Relative Clauses

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting
another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes
more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

Example: Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Relative
Use Example
Pronoun
I told you about the woman
who subject or object pronoun for people
who lives next door.
subject or object pronoun for animals and Do you see the cat which is
which
things lying on the roof?
He couldn’t read which
which referring to a whole sentence
surprised me.
Do you know the boy whose
whose possession for people animals and things
mother is a nurse?
object pronoun for people, especially in
non-defining relative clauses (in defining I was invited by the professor
whom
relative clauses we colloquially prefer whom I met at the conference.
who)
subject or object pronoun for people,
I don’t like the table that stands
that animals and things in defining relative
in the kitchen.
clauses (who or which are also possible)

Concessive clauses

A concessive clause is a clause which begins with "although" or "even though" and
which expresses an idea that suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence.

The sentence "Although he's quiet, he's not shy" begins with a concessive clause-
"Although he's quiet" which has an opposite meaning of - "he's not shy" which is the
main part of the sentence.

NOTE: "In spite of", "despite" have similar meaning to "although" or "even though".
BUT they don't introduce clauses. They have different syntax. They are followed by
nouns or gerunds (verb+ing.) They don't introduce a clause (subject + verb.)

Purpose clauses

You use a purpose clause when you want to state the purpose of the action in the
independent clause. The most common type of purpose clause is a to-infinitive clause.

 Sarah went to the computer lab to print out her research report.

In formal writing, in order to and so as to are often used.

  The company conducted a detailed survey in order to gauge its clients’ views.

In formal writing, you can also introduce a purpose clause with so that or in order that.
These finite purpose clauses usually contain a modal.

 Dr Chan adjusted the overhead projector so that the students would be able to
see the chart more clearly.
 The lecturer finished his lecture five minutes early so that the students could
come and ask him questions.

The difference between so and so that is that so that implies that the cause was
deliberately done by someone in order to get a specific result.

Reason clauses

In your written and spoken assignments you will often need to answer the question
‘Why?’. When you want to explain why something happens, you can use a reason
clause introduced by the conjunctions because, as or since.

 As she wanted to practice her spoken English, Carrie regularly took part in the
ELC’s Big Mouth Corner.
 Mark joined the English Drama Club because he wanted to improve his
intonation.

Don’t use so in sentences beginning with since, as or because. Here is a common

mistake:

 Since he was interested in movies, so David joined the PolyU International Film
Society.

You can also use the prepositional phrases because of and on account of to express
reason.

 We were unable to carry out the experiment on account of a malfunction in the

computer.
 We were unable to carry out the experiment because the computer
malfunctioned.

As you will see in the Vocabulary section below, there are many other ways of
indicating reason and cause in English.

Result clauses

When you want to indicate the result of an action or situation, you can use a result
clause. Result clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as so, so... that, or such …
that.

 The lecture was boring and irrelevant, so some of the students began to fall
asleep.
  Peter was having problems with mathematics, so he went to see his tutor to ask
for advice.
 There were so many books on the subject that Cindy didn’t know where to
begin.
 There was such a lot of material to cover that Ivan found it difficult to keep up
with his studies.

There are many other ways of talking about the result of an action or situation. In some
situations you may prefer to use and as a result or with the result that.

 The lecture was boring and irrelevant, and as a result some of the students
began to fall asleep.
 The lecture was boring and irrelevant, with the result that some of the students
began to fall asleep.

As a result can also be used at the beginning of a new sentence.

 The lecture was boring and irrelevant. As a result, some of the students began to
fall asleep.

The following words and phrases are used in the same way.

Therefore, Thus, In consequence, Consequently, For this/that reason

Causal relations can be expressed by ing-clauses of result.

 The government increased the duty on wine. As a result, there was a fall in
demand.
 The government increased the duty on wine, resulting in a fall in demand.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a word group that begins with a preposition. A preposition is a

joining word that links a noun to another word in a sentence.

Every prepositional phrase contains at least two words: a preposition at the beginning
and at least one noun or nominal (a word or word group acting as a noun). Any
modifiers or other words connected to the noun or nominal are also part of the phrase:

at home: (at + noun home)

between Alice and Joe: (between + nouns Alice and Joe)
for you and me: (for + pronouns you and me)
on a dusty dirt road: (on + modifiers a dusty dirt + noun road)
since coming to Canada: (since + nominal coming to Canada)
with what you have: (with + nominal what you have)

A prepositional phrase normally acts as an adjective or an adverb.

As an adjective, the phrase modifies a noun or a nominal and comes immediately after
the word it modifies:

We bought the house on the corner. [on the corner modifies the noun house]

One of the baby birds has fallen out of the nest. [of the baby birds modifies the pronoun
one]

I could hear only the sighing of the wind. [of the wind modifies the gerund sighing]

As an adverb, the phrase usually modifies a verb. The phrase may be next to the verb
or at the beginning or end of the sentence:

The letter sat on the desk all week. [on the desk modifies the verb sat]

The panther crept silently along the narrow ledge. [along the narrow ledge modifies the
verb crept]

With a puzzled look, Jason followed his sister. [With a puzzled look modifies the verb
followed]

An adverb prepositional phrase may also modify a verbal (i.e., a present or past
participle, a gerund or an infinitive):

Racing toward the finish line, Georg left the other runners behind. [toward the finish
line modifies the present participle racing]

The passengers seated at the back couldn’t see. [at the back modifies the past participle
seated]

I don’t mind sailing in rough weather. [in rough weather modifies the gerund sailing]

Do you want to go to a restaurant for lunch? [to a restaurant and for lunch modify the
infinitive to go]

Some adverb prepositional phrases modify adjectives:

The children were afraid of the barking dog. [of the barking dog modifies the adjective
afraid]

Sometimes an adverb prepositional phrase may follow the linking verb be:

Sara was in the garden.

Occasionally, a prepositional phrase may act as a noun, but this type of structure is
unusual in formal writing:

After midnight is the best time to view the comet. [After midnight acts as the subject of
the verb is]