Let us consider a fixed mass of gas, which at a pressure P0 occupies a volume V0 with a

density 0. These values define the equilibrium state of the gas which is disturbed, or
deformed, by the compressions and rarefactions of the sound waves. Under the influence of
the sound waves
the pressure P0 becomes P ¼ P0 þ p
the volume V0 becomes V ¼ V0 þ v
and
the density 0 becomes ¼ 0 þ d:
The excess pressure pm is the maximum pressure amplitude of the sound wave and p is an
alternating component superimposed on the equilibrium gas pressure P0.
The fractional change in volume is called the dilatation, written v=V0 ¼ , and the
fractional change of density is called the condensation, written d=0 ¼ s. The values of
and s are 103 for ordinary sound waves, and a value of pm ¼ 2 105Nm
2 (about
1010 of an atmosphere) gives a sound wave which is still audible at 1000 Hz. Thus, the
changes in the medium due to sound waves are of an extremely small order and define
limitations within which the wave equation is appropriate.
The fixed mass of gas is equal to
0V0 ¼ V ¼ 0V0ð1 þ Þð1 þ sÞ
so that ð1 þ Þð1 þ sÞ ¼ 1, giving s ¼ to a very close approximation. The elastic
property of the gas, a measure of its compressibility, is defined in terms of its bulk modulus
B ¼ dP
dV=V
¼V
dP
dV
the difference in pressure for a fractional change in volume, a volume increase with fall in
pressure giving the negative sign. The value of B depends on whether the changes in the gas
arising from the wave motion are adiabatic or isothermal. They must be thermodynamically
reversible in order to avoid the energy loss mechanisms of diffusion, viscosity and thermal
conductivity. The complete absence of these random, entropy generating processes defines
an adiabatic process, a thermodynamic cycle with a 100% efficiency in the sense that none
of the energy in the wave, potential or kinetic, is lost. In a sound wave such thermodynamic
concepts restrict the excess pressure amplitude; too great an amplitude raises the local
temperature in the gas at the amplitude peaks and thermal conductivity removes energy
from the wave system. Local particle velocity gradients will also develop, leading to
diffusion and viscosity.
Using a constant value of the adiabatic bulk modulus limits sound waves to small
oscillations since the total pressure P ¼ P0 þ p is taken as constant; larger amplitudes lead
to non-linear effects and shock waves, which we shall discuss separately in Chapter 15.
All adiabatic changes in the gas obey the relation PV ¼ constant, where is the ratio of
the specific heats at constant pressure and volume, respectively.
Differentiation gives
V dP þ PV 1 dV ¼ 0
or
V
dP
dV
¼ P ¼ Ba (where the subscript a denotes adiabatic)
so that the elastic property of the gas is P, considered to be constant. Since P ¼ P0 þ p,
then dP ¼ p, the excess pressure, giving
Ba ¼ p
v=V0
or p ¼ Ba ¼ Bas
In a sound wave the particle displacements and velocities are along the x-axis and we
choose the co-ordinate to define the displacement where ðx; tÞ.
In obtaining the wave equation we consider the motion of an element of the gas of
thickness x and unit cross section. Under the influence of the sound wave the behaviour
of this element is shown in Figure 6.1. The particles in the layer x are displaced a distance
and those at x þ x are displaced a distance þ , so that the increase in the thickness
x of the element of unit cross section (which therefore measures the increase in
volume) is
¼@
@x
x
and
¼v
V0
¼@
@x
x=x ¼ @
@x
¼s
where @=x is called the strain.
The medium is deformed because the pressures along the x-axis on either side of the thin
element are not in balance (Figure 6.1). The net force acting on the element is given by
Px Pxþx ¼ Px Px þ @Px
@x
x
¼ @Px
@x
x¼ @
@x
ðP0 þ pÞx ¼ @p
@x
x
The mass of the element is 0x and its acceleration is given, to a close approxmation, by
@ 2=dt 2.
From Newton’s Law we have
@p
@x
x ¼ 0x
@2
@t 2
where
p ¼ Ba ¼ Ba
@
@x
so that
@p
@x
¼ Ba
@2
@x2 ; giving Ba
@2
@x2
¼0
@2
@t 2
But Ba=0 ¼ P=0 is the ratio of the elasticity to the inertia or density of the gas, and this
ratio has the dimensions
force
area
volume
mass
¼ ðvelocityÞ2; so
P
0
¼ c2
where c is the sound wave velocity.
Thus
@2
@x2
¼1
c2
@2
@t 2
is the wave equation. Writing m as the maximum amplitude of displacement we have the
following expressions for a wave in the positive x-direction:
¼ m eið!tkxÞ
_¼@
@t
¼ i!
¼@
@x
¼ ik ¼ s ðso s ¼ ikÞ
p ¼ Bas ¼ iBak
The phase relationships between these parameters (Figure 6.2a) show that when the wave is
in the positive x-direction, the excess pressure p, the fractional density increase s and the
particle velocity _ are all =2 rad in phase ahead of the displacement , whilst the volume
change ( rad out of phase with the density change) is =2 rad behind the displacement.
These relationships no longer hold when the wave direction is reversed (Figure 6.2b); for a
wave in the negative x-direction
¼ m eið!tþkxÞ
_¼@
@t
¼ i!
¼@
@x
¼ ik ¼ s ðso s ¼ ikÞ
p ¼ Bas ¼ iBak
In both waves the particle displacement is measured in the positive x-direction and the
thin element x of the gas oscillates about the value ¼ 0, which defines its central
position. For a wave in the positive x-direction the value ¼ 0, with _ a maximum in the
positive x-direction, gives a maximum positive excess pressure (compression) with a
maximum condensation sm (maximum density) and a minimum volume. For a wave in the