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5.1 Introduction
Earthen embankments have been used since ancient times to
impound and divert water. These are simple compacted structures
that rely on their mass to resist sliding and overturning and are the
most common types of dams found worldwide. Modern haulage
methods and developments in soil mechanics towards the end of
the nineteenth century have greatly increased the safety and life
of these structures.
The main advantages involved in the construction of the earthen
dams are:
Use of locally available material in
construction
Simple design procedure
Requirement of comparatively small
plant and equipment
Flexibility in foundation requirements
as compared to the other types of dams.
The broad base of an earth dam spreads
the load on the foundation.
Higher resistance of earth-fill dams to
settlement and movement than rigid
structures. So, they are more suitable for
areas where earth movements are
common.
However the earthen embankments are not free from
disadvantages and these are:
An earth embankment is easily eroded
by water flowing on, over or against it.
Thus, a spillway for removal of excess
water and adequate upstream protection
are essential for an earth dam.
Design and construction of an effective
spillway is usually the most technically
difficult part in any dam building work.
A site with a poor quality spillway
should be avoided.
Inadequately compacted earthen
embankment offers weak structural
strength and facilitates formation of
pathways for preferential seepage.
Earthen dams require continual
maintenance against soil erosion, tree
growth, subsidence, animal and insect
damage and seepage.
5.2 Basic Terminologies
When discussing about the physical characteristics of a dam, the
following terminologies are frequently used.
Abutment: An abutment is a sub-structure, natural or artificial,
that supports the ends of a dam or bridge. It is the part of the valley
wall against which the dam is constructed or the part of the dam
that contacts the stream/river bank. An artificial abutment is
sometimes constructed, as a concrete gravity section, to take the
thrust of an arch dam where there is no suitable natural abutment.
Abutments are defined in terms of left and right as looking away
from the resevoir towards the downstream (Fig. 5.1).
Base Width: The width of the dam measured along the interface
of the dam and its foundation.
Breach: It is opening or a breakthrough of a dam sometimes
caused by rapid erosion of a section of earth embankment by
water.
Conduit: A conduit refers toa closed channel to convey the
discharge through or under or around a dam. Usually pipes
constructed of concrete, steel or polyvenyl chloride (PVC)
material are used for the purpose.
Core: Unless otherwise stated, a core is also known as
impervious core or impervious zone.It refers to a zone of material
of very low permeability in the body of the embankment to
prevent leakage. Based on the position and the material used,
these are also termed as central core, inclined core, puddle clay
core, and rolled clay core etc.
Fig. 5.1. Basic nomenclature of a Dam. (Source:
www.des.nh.gov)
Crest Length: It refers to the length of the top of a dam from left
abutment to right abutment. In addition to the length of spillway,
it includes the powerhouse, navigation lock, fish pass, etc. where
these ancillary structures form a structural part of the dam. These
structures should not be included in crest length when they are
detached from the dam.
Crest of Dam: The crest of dam refers to the crown of an
overflow section of a dam. In other words, it is the elevation of
the uppermost surface of a dam excluding any parapet wall,
railings, etc.
Crest Width: The width or thickness of a dam at its crest level. In
general, the term "thickness" is used for gravity and arch dams
and "width" is used for other dams.
Cutoff: An impervious construction by means of which seepage
is reduced or prevented from passing through foundation
material.
Cutoff Wall: It is a wall made of impervious material such as
concrete or asphalt concrete or steel sheet or piling etc. built into
the foundation to reduce the seepage rate under the dam.
Drainage Layer or Blanket: It refers to a layer of pervious
material placed directly over the foundation material or
downstream slope to safely drain the seepage of the embankment.
When such a blanket is placed on the impoundment floor and
upstream embankment to prevent seepage enering the dam, it is
called an upstream blanket.
Drawdown: It is the resultant lowering of water surface level in
the reservoir due to release of water.
Embankment: It is made of fill material, usually earth or rock,
placed with sloping sides of the dam and usually with a length
greater than its height.
Face: The external surface of a structure, such as the surface of a
dam or appurtenanceis called as its face.
Flashboard: A length of timber, concrete, or steel placed on the
crest of a spillway to raise the retention water level but which may
be removed in the event of a flood by manual retrieval, a tripping
device or by deliberately designed failure of the flashboard or its
supports.
Foundation of Dam: The natural material on which the dam
structure is placed. It is often modified to provide more
favourable hydraulic characteristics.
Freeboard: The vertical distance between a stated reservoir
elevation and the crest of the dam is called as its freeboard (Fig.
5.2). "Net freeboard", "dry freeboard", "flood freeboard", or
"residual freeboard" is the expression for the vertical distance
between the estimated maximum water elevation and the crest of
the dam. "Gross freeboard" or "total freeboard" is the expression
for the vertical distance between the maximum normal water
elevation and the crest of the dam.
Gate: In general, a device in which a member is moved across the
waterway from an external position to control or stop the flow is
called as the gate. There are several types of gates in use.
Crest Gate: It is also called as spillway
gate. A gate on the crest of a spillway
that controls overflow or reservoir water
level.
Flap Gate: A gate hinged along one
edge, usually either the top or bottom
edge. Examples of bottom hinged flap
gates are tilting gates and fish belly
gates so called from their shape in cross
section.
Outlet Gate: A gate controlling the
outflow of water from a reservoir is
called as an outlet gate.
Radial Gate: It is a gate with a curved
upstream plate and radial arms hinged to
piers or other supporting structures. It is
also called as tainter gate.
Slide Gate: It is a gate that can be
opened or closed by sliding in
supporting guides. It is also called as a
sluice gate.
Heel of Dam: The junction of the upstream face of a gravity or
arch dam with the foundation surface is called heel of the dam. In
the case of an embankment dam, this junction is referred to as the
upstream toe of the dam.
Intake: An intake refers to any structure in a reservoir or dam
through which water is drawn into an outlet or measuring flume.
Outlet: It is an opening in a dam through which water can be
freely discharged for a particular purpose from a reservoir.
Low Level Outlet: It is an opening at a low level from the
reservoir generally used for emptying the impoundment. It is also
called as bottom outlet.
Pervious Zone: It refers to a part of the cross section of an
embankment dam comprising material of high permeability.
Riprap: It is a layer of stones, broken rocks or precast blocks
placed in random fashion on the upstream slope of an
embankment dam, on a reservoir shore or on the sides of a channel
as a protection against waves, ice action and flowing water. Very
large riprap is sometimes referred to as armoring.
Seepage Collar: It refers to a projecting collar usually of concrete
or steel built around the outside of a pipe, tunnel or conduit under
an embankment dam, to lengthen the seepage path along the outer
surface of the conduit.
Spillway: It is a structure over or through which flood flows are
discharged (Fig. 5.3). If the flow is controlled by gates, it is
considered as a controlled spillway; if the elevation of the
spillway crest is the only control, it is considered as an
uncontrolled spillway.
Auxiliary Spillway or Emergency
Spillway: A secondary spillway
designed to operate only during
exceptionally large floods.
Shaft Spillway or Morning glory
Spillway: A vertical or inclined shaft
into which flood water spills and then is
conducted through, under, or around a
dam by means of a conduit or tunnel. If
the upper part of the shaft is splayed out
and terminates in a circular horizontal
weir, it is termed a "bellmouth" or
"morning glory" spillway.
Ogee spillway (ogee section): An
overflow spillway, which have an “S” or
ogee form of curve in cross section. The
shape is intended to match the underside
of the nappe at its upper extremities.
Spillway Channel (Spillway Tunnel): It is a channel or tunnel
conveying water from the spillway to the river downstream.
Stoplogs: Large logs, timbers or steel beams placed on top of
each other with their ends held in guides on each side of a channel
or conduit so as to provide a cheaper or more easily handled
means of temporary closure than a bulkhead gate.
Structural Height: It is the vertical distance from the lowest
point of natural ground on the downstream side of the dam to the
highest point of the dam which would impound water.
Toe of Dam: The junction of the downstream face of a dam with
the natural ground surface. This is also referred to as the
downstream toe.
Top of Dam: The elevation of the upper most surface of a dam,
usually a road or walkway, excluding any parapet wall, railings
etc.
Top Thickness (Top Width): The thickness or width of a dam at
its top is called as top thickness. In general, the term thickness is
used for gravity and arch dams; and width is used for other dams.
Training Wall: Training wall is built to confine or guide the flow
of water.
Trash Rack: The trash rack is a screen comprised of metal or
reinforced concrete bars located in the waterway at an intake so
as to prevent the ingress of floating or submerged debris.
PLANE VIEW
SECTION A-A
Fig. 5.2. Dam geometry. (Source: www.des.nh.gov)
PLANE VIEW
SECTION A-A
Fig. 5.3. Operating element of a dam. (Source:
www.des.nh.gov)
Keywords: Embankment, spillway, dam, operating element
References
Garg, S. K. (2011). Irrigation
Engineering and Hydraulic Structures.
Khanna publishers.
http://des.nh.gov/organization/commiss
ioner/pip/factsheets/db/documents/db-
1.pdf
Suggested Readings
Murthy, V.V.N. and Jha. M. K. (2011). Land and
Water Management Engineering. Kalyani
publication.
Suresh, R. (2002). Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. Fourth edition.
Last modified: Monday, 3 February 2014, 5:27 AM