP" in remarks section of flight plan. If not given a DP expect vectors from ATC until established on
course.
· PROVIDES: take off minimums and transition from airport to enroute. All DPs provide
obstacle clearance provided the aircraft can accomplish the following:
1. 200 ft / nautical mile climb
a. Convert to fpm= (ground speed / 60) x (ft per nm on plate) = climb fpm
 2. Cross end of runway at least 35 feet above ground
3. Must be able to climb at 400 ft above airport elevation with in 2 nm before turning
· SUGGESTED: even if not on SID and departing VFR or at night, suggested to fly the obstacle
departure procedure. No clearance is needed to fly the ODP.
· Part 91 does not have any takeoff minimums. "But if the Boeing ain't going I ain't going
either!"

STRUCTURE OF AN INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

1. File flight plan 30 mins prior to departure
2. Once in the plane and we are started and ready to taxi, we call clearance delivery if the
field has one, or we call ground if there is no clearance.
a. "Richmond ground, Seminole 4917A at Richmond Jet, with information Zulu,
like to pick up our IFR clearance to KABC"
b. They will respond with a clearance that follows C-R-A-F-T model
c. Read back clearance in full, then request taxi clearance.
3. Conduct run up, and at conclusion maintain current location because it can take a long
time to obtain IFR release and we do not want to block VFR traffic at hold shot line.
a. "Richmond Tower, Seminole 4917A holding shot 20 for IFR release"
b. Wait until released then depart as instructed.
4. After takeoff, towers will instruct us to contact departure
5. The enroute structure is easy. Just follow ATC instructions
6. As we approach an airport, get current ATIS/ASOS intended airport, figure out an
approach to shoot or if one is in use set up to shoot the approach.
7. Notify ATC of your intentions for the approach, what kind of approach, how it will
terminate
8. At least 15 miles from the airport, brief the approach per ATP CHECKLIST
9. As we get closer to the airport we will be handed off to CTAF or tower to notify them of
our position and intentions.
10. CLOSE FLIGHT PLAN
a. If we are are at a controlled field with a tower operator currently working, they
will close our flight plan for us.
b. IF WE LAND AT AN UNCONTROLLED FIELD, WE MUST EITHER
CANCLE WITH ATC IN THE AIR BEFORE WE LAND, OR ONCE WE ARE ON
THE GROUND!!!
c. If you wish... If we are opertating in VFR conditions which we will encounter
for the remanded of the flight, and we are outside of positive controlled airspace, then
we will cancle here as well

DEPARTURE NOTES
IFR CLEARANCE:
C- Clearance limit
R- Route of flight
A- Altitude
F- Frequency for departure
T- Transponder code
Clearance Void Time:
Used by ATC when at an uncontrolled field. Somehow we need to get a release/clearance to depart, and
if there is no tower, then we must
1. Find a frequency that will work on the ground to talk to ATC
2. call from a cell phone and get a clearance void time
3. PURPOSE: to advise an aircraft that the departure clearance is automatically canceled if
takeoff is not made prior to specified time. The pilot must obtain a new clearance or cancle his
IFR flight plan if not offby specified time.

Cruise Clearance:
· A cruise clearance may be issued by ATC in situations where the route segment is relatively
short and traffic congestion is not a consideration. Controller will use the term "CRUISE" instead of
"CLIMB AND MAINTAIN" when issuing altitude assignments.
· You may operate in a CRUISE clearance at any altitude, from the minimum IFR altitude up to
and including, but not above, the altitude specified in the clearance. You may climb, level off, descend
and cruise at an intmediate altitude at any time. Each change in altitude does not require a report to
ATC. However, once you begin a descent and report leaving an altitude, you may not climb back to that
altitude without obtaining an ATC clearance
· Authorizes you to proceed to and execute an approach at the destination airport. You will not be
given a separate clearance for this.

INSTRUMENT EN-ROUTE PROCEDURES

Instrument Altitudes
· 0-179 degrees = odd thousand
· 180-359 degrees = even thousand

IFR Altitudes
· MEA: minimum en-route altitude is the lowest published altitude between radio fixes that
guarantees adequate navigational signal reception and obstruction clearance of 1000 ft in non-
mountainous and 2000 ft in mountainous terrain
· If there is a change in MEA enroute, you do not have to begin your climb to meet
that MEA until crossing the fix associated with the change.
· MOCA: Minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Ensures reliable navigational only within 22
nm of facility and obstacle clearance.
· MAA: Maximum Authorized Altitude. Max usable altitude or flight level for an airspace
structure or route segment for which adequate reception of navigational aid signals are assured.
· MRA: Minimum Reception Altitude. Lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined
· MCA: Minimum Crossing Altitude. The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must
cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher minimum en route IFR altitude.
· OROCA: Off Route Obstacle Clearance Altitude. Provides obstacle clearance of 1000 and
2000 but may not provide signal coverage from ground based nav aids, ATC radar or communications.
· MSA: Minimum Safe/Sector Altitude. Found on approach plates and provides 1000 ft terrain
clearance within 22 nm of the airport, used for emergency purposes.
· MORA: Minimum Off Route Altitude. Provides known obstructions clearance within 10nm of
the route centerline.
· Grid MORA: Grid Minimum Off Route Altitude. Provides terrain and manmade structure
clearance within the section outlined by the latitude and longitude lines.
· Route MORA: Route Minimum Off Route Altitude. Provides reference point clearance within
10 nm of the route center line.
· MVA: Minimum Vectoring Altitude. The lowest altitude at which an aircraft will be vectored by
an air traffic controlled.

Routine Reports That Must Always Be Made To ATC

M- Missed Approach
A- Altitude Changes VFR On Top
T- True Airspeed change +/- 10 knots of 5%
H- Holding time and altitude when entering or leaving the holding fix
C- Cannot maintain a 500 fpm climb/descent
A- Altitude and time when at holding fix or CLEARANCE LIMIT
L- Leaving an assigned altitude
L- Lost/failed equipment
S- Safety of flight, including un-forecasted weather

Reports Made When Not in Radar Contact

· Compulsory reporting points

· Inbound at Final Approach Fix (FAF) or Outer Marker (OM)
· ETA error of 3 minutes or more

Position Report Should Include

I- ID
P- Position
T- Time and Type of flight plan
A- Altitude
N- Name of Next fix
E- ETA at that Fix
S- Supplemental Infirmation

Victor Airways

· Victor airways are four miles wide each side of center line
· When navigating on Victor Airways using VORs and the airway does not bend, you must
switch frequencies between Nav Aids at the COP (change over point), or if one is not depicted, half the
distance between the Nav Aids

HOLDING PROCEDURES
Defintions: This is a method of delaying airborne aircrafts to help maintain separation and provide a
smooth flow of traffic. A holding pattern is a predetermined maneuver designed to keep an aircraft
within a specified airspace. Holding pattern procedures are designed to absorb anyflight delays that
may occur along an airway, during terminal arrival and on missed approach. Every time a hold is
recieved, the following information should be known:

NON PUBLISHED HOLDING PATTERN

D- Direction of hold in relation to fix (ex. Hold south of the ABC fix)
F- Fix
R- Radial of Hold
A- Altitude
T- Turns (right of left)
E- EFC time

PUBLISHED HOLDING PATTERN

D- Direction of Hold in relation to fix (redundant)
F- Fix
E- EFC Time

· They holding pattern provides a protected airspace for a safe operation during the hold. Pilots
are expected to remain within the protected airspace (the holding side). One of the elements which
caused unnecessary confusion and anxiety is the holding pattern entry. Holding pattern entry
procedures are not mandatory, they're merely a recommendation (as long as the airplane remains within
the protected airspace). The recommendation is based on three types of entries, depending on the sector
from with the airplane arrives at the holding fix. These are direct, parallel and tear-drop entries.
· When holding, a standard hold requires RIGHT turns. When receiving a clearance and no
direction is specified, use standard turns.
· Conversely: non standard requires LEFT turns, and will always be stated by the
controlled.
· When receiving holding instructions, understand that the radial you are given to hold ON
represents the outbound course in the hold. In order to find the course you will need to fly inbound to
the fix, find the reciprocal of the outbound course (radial).
ENTRIES:

· TEAR-DROP:
· Proceed direct to the holding fix
· Upon crossing the fix turn 30 degrees from the outbound course on to the
protected side
 · Fly this heading for approx. 1 minute, then make a turn inbound to intercept the
inbound course
· DIRECT:
· Proceed direct to the fix
· Upon crossing the fix, make a turn to the outbound heading and join the
outbound course.
· Begin timing upon crossing the fix outbound (flag flip), or if not a VOR, upon
wings level on heading
· PARALLEL:
· Proceed direct to the fix, upon crossing the fix turn to the outbound course to parallel the
holding pattern on the unprotected side of the hold.
· Time for one minute, then make a big turn towards the protected side of the hold.

HOLDING AIRSPEEDS

Up to 6000 ft. =. 200KIAS

6000-14000 ft. =. 230KIAS
14000-above. =. 265KIAS
*** Always be at you holding airspeed 3 minutes prior to entering the hold (or upon reaching clearance
limit). For ATP, we will hold at 100KIAS, so reduce power to 18" 3 minutes prior to entering the hold
(AIM 5-3-7)

HOLDING TIMES
· Standard holds are 1 minute legs
· Above 14,000 ft MSL, use 1.5 minute legs

WIND CORRECTION AND TIME WHEN HOLDING

· When holding, we must correct for wind and time
· WIND: when holding in windy conditions, always triple your wind correction angle from your
inbound correction when on the outbound leg.
· By doing this, you are taking into consideration that during your standard rate
turn, you are not correcting for wind.
· TIME: the goal of a perfect hold is to always make your inbound leg exactly one minute.
Deviate your outbound time by the same factor your inbound leg was off.
· EX: inbound leg took 47 seconds. On the proceeding outbound leg, fly
outbound leg for 1 min 13 seconds.

INSTRUMENT ARRIVAL AND APPROACH

STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL ROUTE

STAR- Simplifies clearances, provides guidance from en-route to approach to destination.

· Must have at least textual or graphical depiction in order to perform
· If you don't want STAR, write "NO STAR" in remarks section of flight plan

SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH

Initial: align aircraft with approach course, begins at IAF

Intermediate: Designed primarily to position your aircraft for the final descent to the airport.
Final: Navigate from this point to DH or MDA. "Gear down before land checklist" with in 2 nm of this
point (or 1/2 dot on ILS)
Missed: Begins at MAP (missed approach point) by: DH, time, Middle Marker, DME, Runway (GPS)

DETERMINING APPROACH CATEGORY

· Approach category's are determined off of the aircrafts approach speed. If none is published,
then 1.3 x Vso.
· If you are ever between two category's, or on the border between them, always use the higher
category.
· Timed missed approaches however are based off of the ground speed, not approach speed
which is indicated.

GETTING ON FINAL APPROACH COURSE

There are only two possible ways to get aligned and on final approach course for an approach. Or in
other words, to begin an approach there is only two methods to do it. They are,
1. VECTORS FROM ATC
2. AN IAF: without ATC guidance (per instrument PTS), proceed direct to an initial
approach fix and perform procedures as published (course reversal, straight in, etc)

PRECISION APPROACH

· Includes both course guidance with a localized, and altitude guidance with a glide slope, as well
as DME.
· DH= Decision height (proceed to land or go missed). This is the missed approach point in an
ILS approach

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

· Localizer
· Located opposite the approach end of the runway
· Transmits 108.1-111.95 MHz
 · Transmits signal 18 nm from antenna up to an altitude of 4500 above antenna
site
· Full scale deflection = 2.5 degrees (4 times more sensitive than a VOR)
· Width of signal is 3-6 degrees

· Glide slope
· Located 750 ft - 1250 ft down the runway
· Displaced 400-600 ft from centerline
· Width of signal is 1.4 degrees

· Outer Marker
· Located between 4-7 miles from airport
· Indicates an aircraft at appropriate altitude on localizer will intercept glide path
· Identified by the first 2 letters of the airport identifier

· Middle Marker
· Located about 3500 ft from threshold on centerline generally where aircraft is at
DH
· Identified by second 2 letters of airport identifier

· Approach Lights
· There are 3 categories of ILS approaches, each which requires different minima,
they are:
· CAT I: 200 ft and 1800 RVR
· CAT II: 100 ft and 1200 RVR
· CAT III:
· A: no DH and 700 RVR
· B: no DH and 150 RVR
· C: no DH and no RVR

PARALLEL ILS APPROACHES

Conducted if centerline are at least 2500 ft apart, aircraft separated by 1.5 miles diagonally.

MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)

· A precision approach system opertating in the microwave spectrum which normally consists of
the following components:
· Azimuth station
· Elevation station
· Precision distance measuring equipment
· ****we do not have the capabilities to shoot these approaches

NON PRECISION APPROACH

· Will provide course guidance, but no glide slope or attitude guidance.
· MDA= Minimum Descent Altitude. This is the altitude which we can only descend from if
requirements of FAR 91.175 are met. This is not the missed approach point like DH is on the precision
approach , but the altitude at which the missed approach will be located.
· Can incorporate step down fixes; upon reaching the next fix, descend another 200 ft, etc.
· Time for a missed approach on a non precision approach are based off GROUND SPEED, not
KIAS
· Approach category minimums are based off of KIAS approach speed, not ground speed.

LOCALIZER APPROACH

· Provides course guidance, audibly identified by three letter designator

· Localizer course width normally 5 degrees, 2.5 degrees each side of centerline for full
deflection
· Located opposite the approach end of the runway
· Transmits signal 18 nm from antenna up to an altitude of 4500 ft above antenna site
· Transmits 108.1-111.95 MHz

LOCALIZER BACK COURSE

· No glide slope for back course

· When flying with an HSI, there is no difference in how to set up our instruments and fly the
approach. If flying with a VOR we can recieve reverse sensing. To counter this, set your needle to the
inbound course of the localizer front course, and fly the tail of the needle. This will provide normal
sensing.

LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID (LDA)

· Comparable utility and accuracy of a localizer, but not part of an ILS. (Some have a glide slope)
· Course width between 3-6 degrees
· Not aligned with the runway, but straight in minimums may be published where the angle
between the runway centerline and LDA course does not exceed 30 degrees.
· Identifier is 3 letters preceded by an I. Ex. I-ABC

SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY (SDF)

· Provides course guidance similar to an ILS, however is less precise and maynot be aligned with
the runway
· Course width is fixed at either 6 degrees or 12 degrees
· Identified by three w/o an I preceding it. Ex ABC
· Usable off course indications limit to 35 degrees either side of course centerline. If you are
more than 35 degrees from course centerline, disregardany instrument indication until within
limitations of 35 degrees.

EVOR APPROACH
· Full scale deflection = 10 degrees each side of centerline, 20 degrees total, 2 degrees per dot.
· Step down fixes defined using DME or radials

GPS APPROACH

· Put the GPS in GPS mode (out of VLOC)

· Reciever Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) must be maintained throughout the
approach in order to continue, by final approach fix the GPS must sequence into approach mode (APR)
· Sensitivity of the GPS = 5 miles enroute, 1 mile terminal and .3 miles in approach mode
· Can only file to an airport where the only approach is a GPS approach if you have filed to an
alternate that has something other than a GPS approach
· Constellation
· 24 satellites, minimum of 5 needed for RAIM
· 4 satellites needed for 3D positioning

CIRCLING APPROACH

· If the approach course is not aligned within 30 degrees of the runway, only circling minimums
will be published
· Will also be published on standard straight in approaches in the case that a circling approach is
needed
· Circling minimums provide 300 ft AGL obstacle clearance in the circling area. These are
MINIMUMS, so if weather allows a higher altitude to be flown that more closely approximates TPA,
fly it, it will create a more realistic approach and landing.
· Circling approach protected area is based off your approach category.
· If ou lose sight of the runway at anytime, immediately begin a climbing turn towards the airport
to intercept the missed approach procedure.
· Minimums for circling approaches are provided in HAA (Height Above Airport)
· Category A.------------ 1.3 radius
· Category B------------- 1.5 radius
· Category C------------- 1.7 radius
· Category D------------- 2.3 radius
· Category E------------- 4.5 radius

DME ARC APPROACH

· Track inbound to an IAF from which the DME arc begins.

· Begin ou turn to intercept the arc with a .5 mile lead, the turn should usually be a 90 degree
turn, and the heading you are turning to will be he reciprocal of the final approach course.
· Spin you bug to the heading you are turning to. You heading bug and HSI needle should always
be a constant 90 degrees separated from each other (given you are the correct DME distance as
specified in the approach)
· GENERAL RULE: Turn 10 degrees and Twist 10 degrees- Everytime your HSI needle centers,
turn and spin heading bug 10 degrees closer/in direction of final approach course. Simultaneously spin
your HSI needle 10 degrees towards the final approach course.
· If DME read out is less than desired, you will twist 10 degrees on the HSI, but continue to fly
current heading until desired distance is met ( at this point your heading bug and HSI needle will be
separated by more than 90 degrees).
· If DME read out is more tha desired, spin 10 degrees when HSI centers and turn more than 10
degrees (at this point you heading bug and HSI needle will be separated by less than 90 degrees) until
desired DME distance is established.
· When your needle centers, and your current heading is within 15 degrees of final approach
course, twist HSI inbound to final approach course, intercept it and track inbound.

APPROACH DEFINITIONS

PAR Vs. ASR

· PAR- Precision Approach Radar. Controller provides both azimuth and elevation navigation
guidance.
· ASR- Airport Surveillance Radar. Controller provides azimuth guidance only
· The minimums for these approaches can be found in the front of the NOS plates.

CONTACT Vs. VISUAL APPROACH

CONTACT: cannot be initiated by ATC, but can be requested by the pilot to expedite arrival instead of
the published procedure if the following is met:
· The airport has standard or special instrument approach procedure
· Reported ground visibility is at least 1 mile
· You can remain clear of clouds within 1 mile flight visibility

VISUAL: can be initiated by ATC orATC must ensure that you have the airport or preceding aircraft in
sight.
· Once you announce aircraft insight, you are responsible for aircraft separation.
· Is authorized when ceiling is reported or expected to be at least 1,000 ft AGL and 3 miles
visibility, and you remain clear of clouds at all times.

DESCEND OUT OF MDA / DH FOLLOWING MUST BE MET

· FAR 91.175
· The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended
runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers. (Part 121 and 135 unless that
descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown zone of the runway of intended
landing)
· The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach
being used.
· At least one of the following 12 visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible
and identifiable to the pilot:
1. The threshold
2. The threshold markings
 3. The threshold lights
4. The touchdown zone
5. The touchdown zone markings
6. The touchdown zone lights
7. The runway
8. The runway markings
9. Runway lights
10. The runway end identifier lights
11. The visual approach slope indicator
12. Approach lighting system Except:
a. Can only descend to 100 ft above TDZE using the approach lights as a reference
unless the red terminating bars or red side row bars are distinctly visible and
identifiable.

PROCEDURE TURN

A procedure turn is a maneuver prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish

an aircraft on intermediate approach segment or final approach course.

· Often times we will approach an airport from the opposite direction in which traffic is landing.
Performing a procedure turn allows us to fly directly towards the airport and eventually establish
ourselves on the final approach course.
· When we will incorporate a procedure turn into our approach, we will request a "FUL
APPROACH"
· To perform the following procedure turn
· From the profile view, we can see that the procedure turn initiates at the VOR.
So, fly to the VOR remaining at the last assigned altitude. Remember to set power and
achieve airspeed 10 miles prior to the airport.
· Upon reaching the VOR: turn outbound on the 230 degree radial, descend to
2900 ft which is the procedure turn altitude, and fly for two minutes.
· After 2 minutes, turn left 45 degrees to 185 degrees heading and fly for one
minute.
· After 1 one minute, spin HSI needle inbound and turn right to intercept the final
approach course of 50 degrees.
· The profile view shows us that his maneuver must be accomplished within 10
nm of the VOR.

1. When is a Procedure Turn Not Required? AIM 5-4-9

a. When there is a "NoPT" remark at the IAP
b. Otherwise directed by ATC
c. Radar vectored to final
d. Timed approaches from a holding fix
e. Holding or teardrop depicted in lieu of PT

WHEN PROCEDURE TURN NOT REQUIRED------SHARP TT

1. S---Straight ins
 2. H--holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn
3. A---arc DME
4. R---radar vectors
5. P---procedure turn not authorized
6. T--teardrop in lieu of procedure turn
7. T-- timed approach

COURSE REVERSALS

A procedure turn is one of the most common reversals. However, a teardrop and/or holding pattern can be
used in lieu of a procedure turn. In fact, if a teardrop or holding pattern is depicted as the course
reversal, it is mandatory that you execute that exact maneuver to align yourself with the runway. A
procedure turn however is not necessarily required when depicted; what this means is that you can
perform a course reversal any way that u want as long as you remain on the protected side.

MISC. DEFINITIONS AND RULES

IDENTIFY MISSED APPROACH POINT

· Time from the final approach fix
· DME
· Cross radial
· DH
· Circling when you lose sight of the runway

DESCENT PLANNING: 3-1 RULE

· The 3-1 rule is a tool used for descent planning when you are at altitude
· It is calculated by multiplying how many feet you want to lose (minus the zeros), and
multiplying that by 3.
· EX. Cruise flight at 10,000' and TPA of 1,200'
1. Need to lose 8800 feet: so 8800 x 3 = 26400 (drop the zeros) = approx. 26 miles.
2. So, from 26 miles from your destination begin a descent rate.
3. DECENT RATE: airspeed/2 = FPM (add a zero to calculated number)
a. Ex. 140 KIAS/2= 700 fpm decent

CLIMB GRADIENT
· (ground speed / 60) x (foot / NM requirement)
· Ex. (100 KIAS / 60) x 300 ft per nm = 500 fpm
DETERMINING VISIBILITY

RVR: RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

· Is based on what a pilot in a moving aircraft should see when looking down the runway from
the approach end.
· It is based off of a transmissometer near the instrument runway from the approach end and
reported in hundreds of feet.
· It is used in lieu of RVV or prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular
runway.
· They are updated as often as every minute, so a METAR RVR value should only be used for
informational purposes. The tower should be able to provide up to date RVR values.
· RVR is used for both takeoff and landing minimums. We are not bound by them as part 91
operators, but it would be smart to abid by them.

RVV: RUNWAY VISIBILITY VALUE

· Is the visibility determined for a particular runway by a device called a transmissometer, located
near the runway
· Is reported in statute miles or fractions of miles and used in lieu of prevailing visibility in
determining minimums for a particular runway.

PREVAILING VISIBILITY
· Is the greatest distance a weather observer or tower personnel can see throughout one half the
horizon.
· The visibility is reported in statute miles or fractions of a mile and recorded in the METAR

RUNWAY VISIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

· Visibility is listed as either miles or fractions of miles, or in hundreds of feet. When it is
expressed in miles or fractions of miles, it is generally prevailing visibility that is reported by an
accredited observer such as tower or weather personelle.
· When it is expressed in hundreds of feet, it is determined through RVR equipment
· If RVR equipment is inoperative for an approach that requires it, take the RVR minimums and
convt it to ground visibility.

HAA & HAT

· HAA= Height Above Airport: the height of the MDA above the published airport elevation.
This is published in conjunctions with circling minimums
· HAT= The height of the DH or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown
zone (first 3,000 ft of the runway) HAT is published on an approach chart in conjunction with all
straight in minimums.

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM

1. Operates the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator

2. Altimeter: In an altimeter, aneroid wafers expand and contract as atmospheric pressure

changes, and through a shaft and gear linkage, rotate pointers on the dial of the instrument

3. Limitations Pressure Altimeter: Nonstandard temperature and pressure.

a. Remember high to low or hot o cold look out below

4. Max allowable error of altimeter is 75 ft off field elevation with correct pressure in
kollsman window.

5. Airspeed Indicator: The airspeed indicator measures he difference between ram

pressure from the pitot tube and atmospheric pressure from the static source. Limitations
include: it must have proper flow of air in the pitot static system.

6. Vertical Speed Indicator: In the VSI, changing pressures expand or contract a

diaphragm connected to the indicating needle through gears and levers. The VSI is connected to
the static pressure line through a calibrated leak; it measures different pressure. Limitations
include: It is not accurate until the aircraft is stabilized. Sudden or abrupt changes in the aircraft
attitude will cause erroneous instruments readings as airflow fluctuates over the static port.
Theses changes are not reflected immediately by VSI due to calibrated leak.

GYROSCOPIC SYSTEMS

1. Gyroscopic instruments include attitude indicator, heading indicator and turn

coordinator.

2. Vacuum system: Spins the gyro by drawing a stream of of air against the rotor vanes to
spin the rotor at high speeds, essentially the same as a water wheel or turbine operates. The
amount of vacuum or pressure required for instrument operation varies by manufacture but is
usually between 4.5 to 5.5 in. Hg.

3. Turn Coordinator Operation: The turn part of the instrument uses precession to
indicate direction and approximate rate of turn. A gyro reacts by trying to move in reaction to
the force applied, thus moving the miniature airplane in proportion to the force applied. The
inclinometer in the instrument measures relative strength of the force of gravity and force of
inertia caused by a turn. It is electricly powered but in some aircrafts can be dual powered.

4. Heading Indicator Operation: Works on principle of rigidity of space. The rotor turns
in a vertical plane, and fixed to the rotor is a compass card. Since the rotor remains rigid in
space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to the vertical plane. As the
instrument case and airplane revolve areound the vertical axis, the card provides clear and
accurate heading information. Limitations Heading Indicator: In light aircrafts heading
indicators are limited to approx. 55 degrees of pitch and 55 degrees of bank. When either of
these attitude limits are exceeded, the instrument "tumbles" or "spills". Errors of Heading
Indicator: because of precession (caused by friction), the heading indicator will drift from
heading it is set it. The amount of drift depends on condition of instrument. The heading
indicator may indicate 15 degrees of error per every hour of operation due to earth rotation at a
rate of 15 degrees per hour.

5. Attitude Indicator Operation: The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted on a

horizontal plane and depends upon the rigidity of space. The horizon bar represents the true
horizon and is fixed to the gyro; it remains in a horizontal plane as the airplane is pitched or
banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the attitude of the airplane relative to the
true horizon. Limitations of Attitude Indicator: Depends on model. Usually bank limits are 100-
110 degrees and pitch limits 60-70 degrees. If exceeded the instrument will tumble. Not many
errors with attitude indicator.