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Environ Geochem Health

DOI 10.1007/s10653-015-9730-z

REVIEW PAPER

A decade of investigations on groundwater arsenic


contamination in Middle Ganga Plain, India
Dipankar Saha . Sudarsan Sahu

Received: 14 August 2014 / Accepted: 16 June 2015


Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract Groundwater arsenic (As) load in excess of contaminated and safe aquifers and their recharge
drinking limit (50 lg L-1) in the Gangetic Plains was mechanism. Elevated conc. of groundwater As has been
first detected in 2002. Though the menace was known observed in grey and dark grey sediments of Holocene
since about two decades from the downstream part of age (Newer Alluvium) deposited in a fluvio-lacustrine
the plains in the Bengal Basin, comprising of Lower environment in the floodplain of the Ganga and most of
Ganga Plain and deltaic plains of Ganga–Brahmaputra– its northern tributaries from Himalayas. Older Allu-
Meghna River system, little thought was given to its vium, comprising Pleistocene brownish yellow sedi-
possible threat in the upstream parts in the Gangetic ment, extending as deeper aquifers in Newer Alluvium
Plains beyond Garo-Rajmahal Hills. The contamination areas, is low in groundwater As. Similarities and
in Bengal Basin has become one of the extensively differences on issues between the MGP and the Bengal
studied issues in the world and regarded as the severest Basin have been discussed. The researches point
case of health hazard in the history of mankind. The towards the mobilisation process as reductive dissolu-
researches and investigations in the Gangetic Plains tion of iron hydroxide coating, rich in adsorbed As,
during the last decade (2003–2013) revealed that the mediated by microbial processes. The area is marked
eastern half of the plains, also referred as Middle Ganga with shallow water level (\8.0 m below ground) with
Plain (MGP), is particularly affected by contamination, ample monsoonal recharge. The infiltrated rainwater
jeopardising the shallow aquifer-based drinking water and percolating water from surface water bodies carry
supply. The present paper reviews researches and organic carbon from sediments (particularly from the
investigations carried out so far in MGP by various clay plugs in abandoned channels), abetting microbial
research institutes and government departments on processes, spread of anoxic front and release of As.
wide array of issues of groundwater As such as its
spatio-temporal variation, mobilisation paths, water Keywords Gangetic Plains  Middle Ganga Plain 
level behaviour and flow regime, configuration of Groundwater  Shallow aquifer  Arsenic 
Contamination  India

D. Saha
Central Ground Water Board, Bhujal Bhawan, NH-IV, Introduction
Faridabad, India
Elevated concentration (conc.) of arsenic (As) in
S. Sahu (&)
Central Ground Water Board, MER, Patna, India groundwater is widely recognised as a global threat to
e-mail: sudarsan_cgwb@yahoo.co.in human health and poses a challenge to water supply in

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Environ Geochem Health

the affected areas. The menace has been reported from was first detected (Chakraborti et al. 2003) from two
different fluvial and fluvio-deltaic regions in southern villages: Semaria Ojha Patti and Bariswan, located in
and south-eastern parts of Asia, viz. the Ganga– the Bhojpur district of Bihar state. The authors reported
Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) River system in parts skin lesions and abnormal conc. of As in nail, urine and
of Bangladesh and West Bengal in India, the Indus hair of the affected persons. About *59 % of the hand
River in Pakistan, the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar, pumps of the villages (20–40 m depth) were reported
the Red River in Vietnam, the Mekong River in Laos with As [50 lg L-1 adopted as guideline value for
and Cambodia and the Yellow River in China drinking use (BIS 2012). The reporting attracted
(Acharya et al. 1999; Poyla et al. 2005; Iqbal 2001; immediate attention of the researchers and government
Berg et al. 2001; World Bank 2005). The deltaic agencies such as Central Ground Water Board
region of GBM River system, also referred as Bengal (CGWB), Government of India, Public Health Engi-
Basin, is, however, the most severely affected region neering Department (PHED), Government of Bihar, Jal
of the world (Nickson et al. 1998; Burgess et al. 2010). Nigam and State Water Resources Agency (SWARA)
As toxicity in the basin was initially detected in the in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.). Large numbers of groundwater
year 1983 in West Bengal (Garai et al. 1984). In samples were collected and analysed in several phases
subsequent decades, it remained the hotbed of research in Bihar as we all U.P. The contaminated wells were
on various facets of groundwater As contamination. identified and painted red so as to debar those from
The contamination has adversely affected the upper drinking use. Researches were carried out on genesis
slice of the Quaternary aquifer—considered to be the and mobilisation of As in groundwater, its spatio-
lifeline for drinking supply through millions of temporal and depth-wise distribution. Few researches
shallow hand pumps and mechanised bore wells of also focussed on search of alternate safe aquifers and
various capacities and depths. An extensive survey evaluating their viability for community water supply.
jointly carried out by Department of Public Health Though the contamination has been reported at different
Engineering (DPHE) and British Geological Survey patches from the entire length of the Gangetic Plains, the
(BGS) in Bangladesh reported that nearly 35 million focus of the researches remained on the Middle Ganga
people are drinking groundwater with As conc. Plain (MGP), covering the state of Bihar, the eastern
beyond 50 lg L-1, the adopted limit in the country part of Uttar Pradesh and the north-eastern tip of
(BGS and DPHE 2001; Gaus et al. 2003). Bhat- Jharkhand state.
tacharya et al. (2003) have reported the contamination The present paper reviews the status of investigation
in about 3225 villages spread in eight districts of West and findings so far on various issues related to ground-
Bengal in parts of GBM. The last four decades water As contamination in the MGP. The area, which
witnessed a major shift in rural drinking water supply stretches over part of the Gangetic alluvial plains,
in the Indian subcontinent, when millions of hand possesses the highest population density and one of the
pumps were installed, particularly in the alluvial most fertile lands with rich agriculture in Indian subcon-
plains and deltaic areas, by phasing out traditional tinent. Groundwater is the key resource for socio-
open dug wells. This major switchover has obviously economic development in the region. The paper focusses
saved hundreds of lives from waterborne diseases, but on review of all publications and reports on issues
subsequently exposed a major chunk of the population covering the extent of As contamination, its spatio-
to groundwater As in Bengal Basin and its slow temporal distribution, mobilisation paths, aquifer geom-
poisoning over time (Smith et al. 2000). etry and hydraulic characteristics, water level behaviour,
Beyond the Bengal Basin, Shreshtha et al. (2003) stratigraphic architecture and Holocene geomorphology.
reported high As ([50 lg L-1) from Tarai belt in The studies on the feasibility of deeper As-free aquifers for
Nepal, at the northern extremities of Gangetic Plains. community drinking supply have also been incorporated.
The vast Middle and Upper Gangetic Plains (*0.25
million km2), upstream to the Garo-Rajmahal Hills and
south to the Tarai zone, spread over the states of Bihar Geological framework of MGP
and Uttar Pradesh in India (population: *303.9 million,
Census of India 2011) were out of focus of As The Gangetic Plains in the Himalayan foreland is an
contamination studies till 2002, when the contamination active fluvial depositional basin, which has actively

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Environ Geochem Health

responded to the extra- and intra-basinal tectonics, The NGP, marked with thicker Quaternary deposits
climate-driven sediment and water regime (Singh (max. 5000 m at the foothills of Siwaliks), abuts
2004; Sinha et al. 2005a). The sediment input in the against the Siwalik Hills at the base of the Himalayas
Gangetic Plains has always remained in excess in (Agarwal et al. 2002; Singh 2004). The Siwaliks
comparison with the rate of down-flexing of the continues below the Quaternary sediments, the south-
basement, resulting in uninterrupted fresh water ern extent of which is yet to be ascertained (Sastri et al.
deposits during the Pleistocene (Singh 2004). The 1971; Singh 1996). The basement faults, ridges and
length of the basin continues for *1000 km in east– depressions affected the river channel behaviour on
west direction, while the north–south width varies the surface (Singh 2001), consequently affecting the
from 450 km at the western part to *200 km at the nature and thickness of sediment fill at different parts
eastern part (Singh 1996). of the basin (Singh and Bajpai 1989; Singh et al.
The basement of the Gangetic Plains is not uniform 1999).
and is criss-crossed with ridges, depressions and faults
(Fig. 1). Three major subsurface ridges, namely the
Delhi–Hardwar Ridge at the west, the Faizabad Ridge Geomorphology and Quaternary
at the middle and the Munger–Saharsa Ridge at the morphostratigraphy of MGP
east mark the basement (Rao 1973; Singh 1996; Sinha
et al. 2005b). The vast Gangetic Plains are divided into The major northern tributaries of the Ganga such as the
three physiographic subdivisions from west to east, Ghaghra, the Gandak and the Kosi, originating either
namely (1) the Upper Ganga Plain (UGP), in the west from Himalayan Mountains or its foothills are located
of Faizabad Ridge, (2) the Middle Ganga Plain in MGP. Among the southern tributaries, the Sone is
(MGP), between Faizabad and Munger–Saharsa the mightiest one (Fig. 2). The Himalayan rivers get
Ridge, and (3) the Lower Ganga Plain (LGP), in the ample contribution in drainage from glacial melt
east of Munger–Saharsa Ridge. The LGP merges with (Owen et al. 2002). They are generally multichannel
the deltaic region of GBM (Singh and Singh 1991; and braided with higher discharge and sediment load.
Thomas et al. 2002). It is argued that the eustatic sea The southern tributaries are ephemeral, and most of
level-related base-level changes during the Pleis- them remain dry during the summer months.
tocene could have affected the sedimentation in LGP A marked variation is observed across the Gangetic
up to Garo-Rajmahal Hills (*300 km from present Plains in terms of fluvial processes, spatial distribution
coast line), letting the MGP and UGP remaining and frequency of different geomorphic elements
beyond marine influence (Goodbred 2003; Tandon (Sinha et al. 2002; Jain and Sinha 2003). In the
et al. 2008). In the present paper, the alluvial plain UGP, with a slope setting of *4 %, the land form is
bounded between the Ganga–Yamuna confluence (on degradational in nature, while the LGP (including the
the eastern fringe of the Faizabad Ridge) at the west deltaic part of Bengal Basin), with a lower slope of
and Garo-Rajmahal Hills (on the eastern fringe of *1 % represents aggradational regime. The MGP (av.
Munger–Saharsa Ridge) at the east has been consid- slope *2 %), lying between the UGP and LGP, shows
ered as the MGP. the characters of both the regions (Sinha 2005). The
The MGP is divided into two major geomorphic UGP and the adjoining part of MGP exhibit more
units by the axial river Ganga: the North Ganga Plain rugged terrain leading to development of badlands and
(NGP) and the South Ganga Plain (SGP) (Fig. 1). In gully erosion at places, where the rivers flow in
SGP, the northerly thickening Quaternary deposits are prominent incised channels with higher bank heights,
unconformable laid over the Precambrian basement, often exceeding 10 m (Sinha 2005; Agarwal et al.
made up of (a) Vindhyan Group of rocks, (b) Bun- 2002). Aggradation is reported from the eastern part of
delkhand Gneissic Complex and (c) the Chhotanagpur MGP, where Sinha et al. (1996) have established a
Gneiss Granulite Complex (Om Prakash et al. 1990; rapid rate of sediment accumulation during late
Agarwal et al. 2002) in the western and the central Holocene (0.7–1.5 mm year-1 in last *2400 years).
parts, while in the eastern part, the Gondwanas and the Channel migrations and avulsions are more fre-
Rajmahal Trap of Mio-Pliocene age lie between the quently observed in the MGP than in the UGP,
Quaternary sediments and the Precambrian basement. resulting in frequent occurrences of backswamps,

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Environ Geochem Health

80° E N 90° E
W E Nepal Bhutan
S
0 100 200 Km.

Scale
30° N
INDIA Bangladesh
1
NEW DELHI Sa
rda
UP De
PE ep
RG
a ANGA
Ya
b PL
AIN
m
un
a a
R. nd
Ga
MIDD ak
LE GA D
NGA P eep
2 LAIN
a
3 a
Ganga
R. 4 LO
ALLAHABAD AN WER
b PATNA D D GA
b EL NG
TA A P
IC
ahal PL LAIN
o-Rajm a AIN
Gar hills
DHAKA

Bhagirathi R.
Legend RANCHI Bengal
b Basin
Quaternary alluvium

Siwalik diposits Tertiary Sediments KOLKATA


Mesozoic/Tertiary Deccan-Rajmahal
basalts Shahebganj Pleatu
Bay of Bengal
Paleozoic granite, gneiss and charnockite 1 Delhi Haridwar Ridge
Paleozoic-Mesozoic sandstone, 2 Faizabad Ridge
shale and limestone
Precambrian metasendimentary 3 Vindhayan Ridge
rocks and limestone Munger-saharsa Ridge
4
Precambrian metamorphic rocks and younger
felsic intrusions a North Ganga Plain

Cambrian sandstone, dolomite and phyllite b South Ganga Plain

Archaean granite and gneiss Middle Ganga Plain

Sarda and Gandak Deep Fault

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area. The MGP lies between the Faizabad Ridge at the west and the Garo-Rajmahal Hills at the east
(modified after Mukherjee et al. 2012)

meander scars, channel cut-off lakes, abandoned Sahu et al. 2010; Sahu and Saha 2014b). In case of the
channels/cross-bar channels, short-length natural Ganga, the north–south oscillation at different seg-
levee, etc. For instance, the Kosi has shifted ments (Swamee et al. 2003; Shah 2008; Sahu and Saha
*150 km westward in last 200 years by a series of 2014a) through channel migration and meander cut-
avulsions (Wells and Dorr 1987; Agarwal and Bhoj offs is quite visible in the satellite images (Fig. 2).
1992). Similarly, the Gandak, the Sone and even the Morphologically, the Gangetic Plains is subdivided
smaller rivers in the eastern half of MGP such as into three distinct zones: (1) the piedmont zone,
Bagmati and Burhi Gandak, also showed dynamic located close to the Siwalik Hills (including the
characters (Mohindra et al. 1992; Jain and Sinha 2005; Bhabar and Tarai zones) (Fig. 2), (2) the central

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Environ Geochem Health

Major Holocene floodplains, river


migrations and land use pattern HIMALAYAS
(Middle Ganga Plain) N E P A
27.0 Himalayan forests L
Forests in Siwaliks
and Bhabar region

R.
Shrub land in Tarai

da
R.

anan
si
Tarai region

Ko
G

Mah
Forests (peninsula)
1 an
da
Shrub land k
R.
2 3 4
(peninsula) Gha
26.0 ghr
aR
.

Ganga R. Patna Bhagalpur


Mokameh
Buxar Ara

l
Sa
aha
Allahabad Varanasi

he
m

bg
Raj

an
R.

j
Mirzapur
Gaya
ne
River migration zones
25.0
So

1 2 3 4
Ghaghra Gandak Kosi Mahananda
0 Alluvium (agricultural
130 km land and others)
Major floodplains

82.0 83.0 84.0 85.0 86.0 87.0 88.0

Fig. 2 Major Holocene floodplains and broad categories of land use pattern in MGP. The map depicts migration and floodplain
generation in the Himalayan Rivers. The rectangular inset is shown in Fig. 10

alluvial plain, occupying the area between the pied- surface, also referred as Older Floodplain (OFP),
mont zone and the axial rivers (the Yamuna at the west which normally occurs above the regular flood level of
and the Ganga at the east), incorporating the floodplain the rivers. The active floodplain (AFP) also mentioned
of the Ganga, and (3) the marginal alluvial plain as T0 surface is aligned as narrow zones along the
between the axial drainage at north and the Indian rivers, entrenched upon OFP and marked with recent
craton at south (Karunakaran and Rao 1979; Agarwal sediments. The T0 surface is subjected to annual
et al. 2002). The Bhabar possesses graveliferous flooding (Acharya 2004; Sahu and Saha 2014a). The
sediments with steep slopes, whereas the Tarai is disposition of NA and OA in MGP is depicted in
characterised by low-lying areas with the development Fig. 4.
of swamps, ponds and small sandy layers (Singh
1996). The central alluvial plain, which occupies the
major part, consists of (1) interfluve upland terrace Spatio-temporal variation in As contamination
(T2), representing the Older Alluvium (OA), and (2)
river valley terraced formations, referred as Newer The government agencies and other researchers have
Alluvium (NA) (Fig. 3). The OA is made up of yellow carried out several analysis campaigns for groundwa-
to brownish yellow, medium to coarse sand with ter As contamination in the states of U.P., Bihar and
profuse calcareous nodules and iron concretions, Jharkhand in MGP after the initial reportage (Chakra-
interlayered with clay and sandy clay (Shah 2010). borti et al. 2003) of the contamination in the village
The NA of Holocene age characteristically consists of Semaria Ojha Patti in Bhojpur district of Bihar.
unoxidised fine to medium sand, silt and clay (grey to Widespread contamination in alluvial corridors in
dark grey in colour), deposited in fluvial/fluvio- the valleys of particularly the Himalayan-origin rivers
lacustrine setting. Within the NA, the floodplain of has been revealed with severe incidence along the
the Ganga and its tributaries are incised on T2 surface. axial drainage Ganga. The corridors mark the flood-
The entrenched river valley terrace (T1) upon the T2 plains of the rivers, where a large number of shallow

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Environ Geochem Health

T2 - Surface
T2 T1 T1 - Surface
T0

Arsenic affected zone in Middle Ganga Plain


Legend
T2 - Surface = Older Alluvium upland Surface
T1 - Surface = Newer Alluvium Older Flood Plain
T0 - Surface = Newer Alluvium Active Flood Plain
Sand, fine to coarse
Clay (organic rich)
Sandy clay
Channel bars

Fig. 3 Representative schematic model of MGP showing the disposition of NA and OA. The OA upland surface comprising
Pleistocene sediments is low in As content (modified after Shah 2008)

Fig. 4 A generalised geology map of MGP. It also depicts the districts with elevated conc. of As in groundwater in the shallow aquifers
and few important locations (refer text for details)

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Environ Geochem Health

hand pumps are found to be affected by elevated conc. same district, Singh and Ghosh (2014) reported 77 %
of groundwater As. and the dug wells (depth: 6–12 m) of the tested samples (n = 305) exceeding 10 lg L-1
with largely low As load (\10 lg L-1). In the state of and * 54 % with As [50 lg L-1. Saha et al. (2010)
Bihar, the contamination zone covers a geographical have reported As in the range of below detection limit
area of 9104 km2 falling mostly in the rural parts of 15 (BDL, 3 lg L-1) to 620 lg L-1 in the district, where
districts (out of total 38) (Fig. 4) encompassing 57 60 and 41 % of the samples (n = 60) have exceeded
blocks including more than 1600 habitations (Kumar 10 and 50 lg L-1, respectively. In this part, even
et al. 2003; Acharya and Shah 2004; CGWB and within a village (area 1.5 km2), the conc. varied
PHED 2005; Nickson et al. 2005; Mukherjee et al. *550 %, revealing high spatial variability. In the
2007; Kunar et al. 2009; Saha et al. 2009; PHED 2009; adjoining Buxar district, *40 % of shallow tube wells
CGWB 2010a, b; Saha and Dhar 2012; CGWB and are reported to exhibit As beyond 50 lg L-1 (max.
BIT 2013; Chakraborti et al. 2013; Shah 2013; Singh conc.: 1400 lg L-1) (Kunar et al. 2009; CGWB
et al. 2013; Singh and Ghosh 2014; Saha and Shukla 2010a, b; CGWB and BIT 2013). Though often the
2013; Sahu and Saha 2014a, b). More than 10 million depth of hand pumps falls in the range of 10–30 m bgl,
people (*10 % of state populace) reside in the risk in patches in the western parts of the district, Kumar
zone with the dependency on the shallow contami- et al. (2003) have observed elevated conc. of As in the
nated aquifer for their entire drinking need. If depth range of *25–100 m bgl (n = 432). In Bha-
10 lg L-1 limit (guideline: WHO 1993) is consid- galpur district, most of the hand pumps were found to
ered, this number can be many folds (Sahu and have elevated conc. of As with values often exceeding
Dwivedi 2012). In the adjoining Jharkhand state in the 500 lg L-1 (Mukherjee et al. 2007). However, Kumar
lower parts of MGP, contamination has been found in et al. (2010) reported 47 % of the samples beyond
three blocks of Sahibganj district falling in the Ganga 50 lg L-1. Higher load, as well as widest spatial
floodplain at the eastern end of MGP (Nayak et al. variability, was observed in samples collected from 20
2008; Saha 2009; CGWB 2010a, b; Chakraborti et al. to 30 m below ground. In Haldi Chapra (Patna
2013). In the state of U.P., the contamination has been district), one of the most critically contaminated
reported from 20 districts (Ahamed et al. 2006; villages in MGP, the conc. (n = 20) ranged in
Ramanathan et al. 2006; Shah 2008, 2010, 2013, 106–498 lg L-1, with a mean of 231 lg L-1 (Singh
2015; Pandey et al. 2009; Chauhan et al. 2009; and Ghosh 2011; Singh 2011). The depth of the hand
Government of India 2011; Yano et al. 2012; pumps in this village varies from 24–47 m bgl.
Chakraborti et al. 2013), though a consensus on Maximum conc. of 1840 lg L-1 has been reported
number of affected blocks is yet to be arrived. The from this village (Table 1; Kunar et al. 2009; CGWB
present study is concerned with the eight affected 2010a, b). Saha and Shukla (2013), in a study from
districts of the eastern segment of the state falling in Samastipur district, located on the northern bank,
the upper parts of MGP. The districts in the MGP, reported 60 % of the samples (depth 20–25 m) having
where As contamination is reported, are provided in conc. beyond 10 lg L-1 (n = 57), wherein in 20 %
Fig. 4, and their list is given in Table 1. cases it exceeded 100 lg L-1. The spatial variation in
Similar to West Bengal and Bangladesh, research- conc. of As along the northern bank (reported by Saha
ers in MGP have highlighted considerable spatial and Shukla as 110 %) has not been reported as wide as
heterogeneity in groundwater As conc. Initially, in the areas from the southern bank of the Ganga. In an
PHED (2009) had carried out blanket testing of more extensive sampling and analysis from 36 blocks in
than 0.8 lakh groundwater samples in a 10-km corridor Bihar, all bordering the Ganga, Chakraborti et al.
along the Ganga River and identified 50 blocks with (2013) have reported 33 % of the samples exceeding
elevated conc. of As out of total 195 blocks in 13 10 lg L-1 (n = 19,961), while 18 % as beyond
districts. Mukherjee et al. (2007) reported a strong 50 lg L-1.
geologic–geomorphic control of the groundwater As In Sahibganj district of Jharkhand state, the
distribution in shallow aquifers of MGP. In Bhojpur groundwater As has been found to exceed 10 and
district, 47.7 % of the tested wells (n = 6292) were 50 lg L-1 in *36 and *15 % of the samples
found to be contaminated, with the highest conc. as (n = 3354?), respectively (Nayak et al. 2008; Sen-
1861 lg L-1. In a more focussed study in a part of the gupta et al. 2009; Chakraborti et al. 2013). The blocks

123
Table 1 Districts and number of As-affected blocks in MGP with maximum reported conc. of groundwater As (see Fig. 4 for location of districts)
Sl. no. District/no. of % of samples with As % (range) of samples Max. conc. Approx. depth of Remarks
blocks affected between 10 and 50 lg L-1 with As [50 lg L-1 (lg L-1) hand pumps (m bgl)

123
Uttar Pradesh
1 Sant Kabir Nagara 16.4 2.4 [50 25–50 Government of India (2011)
2 Gorakhpura 6.2 1.2 [50 70 Government of India (2011)
3 Chandaulia 1.2 0.8 [50 25–50 Government of India (2011)
4 Ghazipura 45–60 20–27 450 25–45 Ahamed et al. (2006), Shah (2010),
Ramanathan et al. (2006),
Chakraborti et al. (2013)
5 Sant Ravidas Nagara 0.9 0.6 [50 25–50 Government of India (2011)
6 Mirzapura *35–60 15–36 [50 25–40 Shah (2010, 2013), (2014)
7 Ballia/11 46.5–52 27–50 1310 *15–65 Ahamed et al. (2006), Pandey et al.
(2009), Government of India (2011),
Chauhan et al. (2009), Shah (2013),
Chakraborti et al. (2013)
8 Varanasia 44–60 20–27 180 25–45 Ahamed et al. (2006), Shah (2008,
2010), Raju (2012), Chakraborti
et al. (2013)
Bihar
1 Bhojpur/6 47 29–57 1861 10–30 Chakraborti et al. (2003), Mukherjee
et al. (2007), Kunar et al. (2009),
Government of India Government of
India (2011), Sahu (2013), CGWB
and BIT (2013), Sahu and Saha
(2014a, b)
2 Buxar/4 *36–50 40–50 1400 10–30 CGWB and BIT (2013), Shah (2013)
3 Saran/4 50–76 36 205 20–40 Mukherjee et al. (2007), CGWB
(2010a, b)
4 Patna/4 50.5 1810 10–45 CGWB and BIT (2013), Mukherjee
et al. (2007), Shah (2013)
5 Samastipur/4 40 50–57 626 18–52 Kunar et (2009), Government of India
(2011), Saha and Shukla (2013)
6 Begusarai/6 46 11.8 321 15–45 CGWB and PHED (2005)
7 Darbhanga/1 66 20 124 10–40 CGWB and PHED (2005)
8 Bhagalpur/3 47–53.7 27.1 [500 10–45 Mukherjee et al. (2007), Kumar et al.
(2010)
9 Katihar/6 – 19.7 200 15–40 PHED (2009), CGWB (2010a, b)
Environ Geochem Health
Environ Geochem Health

PHED (2009), Mukherjee et al. (2007)


with elevated conc. of As are located in the active

Sengupta et al. (2009), Chakraborti


floodplains of the Ganga, bordering Sahibganj Plateau

et al. (2013), CGWB (2014a, b)


PHED (2009), CGWB (2010a, b)
made up of basalt flows. CGWB (2014a, b) has
reported As conc. variation of 80–500 lg L-1 in this
part.
Chakraborti et al. (2003) while initially reporting
CGWB (2010a, b)
CGWB (2010a, b)

CGWB (2010a, b)

CGWB (2010a, b)
the As contamination in the Gangetic Plains in Bihar
suspected the similar danger in the adjoining areas
along the Gangetic Plains in the neighbouring state of
Remarks

U.P. Later on, UP Jal Nigam (UPJN) has carried out


blanket testing in different districts of U.P. in three
phases analysing more than 1.1 lakh groundwater
hand pumps (m bgl)

samples for estimation of As concentration (Govern-


Approx. depth of

ment of India 2011). The effort has identified seven


districts of U.P. (Table 1, except Varanasi) falling in
MGP affected with As conc. exceeding 50 lg L-1. In
10–40
10–40
10–45
10–45
20–40
10–45

10–40

a survey conducted by Ahamed et al. (2006) covering


Ballia, Ghazipur and Varanasi districts of the state
revealed 46 % of the samples (n = 4780) exceeding
10 lg L-1, while 27 % above 50 lg L-1 (max. conc.
Max. conc.
(lg L-1)

3192 lg L-1). In other studies in the same areas, 60


1018

and 20 % of the samples (n = 68?) have been


256
236
300
241
97
85

detected with C10 and C50 lg L-1 of As conc.,


respectively (Shah 2008, 2010). The depth of hand
% (range) of samples
with As [50 lg L-1

pumps from where samples were collected ranged in


25–45 m. In a study focussing Mirzapur district, Shah
(2015) observed 37.7 % of the tested sources (n = 45)
exceeded 10 lg L-1, while 15.5 % of the cases the
conc. were beyond 50 lg L-1. Scanty research is done
15.5
26.4
12.5

19.4

on spatial variation of As in groundwater in U.P. In



one such study, Raju (2012) has reported more than 30


between 10 and 50 lg L-1

times variation within a village in Varanasi district.


The Ballia district, located at the junction of the Ganga
% of samples with As

and Ghaghra rivers, has particularly been found to be


contaminated (Government of India 2011; Chauhan
et al. 2009). In this area, Pandey et al. (2009) reported
max. conc. of 345 lg L-1 in hand pumps (depth
Number of blocks affected not available

25–64 m). Chauhan et al. (2009) have reported a range


30

of 12–20 lg L-1 from hand pumps tapping deeper







zones (66–75 m bgl), whereas about 40 % of the


tested sources from shallow hand pumps (30–33 m
depth) were detected with As [50 lg L-1. In a study
blocks affected
District/no. of

Kishanganj/2

Lakhisarai/2

covering five districts of UP (where four districts are


Sahibganj/3
Khagaria/6

Vaishali/5
Munger/4
Purnea/2

falling in MGP, viz. Allahabad, Varanasi, Ghazipur


Table 1 continued

and Ballia) Chakraborti et al. (2013) reported 44 and


26 % of the samples (n = 5558) exceeding 10 and
Jharkhand

50 lg L-1, respectively.
Sl. no.

The density of As-contaminated tube wells from


10
11
12
13
14
15

Patna–Ballia alluvial stretch is higher compared to that


a

123
Environ Geochem Health

Fig. 5 a Depth vs (a) (b)


groundwater As conc. in Arsenic level (µgL-1)
210
MGP (Shah 2008, 2010; BDL10 30 50 70 90
0m
Sahu and Saha 2014a, b;
Sahu 2013). b Depth-wise
groundwater As measured in 180
a tube well constructed at
Bariswan Village in Bhojpur
district (CGWB 2007a;

Depth of source aquifer (m bgl)


150

Borehole depth (m)


Sahu 2013) 60

120

120
90

60

180

30 Mud/Clay
Very fine to fine sand
Coase sand with gravels
0 Coarse sand with interlayers
240 m of gravels
0 1000 2000 bgl
As conc. in groundwater (µgL-1)

of Buxar–Mirzapur stretch in the western parts of west, beyond Buxar, the wells often go deeper, up to
MGP. The former shows around 66 % of tube wells 75 m bgl. Pandey et al. (2009) reported up to
having As [10 lg L-1, whereas the later exhibits 345 lg L-1 in the moderately deep (25–64 m bgl)
89 % of tube wells with As[10 lg L-1. In the similar hand pumps (IM II). However, Chauhan et al. (2009)
line, the percentage of tube wells with 50 lg L-1 is analysed nine water samples collected from deeper
higher (50 %) in comparison with the Buxar–Mirza- hand pumps (depth range: 66–75 m bgl) and got As in
pur stretch, where it stands at 36 % (Shah 2013). the safe range of 12–20 lg L-1. The wells constructed
A depth vs As conc. cross-plot of samples from by the state government often go up to 200 m below
MGP reveals a rapid decrease in As conc. beyond ground taping multiple aquifers at different depths.
40 m bgl (Fig. 5a). Figure 5b depicts the depth-wise Table 2 reveals (refer Fig. 4 for locations) the As
variation in groundwater As measured in a tube well conc. remained below even the WHO standard of
constructed at Bariswan village in Bhojpur district of 10 lg L-1 in tube wells tapping deep aquifers at
Bihar. In MGP, the maximum conc. of As is reported depths beyond 50 m bgl (CGWB 2013). In Bengal
in the depth range of 15–35 m below ground (CGWB Basin, on contrary, the contamination has been
& PHED 2005, Shah 2008, 2010; Sahu and Saha reported up to 80 m bgl (BGS and DPHE 2001).
2014a, b). The groundwater samples collected by Monsoon rainfall is the major source of recharge in
various researchers were generally from hand pumps the Gangetic Plains (CGWB 2007a, b). Researchers
with depth \40 m. A few of them (specifically have reported an improvement in chemical quality of
irrigation wells) reaches up to 75 m bgl. Because of groundwater in terms of major constituents during the
potential sand zones at shallow depth, the depths of monsoon months (Saha et al. 2008). However, there is
wells (including hand pumps) are shallower paucity of data on seasonal variation of As. CGWB
(10–45 m bgl) in the middle (including Patna–Ballia (2007a) has reported seasonal variation of As conc.
stretch) and eastern parts of MGP, whereas, at the from a well (hand pump, depth 25–30) in Bhojpur

123
Table 2 As conc. reported from tube wells tapping deep aquifers in MGP (CGWB 2013; Saha et al. 2010; Government of India 2011; Saha and Shukla 2013; Sahu 2013)
Sl. no. Location District Longitude (E) Latitude (N) Slot position (m bgl) Max. As conc.
(lg L-1)

Bihar
1 Nargada Narayanpur Bhojpur 84.4222 25.6067 136–142, 156–162, 179–188, 191–194, 205–208, 214–217, 222–228 3.0
2 Karnamepur -do- 84.3581 25.6542 136–142, 147–153, 161–167, 173–179, 187–199 BDL
Environ Geochem Health

3 Shahpur -do- 84.3987 25.5964 127–133, 139–145,150–156, 169–175, 206–212 BDL


4 -do- – – 127–133, 139–145, 169–175, 206–212 BDL
5 Bariswan -do- 84.4359 25.6265 170–182, 191–197 BDL
6 -do- – – 94–106, 109–115, 128–140, 156–162, 169–181, 187–199 BDL
7 Paharpur -do- 84.4712 25.6494 140–146, 185–191, 199–205, 244–250 BDL
8 Bharauli -do- 84.3801 25.631 162–171, 174–180, 183–186, 189–196, 203–215 BDL
9 Amrahi Nawada -do- 84.5531 25.5441 124–129, 135–141,166–170, 173–177, 181–187,193–196 5.0
10 Neazipur Buxar 84.1579 25.6666 150–156, 164–176, 182–188, 194–200 BDL
11 Brahmpur -do- 84.3166 25.6048 120–132,156–162,156–162,176–182,190–202 3.5
12 Churamanpur -do- 84.0306 25.5813 158–164, 176–182, 208–220 BDL
13 Madudabad Samastipur 85.7285 25.5862 90–96,116–128,132–138,222–228 BDL
14 -do- – – 126–132 8
15 Shahpur Patori -do- 85.5599 25.6261 80–86, 99–105 9
16 Vidyapatinagar -do- 85.7984 25.6011 210–222 BDL
17 Gangajal Saran 85.161 25.7102 56–62, 66–72, 88–100, 115–127, 142–154, 165–171 6.0
18 Sitabdiara -do- 84.6406 25.7561 105–117, 123–135,175–187, 215–224 5
19 Narepur Begusarai 85.9164 25.5947 55–61, 89–95, 122–128 4.5
20 -do- 85.9022 25.5991 122–125 9.4
21 Bihat -do- 86.0465 25.4325 140–146, 160–166, 175–187 BDL
22 Barauni -do- 85.965 5.4643 154–160, 194–200, 221–223 BDL
23 Barh Patna 85.6919 25.4735 122–128, 134–140, 170–176, 179–182, 205–211, 220–226 BDL
24 Gyaspur -do- 85.4689 25.4737 92–100, 116–122, 140–146, 150–156, 168–174, 180–188 BDL
25 Maner -do- 84.8879 25.6423 125–131, 149–155 BDL
Uttar Pradesh
26 Ramgarh Ballia 84.3993 25.7860 196–208, 244–252, 285–289, 322–334 BDL
27 Dalan Chapra -do- 84.5177 25.7256 186.00–194.00, 203.00–215.00 BDL

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Environ Geochem Health

Fig. 6 Temporal variation


of As with respect to rainfall
variation in Bhojpur district
of Bihar state. The plot
reveals a decrease in conc.
subsequent to monsoon
months

district during July 2004 to March 2006 (Fig. 6), with Ballia, Chhapra, Patna, Ara, Saidpur, Chunnar and
decline in conc. during the monsoon months. Mirzapur, are reported to be free from contamination.
The reason may be that the urban areas are located on
Pleistocene upland surface (T2) along the bank of the
Arsenic concentration in morphostratigraphic Ganga (Mukherjee et al. 2007; Sahu and Shukla 2010;
units Shah 2013).

Older Alluvium (OA)


Newer Alluvium (NA)
During the initial reporting of As contamination in the
Gangetic Plains, Chakraborti et al. (2003) hypothe- The NA unit has found to be contaminated with As.
sised that the entire Gangetic Plains is prone to As This has been emphasised by various authors, though
contamination, while Acharya (2004) postulated that differences of opinions exist on contamination level
the elevated conc. would be confined within the between the two subunits of NA: T0 (AFP) and T1
narrow entrenched floodplains of NA only. Subse- (OFP) surfaces (Fig. 4). Few researchers advocated
quent detailed analyses campaign (CGWB and PHED that T0 surface or the AFP is more contaminated
2005) vindicated the view of Acharya (2004). Similar (Acharya 2004; Shah 2008, 2010). In Zamania,
to the observations in Bengal Basin, the OA sedi- Ghazipur and Muhammadabad area, covering both
ments, either exposed or covered by a thin veneer of the northern and southern banks of the Ganga in Balia
Holocene deposits, are characteristically low in district, maximum conc. from T0 surface was reported
groundwater As load (\10 lg L-1). In Bhojpur and as 550 lg L-1 (Shah 2008), while the T1 surface was
Buxar districts of Bihar, Saha et al. (2010) have marked with lower level of conc. (B100 lg L-1).
reported maximum conc. of 9 lg L-1 from OA, Similarly, in Samastipur district, 57 and 38 % of the
having 60 % of the samples (n = 17) reported as wells from T0 surface exceeded 50 and 100 lg L-1,
BDL. Shah (2010) has reported \10 lg L-1 conc. in respectively. On the other hand, the T1 surface
OA upland areas in Ara–Dumraon stretch near Bihar- exhibited lower conc. (6–114 lg L-1), with a mean
UP border. Similar low level conc. (\10 lg L-1) has of 38.8 lg L-1 (Saha and Shukla 2013). In this part,
also been reported from the OA areas of Manupur– even within NA, the As conc. declines rapidly beyond
Hazipur–Myil villages on the northern bank of the *6 km from the course of the Ganga. In Bhojpur
Ganga, (Shah 2008), as well as from Bhagalpur district district however, Sahu and Saha (2014a) have
in the eastern fringe of MGP (Mukherjee et al. 2012). observed higher contamination in T1 than in T0
The urban areas located in MGP, such as Varanasi, surface. In this part, 32 % (n = 34) samples from T0

123
Environ Geochem Health

and 45 % (n = 249) samples from T1 surface Aquifer systems and the availability of As safe
exceeded the 50 lg L-1. alternate aquifer
Scanty researches are available on As conc. vari-
ation in various Holocene geomorphic environs in The alternate sequences of sand and clay/sandy clay
MGP though several attempts made in Bengal Basin have created a multi-aquifer system within the thick
(Bhattacharya et al. 1997). In a research in Bhojpur Quaternary sediments in MGP (Saha et al. 2007; Saha
district in MGP, Sahu and Saha (2014a) indicated that et al. 2011a). In the As-contaminated tract along the
94 % of the samples (n = 85) from ridges on the point course of the Ganga, the basement is generally
bars exhibited conc. \50 lg L-1. The wells located encountered beyond 500 m below ground (Saha
on palaeo-levee were also less contaminated, where et al. 2010; Sahu et al. 2010), except in Bhagalpur
87 % of the samples (n = 71) remained \50 lg L-1. and Sahibganj districts, where the basement is
On the other hand, the wells located either on or near reported to be within 100 m bgl. The top 30–40 m of
the filled cut-off channels (generally with fine-grained the sequence is predominantly fine-grained, made up
material) were found to be significantly contaminated, of clay/sandy clay with thin (5–10 m) lenses of fine
with 51 % of them (n = 73) exceeding 50 lg L-1 and micaceous grey sand (Fig. 7) (Saha et al. 2010, 2011a;
30 % even beyond 100 lg L-1. The most critically Sahu 2013). A black clay facies, rich in organic matter,
contaminated habitations are located on earth-filled has been reported within the top sequence, deposited
palaeo-channels, which are raised by 2–3 m above the in a fluvio-lacustrine set-up such as meander channel
local flood level. A typical example of such villages is cut-offs, abandoned channels and backswamps doting
Semaria Ojha Patti, where 80 % of wells reported the NA area (Saha et al. 2009; Sahu 2013; Sahu and
conc. [50 lg L-1 (Sahu and Saha 2014a). Saha 2014a; Fig. 7). The top fine-grained deposits are

84° 00' 84° 15' 84° 30' 84° 45'

(a) (b)
MIDDLE GANGA PLAIN
0 50 100

kilometers
N
Ga
nd
Gh

ak
ag

R.

GANGA RIVER
hra

25° 25°
R.

a R.

45' 45'
and
si R.
Ko

Gang
M

a R.
R.
ga
Gan
Patna
R.
ne
So

3 4 a 12
6
5 10 13
a 8 a
9
2 7 a 11
1
Buxar
b b
Bhojpur (Ara)
VER

Channel braid bars- b- Older Alluvium (OA) Surface (T2)


RI

25° Islands/point bars Active Flood b 25°


Boundary between NA &
SONE

30' Plain (T0) Newer 30'


OA
Over bank Alluvium
deposits Active channels/cut-off
(NA)
lakes 0 5 10 15 km

a- Older Flood Plain (T1) Location of boreholes


Scale
84° 00' 84° 15' 84° 30' 84° 45'

(c) 7-Rampur 9-Basudeopur


3-Khaira 8-Bariswan 10-Basantpur
1-Nat 2-Dullahpur 4-Simri 5-Chunidanr 6-Sunderpur Mathia 11-Ratan
0m

20 m

40 m

60 m
bgl
Mud/clay with organic Very fine to fine gray colour Fine to coarse sand interbedded with gravel
matter Ganga sand with mica orgin, brownish yellow colour, mixed with ka

Fig. 7 Detailed lithology of the top 60 m of the succession incorporating the top aquitard and upper slice of the first aquifer

123
Environ Geochem Health

MIDDLE GANGA PLAIN (c) 0 20Kms


(a) 0 50

kilometers
100

Vidyapati

Ga
B Patori

nd
Gh

ak
ag

R.
Madudabad Nagar

h
ra
R.
Narepur

R.
da
B'

anan
iR
Kos

Mah
Ganga
R.
ga R.
A' B
Gan B'
A Patna

R.
ne
So

Upper aquifer
(b)
Neazipur Karnamepur A'
Basantpur Maner
Bariswan
A
Chura-
manpur
1st aquifer

2nd aquifer

aquifer
Lower
Mud/Clay Fine to medium sand
Very fine to fine Medium to coarse sand 0 10 20 km
sand with interlayers of gravels

Clay
Fine to medium sand
Medium to coarse sand with gravels

Fig. 8 a Map of MGP with location of geologic sections depicting the major aquifers in the As-contaminated areas of MGP, b in parts
of Buxar, Bhojpur and Patna districts, south of the Ganga, and c in Samastipur district, north of the Ganga

believed to be of Holocene age (Acharya 2004; Saha below, the bottom part of the first aquifer as well as the
et al. 2010). Shah (2008) has reported an age of second aquifer is made up of yellow to brownish
3 ± 1 ka to such sediments. yellow, medium to coarse sand and gravels of cratonic
The aquifer geometry and its characterisation up to origin. The two aquifers are separated by 8- to 24-m-
300 m bgl have been studied in two patches: (1) thick clay/mud zone, henceforth referred as middle
covering parts of Buxar, Bhojpur and Patna districts clay.
and (2) a southern stretch in Samastipur district (Saha A two-tier aquifer system has also been reported
et al. 2011a; Saha and Shukla 2013). In the former, a within 300 m bgl on the northern bank of the Ganga
two-tier aquifer system has been delineated below the (B–B0 as Fig. 8c) in Samastipur district. The top
top aquitard zone (16–45 m thick) (A–A0 , Fig. 8b). A aquitard is thicker (25–60 m) in comparison with the
third aquifer has been encountered at *270 m bgl southern bank areas. The upper aquifer is 85–110 m
onwards at a couple of drilling points, though its thick and predominantly coarse-grained, interrupted
geometry could not have been established because of locally by 8- to 22-m-thick clay lenses. The lower
insufficient data. The first aquifer extends up to a depth aquifer is thinner (20–25 m) in comparison with the
of 87–126 m bgl, while the lower one starts at depths southern bank, with thicker (60–75 m) middle clay.
varying between 116 and 139 m bgl and continues up The top aquitard zone and the vertically contagious
to *250 m below ground. The upper slice of the first 10- to 15-m-thick slice (at places) of the upper aquifer
aquifer (within 60 m bgl) including the top aquitard are of Himalayan origin. Similar to the southern bank
zone comprises fine to very fine sand of Himalayan areas, the bottom part of the upper aquifer is predom-
origin, interleaved with grey to dark grey clay. Further inantly of brownish yellow medium to coarse sand,

123
Environ Geochem Health

revealing its cratonic provenance. The lower aquifer is *350 m bgl, though aquifer wise information is
predominantly cratonic origin, medium to coarse- lacking. The first aquifer, hosting the As groundwater,
grained yellow/brownish yellow in colour, with occa- goes up to the depth of 90 m below ground. The
sional gravel beds. The third aquifer could not be second and third aquifer systems, exhibiting low As
traced within 300 m bgl. conc. (often within the range of BDL-10 lg L-1), are
Groundwater in the lower aquifer occurs under semi- located at the depth ranges of 100–160 m and
confined to confined condition as indicated by the 180–340 m below ground, respectively.
storativity values (2.5 9 10-3 to 6.9 9 10-4) as well as
the hydraulic conductivity of the middle clay
(0.047–0.0072 m day-1) (Saha et al. 2011a). Trans- Water level behaviour
missivity of the same aquifer ranged between 4130 and
6960 m2 day-1 in Bhojpur district (Saha et al. 2011a). Infiltration from monsoon rainfall is the main source of
In Samastipur district, the transmissivity value of 5340 recharge to the shallow groundwater regime compris-
m2 day-1 (Saha and Shukla 2013) revealed overall good ing top aquitard zone and the upper aquifer system.
potentiality of the lower aquifer. The argillaceous unit at About 65 % of total annual recharge of
the top of the succession acts as a semi-permeable 3.2 9 105 m3 km-2 is contributed from monsoon
barrier for the upper aquifer. The storage coefficient rainfall (Saha et al. 2010). In commensuration, the
value for upper aquifer (6.4 9 10-3) reported from water levels follow the seasons, the shallowest being in
Samastipur district by Saha and Shukla (2013) points August (mid-monsoon) and the deepest during May
towards unconfined to locally semi-confined condition (pre-monsoon). Spatio-temporal behaviour of water
of groundwater occurrence in the upper aquifer. levels has been studied at two places, namely the
The thin sand lenses (mostly fine-grained) within Bhojpur and Samastipur districts (Saha et al. 2010;
the top aquitard zone in MGP, which are widely Saha and Shukla 2013). The depth to water level varies
tapped by hand pumps and bore wells, are particularly from 3.0 to 7.0 m bgl, with mid- and pre-monsoon
found to be As contaminated. In aquifer-specific season fluctuation in 2.0–4.5 m range. The mean
investigation in Bhojpur district, the sand lenses groundwater extraction from the shallow aquifer is to
within the top aquitard as well as the top 15- to 20-m the tune of 1.0 9 105 m3 km-2 (Saha et al. 2010),
slice of the upper aquifer have been found to be except in urban areas, where the draft increases
contaminated. Though the bottom part of the first because of significant groundwater dependence (Saha
aquifer and the lower (second) aquifer are found with et al. 2014). The historical water level data
low As load, the former is considered as vulnerable for (1985–2007) of four wells located in the contaminated
its hydraulic connectivity with the upper contaminated areas of Bihar state exhibited stable or only marginal
zone. However, the second aquifer with negligible decline (\0.5 m year-1) of water levels (Saha et al.
hydraulic connectivity with the first aquifer (refer text 2009; Saha and Shukla 2013). The hydraulic gradient
above) has been identified as the alternate As safe in NA (1:1700–1:5750) indicated sluggish groundwa-
aquifer in the area with low As load in groundwater ter movement towards the Ganga (Saha et al. 2009;
(Table 2). An analysis campaign covering eight tube Saha and Shukla 2013). On the contrary, steeper
wells tapping the lower aquifer in Bhojpur district hydraulic gradient (1:900) has been observed in OA
revealed maximum conc. of 5 lg L-1, while five areas (Saha et al. 2010).
wells reported as BDL. In Samastipur district also, the
groundwater As conc. of the lower aquifer has also
been reported as BDL. Though the top slice of the Geochemical evolution of shallow groundwater
upper aquifer has been found to be contaminated, the and As mobilisation
lower part ([6 m m bgl) exhibited the conc. in safe
range of 8–12 lg L-1 (Saha and Shukla 2013). In As-contaminated groundwater in MGP is marked by
Bhagalpur district, similar conc. of 13 lg L-1 has low dissolved solids (generally \500 mg L-1) and
been reported by Kumar et al. (2011). mildly alkaline pH. The anionic chemistry is domi-
In parts of U.P. of MGP, a three-tier aquifer system nated by HCO3, whereas Ca dominates the cations.
has been reported (Government of India 2011) within Mukherjee et al. (2012) have reported a mean

123
Environ Geochem Health

concentration of HCO3 of 458 mg L-1 in NA of the consequent increase of Na and Mg in groundwater.


districts located in the eastern part of MGP. In Saha et al. (2010) have reported the presence of
Bhagalpur district in the eastern parts of MGP, Kumar caliche nodules in drill-cut samples from deeper layers
et al. (2010) have reported a mean conc. of ([*40 m depth) in MGP. In Bhojpur district, the Ca/
129 mg L-1 in post-monsoon and a lower value of Mg ratio of 1.26 indicated dissolution of calcite (Maya
105 mg L-1 during pre-monsoon. In Samastipur dis- and Loucks 1995). The area is located in the western
trict, a mean conc. of 276 mg L-1 (Saha and Shukla part of Sone megafan, formed by huge sediment input
2013) has been observed, while higher conc. was from the Vindhyans, which also contributes detrital
found in Varanasi area (mean: 404 mg L-1) (Raju lime stones. In Bhagalpur district, located beyond the
2012). The dominance of HCO3 in anions suggests reach of the Sone megafan, the HCO3 vs Ca ? Mg
carbon cycling in terms of carbon release from plots fall along the 1:2 trendline, also indicating calcite
primary and secondary sources in groundwater from weathering (Mukherjee et al. 2012). The provenance
NA (Mukherjee et al. 2012). Higher HCO3 conc. has of the sediments in this part lies in Chotanagpur
been reported from Bengal Basin in comparison with Granite Gneissic Complex (CGGC) and Rajmahal
MGP (Zheng et al. 2005; Sengupta et al. 2009). Trap, which are devoid of any carbonate deposits.
Considering other major parameters, the Cl/SO4 ratio Possible source of Ca in groundwater is weathering of
in MGP has been found to be lower in comparison with plagioclase to kaolinite.
the Bengal Basin (Mukherjee et al. 2012). High Cl/ Solid-phase As conc. in sediments in the contam-
SO4 ratio is reported to be associated with isolated inated areas of MGP is in the same range as in Bengal
confined brackish aquifers affected by sea water basin. Shah (2010) has reported As and iron conc. of
intrusion near the modern shoreline (Mukherjee and 8.7 and 6.13 mg kg-1 from NA sediments near
Fryar 2008). Varanasi. The OA sediments in the area show a lower
The cationic chemistry is marked by overall conc. of 5.65 and 3.75 mg kg-1, respectively. Near
dominance of Ca followed by Na, Mg and K (Kumar the Sone–Ganga confluence, the acid leachable As
et al. 2010; Mukherjee et al. 2012). Saha et al. (2010) conc. in NA sediment is 8 mg kg-1, while the total As
have reported an equal domination of Ca and Na in is 20 mg kg-1 (Shah 2008). A positive correlation
Bhojpur district. Sodium has been observed as the exists between Fe and As in groundwater in MGP,
dominating cation so far as the average conc. is with a correlation coefficient ranging from 0.72 in
considered (Saha and Shukla 2013; Raju 2012), due to parts of UP (Shah 2008), 0.93 in Bhagalpur district
few abnormal higher conc. (range 15–1000 mg L-1). (Kumar et al. 2010), 0.68 in Bhojpur district (Saha
If those samples (with higher Na conc.) are excluded, a et al. 2010), to 0.74 in Samastipur districts of Bihar
clear domination of Ca has been observed, followed by (Saha and Shukla 2013).
Mg and Na (Saha et al. 2010; Sahu 2013). The researchers established the mobilisation pro-
The average ratio of Ca ? Mg/Na ? K has been cess of As in groundwater in MGP as similar to that of
found to be [4 (Kumar et al. 2010), indicating the Bengal Basin. Some earlier researchers have sug-
contribution of cations as more from carbonates rather gested that As release in south-east Asia could have
than aluminosilicate weathering. The source of Ca and been by oxidation of As-enriched pyrite (Das et al.
Mg is dissolution of gypsum, plagioclase and other 1995). Such conditions are developed by over-extrac-
carbonate minerals, which are abundantly available in tion of groundwater resulting into lowering of water
the sediment (Bhattacharya et al. 1997). The Na and K levels over the years or high pre- and mid-monsoon
are derived from silicate weathering, preferably fluctuation. However, this theory lacks applicability in
orthoclase dissolution (Mukherjee et al. 2012; Sahu MGP, where the pyrite is either rarely available or
2013). Considering the hydrochemical facies, ground- absent in Holocene sediments (Shah 2008). Further-
water is predominantly Ca–HCO3 or Ca–Mg–HCO3 more, the water level in MGP is shallow, with low
types, while at places Ca–Na–HCO3 type have also fluctuation and no reported long-term decline of water
been observed (Saha et al. 2008, 2010). Dominance of levels. Majority of the researchers agreed upon the
Na and Mg in certain patches points towards cation mobilisation process as reductive dissolution of Fe/Mn
exchange, where Ca in groundwater is removed by OOH coatings over the sediment grains such as quartz,
formation of CaCO3 nodules (caliche), resulting in feldspar, muscovite and chlorite (Harvey et al. 2005;

123
Environ Geochem Health

Mukherjee et al. 2008) rich in adsorbed As. This organic carbon content in clay beds is reported to be as
reductive dissolution is mediated by microbial pro- high as 6.6 gm kg-1 (Sahu and Saha 2014a). The
cesses with organic carbon in groundwater (Islam et al. consumption of organic carbon by bacteria and the
2004; Sahu and Saha 2014a) and/or competitive anion metabolism at the expense of dissolved oxygen in
exchanges (van Geen et al. 2008). The redox-depen- groundwater promotes reductive dissolution of
dent mobilisation process has also been established by hydrated Fe/Mn oxide.
an inverse relation between As and Eh (Kumar et al. Kumar et al. (2010) have advocated a different
2010; Mukherjee et al. 2012). In As-contaminated mobilisation path, wherein the river water infiltrates
areas, Kumar et al. (2010) have reported the mean ratio through river bed sediments, carrying As to hydrauli-
of As III/Astotal as 0.67, whereas Mukherjee et al. cally interconnected shallow aquifers. Ravenscroft
(2012) have worked out a higher mean of 0.90, also et al. (2005) have reported high As content of river bed
indicating a reducing environment. The coexistence of sediments in GBM basin, with average conc. as
As III, Fe II, high Fe II/Fetotal ratio (0.53–0.96), NH3 2.03–3.49 mg kg-1. However, the water table config-
and elevated HS indicates an overall reducing, post- uration reveals that the entire stretch of the Ganga in
oxic condition (Mukherjee et al. 2012) in shallow As- MGP is effluent in nature (Saha et al. 2009; Saha and
contaminated groundwater. Positive co-relations have Shukla 2013), indicating that the Ganga is fed by
been observed in the incidence of As and Fe in groundwater. Local-scale As contribution from phos-
groundwater in MGP (Shah 2008; Saha et al. 2010; phatic fertilisers, generously used for agriculture in
Sahu 2013). Low NO3 in groundwater reported from MGP, is a possibility (Kumar et al. 2010). This is
the area by the researchers also supports this because it indicated by positive correlation between groundwater
is the thermodynamically favourable oxygen donor for As and PO-3 4 at places.
this process. The mean NO3 conc. in As-contaminated The Holocene sediments in MGP, where ground-
NA areas ranges from 0.4 mg L-1 at eastern part water has been found with elevated conc. of As, are
(Mukherjee et al. 2012) to 2.5 mg L-1 in Bhojpur mostly sourced from the Himalayas. The southern belt
(Saha et al. 2010) and 3.2 mg L-1 in Samastipur of Himalayas has generated huge sediment load owing
districts in the central parts of MGP (Saha and Shukla to the rising young mountain ranges and intense
2013). Kumar et al. (2010) and Raju (2012) have rainfall during the Holocene (Gasses et al. 1991).
reported higher NO3 conc. locally, which may be due to There is a possibility of erosion and transportation of
infiltration from fertilisers applied in the paddy fields. As-bearing minerals in suspension as well as in
The spread of the reducing environment depends solution from Himalayan source to the Gangetic
upon the organic carbon availability, hydraulic con- Plains. Besides, there are some potential sources of
ductivity of the formation, groundwater flow regime As in peninsular craton also such as (1) pyrite-bearing
and the volume of fresh oxic water recharge that shale in Proterozoic Vindhyans—e.g. Amjhore pyrite-
reaches the spreading anoxic front (Sahu and Saha containing 260 mg kg-1 of As, (2) As–Cu minerali-
2014a). Tritium conc. (4.65–10.13 TU) and 14C conc. sation in parts of Bundelkhand granite and (3) gold
(132–164 PMC) of groundwater from hand pumps belt of Sone valley in Chhattisgarh state with As
tapping the top aquitard as well as the upper slice of content of 2.8–10.0 gm kg-1 (Shah 2008).
the first aquifer indicated modern recharge, within
*50 years (Saha et al. 2011b). The d18O versus d2H
plot also pointed significant recharge from rainfall as Summary and conclusion
the groundwater is of similar composition with
present-day rainfall. A part of the recharge has been This paper reviewed the researches as well as inves-
contributed by seepage from surface water bodies and tigations carried out so far in MGP by various
from return seepage of groundwater applied for government departments and agencies. The initial
irrigation. The seepage water carries organic carbon reporting of contamination a decade back, from two
from recent sediments of surface water rich in litters sleepy villages Semaria Ojha Patti and Bariswan, on
and biomass. Besides, the percolating water also gets the bank of river Ganga in MGP has triggered a series
enriched in organic carbon as it flows through clay/ of investigations, which revealed widespread occur-
sandy clay bodies within the Holocene sequences. The rence of elevated conc. of As in groundwater which is

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Environ Geochem Health

Point bar

Levee palaeochannel fill


platform with
cross bar scroll bar
croos bar
channel over levee/proximal buried cross
N
channel ridge levee
point bar palaeochannel fill floodplain bar channel
60 m over point bars levee
amsl

50

40

30

Very fine to fine sand Active channel cut off lake with
Black clay/mud, organic rich
constituting the SAS organic rich black clay/mud
deposit at bottom
Anthropogenic fill (reworked
Mud cover Arsenic in hand pump (µg/L)
mud)
Sub-regional groundwater Settlements/villages - 342-987
flow direction - 50-342
Local scale groundwater Water table
- <50
flow

Fig. 9 A schematic section (south to north in Bhojpur district, of As in hand pumps (within *30 m bgl) and their distribution
Bihar) showing generalised topography, floodplain morphology in different floodplain geomorphic environments (refer text for
and shallow alluvial stratigraphy. It depicts the concentrations details) (modified after Sahu and Saha 2014a)

a critical resource for drinking and irrigation uses of observed in MGP. The contaminated area in Bihar in
the area. The study area covered eastern UP, Bihar and MGP is marked by a two-tier aquifer system within
north-eastern tip of Jharkhand state, representing one 300 m bgl, overlain by an aquitard at the top. The
of the densely populated parts of the world. A entire thickness of Holocene deposits in NA hosting
comprehensive understanding on the spatio-temporal the contaminated aquifers comprises the top aquitard
variation of As, its source and mobilisation paths, and the upper slice (15–20 m) of the first aquifer,
aquifer configuration and potentiality as discussed in which are predominantly Himalayan derived. The first
the paper is essential in order to formulate a manage- aquifer and the top aquitard are hydraulically con-
ment plan to combat the threat. nected and representing shallow water levels (\8 m
As contamination is confined in the NA affecting bgl) with no significant decline over the last two
both the AFP and OFP. It affects the top *50 m of the decades. This unit gets ample recharge from monsoon
sedimentary sequence in MGP, which in contrary rainfall, which is also reflected in the isotopic signa-
extends up to 80 m bgl and even more in patches in ture of groundwater.
Bengal basin. The sediments were deposited in fluvio- Oxidation of pyrite as a source of groundwater As is
lacustrine environment unlike to the fluvio-deltaic negated in MGP since the presence of the mineral is
environment in Bengal Basin. Though the incidence of hardly reported by the researchers. The solid-phase As
As contamination has been detected in a larger scale is mainly reported as adsorbed in Fe/Mn hydroxide
along the axial Ganga River, contaminations up to quoting on sediment grains. The spatial variability of
various degrees have also been reported from other As in MGP has been linked with floodplain stratigra-
Himalayan northern tributaries/sub-tributaries of phy and Holocene geomorphology (Fig. 9). The NA in
Ganga such as the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Bagh- the floodplains is dotted with meander scars and
mati, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The groundwater backswamps including the sub-environments such as
in the affected areas is predominantly characterised by channel cut-offs, abandoned channels, scroll bar
Ca–HCO3 facies, revealing a similar hydrogeochem- ridges, levees and point bar platforms. The back-
ical evolution as in the Bengal Basin. swamps and other depressions in the floodplain form
Similar to the Bengal Basin, wide spatial variation numerous seasonal/perennial water bodies which
in the distribution of groundwater As has been create suitable fluvio-lacustrine set-up favouring

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Environ Geochem Health

PART OF FLOODPLAIN
THE GANGA RIVER Ganga River
(MIDDLE GANGA PLAIN)

Boundary between
Active and Older
Flood Plain

Boundary between
Newer and Older
Alluvium
Minor tributaries of Ganga River
flowing through its flood plain
Abandoned/ palaeochannel cut offs
of the Ganga River 0 2.5 5 km
Abandoned cross bar channels
Older Alluvium
Detected As hotspots Kilometers

Fig. 10 Part of the floodplain of Ganga in Bhojpur and Buxar of meander scars with abandoned channels in the floodplain. It
districts of Bihar in MGP (modified after Sahu and Saha 2014a). also indicates the As hotspots in the area and their location (refer
It shows the northward migration of the Ganga through text for details)
meandering and chute cut-off process, leaving behind number

deposits rich in biomass. A reducing environment is content in argillaceous sedimentary bodies (clay/mud
created within the Holocene deposits, facilitated by facies) within the Newer Alluvium and their release to
the presence of organic clay and sluggish groundwater groundwater. The prominent ridges on point bars,
flow regime which activates reductive dissolution of levees and point bar platforms, predominated by sand
hydrated iron oxide coatings on sediment grains, facies, are by-and-large low in As (Fig. 9).
thereby releasing As (present in adsorbed state in the The Pleistocene aquifers in the OA area of MGP
coating) from solid phase to groundwater. The reduc- are free from groundwater As contamination. The
tive dissolution of the hydroxide in As-affected areas lower (2nd) aquifer system (beyond 100 m depth
of MGP, advocated by many researchers in MGP, is below ground), separated by middle clay from the
evident by high concentration of dissolved iron also in upper one, is found to be low in groundwater As. The
groundwater. The spread of the reducing front in the isotopic signature of groundwater from the 2nd
aquifer is controlled by the local rate of groundwater aquifer and its storage coefficient values reveal its
development, hydrogeology and oxic recharge from hydraulic separation from the upper aquifer. The
surface. The hotspots of As contamination have been aquifer system has got its recharge areas located at
found in settlements located on anthropogenic fills further south in the basin in the exposed Pleistocene
over the clay/mud plugged palaeo-channels and the sediments. The transmissivity value of the aquifer
villages settled close to the active channel cut-off system indicates that it can be used for community
lakes (Fig. 10). The thickness of the dark grey to black water supply with a regulated draft, so that its
coloured clay/mud cover overlying the shallow hydraulic head remains above the head of the first
aquifer and the availability of organic carbon have aquifer. The water supply wells should adopt proper
been stated to be the controlling factors for release of design such as cement sealing against the middle clay
As in MGP. The spatial variability of groundwater As to prohibit downward leakage of As-contaminated
has been linked with the variability of organic matter groundwater from the first aquifer.

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Environ Geochem Health

Acknowledgments The authors express thanks to all CGWB. (2013). Groundwater exploration report of Bihar.
researchers whose works have been incorporated in this paper. Unpub. Rep., Central Ground Water Board, MER, Patna.
They also sincerely thank the Chairman and Member (SAM) of Govt. of India.
CGWB for their constant encouragement to complete the review CGWB. (2007a). Dynamic groundwater resource of Bihar State
article. as on 31st March 2004. Patna: Central Ground Water
Board, MER, Government of India.
CGWB. (2007a). Deep groundwater exploration and hydroge-
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