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PRAGMATICS 1 (4) It was nice of you to fill the car up. (to someone who has borrowed my
car for the weekend and returned it with no petrol in the tank.)
Outline: A. What is pragmatics about?
B. Theories of meaning Q: What do we need to know in order to understand what the speaker
C. Speech Act Theory - John Austin meant?

A. WHAT IS PRAGMATICS ABOUT?  meaning of the words (semantics)

 the structure of the sentence (syntax)
1. Introduction  who the speaker is
 the context in which the utterance is made
The same sentence might be used with different interpretations in a wide  the speaker's intentions when making that utterance
range of contexts
(a) = literal meaning - domain of semantics
Central question of pragmatics: What did the speaker mean by saying what (b) = additional meaning - domain of pragmatics
he said?
Pragmatics studies meaning that is:
(1) There's one piece of pizza left.
 non-literal
(a) statement  context dependent
(b) offer (Would you like it?)
(c) warning (It's mine!) 2. Definition
(d) scolding (You didn't finish your dinner!)
Pragmatics: *the discipline that studies the use of language in context
(2) Can you express deep grief?
*It is concerned with the meaning that linguistics expressions (words,
(a) Speaker = psychiatrist addressing a patient => (2) is sentences) have in various contexts when used by particular speakers.
.....................................
(b) Speaker = movie director speaking to an actor => (2) is Two perspectives upon pragmatics (Thomas 1995)
................................
a) The speaker's perspective
(3) Letter of recommendation for a prospective MA student applying
for an MA in Linguistics Pragmatics is the study of meaning as intended by a speaker (speaker
meaning).
“Dear Sir, Mr. X’s command of Romanian is excellent, and his attendance
at tutorials has been regular. Yours, Prof. Y” This involves the study of what people mean in a particular context (how
particular speakers choose what they say in accordance with who they are
talking to, where, when and under what circumstances)

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Since pragmatics deal with contextual meaning we have to ask ourselves

*(4) a. student addressing another student: what meaning is.
Bring me that book tomorrow, please!
B. THEORIES OF MEANING
b. student addressing a lecturer:
Could I borrow from you the book that you mentioned in class Key terms to remember: sense, referent, proposition, illocutionary
today? force, speaker meaning

Speaker meaning - studied especially by researchers who take a social view We are going to mention 3 families of theories about meaning
of the discipline; they focus on the producer of the message (i.e. the a. Direct reference theories of meaning
speaker) and the social constraints on the utterance. b. Mediated reference theories of meaning
c. Use theories of meaning
b) The hearer's perspective
6. Direct reference theories of meaning
Pragmatics also explore the process through which HEARERS make
inferences about the speaker's intended meaning (utterance interpretation) Words

*(5) A: Can you help me with my homework? *According to direct reference theories of meanings, the meaning of a word
B: I'm busy today. is the object it denotes.

Utterance interpretation - studied by those who take a cognitive approach; (6) Child: Doggie! [pointing to the family pet]
they focus on the receiver of the message and the inferences that the he
makes in order to get to the meaning intended by the speaker *The meaning of the word doggie is the animal the child referred to.

BUT Pragmatics shouldn't be either speaker-oriented or hearer-oriented WORD ---------------------------- OBJECT

Meaning is constructed in interaction between the S and H
There is direct correspondence between the word and the external object
3. Pragmatics and grammar and nothing mediates between the word and the thing referred to.

Grammar and pragmatics are distinct, but complementary domains.
Grammar = syntax + semantics
Syntax and semantics -> give an account of language structure and meaning
Pragmatics -> language use.
Grammar and pragmatics complement each other
Problem: are there any words that we do not associate with an external
object in the real world?
Sentences
Meaning of sentences = their truth value - whether they are true or false.

*(7) a. Romania is more prosperous than the United States.

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b. Cats have tails
Ss whose meaning cannot be directly/empirically verified as T or F by
appeal to experience may be considered meaningless.
*(8) Unicorns live in this forest.
Q: Do you perceive (8) as meaningless?
7. Mediated reference theories of meaning
Word meaning
If the meaning of a word is not the object it refers to, then the meaning of
the word is something abstract, which mediates between the word and the
object.
WORD --------------MEANING-------------- OBJECT
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (1848 - 1925), German logician, and
philosopher, introduced the distinction between sense and reference in his
study 'On Sense and Reference’-1892
The sense of a term = the meaning of a term, what a speaker must know in
order to be able to use the term, the dictionary meaning of a word
 The sense of the word chair is the dictionary meaning of the term,
what one must know in order to answer the question Is this a
chair?
The reference/referent of a term = the object the term refers to, the entity
that is talked about
 The reference/referent of the word chair is the object in the real
world we use for seating.
WORD --------------MEANING-------------- OBJECT
WORD --------------SENSE-------------- REFERENT
1) Frege developed the distinction between sense and reference using the
phrases the morning star and the evening star (Venus).
Sense/Reference: ?
(9) Supercilious means arrogant and disdainful.
Q: What is at issue - the sense or the reference of the term supercilious ?
Q: Does the sense of the word supercilious change function of the person
who utters it, the time or the circumstances of its use?
3) A judge has to use the expression the defendant many times during a
week.
Q: Does the sense of the phrase the defendant vary with each trial?
Q: Does the reference of the of the phrase the defendant vary with each
trial?
To sum up
1) The same referent might be referred to using different expressions, with
different senses (the morning star and the evening star have the same
referent - the planet Venus -, but different senses/meanings, since the terms
morning and evening have different senses).
2) Determination of reference depends on the context, and thus may require
access to pragmatic information.
Sentence meaning / proposition / propositional content
Sentence meaning is "sense" applied to entire clauses rather than individual
words and phrases.
Sentence meaning = the literal meaning of the sentence, also known as the
proposition (a term borrowed from logic and used for indicative sentences)
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In (10) the proposition, i.e. the literal meaning of the sentence, is that there 8. Use theories of meaning
is a referent in the real world called John who has the property of being tall.
a. Illocutionary force – definition
(10) John is tall.
Any communicative act may be analyzed into two components:
Proposition ---- referring to an entity the proposition /propositional content & and its illocutionary force
---- predicating a property of that entity
The illocutionary force = the communicative intention with which the
Sentence meaning is derived compositionally from the senses of the words Speaker used the sentence
that make up the sentence, and the way syntax combines them.
(13) John is absent-minded.
Syntactic operations on the sentence keep the proposition/ propositional
content constant – in the groups of sentences below, we can identify a In (13) the proposition , the meaning of the sentence is that there is a
common semantic content. This common content is the proposition. referent in the real world called John who has the property of being absent-
minded.
(11) a. John loved Mary.
b. Mary was loved by John. In (13) the Speaker (S) uses the sentence to assert/state that a certain
situation exists in the world
(12) a. The window is open.
b. Is the window open? The utterance in (13) is made with the illocutionary force of an assertion.
c. Open the window!
“While the propositional content may remain fixed, force varies with each
If in (12) the proposition is constant, what is different? utterance. The content of one's communicative act underdetermines the
force of that act. That is why, from the fact that someone has said,
(12a) - the proposition that the door is shut is asserted
(12b) – the proposition that the door is shut is questioned (13) “You'll be more punctual in the future,”
(12c) - the proposition that the door is shut is commanded to be made true
we cannot infer the utterance's force.” We need more contextual
In (12) the same proposition is uttered with a different illocutionary force information.
(term introduced by Austin).
(13) – might be issuing a command, making a prediction, issuing a threat
With the term illocutionary force we enter the realm of use theories of
meaning, which are not concerned with the abstract, literal meaning of The force of an utterance is an aspect of its meaning which is not fully
linguistic expressions, but with the way meaning is influenced by their determined by the sense of the sentence. The force of an utterance can be
actual use. specified only in the context of that utterance.

Pragmatics/semantics studies force /propositional content of utterances?

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c. Speaker meaning
According to the main types of illocutionary force, sentences may be:
According to use theories of meaning, the meaning of a linguistic
a) declarative /assertive Mary is beautiful. expression is speaker meaning
b) imperative Go home!
c) interrogative Where am I? Speaker meaning is the meaning that a speaker intends an utterance to
have when he produces it.
b. Linguistic indicators of illocutionary force
Speaker meaning usually includes the literal meaning of the sentence, may
moods be identical to the literal meaning, but may also extend well beyond it.

(14) a. Shut it now! = I order you to shut it. (19) The boy is cold.
b. The shops closed an hour ago.
c. If only my boyfriend were here! The speaker might mean (19) literally as a statement, or he might utter it
with the illocutionary force of a command or a complaint.
modal verbs
If (19) = statement => Speaker meaning = The boy is cold.
(15) You must go there at once. = I order you to go there now. If (19) = command => enriched Speaker meaning = Bring him a blanket.
You may leave now. = I allow you to leave now. If (19) = complaint => enriched Speaker meaning = The heater is broken
again.
intonation, cadence, emphasis
d. Speaker meaning & intentionality
(16) The bull is going to charge!
The bull is going to charge? Speaker meaning depends on the intentions of the speaker and successful
communication depends on the ability of hearers to recognize the speaker’s
adverbs, adverbial phrases intentions.

(17) I shall come without fail. (20) John and Bill had spent a long time discussing the relative merits
Still, you should go there. = I insist that you should go there. of computers, using terms such as 128GB SSD, 4GB DDR3. Jane had
been in the room throughout the conversation, but had taken no part in it. At
word order some point Bill turned to Jane and said

(18) Are you coming with me? vs You are coming with me. Bill: Do you know what fifteen fifteens are? (15 x 15 = ?)
Jane: No, I don't know much about computer hardware.
Illocutionary force is just one component of a broader concept related to
the meaning of an utterance, namely speaker meaning.

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For linguistic communication to be optimal the H must understand the S's d. "We’re having some people over Saturday evening and
frame of mind, what his intentions are, and when H responds, he has to take wanted to know if you’d like to join us."
into account the S's intentions. e. "Hey, I really like your tie!"
f. "Oh, I’d love to see that movie with you but this Friday
C. THE THEORY OF SPEECH ACTS just isn’t going to work."

The theory of speech acts is a pragmatic theory that developed in close 12. Performative & constative speech acts (Austin 1962)
relation to use theories of meaning.
Basic Observation: - declarative sentences, under certain circumstances, are
Key terms not reports or descriptions but performances of an act => 'performative'
utterances (23):
Sentence vs. utterance
(23) a. I name this ship "Queen Elizabeth'. (when smashing the
Utterance - the production (oral or in writing) of a linguistic structure which bottle against the stern)
may or may not correspond to a complete sentence b. I promise that I'll come tomorrow.
c. I bet you it will rain tomorrow.
(21) a. Tom says: 'I am terribly sorry to have kept you waiting.' d. I (hereby) bequeath my watch to my brother.
b. John replies: 'Well, I've only just ...' (arrived myself). e. I do. (take this woman to be my wife)

9. Main tenets of Speech Act theory
Language is used not only to describe reality, but also do something,
instate a new reality
Utterances of every kind (statements, promises, orders) are speech acts,
doings by the Speaker
- An act - something that we 'do': a piece of active behavior by an agent.
Performatives - do something (using language): promising, betting,
marrying, christening
- instate new realities by means of uttering certain
sentences / create new states-of-affairs
- do not describe situations in the real world
=> performatives are not true or false, but felicitous or
infelicitous
- they can be distinguished from constatives with the
adverb hereby

John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960) - British philosopher (University of
Oxford) - His book - How To Do Things with Words (1962).
(22) a. "Hi, Eric. How are things going?"
b. "Could you pass me the mashed potatoes, please?"
c. "I’ve already been waiting three weeks for the computer,
and I was told it would be delivered within a week."
Unambiguous markers of performativity: adverbials like hereby, here and
now (formal style). If these adverbs can be included in the utterance, they
indicate that the utterance is performative
(24) I hereby appoint you commander of this ship.
- utterances that are only reports or descriptions of a situation - 'constative'
utterances (25)

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Mary: I will not.

(25) a. Mary looks forward to the holidays.
b. The cat was run over by a car. (iii) The sincerity condition the persons must have the appropriate
c. *Mary hereby looks forward to the holidays. thoughts, feelings and intentions, as specified in the procedure.

Constatives - describe pre-existent states of affairs. (28) I love you! [if S is indeed besotted]
- state propositions about the world
- the description may or may not be according to reality If this condition is violated, the speech act is insincere
=> constatives may be evaluated as true of false.
Insincere acts:
To successfully perform an act using a performative sentence the context
should satisfy certain conditions - felicity (happiness) conditions (29) I bet you $20 my horse will win (said when I do not intend to pay)

13. Felicity conditions for performatives: 14. Primary performatives vs. explicit performatives

(i) There must be a conventional procedure having a conventional Some performative utterances contain 'performative' verbs that indicate
effect what speech act is accomplished. Such utterances are called explicit
The circumstances and persons must be appropriate, as specified in performatives (28)
the procedure.
(30) a. I order you to go there.
= certain words must be uttered, by certain persons, under certain b. I ask you whether he came.
circumstances. c. I promise that I'll be there.

- if one of these conditions is violated, we fail to perform the respective SA Other utterances do not contain explicit performative verbs, but use other
linguistic means to express the force of the utterance (29). These are called
e.g. conventions may change in time: e.g. the code of honour involving primary performatives.
duelling
(31) a. Go there!
(26) a. Tom, having been insulted, says to Charles on January 12 b. Did he come?
1568: 'My seconds will call on you.' c. I shall be there!
b. Tom says to Charles on January 12 2012: 'My seconds
will call on you.' 15. Properties of explicit performatives:

(ii) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely by all Explicit performatives generally (not always) verify the syntactic schema:
participants.
(32) I promise that I will be there. I Verb that
(27) Tom: Will you marry me?

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- the use of the l st person, present indicative, active voice. b. I promise only when I intend to keep my word.

(33) a. I promise to help you! (38) On page 499, I protest against this verdict.
b. He promised to help her.
c. I was promised to be helped. Performative verbs used in the 1st person of the simple present may be
performative, but, when used in other persons or tenses, they are descriptive
But there are cases in which the passive voice is also used with performative and constative - see (39).
utterances (34a-b), as is the third person singular (34d).
(40) He betted him $6 that John would win the race.
(34) a. You are hereby requested to leave the city at once.
b. You are fired. 16. Aren't constatives performative as well?
c. ??I fire you.
d. Notice is hereby given that the room should be left clean. A performative utterance is not a true or false description of reality, but it
creates a new reality, the reality of the act accomplished (ordering,
- Explicit performatives do not usually employ the present continuous appointing, naming, asking).
which is descriptive (35)
A PF transforms the world, while a constative utterance attempts to
(35) a. I promise to come correspond to the word.
b. He is promising to come
c. I refuse to go. PF utterances are felicitous or infelicitous, constative utterances are true or
d. He is shaking his head, he is refusing to go. false.

BUT some performative verbs accept the present continuous (36) (Ginet However, Austin came to the conclusion that the distinction cannot be
1979) maintained firmly. There is evidence that constative SAs are also
performative. A constative can be paraphrased using the schema S V that "I
(36) a. I'm telling you now that... state that..." typical of performative verbs.
b. I'm holding you in contempt.
c. I'm warning you for the last time that.... (41) The earth is round.
d. *I'm congratulating you. I state that the earth is round.
e. *I'm thanking you for your help.
Constatives are primary performatives having the illocutionary force of
Attention! statements. In making a statement, the speaker is also doing something -
The simple present of performative verbs is not always performative, it may the speaker performs the act of stating. Every utterance instates a new
be used in habituals (37) or in a way similar to the historic present to reality, all utterances are performative.
describe the speaker's performance (38):

(37) a. Every morning I bet him $10 that it will rain.