Problems

TFMT14
Question

Instrumentation
A B

a) Which instrument is an active type of device?

b) Indicate one main advantage of each type?
 Example Detection range and accuracy
specs.

• Calculate accuracy and relative error for I = 2.458

mA in all possible ranges.
• Select the best range and answer why is the best?
• Write the display indication of each resolution.
Question

• Calculate accuracy and relative error for I = 4.03 mA

in all possible ranges.
• Select the best range and answer why is the best?
• Write the display indication of each resolution.
Example
Sensitivity

http://www.colby.edu/chemistry/PChem/scripts/lsfitpl.html
Example

xy
 Example

S = 0.233 Ω/°C
Question

Bias and sensitivity drift

Question
Linearity / Non-linearity
Estimate the sensitivity in the
0-100Pa range and calculate the
non-linearity of the gas sensor
response for a C2Cl4 partial pressure
of 70 Pa.
Question

Response order
temperature raise B

heater current

temperature raise A

Too bioreactors, A and B, have been characterized and show first order
responses to heating. If the only difference between the reactors is
their size, which is the larger reactor A or B?
Question
Precision / Accuracy
The figure shows the statistical characterization of two
different instrument measuring the same real value. Answer:

• Which instrument is more precise?

• Which instrument is more accurate?
• Which instrument we should choose?

instr. A

instr. B

signal value

real value

Accuracy
Example

characterization
Example
3.10 (a), from L02 and Morris Ch.3

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/Histogram/
Example

Alternatively
Example
3.10 (b), from L02 and Morris Ch.3
Example

3.10 (c)

α = 0.022/(10)1/2 = 0.007

α = 0.022/(1000)1/2 = 0.022/(10x102)1/2
= 0.022/10x(10)1/2
Question
Error of the mean
Quality control of nine batches of milk produce
have recorded the following concentrations of
cholesterol in [mg/100ml] is

7.45 7.66 7.20 7.54 7.86 7.13 7.14 7.75 7.30

Assuming a normal distribution of measured

values:
a) Calculate the mean value and standard deviation.
b) Calculate the error of the mean!
Example

Random errors / Confidence

interval

86.6 %
 Example Random errors / Confidence
interval

z=D/σ
z = (2.5 - 3) / 0.25
z = -2

97.7%
Question

For the milk quality control problem

Calculate the random error of a single

measurement, using the previous data as reference
measurement set, for 90% confidence interval.
Choose the correct following figure to calculate the
error.!
Question
Indicate (shading the area) in the following figure the
probability that corresponds to measure a concentration
of glucose smaller than 7.30 mg/100ml milk.

!
Indicate (shading the area) in the following figure the
probability that corresponds to measure a concentration
of glucose larger than 7.42 and smaller than 7.60 mg/
100ml milk.

!
Question

In a milk production plant the cholesterol concentration in the milk

production is expressed with a 90% confidence as previously
calculated, and in the daily production 100 samples of 100ml are
taken for quality control.

a) If 9 batches show cholesterol concentrations 12 mg/ml, is the

production OK?

b) If 11 batches show cholesterol concentrations 8 mg/ml, is the

production OK?

c) If 24 batches have the value 7.8 mg/ml, is the production OK?

Question

• Explain the concept of insertion error.

• Insertion error is a systematic error or a
random error?
• Why?
• How to minimize insertion error?
Question

• Explain how to measure the internal

resistance RA of the ammeter in parallel with
the potentiometer.
• Which parameters are fixed, and which at
varied during the measurement?
• Which ratio between the total I and IRA is set?
 Example
Error propagation

S = (1.5V + 1.5V) ± e
e = [(0.01x1.5)2 + (0.01x1.5)2]1/2 = 0.021 V
100x0.021/3 = ±0.7%
Question

Error propagation
Question
Error propagation
One parameter used for comparison of bioreactor performance
is the power input (P/V)

where the power numbers (Np) is a function of the Re number, d is

the impeller diameter, [m] N is the agitation speed [rpm], ρ is the
density [kg/m3] and V the working volume [m3].
Calculate the error in the P/V determination if:
Np = 5
N = 10rpm ±1%
d = 30 cm
V = 0.5 m3 ± 3%
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ± 2%
Question

Calibration/Traceability
Explain the following concepts

Calibration
Calibration chain
Traceability
Working standard
Process instrument
Example
Reliability

MTBF = 30.41 days

or = 365/12 faults = 30.41 days
Example

Reliability

MTBF = 100 * 20 / 9 = 222 days

 Example
Reliability Availabitiy

tm = MTBF = MTTF

R (5000) = exp (- 5000 / 100000)

R = 0.9512 = 95%
Question

What is the difference between MTBF and MTTF?

 Example
System reliability

F2 = 1 - R2 = 0.1 = F4
RT = R1*(1-F22)*R3*(1-F42)*R5
RT = 0.98 * (0.99) * 0.98 * (0.99) * 0.98
= 0.92 = 92%
Question

The performance of 10 identical measuring instruments is monitored

over a 320-days period. If a total of 5 faults are recorded in this period:

a) Calculate the mean-time-between-failures (MTBF). !

b) If the mean time to repair (MTTR) is 7 days, calculate the
availability.!
c) Calculate the probability that the instrument will fail in the first 100
days of use.
d) Calculate the reliability R of the instrument for the first 100 days of
use. e) If five identical instruments of reliability R (calculated in d) are
connected according to the following figure, calculate the total reliability
of the system.!
Question

Instrumentation circuits

Both circuits enable voltage attenuation V0<V1

What is the advantage of the Op-Amp respect to
the voltage divider? What is the main implication?
Question
ADC
0.745V

Which type of ADC represents the circuit?

Explain how it works?
Question

Aliasing

Explain the concept of aliasing

Which is the minimum sampling

frequency to prevent aliasing?
Question Given the following voltage waveform calculate:
a) Mean voltage (Um).!!
b) Rectified mean voltage (Urm).!!
c) Root mean squared voltage (Urms).!
d) Form factor.! !
e) Top factor.!
f) Explain the physical meaning of the rms value

U
Example

Arbitrary waveforms AC/DC

values
Question

Null-type, d.c. bridge

Example

(Wheatstone bridge)
•R is varied until the voltage measured
v
across points BD is zero. R2 = R3.

Ru Rv
Question

Write the Ru value in terms of Rv, R1 and R2

when VAB = 0

A Rv

R1 V Ru
R2
B

Deflection-type d.c.
Example

bridge
• The variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance
R1 of the same value as the nominal value of the
unknown resistance Ru
 If the nominal value of the resistor (Ru) representing a resistive sensor output is Ru =
Question 110 ±1.2%, and the strain gauge pressure sensor operates in the 0-20 Pa range, with
R1 = 100± 1%; R2 = 100±0.5% and R3 = 110±0.4%

Calculate the value of the voltage source (Vi) necessary to limit the current through
the strain gauge to 15 mA.!
! ! ! !
Calculate the bridge output (Vo) when a 12 Pa pressure is measured with a pressure
sensor with a sensitivity of 0.2/Pa and the bridge is excited with Vi.

Calculate the error of Vo

R3

Vi

Vo
!
Question

Explain the concept of oscilloscope bandwidth

Explain the concept of oscilloscope raise time

For a 100MHz bandwidth oscilloscope the rise

time in the order of:
a)seconds
b) milliseconds
c)microsenconds
d)nanoseconds
e)femtoseconds
 Example
Capacitive sensor

Equivalent to C1 // C2
➙ CT = C 1 + C 2

1 4

d = 1 mm
w = 50 mm
l = 50 mm
Question

A variable dielectric capacitive displacement sensor consists of two

square metal plates of side 2.5 cm, separated by a gap of 1.3 mm. A
sheet of dielectric material 1.3 mm thick and of the same area as the
plates can be slid between them as shown in the figure. Given that
the dielectric constant of air is 1 and that of the dielectric material
2.4, calculate the capacitance of the sensor when the input
displacement x = 0.0, 1.7, 3 and 5 cm. ε0 = 8.854 x 10−12 F/m
 Example Inductive sensors
A variable reluctance sensor consists of a core, a variable air gap and an armature. The
core is a steel rod of diameter 1 cm and relative permeability 100, bent to form a semi-
circle of diameter 4 cm. A coil of 500 turns is wound onto the core. The armature is a
steel plate of thickness 0.5 cm and relative permeability 100. Assuming the relative
permeability of air = 1.0 and the permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H m−1, calculate
the inductance of the sensor for air gaps of 1 mm and 3 mm.

total flow

reluctance

RCORE = πR/μCOREμoπ(r)2 r = 5 mm
h = 5 mm

RGAP = 2d/μAIRμoπr2 R = 20 mm
d = 1 and 3 mm
RARMATURE = 2R/μARMATUREμo(h.2r) n = 500
Question

6cm
 Example
R thermometer
A Pt100 resistor (0.385 Ω/°C) is measured in a 2 wires
connection using 100m leads (Cu 1 mm2 area). What is the
error due to the cables in °C?

cable 5 Ω(100 m)
A
Pt100
V 100 Ω
cable 5 Ω

10 Ω ➱ 10/ (0.385 ohms/ºC) ➱ ~26°C error

Question

Explain the advantage of 4 wires connection for

Pt-100 measurement with voltmeter and ammeter
 Example
Thermocouples
Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–constantan
thermocouple is maintained at a temperature of 80°C and
the output e.m.f. measured is 40.102 mV when the hot
junction is immersed in a fluid. Which is the temperature of
the fluid?

Tfluid = 600°C
Question

Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–constantan

thermocouple is maintained at a temperature of 55°C and the
output e.m.f. measured is 68.244 mV when the hot junction is
immersed in a fluid. Which is the temperature of the fluid?

!
Question

chromel chromel

constantan constantan

Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–constantan

thermocouple is maintained at a temperature of 0°C and the
output e.m.f. measured is 68.244 mV when the hot junction is
immersed in a fluid, but the instrument is connected to the
thermocouple through extension wires and the connection is at
40°C. Which is the temperature of the fluid?

An ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter is to be used to measure the volume flow rate of a

Question

slurry in a steel pipe of diameter 0.13 m. Two piezoelectric crystals, each having a
natural frequency of 0.95 MHz, are positioned, a few millimetres apart, on the outside
of the pipe to form an ultrasonic transmission link. The transmitting crystal directs an
ultrasonic beam into the pipe so that the beam is moving in an opposite direction to the
flow stream. The angle between the ultrasonic beam and the direction of flow is 57°.
On average 18% of the ultrasonic power reaching each solid particle is scattered back
in the direction of the receiving crystal. Assume that the slurry has the same density
and sound velocity as water (c ≈ 1.5x103 ms−1) and a power attenuation coefficient of
1.0 m−1.

a) Find the difference between the frequencies of the transmitted and received beams
when the flow rate is 1.12 × 103 m3 h−1.
b) If the frequencies are known with an error of 1.4% and pipe diameter with an error
of 0.7%, calculate is the error in the determination of the volume flow rate.
Question Chemical sensor characterization

• Range
• Sensitivity
• Resolution
• Time response
• Recovery time
• Linearity
• Contamination

a) From a real measurement of a CO sensor as shoe above explain how to extract:

Range, Response, Linearity, Sensitivity, Noise level, Resolution, Response time, Recovery time and
Reproducibility/contamination
b) Explain the concept of selectivity
c) Explain how to improve selectivity in chemical sensing.
Question
R3

R3