Aircraft Performance PDF

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
What do we mean by performance?

We will talk
about static
and dynamic
performance.
We will answer questions such as:
How fast?
How high?
How far?
How long can an aircraft fly?

Coverage Airplane Performance Drag Polar
Equations of Motions
Static Performance Dynamic Performance

(zero acceleration) (finite acceleration)
Thrust Required Maximum
Thrust Available Velocity Takeoff
Power Required Landing

Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Rate of Climb Gliding Flight V-n Diagram
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance

A Prerequisite
Performance analysis
hinges on knowledge of
the airplane drag polar.

What is a drag polar?
It is a term coined by Eiffel.
The same monsieur of Eiffel tower fame.
The same guy who designed Quiapo bridge

(a.k.a. Quezon bridge)

Quezon bridge: FEATI’s vantage point

Gustav’s Tower

What is a
drag polar?
It is a graph or an
equation that accounts
for all types of drag in
an airplane and how it
relates to lift.
Not including this type of drag.

What types of drag are included then?
Let’s have a bulleted list.

What are the different types of drag?
 Skin friction drag
 Pressure drag
 Profile drag
 Interference drag
 Parasite drag Isang bala ka lang!!!
 Induced drag
 Zero-lift drag
 Drag due to lift
 Wave drag
Drag Types
Skin-friction drag. Drag due to frictional

shear stress integrated over the surface.

Drag Types
Pressure drag due to flow separation

(form drag): The drag due to the pressure
imbalance in the drag direction caused by
separated flow.

Drag Types
Profile drag. The sum of skin friction

drag and form drag. (The term profile
drag is usually used in conjunction with
two-dimensional airfoils; it is sometimes
called section drag.)

Drag Types
Interference drag. An additional

pressure drag caused by the mutual
interaction of the flow fields around
each component of the airplane. The
total drag of the combined body is
usually greater than that of the sum of
its individual parts; the difference is the
interference drag.
Drag Types
Parasite drag. The term used for the

profile drag for a complete airplane. It is
that portion of the total drag
associated with skin friction and
pressure drag due to flow separation,
integrated over the complete airplane
surface. It includes interference drag.

Drag Types
Induced drag. A pressure drag due to

the pressure imbalance in the drag
direction caused by the induced flow
(downwash) associated with the
vortices created at the tips of finite
wings.

Drag Types
Zero-lift drag. (Usually used in

conjunction with a complete airplane
configuration.) The parasite drag that
exists when the airplane is at its
zero-lift angle of attack, that is,
when the lift of the airplane is zero.

Drag Types
Drag due to lift. (Usually used in
conjunction with a complete airplane.) That
portion of the total airplane drag measured
above the zero-lift drag. It consists of the
change in parasite drag when the airplane is
at an angle of attack different from the
zero-lift angle, plus the induced drag from
the wings and other lifting components of
the airplane.
Drag Types
Wave drag. The pressure drag

associated with transonic and
supersonic flow (or shock waves,
hence the name). It can be expressed
as the sum the zero-lift wave drag
and wave drag due to lift.

Total Drag!

Total Drag
for an infinite wing or airfoil:
Total Drag
Skin Friction Drag Pressure Drag
Form Drag (Drag due to flow separation) Induced Drag Wave Drag
Note : Profile Drag = Skin Friction Drag + Form Drag
total drag  profile drag  induced drag

Drag Polar
for an infinite wing or airfoil:
2
C
C D  Cd  L
πeAR
profile drag
for a complete airplane:

2
C
CD  CD,0  L
eAR zero-lift drag
Drag Polar
2
C
C D  C D ,e  L
eAR
parasite drag coefficient
-profile drag of wing induced drag coefficient
-friction and pressure drag of: lift span
tail surfaces efficiency
fuselage factor
engine nacelles
landing gear
other components exposed to the flow
-a function of angle of attack
Drag Polar C 2
C D  C D ,e  L
πeAR
C D ,e  C D , 0  rCL
2
1
C D  C D ,0  (r  2
)C L
eAR
2
CL
CD  CD,0 
πeAR
Drag polar of a complete airplane
2
C
CD  CD , 0   C D , 0  C D ,i L
eAR
induced drag
parasite drag coefficient
Oswald’s coefficient at
efficiency zero lift
factor

Drag polar of a complete airplane
2
C
CD  CD,0  L
eAR

Drag Polar

Drag Polar
Lockheed C-141A

Drag Polar
(C L  C Lmin drag ) 2
C D  C D ,min 
πeAR

Why is it called drag polar?

Equations of Motion

Equations of Motion

Equations of Motion
For level, unaccelerated flight,
If thrust line is aligned with flight path,

Equations of Motion
Level, unaccelerated flight
If thrust line is
aligned with
flight path,

Thrust Required
Required for what?!

Thrust Required
Thrust required for steady level

flight at given speed.

Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight
at a given velocity
NOTE:
TR  D Thrust Required
is a function of
velocity.
It has two
components.
It has a minimum.

TR  D
2
1 1 1 CL
TR  D   V SC D   V S ( C Do  C Di )   V S ( C Do 
2 2 2
)
2 2 2 eAR
2
 L 
 
 (1 / 2)  V S 
2
1
TR   V S ( C Do 
2     )
2 eAR
2
1 W 1
TR   V SC Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
2
1 W 1
TR   V SC Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
zero-lift lift-induced
thrust required thrust required

2
1 W 1
TR   V SC Do  ( )  f (V )
2
)(
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
Applying a first and a second derivative test to
this function will confirm the existence of a
minimum. This minimum will exist at velocity,
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S 

1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S 

Thrust Required: Alternative Approach
TR  D
W
Since L  W TR 
TR C D
 CL / CD
W CL
Since we have already established the existence of

a minimum thrust required, this equation implies the
existence of a maximum lift-to-drag ratio.

Indeed there is a
maximum L/D ratio
exhibited by every
aircraft.
You will see how

this ratio is an
indicator of
performance
(aerodynamic
efficiency) of an
aircraft.
W W
TR  
CL / CD L / D

1
L  W   V2 SCL  q SCL
2
 CL2 
D  q SCD  q S  CD ,0  
Different  eAR 
points on TR At b:
Small q∞ At a:
curve Large q∞
Large CL (or CL2) and a to support W
correspond D large Small CL and a
D large
to different
angles of
attack.

Thrust Required Computation
TR is thrust required to 1. Select a flight speed, V∞ and calculate CL.
fly at a given velocity W
in level, unaccelerated CL 
1
 V2 S
flight 2
2. Calculate CD.
CL2
CD  CD , 0 
eAR
3. Calculate CL/CD and calculate TR.
W
TR 
 CL 
 C 
 D

Example
CP-1: A light, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately
modelled after the Cessna Skylane, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine, 230 hp (SL)
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor, e = 0.8
Propeller efficiency = 0.8

Example
Cessna Skylane

Example
At V=200 ft/s = 136.4 mi/h
W 2950
1 CL    0.357
1 1
 V2 S (0.002377)(200) 2 (174)
2 2
b 2 (35.8) 2
AR    7.37
S 174
C L2 (0.357) 2
2 CD  CD,0   0.025   0.0319
eAR  (0.8)(7.37)
L CL 0.357
   11.2
D C D 0.0319
W 2950
3 TR    263 lb
L / D 11.2
Example
At other velocities…
1 2 3

Example
CJ-1: A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modelled after the
Cessna Citation 3, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 53.3 ft
Wing area = 318 ft2
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb
Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Power plant: two turbofan engines of 3650-lb thrust each at sea level
Specific fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.81
Example
Cessna Citation III

Example
At V=500 ft/s = 341 mi/h
W 19815
1 CL    0.210
1 1
 V2 S (0.002377)(500) 2 (318)
2 2
b 2 (53.3) 2
AR    8.93
S 318
C L2 (0.21) 2
2 CD  CD,0   0.02   0.022
eAR  (0.81)(8.93)
L CL 0.21
   9.55
D C D 0.022
W 19815
3 TR    2075 lb
L / D 9.55
Example
At other velocities…
1 2 3

How do we compute for (L/D)max?
At TRmin we found (by differentiating TR  2
1/ 2
1 W
with respect to V and equating to VTR ,min  
zero),    C Do eAR S 
From this formula for V at TRmin, the 2
following relationship (which has already C
been revealed in the graph) can be CD,0   C D ,i
L
derived: eAR
Thus, C L / C D  C D , 0eAR / 2C D , 0  eAR / 4C D , 0
and this is a maximum
because an (L/D)max is simultaneous with a TRmin.

How do we compute for (L/D)max?
At TRmin
C L2
CD,0   C D ,i
eAR
Thus,
 CL   eAR / 4C
 C 
 D  max
D,0

How do we compute for TRmin?
You can substitute

 2
1/ 2
Or you can substitute
1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S  (C L / C D ) max  eAR / 4C D , 0
to to
1 W 2
1 W
TR   V SC Do  (
2
)( ) TR 
1  V S eAR
2  CL 
2  C 
2  D

Effects of compressibility on TR

Effects of altitude on TR
2
1 W 1
TR  V SC Do  (
2
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
1/ 2
2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
  Lower C Do eAR S 
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
  Higher C Do eAR S 
W
TR ,min 
 CL 
 C 
 D  max
Note that the minimum thrust required is independent of altitude.

Thrust Available
Propeller-Piston Engine
Jet Engine

Maximum Velocity: Graphical
The intersection
of the TA and TR
curve gives Vmax at
a certain altitude.

Example
Calculate the maximum velocity for the sample jet plane.
Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defines maximum
flight speed of airplane.
Vmax = 975 ft/s

= 665 mi/h

Example
Some remarks. Computation of TR
curve assumed constant CD,o
At this speed, drag

divergence effects are
significant, and adds to
the CD,o

Maximum Velocity: Analytical
 CL 
2
D  T  q SC D  q S  C D , 0   Steady, level flight: T = D
 eAR 
W
CL  Steady, level flight: L = W
q S
 W 2
 W 2
Substitute into

T  q S  C D , 0  2 2 
  q SCD , 0 
 q S eAR  q SeAR drag equation
2 Turn this equation into a quadratic
W
q SCD , 0  qT 
2
 0 equation (by multiplying by q∞)
SeAR and rearranging.
Maximum Velocity: Analytical
Solving the quadratic equation and setting thrust,
T, to maximum available thrust, TA,max results in,
1
 T   W     A
W T
2
4C  2
 A       
D,0

  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD,0
 
 
 

Maximum Velocity: Design Considerations
1
 T   W   W   TA 
2
4CD ,0 
2
 A        
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD ,0
 
 
 
• TA,max does not appear alone, but only in ratio: (TA/W)max

• S does not appear alone, but only in ratio: (W/S)
• Vmax does not depend on thrust alone or weight alone, but
rather on ratios
• (TA/W)max: maximum thrust-to-weight ratio
• W/S: wing loading
Maximum Velocity: Design Considerations
1
 T   W   W   TA 
2
4CD ,0 
2
 A        
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD ,0
 
 
 
• Vmax also depends on density (altitude), CD,0, eAR

• Increase Vmax by
• Increase maximum thrust-to-weight ratio, (TA/W)max
• Increasing wing loading, (W/S)
• Decreasing zero-lift drag coefficient, CD,0

1
 T   W   W   T  
Example 2
  A        A   D,0
4C

2
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

Vmax  
Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.  CD,0
 
 
 
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2 W 2950
  16.95 lb/ft 2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb S 174
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline 4C D , 0 4(0.025)
Power plant: one-piston engine, 230 hp (SL) 
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h) eAR  (0.8)[(35.8) / 174]
2
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025  5.4066 x 10-3

 C D ,0  0.002377(0.025)
 5.9425 x 10 5 slug/ft 3
1
 T   W   W   T  
Example 2
  A        A   D,0
4C

2
 TA    W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.   ? Vmax 
 CD,0 
 W  max 



 
TAV  PA  P  0.8(230)(550)  1.012 x 105 (ft  lb)/s
For max TA and PA, V∞ = Vmax
P
TA max 
Vmax
 TA  P 1 34.305
   
 W  max W Vmax Vmax

Example
Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.
1/ 2
 2 
 34.305   34.305 
Vmax  558.97       5.4066 x 10 3 
 Vmax  max  Vmax  max 
 
Solve this by trial and error.

Why is there a need for a new parameter?
Jets Engines are usually rated in Thrust

Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg m/s2)
For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust
Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
Energy / Time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m2/s2
Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s) = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W)

Power Required
PR vs. V∞ curve qualitatively
resembles TR vs. V∞ curve.
PR = TRV∞

Power Required
NOTE:
Power Required is
a function of
velocity.
It has two
components.
It has a minimum.

Power Required
PR  TRV
2
1 W 1
TR   V SC Do  (
2
)( ) V
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
2
1 W 1
PR  V SC Do  (
3
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
zero-lift power required lift-induced power required
zero-lift PR ~ V3 lift-induced PR ~ 1/V

Power Required, Minimum
2
1 W 1
PR  V SC Do  ( )  f (V )
3
)(
2 1 V S eAR
2
Get f’(V∞).
Equate to zero.
Solve for V∞ in f’(V∞)=0 to get VPR,min.
Substitute V∞ in f(V∞) to get PR,min.
The results are…

Power Required, Minimum
The results are…
At PRmin ,
3C D , 0  C Di
and
1
 2 1 W 
2
V , PR ,min 
  3C D , 0eAR S 


Power Required
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S  1
1 4
VPR ,min    VTR ,min
3C D , 0  C Di  3
1
 2 1 W 
2
V , PR ,min 
  3C D , 0eAR S 


Power Required: Alternative Approach
W
PR  TRV  V
CL W 2W
CD PR  TRV 
CL   SCL
CD
1
L  W   V SCL
2
2
3 2
2W C D 1
2W PR  a
V    SCL 3
CL
3/ 2
  SCL CD

Power Required: Alternative Approach
3 2
2W C D
PR 
  SCL 3
2W 3 1
PR ,min 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
  max

Example
Calculate the power required curve for (a) the CP-1 at sea level and
(b) the CJ-1 at an altitude of 22,000 ft.
PR  TRV

Example

Example
At an altitude of 22,000 ft    0.001184 slug/ft
3
Thrust required is re-computed using this density.
PR  TRV

Example

How do we compute for (CL3/2/CD)max?
2
CL
3C D , 0  C Di 
eAR
C L  3C D , 0eAR
 
3
C 2  1  3eAR 
3

3 4
 L   3C eAR 4
D , 0

 CD  4 C 
4 CD,0 3 1 
  max D,0
 

How do we compute for (CL3/2/CD)max?
At PRmin
3C D , 0  C Di
Thus,
3
C 2
3
  3eAR  4
 L    1 
 CD  4  C 13 
  max  D,0 

(CL/CD)max VS (CL3/2/CD)max

Locating (L/D)max in the PR curve

How do we compute for PR,min?
You can substitute
1 Or you can substitute
 2 1 W  2 3
  C 2   3eAR 
3 4
V , PR ,min
  3C D , 0eAR S   L    1 
   CD  4  C 13 
  max  D,0 
to 2 to
1 W 1
PR  V SC Do  (
3
)( )
2 1 V S eAR 2W 3 1
2 PR 
ρ S  C 3 2 
 L 
 CD 
 

Effects of altitude on PR
1
 0  2
V ALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR , 0  
  
1
 2 1 W  2
V , PR ,min  
  3C D , 0eAR S 
 
2W 3 1
PR 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
 

Effects of altitude on PR  0 
1
2
V ALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR , 0  
  

Effects of altitude on PR  0 
1
2
V ALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR , 0  
  

SUMMARY
thrust required
1 W2 1
TR   V SC Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2 power required
W 1 W 2
1
TR  PR  V SC Do  (
3
)( )
CL / CD 2 1 V S eAR
2
2W 3 1
PR 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
 

SUMMARY
At minimum thrust required At minimum power required
C D , 0  C D ,i 3C D , 0  C Di
  3C D , 0eAR 
3
 CL   eAR / 4C C 2  1  3eAR 
3 3 4
4
 C   L 
 D  max  CD  4  C D , 0 13 
D,0
  max 4C D , 0
 
1/ 2
 2 W  2
1
W 
2
1 1
VTR ,min   V , PR ,min 
   C Do eAR S   
 3C D , 0eAR S 

Power Available

Power Available

Power Available VS Thrust Available



Effects of Altitude on Maximum Velocity

Effects of Altitude on Maximum Velocity

Minimum Velocity
It is true, Chuck Norris’ legendary kick can also cause a stall,
but…

Minimum Velocity
Sometimes minimum or stall velocity
is dictated by powerplant considerations.

Rate of Climb
T  D  W sin 
L  W cos

Rate of Climb
TV  DV  WV sin 
TV  DV
 V sin 
W
R / C  V sin 
TV  DV
R/C 
W

Rate of Climb
TV  DV
R/C 
W
Power Available ~ Power Required

(for small Ѳ)
excess power  TV  DV

excess power
R/C 
W
Rate of Climb
maximum excess power
( R / C ) max 
W

Rate of Climb VS Altitude

Example
Calculate the rate of climb vs velocity at sea level for (a) the CP-1 and
(b) the CJ-1.
At V = 150 ft/s PR = 32,600 ft-lb/s and PA = 10,120 ft-lb/s. Hence,
excess power PA  PR 10120 - 32600
(R / C)     23.3 ft/s  1398 ft/min
W 2950 2950

Example max

Example
At V = 500 ft/s PR = 1884 hp and PA = 6636 hp. Hence,
excess power PA  PR 6636 - 1884

(R / C)    550  132 ft/s  7914 ft/min
W 19815 19815

Example
max

R/Cmax: Analytical
For a piston-propeller aircraft:
 W / S Z   T 3 / 2  Z
1/ 2

R / C max     1  
3

 3  C D , 0   W  max  6 2T / W max L / D max Z 
2 2
For a jet aircraft:

 P 
R / C max    0.8776
W /S 1
 W  max  C D ,0 L / D 3max
/2
Where:
3
Z  1 1
L / D 2max T / W 2max
What is a Ceiling?

Absolute Ceiling
R/C  0

Service Ceiling
( R / C ) max  100 ft / min

Example
Calculate the absolute and service ceilings for (a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
maximum excess power
( R / C ) max 
W

Example
Calculate the absolute and service ceilings for (a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
(a) the CP-1 (b) the CJ-1
service ceilings = 25,000 ft service ceilings = 48,000 ft

absolute ceilings = 27,000 ft absolute ceilings = 49,000 ft

Time to Climb
dh dh
R/C  dt 
dt R/C
h2
t   dt
h1
h2
dh
t
h1
R/C

Time to Climb: Graphical
h2
dh
t
h1
R/C

Time to Climb
H0
H
dh y  mx  b
t
( R / C ) max H0
0 H  ( R / C ) max  H 0
( R / C ) max,0
( R / C ) max,0
H  (H 0  H )
Altitude, H
H0 dh ( R / C ) max
t
( R / C ) max,0 0 H 0  H H0
H0  H0 
t ln 
( R / C ) max,0  H 0  H 
Maximum Rate of Climb, (R/C)max

( R / C ) max,0

Gliding Flight
T 0
D  W sin 
L  W cos
sin  D

cos L
1
tan  
L
D

Gliding Flight
1
tan  
L
D
1
  tan 1
L
D
1
 min  tan 1
L
 
 D  max

Gliding Flight 1
  tan 1
L
D
h L
R h
tan  D
h L
Rmax   h( ) max
tan  D

Gliding Flight
To maximize range, glide at smallest  (at (L/D)max )

A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So  = tan-1(1/60) ~ 1°

Example
Calculate the minimum glide angle and the maximum range measured
along the ground covered by the CP-1 and the CJ-1 in a power-off glide
that starts at an altitude of 10,000 ft.
10,000 ft

Example
CP-1: A light, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately
modelled after the Cessna Skylane, having the following characteristics:
Aspect Ratio = 7.37

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0

  (0.8)(7.37) / 4(0.025)  13.61

Example
along the ground covered by the CP-1 in a power-off glide that starts at an
altitude of 10,000 ft.
1 1
 min  tan1
 tan 1
 4.2
 L D max 13.61
10,000 ft L
Rmax  h( ) max  10000(13.61)
D
 136,000 ft

Example
CJ-1: A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modelled after the
Cessna Citation 3, having the following characteristics:
Aspect Ratio = 8.93

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0

  (0.81)(8.93) / 4(0.02)  16.9

Example
along the ground covered by the CJ-1 in a power-off glide that starts at an
altitude of 10,000 ft.
1 1 1
 min  tan1
 tan  3.39
 L D max 16.9
10,000 ft L
Rmax  h( ) max  10000(136.9)
D
 169,000 ft

Example
For the CP-1, calculate the equilibrium glide velocities at altitudes of
10,000 ft and 2,000 ft, each corresponding to the minimum glide angle.
1 At (L/D)max
L  W cos    V SC L
2
2 C L2
CD,0   C D ,i
eAR
2 cos  W C L  C D , 0eAR
V 
 CL S
C L  (0.025) (0.8)(7.37)
CL corresponding to (L/D)max C L  0.634

Example
For the CP-1, calculate the equilibrium glide velocities at altitudes of
10,000 ft and 2,000 ft, each corresponding to the minimum glide angle.
W 2950 (2 cos 4.2)(16.95)

  16.95 lb/ft 2 V 
S 174 0.0017556(0.634)
V  174.3 ft/s at h  10,000 ft
 min  4.2
(2 cos 4.2)(16.95)
V 
2 cos  W 0.0022409(0.634)
V 
 CL S V  154.3 ft/s at h  2,000 ft

Weight Equation
W  W1  W f
dW dW f

dt dt
W  W f
W – Weight of the airplane at any instant during flight.

W0 – Gross weight of the airplane, including everything: full fuel
load, payload, crew, structures, etc.
Wf – Weight of fuel: this is an instantaneous value, and it
changes as fuel is consumed during flight.
W1 –Weight of the airplane when the fuel tanks are empty.
SFC VS TSFC
lb of fuel lb of fuel
SFC  TSFC 
BHPhour  lb of thrust hour 
dW f dW f
W f dt W f dt
c  ct   
P P T T
V
ct  c
 pr

Range: Piston-Propeller
To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile.
SFC  
HP hour  (HP) mile V

lb of fuel SFCHP 
  ( SFC)TR
mile V
To cover longest distance fly at minimum thrust required.

W  W f
ds
V   ds  V dt
dt  dW 
ds  V   
dW f  ctT 
ct   dt  dt   dW f
T ctT  dW W
ds  V   
 ctT W
 dW f 
ds  V   
 dW  L
 ctT  V L dW
ds  V     
 ct D  W ct D W

V L dW V L W0
ds   R ln
ct D W ct D W1
R W1  pr LW0 V
V L dW R ct  c
R   ds    ln
c D W1  pr
0
c D W
W0 t
Assumptions made: level,

R W1
V L dW unaccelerated flight with
R   ds   
ct D W constant TSFC and L/D.
0 W0
BREGUET RANGE EQUATION

Range: Piston-Propeller aerodynamics
 pr L
W0 structures
R ln and materials
propulsion c D W1
To maximize range:
Fly at largest propeller efficiency
Lowest possible SFC
Highest ratio of W0 to W1 (fly with the largest fuel weight)
Fly at maximum L/D (minimum TR)

Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CP-1.
 pr  L 
W0
Rmax    ln
c  D  max W1
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)

Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CP-1.
lb 1 hp 1h 7
c  0.45  2.27 x 10 ft -1
(hp)(h) 550 ft - lb/s 3600 s

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0  13.61
Since aviation gasoline weighs 5.64 lb/gal, W f  65(5.64)  367 lb
W1  2950  367  2583 lb
 pr  L  W0 0.8  2950 
Rmax    ln  7
(13.62) ln   6.38 x 10 6
ft  1207 mi
c  D  max W1 2.27 x 10  2583 

Range: Jet Aircraft
To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile.
TSFC  
lb of thrust hour  lb of thrust  milesV

lb of fuel (TSFC )TA


mile V
TR 1 2W 1
  S CD  1
V 2   SCL CL 2
CD
To cover longest distance fly at maximum L1/2/D.

Range: Jet Aircraft
W1 12
V L dW 2 2 CL
R   R (W0  W1 )
12 12
c D W
W0 t ct  S CD
Assumptions made: level,

V  2W   SC L unaccelerated flight with
constant TSFC and L1/2/D.
W1 12
2 C L C D dW
R  
W0
 S ct W1 2

Range: Jet Aircraft
12
2 2 CL
R (W0  W1 )
12 12
ct  S CD
To maximize range:
Fly at minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L1/2/D
Fly at high altitudes (low density)

How is (CL1/2/CD)max computed?
1/ 2 1/ 2
CL CL
  f (C L ) Where K  1 / πeAR
C D , 0  KC L
2
CD
f ' (C ) 
C D,0  KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
 1 / 2
 C L (2 KC L )
1/ 2
0
L
C D,0  KC L
2 2

C D,0  KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
 1 / 2
 C L (2 KC L )  0
1/ 2
C D , 0  3KC L  3C D ,i
2

How is (CL1/2/CD)max computed?
C D , 0  3KC L  C L  C D , 0 3K
2
C D , 0  3C D ,i  C D ,i  (1 / 3)C D , 0
C D  C D , 0  (1 / 3)C D , 0  (4 / 3)C D , 0
 CL

1/ 2

 
 C D , 0 3K 
1/ 2
 27
 
1
1/ 4


 C  3 
 D  max (4 / 3)C D , 0  256 K (C D,0 ) 

Summary
CL C D max  1 /(4 KC D , 0 ) C D , 0  C D ,i
1/ 4
 CL 1/ 2
  27 1 
    C D , 0  3C D ,i
 C   256 K (C ) 3 
 D  max  D,0 
3
C 2  1  
3 4
 L  
3 
 CD  4  KC D , 0 13  3C D , 0  C D ,i
  max  
Where K  1 / πeAR
Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CJ-1.

2 CL 
12
2
Rmax    (W01 2  W11 2 )
ct   S  C D  max
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb

Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Specific fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)

Example
lb 1h  4 -1
ct  0.6  1.667 x 10 s
(lb)(h) 3600 s
1/ 4
 CL   27 
1/ 4
1/ 2
1  27  (0.81)(8.93) 
        23.4
 C   256 K (C ) 3  3
 D  max  D,0   256 (0.02) 
Since kerosene weighs 6.67 lb/gal, W f  1119(6.67)  7463 lb
W1  19815  7463  12352 lb

Example
2  CL 
12
2
Rmax    (W0  W1 )
12 12
ct   S  C D 
 max
2 2
Rmax  4
(23.4)(19815  12352 )
12 12
1.667 x 10 0.001184(318)
Rmax  19.2 x 10 ft  3630 miles

6

What do we mean by endurance?

Endurance: Piston-Propeller
To stay in the air for the longest time,
fly at minimum pounds of fuel per hour.
lb of fuel
SFC 
HP hour 
lb of fuel
a (SFC)(PR )
hour 
For maximum endurance, fly at minimum power required.


W0
dW 1 dW L dW
c  dt   E 
dt P cP W1
c DV W
 CL   SC L dW
W0
P  DV /  E cC
W1 D 2 W32
 dW
E W0 W0
dW
E   dt   
 CL
2   S 1 2 W11 2  W0 1 2 
32
0 W1
cP W1 c DV E
c CD
V  2W   SC L Assumptions made: level, unaccelerated flight
with constant SFC, η and L3/2/D.
 CL
W 
32
E 2   S 
12
1
1 2
 W0
1 2
c CD
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Largest propeller efficiency, η
Lowest possible SFC
Largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
Flight at sea level

Example
Estimate the maximum endurance for the CP-1.
  C L 

 
32
Emax    2   S  W1  W0
12 1 2 1 2
c  C D  max
3
C 2 3
  4
 L   1  3eAR   12.81
 CD  4  1 
  max C
 D,0 
3
1 2 1 
(12.81)2(0.002377)(174) 
0.8 1
E 7
 1/ 2 
 2583 2950 
1/ 2
2.7 x 10
E  5.19 x 10 4 s  14.4 h

Endurance: Jet Aircraft
To stay in the air for the longest time,
fly at minimum pounds of fuel per hour.
lb of fuel
TSFC 
lb of thrust hour 
lb of fuel
a (TSFC)(TA )a (TSFC)(TR )
hour 
For maximum endurance, fly at minimum thrust required.

dW 1 dW 1 C L W0
ct    dt   E ln
dt TA ctTA ct C D W1
E W1
dW Assumptions made:
E   dt    level, unaccelerated
0
cT
W0 t A
flight with constant
W1
TSFC and L/D.
1 L dW
E  
c D W
W0 t

1 C L W0
E ln
ct C D W1
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L/D

Example
Estimate the maximum endurance for the CJ-1.
1  CL  W0
Emax    ln
ct  C D  max W1
1 19815
Emax  4
(16.9) ln
1.667 x 10 12352
E  4.79 x 10 s  13.3 h
4

Graphical Summary

Well done, you have endured this long!

Coverage Airplane Performance


Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance

Dynamic Performance

Ground Roll (Liftoff Distance)
Preliminary (purely kinematic) considerations
dV F
F  ma  m ds  Vdt  tdt
dt m
s t
F F F t2
dV  dt s   ds'   t ' dt ' 
m 0 0
m m 2
V t 2
F F F  Vm  1 V 2 m
V   dV '   dt '  t s   
0 0
m m m  F  2 2F

Ground Roll (Liftoff Distance)
Forces in an aircraft during takeoff ground roll
Rolling resistance
mr = 0.02 relatively smooth paved surface
mr = 0.10 grass field
F  T  D  R  T  D  mr W  L  m
dV
dt
Coefficient of Rolling Friction

Ground Roll
Is the assumption
of a constant force
reasonable?
V 2m
s
2F
F  T  D  m r W  L 

Ground Roll
Is the assumption
of a constant force
reasonable?
1
L   V SC L
2
2
1  CL 
2
D   V S  C D0   
2
 
2  eAR 

16h b 2
1  16h b 
2

Ground Effect
Reduction of induced
drag by a factor Φ≤1.

16h b 
2
1  16h b 
2
1  C
2

D   V S  C D0   
2 L
 
2  eAR 

Ground Effect

Ground Roll
Is the assumption of a
constant force
reasonable?
T is approximately constant
(especially for a jet)
The difference between the
drag and friction combined
and the thrust is also
approximately constant
F  T  D  m r W  L   constant?

Ground Roll
Assume T is constant.
Assume an average value of
T-[D+μR(W-L)].
Shevell suggests computing
this average at V=0.7VLO.
Feff  T  [ D  m r W  L ]ave
2
VLO (W g )
sLO 
2 Feff

Ground Roll
2W
VLO  1.2Vstall  1.2
  SCL ,max
1.44W 2
sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave }
2
1.44W
sLO 
g  SC L ,maxT

Ground Roll
1.44W 2 1.44W 2
sLO  sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave } g  SC L ,maxT
Lift-off distance:
Is very sensitive to weight; varies as W2
Depends on ambient density
May be decreased by:
Increasing wing area, S
Increasing CL,max
Increasing thrust, T

Example
Estimate the liftoff distance for the CJ-1 at sea level. Assume a paved
runway; hence, μr = 0.02. Also, during the ground roll, the angle of attack
of the airplane is restricted by the requirement that the tail not drag the
ground; therefore, assume that CL,max during ground roll is limited to 1.0.
Also, when the airplane is on the ground, the wings are 6 ft above the
ground.

16h b 
2
 0.764
1  16h b 
2

Example
2W 2(19815)
VLO  1.2Vstall  1.2  1.2  230 ft/s
  SCL ,max 0.002377(318)(1.0)
0.7VLO  160.3 ft/s

1
L   V SCL  (1 / 2)(0.002377)(160.3) 2 (318)(1.0)  9712 lb
2
2
1  C
2

D   V S  C D0   
2 L
 
2  eAR 
1  1.0 2

 (0.002377)(160.3) (318) 0.02  0.764
2
  520.7 lb
2   (0.81)(8.93) 

Example
1.44W 2
sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave }
1.44(19815) 2
sLO 
32.2(0.002377)(318)(1.0){7300  [520.7  (0.02)(19815  9712)]}
sLO  3532 ft

Total Takeoff Distance
35 ft (jet-powered civilian transport)
50 ft (all other airplanes)
ground roll
Total takeoff distance as per FAR

Takeoff Segments

Balanced Field Length
A+B
Additional distance travelled such that
Distance up to V1 the distance required to clear an obstacle
equals
the distance required for a full stop

Distance to clear obstacle
Analysis is based on pull up maneuver
sa  R sin 
Where, 6.96(Vstall ) 2
R
g
h
  cos (1  )
1
R
h is the obstacle height.

Landing Roll
0 t
F
s ds 
m 0
t ' dt ' Can we assume a
constant landing
L
Ft 2 force just as we
sL   did in takeoff
m 2 performance?
2
V m
sL  
2F
Landing Roll
0 0
F  T  D  R  T  D  m r W  L   m
dV
dt
F  ( D  R)  [ D  m r W  L ]  m
dV
dt
Landing Roll
F  [ D  m r W  L ]  m
dV
dt
Assume a constant
effective force,
Feff  [ D  m r W  L ]ave
Compute this average

by evaluating the
quantity at 0.7VT ,
where VT is the
touchdown velocity.

Landing Roll
V m 2 1.69W 2
sL   sL  
2F g  SCL ,max [ D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT
2
VT (W / g )
sL  
2[ D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT μR = 0.4 for paved surface
2W
VT  1.3Vstall  1.3
  SCL ,max

Landing Roll
1.69W 2 0
sL  
g  SCL ,max [TR  D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT
with spoilers
with reverse thrust

Example
Estimate the landing ground roll distance at sea level for the CJ-1. No thrust
reversal is used; however, spoilers are employed such that L = 0. The spoilers
increase the zero-lift, drag coefficient by 10 percent. The fuel tanks are
essentially empty, so neglect the weight of any fuel carried by the airplane.
The maximum lift coefficient, with flaps fully employed at touchdown, is 2.5.
2W 2(12353)
VT  1.3Vstall  1.3  1.3  148.6 ft/s
  SCL ,max 0.002377(318)(2.5)
0.7VT  104 ft/s
C D , 0  0.02  0.1(0.02)  0.022

Example
CL  0  L  0
1 1
D   V SCD0  90.002377)(104) 2 (318)(0.022)  89.9 lb
2
2 2
1.69W 2
sL  
g  SCL ,max ( D  m RW ) 0.7VT
1.69(12353) 2
sL    842 ft
32.2(0.002377)(318)(2.5)[89.9  0.4(12352)]

Total Landing Distance

Approach Distance
L  W cos 
D  T  W sin 
D T 1 T
sin     
W W L D W
h f  R  R cos 

Vf
2
50  h f
R sa  
0.2 g tan 
from pull up maneuver analysis
Flare Distance
s f  R sin 

Level Turn
L cos   W Turn Radius
V2
R
Fr  L2  W 2 g n2 1
L Turn Rate
n Load Factor
W d V g n 2  1
  
dt R V
Fr  W n 2  1
V2
Fr  m
R

Constraints on n and V∞
At any given velocity the maximum possible load
factor for a sustained level turn is constrained by
the maximum thrust available.
1/ 2
1 
 V
2
 2    T  1 2 CD,0  
nmax      V 
 K (W / S )  W  max 2 W / S 
 
1
K
eAR

n is also constrained
by CLmax
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W /S 1
cos max 
nmax
1/ 2
1 
  V
2
 T  2 CD,0  
  1
nmax  2     V 
 K (W / S )  W  max 2 W / S 
 
LT 
nmax   
D  W  max

n is also constrained by regulation.
Example:
n  4.4 (utility category)
V∞ is constrained by stall.
2 W n
Vstall 
ρ S C L ,max

Minimum Turn Radius
Minimum R occurs at the right combination of n and V ∞.
4 K (W / S )
(V ) Rmin 
  (T / W )
V2
R
4 KC D , 0 g n2 1
nRmin  2
(T / W ) 2
4 K (W / S )
Rmin 
g  (T / W ) 1  4 KC D , 0 /(T / W ) 2

Maximum Turn Rate
Maximum ω occurs at the right combination of n and V∞.
1/ 4
 K 
1/ 2
 2(W / S ) 
(V )max    
 C 
    D,0  g n2 1
1/ 2 
 T /W  V
nmin   1
 KC D , 0 
 

 T / W  CD,0  
1/ 2
max  q     
W / S  2 K  K  

Pull-Up Maneuver V 2
m 
 L  W cos 
R
V2
m  L W
R
V2
R
g n  1
g n  1

V

Pull-Down Maneuver

Pull-Down Maneuver
V2
m  L W
R
V2
R
g n  1
g n  1

V

For large load factors
R for level turn, pull-up and pull down
V2
R
gn
ω for level turn, pull-up and pull down
gn

V

For large load factors
Minimum R for level turn, pull-up and pull down
2 W
Rmin 
  gCL ,max S
Maximum ω for level turn, pull-up and pull down
 C L ,max nmax
max  g
2(W / S )

1
V-n Diagram L
n  2
 V2 SCL
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W
S

Topics Discussed Airplane Performance


Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance

References
• John D. Anderson. Introduction to Flight
• John D. Anderson, Airplane Performance and Design

Thank you
for
listening!

Aircraft Performance PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aircraft Performance PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

What do we mean by performance?

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Static Performance Dynamic Performance

Power Required Landing

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

It is a term coined by Eiffel.

The same monsieur of Eiffel tower fame.

The same guy who designed Quiapo bridge

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Not including this type of drag.

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Let’s have a bulleted list.

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Skin-friction drag. Drag due to frictional

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Pressure drag due to flow separation

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Profile drag. The sum of skin friction

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Interference drag. An additional

Parasite drag. The term used for the

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Induced drag. A pressure drag due to

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Zero-lift drag. (Usually used in

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Wave drag. The pressure drag

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Skin Friction Drag Pressure Drag

Note : Profile Drag = Skin Friction Drag + Form Drag

total drag  profile drag  induced drag

for a complete airplane:

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

If thrust line is aligned with flight path,

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Required for what?!

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Thrust required for steady level

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Since we have already established the existence of

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

You will see how

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal