Journal of Negro Education

Popular Music: An Untapped Resource for Teaching Contemporary Black History

Author(s): B. Lee Cooper
Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 48, No. 1 (Winter, 1979), pp. 20-36
Published by: Journal of Negro Education
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Popular Music: An Untapped
Resource for Teaching
Contemporary Black History
B. Lee Cooper, Vice President for Academic Affairs,
Newberry College

Black author James Baldwin has observed, "People are trapped in

history and history is trapped in them."' This perceptive com-
ment invites teachers to explore the experiences of their students
as the content of classroom instruction. Unfortunately, most his-
tory instructors have ignored this approach. This omission is par-
ticularly lamentable in regard to black students. The ability of a
teacher to stimulate reflection by young blacks on issues of histori-
cal significance is clearly dependent upon his or her skill in identi-
fying the universal concerns of the Afro-American community.
One instructional resource that might help a history instructor ac-
complish this goal is contemporary music. Traditionally, however,
the lyrics of black singers are rarely introduced in academic class-
rooms. One critic has capsuled the shortsightedness of this in-
structional omission by noting, "Black music has been the van-
guard reflection of black feeling and the continuous repository of
black consciousness."2 His words warrant serious consideration by
history teachers.

TRADITIONAL SCHOLARSHIP VERSUS THE

ORAL TRADITION

Although the books written by John Hope Franklin, C. Vann

Woodward, Benjamin Quarles, Lerone Bennett, Jr., and C. Eric
Lincoln helped to foster a scholarly revolution in black history,
their studies have failed to spark a similar rise of creativity and
innovation in teaching activities. This is so because the standard
scholarly process of assembling historical evidence on the Negro
past has created a variety of unforeseen difficulties for classroom
teachers. The tendency of academicians, particularly historians, to
rely solely upon written sources-newspaper articles and editorials,

'Notes of a Native Son (New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1964), p. 138.
2Ron Wellburn, "The Black Aesthetic Imperative" in The Black Aesthetic, edited by Addison
Gaule, Jr. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1972), p. 126.

20

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official records from state legislatures and both Houses of Con-
gress, books and essays by abolitionists, slaves, politicians, and
ministers, as well as other standard literary resources-has ren-
ered black history "speechless." In only a few instances has the
oral tradition of the black man even been considered, let alone
thoroughly investigated, by American historians. This is not to
imply that the most articulate, effective spokesmen among the
black populace are not civil rights leaders, ministers, politicians, or
journalists who utilize standard literary forms of communication.
Nevertheless, through the popular music medium, the black singers
and song writers have exerted significant influence on the ideas,
attitudes, and values of millions of Black Americans. The tunes
sung by Curtis Mayfield, James Brown, Nina Simone, Wilson Pick-
ett, Stevie Wonder, Les McCann, and Marvin Gaye provide sub-
stantial oral evidence and social commentary for serious students
of contemporary black culture. By unwittingly neglecting these oral
resources in courses on black history, high school and college
teachers perpetuate student disinterest and even foster youthful
distrust about the cold, logical written works of Franklin, Wood-
ward, and others. The following essay suggests two alternative
instructional approaches which might be utilized to more accu-
rately portray the ideas and feelings of Afro-Americans and to
translate the instruction of contemporary black history into a more
dynamic teaching/learning process.
Although there is no universal agreement among history in-
structors on the specific reasons for teaching black history, the
following list of objectives seems broad enough to encompass most
instructional efforts:
A. to demonstrate the social and political difficulties encountered by racial
minorities in functioning effectively in contemporary American society;
B. to improve the self-image of black students and to enhance the under-
standing of white students concerning the historical circumstances of the
black man in America;
C. to eradicate the numerous myths and stereotype-based misunderstandings
which continually surface between blacks and whites;
D. to examine the cultural context of social and political ideas, issues, and
problems which have direct bearing on the identity of black students;
E. to open new vistas to all students concerning Afro-American life and
development within a pluralistic social order; and,
F. to establish a logical basis for securing constructive social and political
reforms in contemporary American society.
These objectives address several essential personal elements for
stimulating student interest. They aim at defining identity/self-
image; they emphasize functional reality along with the necessity

The Journal of Negro Education 21

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for promoting change in thought and action; and, they involve
the pursuit of historical truth.
Without appropriate instructional resources, though, even the
best educational objectives are worthless. The significance of the
oral tradition in the Afro-American heritage has been frequently
expressed and thoroughly documented.3 For more than three cen-
turies the black culture in America has dramatically chronicled its
ideas, attitudes, and events in ballad form. Still, most educators
continue to rely solely upon written texts which deaden the min-
strel's emotional appeal and dull the spiritual force of his mes-
sage. The lyrics of artists such as Isaac Hayes, B. B. King, Aretha
Franklin, Smokey Robinson, Roberta Flack, Ray Charles, and
Diana Ross, which provide significant insights into the past, pres-
ent, and future of Black America, must be utilized to help foster a
"living classroom." Yet, at a time when historians and teachers of
history are more actively utilizing the spoken and written commen-
taries of previously "neglected voices" -women, minorities, politi-
cally powerless people-to enrich perspectives on the American
past, they continue to overlook the significant contributions of
musical artists in the rich oral Afro-American tradition. It is even
more difficult to understand why most serious scholars of black
history have ignored the dramatic emergence of popular music as a

3Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958). pp. 261-
291; LeRoi Jones (Imamu Amiri Baraka), Blues People: Negro Music in White America (New York:
William Morrow and Company, 1963), pp. 1-10, 17-49; Charles Keil, Urban Blues (Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 30-49; Paul Oliver, Savannah Syncopators: African Retentions
in the Blues (New York: Stein and Day, 1970); Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans:
A History (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1971), pp. 3-24; Ortiz M. Walton, "A
Comparative Analysis of the African and Western Aesthetics," in The Black Aesthetic, edited by
Addison Gayle, Jr. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1972), pp. 154-164;
Eklin T. Sithole, "Black Folk Music," in Rappin' and Stylin' Out: Communication in Urban Black
America, edited by Thomas Kochman (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), pp. 65-82; and
J. H. Kwabena Nketia, "The Musical Heritage of Africa," in Slavery, Colonialism, and Racism, edited
by Sidney W. Mintz (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1974), pp. 151-161; Samuel
Charters, The Legacy of the Blues: Art and Lives of Twelve Great Bluesmen (New York: Da Capo
Press, Inc., 1975); Gerald W. Haslam, Afro-American Oral Literature (New York: Harper and Row,
1975); Ian Hoare, "Mighty, Mighty Spade and Whitey: Black Lyrics and Soul's Interaction With
White Culture," in The Soul Book, edited by Ian Hoare, Tony Commings, Clive Anderson, and
Simon Frith (New York: Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 146-210; Harry Oster (comp.),
Living Country Blues (New York: Minerva Press, 1975); Gordon Stevenson, "Race Records: Vic-
tims of Benign Neglect in Libraries," Wilson Library Bulletin, L (November, 1975), 224-232; Irene V.
Jackson-Brown, "Afro-American Song in the Nineteenth Century: A Neglected Source," Black
Perspective in Music, IV (April, 1976), 22-38; John P. Morgan and Thomas C. Tulloss, "The Jake
Walk Blues: A Toxicologic Tragedy Mirrored in American Popular Song," The Annals of Internal
Medicine, LXXXV (December, 1976), 804-808; and Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black
Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought From Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1977).

22 The Journal of Negro Education

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major business enterprise4 or as a source of contemporary social
criticism. 5
Allan Nevins launched the "oral history movement" with the
vision of capturing and preserving the Weltanschauung of our age
for present and future historical investigation.6 But, were popular
recordings among the resources which the late Professor Nevins
was alluding to when he first suggested four decades ago that his-
torians were ignoring valuable non-written sources? Or was "Oral
History" designed to be solely a "formal" audio interview vehicle
to be applied to prominent public figures rather than a technique
designed to capture ideas from an ever-broadening variety of com-
mentators? This essay assumes that Nevins would contend that
historical information must be solicited from the broadcast possible
spectrum of human sources. Obviously, the study of the Afro-
American culture, with its longstanding oral tradition, not only
lends itself to but also demands the inclusion of extra-literary
commentaries such as those found in popular recordings.

4For discussions of the most significant black recording companies see and hear the following:
ATLANTIC-Charlie Gillett, Making Tracks: Atlantic Records and the Growth of a Multi-Billion-
Dollar Industry (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1974); History of Rhythm and Blues,
1947-1967 (SD 8161-4/8193-4/8208-9)-8 volumes (New York: Atlantic Recording Company,
1968 (Vols. I-VI) and 1969 Vols. VII-VIII); and The Super Hits (SD 501/8188/8203/8224/8274)-
5 volumes (New York: Atlantic Recording Company, 1967 (Vol. I), 1968 (Vols. II-III), and 1970
(Vols. IV-V); CHESS-Peter Guralnick, Feel Like Going Home: Portraits in Blues and Rock and Roll
(New York: Outerbridge and Dienstirey, 1971), pp. 180-202; Pop Origins (Chess 1544)-one vol-
ume (Chicago: Chess Records, n.d.); Willie Dixon, I Am The Blues (CS 9987)-one volume (New
York: Columbia Records/CBS, Inc., n.d.); Howlin' Wolf, Chester Burnett Aka Howlin' Wolf-one
volume, 2 records (New York: Chess/Janus Records, 1972); and Muddy Waters (McKinley Morgan-
field), Folk Singer (Chess 1483)-one volume (Chicago: Chess Recording Corporation, n.d.); MO-
TOWN-Simon Frith, "You Can Make It If You Try: The Motown Story," in The Soul Book, ed-
ited by' Ian Hoare, Tony Cummings, Clive Anderson, and Simon Firth (New York: Dell Publishing
Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 39-73; Jon Landau, "Motown: The First Ten Years," in It's Too Late To
Stop Now: A Rock and Roll Journal (San Francisco, California: Straight Arrow Press, 1972),
pp. 143-150; Joe McEwen and Jim Miller, "Motown," in The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of
Rock and Roll, edited by Jim Miller (New York: Random House, 1976), pp. 222-233; David Morse,
Motown and the Arrival of Black Music (New York: Collier Books, 1971); Arnold Shaw, "Motown:
The Detroit Sound," in The World of Soul (New York: Paperback Library, 1971), pp. 202-218;
Motown's Preferred Stock (M6 881/2/3 SI)-3 volumes; Hollywood, California: Motown Record
Corporation, 1977).
5Russell Ames, "Protest and Irony in Negro Folksong," Science and Society, XIV (Summer,
1950), 193-213; Lloyd Miller and James K. Skipper, Jr., "Sounds of Protest: Jazz and the Militant
Avant-Garde," in Approaches to Devience: Theories, Concepts, and Research Findings, edited by
Mark Lef ton, James K. Skipper, Jr., and Charles M. McCaghy (New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, Inc., 1968), pp. 129-140; Ulf Hannerz, Soulside: Inquiries Into Ghetto Culture and Com-
mrunity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); George H. Lewis, "Social Protest and Self
Awareness in Black Popular Music," Popular Music and Society, II (Summer, 1973), 327-333;
and Michael Haralambos, Right On: From Blues To Soul in Black America (New York: Drake Pub-
lishers, Inc., 1975).
6A 1971 survey conducted by the Oral History Association reported that 230 projects were in
operation (as compared to 89 in 1965) and 93 more were in the planning stage. Ironically, only one
oral history project-the New Orleans Jazz Collection being assembled at Tulane University-cen-
tered on a musical topic. See Larry Van Dyne, "Oral History: Sharecroppers and Presidents, Jazz
and Texas Oil," The Chronicle of Higher Education, VIII (December 24, 1973), 9-10.

The Journal of Negro Education 23

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 ORAL BIOGRAPHY AS A TEACHING APPROACH
Lyrics created and performed by Black artists often carry
gestive autobiographical and sociological overtones. This comm
is not meant to imply that every popular recording contains
vant personal or social commentary. Teachers planning to use
audio resources must carefully identify specific artists who have
significantly affected the ideas and actions of the general public
through their musical offerings. Undeniably, the accumulation of
reliable historical evidence in the genre of oral/lyrical presentations
poses several unique problems. What criteria should be employed
to establish a popular music figure's credibility as a historical re-
source? In response to this question, one might consider areas such
as career longevity, the universal applicability of lyrical commen-
tary, the ability of a singer to inspire new trends in performing
styles of other artists, and a distinctiveness in the poetic style/
musical expression found in specific songs. Though several stud-
ies of the lyrical works of Chuck Berry,7 Ray Charles,8 James

7Michael Lydon, "Chuck Berry Lives!" Ramparts, VII (December, 1969), 47-56; Griel Marcus,
"Chuck Berry," in The Rolling Stone Interviews, edited by Jann Werner et al. (New York: Paper-
back Library, 1971), I, pp. 173-187; Carl Belz, "Chuck Berry: Folk Poet of the Fifties," in The
Story of Rock, (New York: 2nd ed.; Harper and Row, 1972), pp. 61-66; Robert Christgau, "Chuck
Berry: Eternal Rock and Roller," in Any Old Way You Choose It: Rock and Other Pop Music,
1967-1973 (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 1973), pp. 140-148; B. Lee Cooper, "Review of Chuck
Berry's Golden Decade," The History Teacher, VIII (February, 1975), 300-301; Chuck Berry-The
Golden Decade (New York: ARC Music, n.d.); and Robert Christgau, "Chuck Berry," in The Roll-
ing Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll, edited by Jim Miller (New York: Random House,
1976), pp. 58-63.

8Rochelle Larkin, "Ray Charles-That's All!" in Soul Music! (New York: Lancer Boo
1970), pp. 157-164; "Playboy Interview: Ray Charles, "Playboy, XVII (March, 1970)
Arnold $haw, "Ray Charles: Soul Supreme," in The World of Soul (New York: Pap
Library, 1971), pp. 323-330; Sharon B. Mathis and Susan B. Weber, Ray Charles (
Thomas Y. Crowell, 1973); Michael Lydon, "Ray Charles," in Boogie Lightning (N
Dial Press, 1974), pp. 186-229; Tony Cummings, "The Gospel According To Ray Ch
in The Soul Book, edited by Ian Hoare, Tony Cummings, Clive Anderson, and Simon
York: Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 6-13; Ben Fong-Torres, "Ray Charles
ing Stone Interview," in What's That Sound? The Contemporary Music Scene From Th
Rolling Stone (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1976), pp. 264
Guralnick, "Ray Charles," in The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll,
110-113; and Joel Vance, "Remarkable Authority and Rekindling Vigor in Ray Ch
'Ture To Life'," Stereo Review, XL (February, 1978), 112.

24 The Journal of Negro Education

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Brown,9 and Aretha Franklin 10 have attempted to establish
benchmarks for the scholarly analysis of popular music, written
reports describing efforts to utilize the lyrical materials of these
black singers for social investigation in the classroom are non-
existent.
Perhaps a brief analysis of the works of one contemporary
black performer can best serve to illustrate the potential for his-
torical analysis in modern music. As a jazz artist, organist-singer-
songwriter, Les McCann has gained increasing public exposure
during the past decade via the nationwide jazz concert and the
image-building promotional activities of the Atlantic Recording
Corporation. Since 1969, McCann has served as a major lyrical
spokesman for many Black Americans. His historical portrait of
America and his observations on contemporary events tend to
mirror William Lloyd Garrison's dictum about the uncompromising
nature of social truth; not unexpectedly, McCann also shares Gar-
rison's flare for hyperbole and political propaganda. This personal
idiosyncrasy for absolute judgment seems to generate additional
public interest in his utterances. For a social studies teacher con-
cerned with contemporary black social and intellectual thought,
the attitudes and impressions articulated by McCann provide nu-

9Doon Arbus, "James Brown Is Out Of Sight," in The Age of Rock: Sounds of The American
Cultural Revolution, edited by Jonathan Eisen (New York: Vintage Books, 1969), pp. 286-297;
Mel Watkins, "The Lyrics of James Brown," in Arnistad 2, edited by John A. Williams and Charles
F. Harris (New. York: Vintage Books, 1971), pp. 140-196; Albert Goldman, "James Brown-Black
Power," in Freakshow (New York: Antheneum Press, 1971), pp. 66-70; George H. Lewis, "James
Brown," in Side-Saddle Orz The Golden Clef: Social Structure and Popular Culture in America,
edited by George H. Lewis (Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc.,
1972), pp. 197-200; and Robert Palmer, "James Brown," in The Rolling Stone Illustrated.History
of Rock and Roll, op. cit., pp. 134-139.
1oPhyl Garland, "Aretha Franklin: Sister Soul," in The Sound of Soul: The Story of Black
Music (New York: Pocket Books, Inc., 1969), pp. 158-167; Rochelle Larkin, "Aretha Franklin-
Lady Soul," in Soul Music! (New York: Lancer Books, Inc., 1970), pp. 39-45; Richard Goldstein,
"Aretha Arouses," in Goldstein's Greatest Hits: A Book Mostly About Rock 'N' Roll (Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), pp. 164-165; Arnold Shaw, "Aretha Franklin: Lady
Soul," in The World of Soul (New York: Paperback Library, 1971), pp. 316-322; Albert Goldman,
"She Makes Salvation Seem Erotic-Aretha Franklin," in Freakshow (New York: Atheneum Press,
1971), pp. 76-79; John Landau, "Aretha Franklin and Ray Charles: Live at Fillmore West," in It's
Too Late To Stop Now: A Rock and Roll Jour~nal (San Fraincisco, California: Straight Arrow Books,
1972), pp. 171-173; James T. Olsen, Aretha Franklin (MNapkato, Minnesota: Creative Educational
Society, Inc., 1974); Micahel Lydon, "Aretha Franklin," in Boogie Lightning (New York: Dial Press,
1974), pp. 160-184; and Russell Gersten, "Aretha Franklin," in The Rolling Stone Illustrated
History of Rock and Roll, op. cit., pp. 234-237.

The Journal of Negro Education 25

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merous illustrations to stimulate students to reflect on the mean-
ing of American life.1"
In several songs, McCann declares his spiritual allegiance to
the underprivileged. In 1969, for example, he joined saxophonist
Eddie Harris at the Montreaux Jazz Festival in Switzerland to pro-
duce the brilliant and controversial tune "Compared to What."
This song of social criticism attacks a variety of social practices as
being based on hypocritically "unreal values." The singer attempt-
ed to compel his audience to acknowledge a "crass distortion" be-
tween the social myth of equality and the economic reality of pov-
erty in the stratified American society. On July 8, 1972, at the
Newport Jazz Festival in Yankee Stadium, McCann brought the
audience to its feet with his rendition of "The Price You Got to
Pay to Be Free." The insertion of a few strains from the Black Na-
tional Anthem ("Lift Every Voice and Sing") in the final chorus
reveals McCann's impish genius for blending a gentle civil rights
refrain with his own vitriolic lyric. The defiant phrase, "Then
you're gonna call me a militant-God damn, you got your nerve!"
inserted in the song reflects his clear recognition of the frustration
experienced by many sensitive blacks. In a 1972 album, McCann
thematically combined a Marvin Gaye tune ("What's Going On")
with one of his own songs ("Talk to the People") to foster support
for the mutual benefits of community interaction instead of the
more artificial political-legalistic associations of the past.
But the genius of any artistic endeavor-whether literary, ver-
bal, or visual-does not lie solely in either the accuracy or the in-
tensity of its social commentary. Les McCann bares his romantic
soul in a variety of vocal and instrumental numbers which are in-
terspersed among the socio-political indictments on his albums. In
"Comment," McCann calls for all men to be brothers; in "Seems
So Long" he speaks passionately of the man-woman relationship
and the sadness of lost love. Most historians, of course, would not
attempt to analyze areas of affective or non-verbal communica-

l"The illustrations provided in the next few paragraphs are drawn from the following albums:
Les McCann and Eddie Harris, Swiss Movement (SD 1537). New York: Atlantic Recording Corpo-
ration, 1969; Les McCann, Comment (SD 1547). New York: Atlantic Recording Corporation, 1969;
Eddie Harris and Les McCann, Second Movement (SD 1583). New York: -Atlantic Recording Corpo-
ration, 1971; Les McCann, Invitation to Openness (SD 1603). New York: Atlantic Recording Cor-
poration, 1972; Les McCann, Talk To The People (SD 1619). New York: Atlantic Recording Cor-
poration, 1972; Newport in New York '72: The Soul Sessions, Volume 6 (CST 9028). New York:
Buddah Records, Inc., 1972; Les McCann, Hustle To Survive (SD 1679). New York: Atlantic Re-
cording Corporation, 1975; and Les McCann, River High, River Low (SD 1690). New York: Atlan-
tic Recording Corporation, 1976.

26 The Journal of Negro Education

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tion.12 Nevertheless, one cannot deny that touching the hearts of
men through song adds yet another dimension to McCann's pleas
for social justice.
In addition to investigating the lyrical commentaries already
outlined, an audio historian may wish to examine the biographical
development of Les McCann from childhood to jazz stardom.13
Among the periods of his life which could be examined historically
by combining audio and literary resources are: (a) his public school
education; (b) his experiences in church choirs and with other pre-
professional musical groups; (c) the early family and peer influ-
ences on development of his ideological commitment to racial pride,
individual independence, and human dignity; and, (d) his transi-
tion from amateur musical status to professional recognition as a
jazz great. Other areas of classroom interest might include: (e) his
penchant for discovering and encouraging other musically talented
individuals (Roberta Flack) and for adapting the lyrics of his con-
temporaries (Eddie Harris, Gene McDaniels, Marvin Gaye, and
Stevie Wonder) to transmit his philosophy of life; (f) his interna-
tional reputation and appearances at numerous jazz festival per-
formances (Antibes, Montreaux, and Newport); (g) his image of
the black man's historical experience and goals for the future; and
(h) his interpretation of the potential for achieving communication
of non-verbal feelings through his music.
It is obvious that study of the music and life of Les McCann
can shed additional light on the nature and meaning of the black
experience in America during the past decade.14 His recordings
provide a valuable resource for a teacher of black history. Mc-
Cann's songs contain revealing anecdotes, internalized images and
stereotypes, sources of personal and social conflict, confessions of
weakness and declarations of strength, and distinctive speech pat-

l2Beyond the field of history, however, some interesting studies on the nature and meaning of
black non-verbal communication in the arts have been published: Lloyd Miller and James K. Skip-
per, Jr., "Sounds of Protest: Jazz and the Militant Avant-Garde," in Approaches To Deviance:
Theories, Concepts, and Research Findings (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968), pp. 129-
140; and Charles Keil, "Motion and Feeling Through Music," in Rappin' and Stylin' Out: Com-
munication in Urban Black America, edited by Thomas Kochman (Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1972), pp. 83-100.
13Note the speculative essay by Ralph J. Gleason, "The Education of the Jazz Virtuoso," in
The Creative College Student: An Unmet Challenge, edited by Paul Heist (San Francisco, California:
Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968), pp. 84-98. A fascinating illustration of the interview technique applied to
the study of jazz can be found in Nat Shapiro and Nat Hentoff (eds.), Hear Me Talkin' To Ya:
The Story of Jazz As Told By the Men Who Made It (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1966).
14B. Lee Cooper, "Oral History, Popular Music, and Les McCann," Social Studies, LXVII (May/
June, 1976), 115-118.

The Journal of Negro Education 27

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terns and phrases.15 His music is vivid in nature, and highly
image-laden. The modern instructor of black history must learn to
use tools like McCann's music to translate the "Language of the
People" into meaningful descriptive ideas which will improve the
comprehension of American society.

SOCIAL THEMES IN BLACK MUSIC

Although biographical analysis is a useful technique to unfold
the personal drama of black history, it can be a difficult method
to orchestrate for teaching purposes. An easier and perhaps more
productive approach for adding a "voice" to the heretofore mute
texts of Afro-American history involves selecting several signifi-
cant themes for classroom study.16 Once identified, these themes
may be employed to provide a framework for students to arrange
recorded commentaries in a manner which will reveal the pluralism
within black culture. Hopefully, the interplay of ideas within each
thematic structure will encourage each class member to develop a
personal position on each central issue.
The following topical outlines are designed to illustrate the so-
cial theme approach. Each section is thematically organized and di-
rected toward the examination of a set of six-to-ten concepts which
are directly related to each theme. The topics are supported by pop-
ular music recordings which have been selected to support the
central theme and to spark student interest, imagination, and cre-
ativity,

l5Samuel Charters, The Poetry of the Blues (New York: Oak Publications, 1963); Claude
Brown, "The Language of Soul," in Blqck Amerijq: Accommodation and Confrontation in the Twen-
tieth Century, edited by Richard Resh (Lexington, Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Comppny, 1969),
pp. 244-249; William R. Ferris, Jr., 'Ragial Repertoires Among Blues Performers," Ethnomusi-
cology, XIV (September, 1970), 439-449; ]Dorothy Z. Seymour, "Black English," in The American
Language in the 1970's, edited by Herman A. Estrin and Donald V. Mehus (San Francisco, Califor-
nia: Boyd and Fraser Publishing Company, 1971), pp. 136-143; Paul Oliver, The Meaning of the
Blyes (New York: Collier Bpoks, 1972); and Geneva Smitherman, Black Language and Cu
Sounds of Soul (New York: HArper and Row, 1975).
C0john Kimball, "Music and the Teaching of American Histqry," Social Education, X?(VII
(January, 1963), pp. 23-25; Scott Heyman, "And Music," in Humanities qnd the Social Stujdies
(Bulletin #44), edited by Thomas F. Powell (Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Spcal
Studies, 1966), pp. 80-87; David F. Morsp, "Avant-Rock in the Classroom," Erglish Jqurnal, LVIII
(February, 1969), 196-200 ff.; B. Lee Cooper, "Rock Music and Religious Education: A Proposed
,ynthpsis," Religious Educqfjon, LXX (May-June, 1975), 289-299; . Lee jCooppr, "Images of the
Fututre in Popular Music: Lyrical Comments on Tomorrow," Social Education, XXXIX (May 1975),
276-285; and B. Lee Copper, "'Popular Songs a? Oral History: Teaching Black History Through
Contemporary Audio Resources," International Journal of Instructional Media, V (1977-78) 185-
195.

28 The Journal of Negro Education

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Theme Song and Performer Concepts/Issues

Self- ""Society's Child (Baby, I've Been Prejudice

Awareness Thinking)" by Janis Ian (Verve Empathy
Forecast 5027) Honesty
"Tell It Like It Is" by Aaron Success
Neville (Parlo 101) Alienation
"Express Yourself" by Charles Identity
Wright and the Watts 103rd Dignity
Street Rhythm Band (Warner Independence
Brothers 7417) Self-Respect
"Choice of Color" by the Impressions
(Curtom 1943)
"Why Can't We Live Together" by
Timmy Thomas (Glades 1703)
"Everybody Plays the Fool" by The
Main Ingredient (RCA 0731)
"Almost Grown" by Chuck Berry
(Chess 1722)
"Satisfied Mind" by Bobby Hebb
(Phillips 40400)
"Ninety-Nine and a Half (Won't Do)"
by Wilson Pickett (Atlantic 2334)
"Respect" by Otis Redding (Volt 128)
"Think" by Aretha Franklin (Atlantic
2518)

Political "(For God's Sake) Give More Power To Hypocrisy

Involvement the People" by the Chi-Lites Social Change
(Brunswick 55450) Representation
"You're the Man" by Marvin Gaye Power
(Tamla 54221) Minority Rights
"Won't Get Fooled Again" by the Who Revolution
(Decca 32846) Voting
"Smiling Faces Sometimes" by the Political Parties
Undisputed Truth (Gordy 7108)
"Ball of Confusion"
by the Temptations (Gordy 7099)
"Abraham, Martin, and John" by
Smokey Robinson and the Miracles
(Tamla 54184)
"The Declaration" by The Fifth
Dimension (Bell 860)

Racial Pride "Say It Loud-I'm Black and I'm Heritage

Proud" by James Brown (King 6187) Identity
"Black Pearl" by Sonny Charles Motivation
(A & M 1053) Mobility
"To Be Young, Gifted and Black" Pride
by Nina Simone (RCA 0269) Models
"We're A Winner" by Curtis Mayfield
(Curtom 1966)
"We're Rolling On" by The

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 Impressions (ABC 11071)
"Message From A Black Man" by the
Whatnauts and the Whatnaut Band
(A & M 0001)
"I've Gotta Be Me" by Sammy Davis, Jr.
(Reprise 0779)
"A Natural Man" by Lou Rawls
(MGM 14262)

Religious "Oh Happy Day" by the Edwin Hawkins Salvation

Attitudes Singers (Pavilion 20001) Brotherhood
"People Get Ready" by the Love
Impressions (ABC 10622) Faith
"Bridge Over Troubled Water" Gospel Songs
by Aretha Franklin (Atlantic Morality
2796)
"Love Train" by the O'Jays (CBS
3524)
"You'll Never Walk Alone" by Roy
Hamilton (Epic 9015)
"I'll Take You There" by the
Staple Singers (Stax 0125)
"The Weight" by Aretha Franklin
(Atlantic 2603)
"Superstition" by Stevie Wonder
(Tamla 54226)

Individual "Big Boy Pete" by the Olympics Alienation

Violence (Arvee 595) Hostility
"High Heel Sneakers" by Tommy Anxiety
Tucker (Checker 1067) Rape
"Trouble Man" by Marvin Gaye Homicide
(Tamla 54228) Assassination
"Stagger Lee" by Lloyd Price Aggression
(ABC 9972) Vandalism
"Born To Be Wild" by Wilson Pickett Arson
(Atlantic 2631)
"I'm Ready" by Muddy Waters (Chess
1579)
"Smokey Joe's Cafe" by the Robbins
(ATCO 6059)

Blues "Why I Sing the Blues" by B. B. King Slavery

Heritage (Bluesway 61024) Ghetto Life
"Stormy Monday Blues" by Bobby Urban Renewal
Bland (Duke 355) Education
"Chain Gang" by Sam Cooke (RCA 7783) Aging
"Busted" by Ray Charles (ABC 10481) Poverty
"Trouble in Mind" by Nina Simone Welfare Programs
(Colpix 175) Segregation
"Ninety-Nine and A Half (Won't Do)" Discrimination
by Wilson Pickett (Atlantic 2334) Prison Life

30 The Journal of Negro Education

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 "The World is a Ghetto" by WAR
(UAE 50975)
"Nobody Knows You (When You're
Down and Out)" by Bobby Womack
(United Artists 255)
Black Men "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Courage
Face" by Roberta Flack (Atlantic/05 Independence
13054) Love
"Sixty Minute Man" by the Trammps Honesty
(Buddah 321) Power
"Tramp" by Otis Redding and Carla Honor
Thomas (Stax 216) Responsibility
"It's A Man's Man's Man's World"
by James Brown (King 6035)
"Papa Was A Rollin' Stone" by The
Temptations (Gordy 7121)
"Theme From Shaft" by Isaac Hayes
(Enterprise 9038)
"Respect" by Otis Redding (Volt 128)
"Papa Was Too" by Joe Tex (Dial 4051)

Black Women "Woman's Got Soul" by The Impressions Beauty

(ABC 1476) Dignity
"Think" by Aretha Franklin (Atlantic Self-Respect
2518) Love
"Respect" by Aretha Franklin Honor
Atlantic 2403) Self-Control
"My Girl" by The Temptations (Gordy Sexism
7038) Prostitution
"That Evil Child" by B. B. King Pride
(Kent 4542) Liberation
"Boogie on Reggae Woman" by Stevie Affirmative Action
Wonder (Tamla 54254) Male Chauvinism
"Out of Sight" by James Brown
(Smash 1919)
"Black Pearl" by Sonny Charles and
the Checkmates, Ltd. (A & M 1053)
"Kiss An Angel Good Morning" by
Charley Pride (RCA 0550)
"Lady Marmalade" by LaBelle (Epic
50048)
"Mr. Big Stuff" by Jean Knight
(Stax 0088)
"Love Child" by Diana Ross and the
Supremes (Motown 1135)
"Don't Make Me Over" by Dionne
Warwick (Scepter 1239)

Social "Compared to What" by Les McCann Sexual Exploitation

Criticism and Eddie Harris (Atlantic 2694) Religious Hypocrisy
"Masterpiece" by the Temptations Political Unrest
(Gordy 7126) War

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 "War" by Edwin Starr (Gordy 7101) Equality
"Everyday People" by Sly and the Revolution
Family Stone (Epic 10407) Racial Discrimination
"Ball of Confusion" by the Temptations
(Gordy 7099)
"The World is A Ghetto" by War
(UAE 50975)
"Revolution" by Nina Simone
(RCA 9730)

Urban Life "Masterpiece" by the Temptations Ghetto

(Gordy 7126) Discrimination
"Dead End Street" by Lou Rawls Poverty
(Capitol 5869) Unemployment
""Bright Lights, Big City" by Jimmy Block Busting
Reed (Vee Jay 398) Population Density
"Spanish Harlem" by Ben E. King Law Enforcement
(Atco 6185) Street Wisdom
"I'm Coming Home" by the Spinners Urban Renewal
(Atlantic 3027) Public Transportation
"Ain't No Love In the Heart of
the City" by Bobby Bland
(Dunhill 15003)
"Living For the City" by Stevie
Wonder (Tamla 54242)
"Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna
Holler)" by Marvin Gaye
(Tamla 54209)

Personal "It's Your Thing" by the Isley Independence

Freedom Brothers (T Neck 901) Equality
"I've Gotta Be Me" by Sammy Davis, Jr. Choice
(Reprise 0779) Individualism
"A Natural Man" by Lou Rawls (MGM Freedom
14262) Responsibility
"Stand!" by Sly and the Family Stone
(Epic 10450)
"Do Your Thing" by the Watts 103rd
Street Rhythm Band (Warner
Brothers 7250)
"Big Boss Man" by Jimmy Reed (Vee-Jay
380)

This thematic structure can be easily expanded to illustrate

specific points of social, political or economic concern. For in-
stance, the black man's ambivalent attitude toward material goods
can be dramatically demonstrated to students by contrasting Barret
Strong's assertion, "Gimme money! That's all I want !"
("Money"-Anna 11101) with the lyrical warning by the O'Jays,
"Money can drive some people out of their minds!" ("For the
Love of Money"-CBS 3544). One strength of this teaching ap-
proach is its flexibility. An instructor may approach a universally

32 The Journal of Negro Education

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relevant concept such as "materialism" from a variety of perspec-
tives based upon the specific recordings employed. Once such a
theme has been identified, some members of the class will inevitably
attempt to outdo the teacher in assembling their own audio refer-
ences. Thus, the original two-song dichotomy on materialism-
Barret Strong vs. The O'Jays-may be expanded through student
suggestions to include "Busted" (ABC 10481) by Ray Charles,
"Money Honey" (Atlantic 1006) by the Drifters, "Spanish Har-
lem" (ATCO 6185) by Ben E. King, "Patches" (Atlantic 2748) by
Clarence Carter, and "Payin' the Cost to Be the Boss" (Bluesway
61015) by B. B. King.

LYRIC AND ALBUM RESOURCES

Two problems still remain. First, where can a teacher of black

history obtain the lyrics to the numerous songs listed above? The
following selected bibliography provides a broad resource list:
Atkinson, Bob. Songs of the Open Road: The Poetry of Folk Rock. New
York: New American Library, 1974.
Chuck Berry-The Golden Decade. New York: Arc Music Corporation, n.d.
Carawan, Guy and Candi (Comps.). We Shall Overcome! Songs of the
Southern Freedom Movement. New York: Oak Publications, 1963.
Dowdey, Landon Gerald (comp.). Journey to Freedom: A Casebook With
Music. Chicago: Swallow Press, 1969.
Glazer, Tom (ed.). Songs of Peace, Freedom, and Protest. Greenwich,
Connecticut: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1970.
Goldstein, Richard (ed.). The Poetry of Rock. New York: Bantom Books,
Inc., 1969.
Ledbetter, Huddie (edited by Moses Asch and Alan Lomax). The Leadbelly
Songbook. New York: Oak Publications, 1963.
Lomax, Alan (comp.). Hard Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People. New York:
Oak Publications, 1967.
The Motown Era. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, Inc., 1971.
Nicholas, A. X. (ed.). The Poetry of Soul. New York: Bantam Books, Inc.,
1971.
(ed.). Woke Up This Mornin': Poetry of the Blues. New York: Bantam
Books, Inc., 1973.
Rock and Soul Songs. Derby, Connecticut: Charlton Publications, Inc.
1955-1977.
Sackheim, Eric (comp.). The Blues Line: A Collection of Blues Lyrics. New
York: Grossman Publishers, Inc., 1969.
Savary, Louis M. (ed.). Popular Song and Youth Today: Fifty Songs-Their
Meaning and You. New York: Association Press, 1971.
Spinner, Stephanie. Rock is Beautiful: An Anthology of American Lyrics,
1953-1969. New York: Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1970.
Wonder, Stevie (edited by Steve Francis). Anthology-Stevie Wonder. Mi-
ami, Florida: Screen Gems/Columbia Publications, 1975.
Work, John W. (ed.). American Negro Songs and Spirituals. New York:
Bonanza Books, 1940.

The Journal of Negro Education 33

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 Second, what recordings should a teacher seek to acquire in or-
der to initiate a basic collection of contemporary black music? The
following selected discography suggests a core album collection:
Chuck Berry, Chuck Berry's Golden Decade (CH 1514). New York: Chess/
Janus Records, 1972.
Chuck Berry, Chuck Berry's Golden Decade-Volume 2 (CH 60023). New
York: Chess/Janus Records, 1972.
Chuck Berry, The London Chuck Berry Sessions (CH 60020). New York:
Chess/Janus Records, 1972.
Ray Charles, Greatest Hits (ABCS 415). New York: ABC Records, Inc.,
1971.
Ray Charles, A 25th Anniversary in Show Business Salute To Ray Charles:
His All-Time Great Performances (ABCH 731): New York: ABC Rec-
ords, Inc., 1971.
Classic Blues (BLC 6061/2). New York: ABC Records, Inc., 1973.
Sam Cooke, The Best of Sam Cooke (LSP 2625). New York: RCA Records,
1965.
Willie Dixon, I Am The Blues (CS 9987). New York: Columbia Records/
CBS, Inc., n.d.
Fats Domino, Fats Domino: The Legendary Masters Series (UAS 9958). Los
Angeles, California: United Artists Records, Inc., 1971.
The Drifters, The Drifters' Golden Hits (SD 8153). New York: Atlantic
Recording Corporation, 1968.
The Fifth Dimension, Greatest Hits (SCS 33900). Los Angeles, California:
Liberty/United Artists, Inc., n.d.
The Four Tops, Mary Wells, Michael Jackson, and Martha Reeves and the
Vandellas, Motown's Preferred Stock: Option No. 2 (M6 882 S1). Hol-
lywood, California: Motown Record Corporation, 1977.
Fourteen Golden Recordings From the Historical Vaults of Vee Jay Records
(ABCX 785). Los Angeles, California: ABC Records, Inc., 1973.
Aretha Franklin, Aretha-Live At The Fillmore West (SD 7205). New York:
Atlantic Recording Corporation, 1971.
Aretha Franklin, Aretha's Greatest Hits (SD 8295). New York: Atlantic
Recording Corporation, 1971.
Aretha Franklin, The Gospel Soul of Aretha Franklin (CH 10009). New
York: Chess/Janus Records, 1972.
The History of Rhythm and Blues, 1947-1967-8 volumes (SC 8161-4/
8193-4/8208-9). New York: Atlantic Recording Corporation, 1968,
1969.
Howlin' Wolf, Chester Burnett Aka Howlin' Wolf (2CH 60016). New York:
Chess/Janus Records, 1972.
Albert King, Live Wire/Blues Power (STS 2003). Memphis, Tennessee: Stax
Records, n.d.
B. B. King, Live In Cook County Jail (ABCS 723). Los Angeles, California:
ABC/Dunhill Records, Inc., 1971.
Freddie King, Freddie King-All His Hits (King 5012X). Nashville, Tennes-
see: King Records, 1977.
Gladys Knight and the Pips, The Spinners, Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell,
and The Marvelettes, Motown's Preferred Stock: Option No. 1 (M6 881
S1). Hollywood, California: Motown Record Corporation, 1977.
Let The Good Times Roll (Bell 9002). New York: Bell Records, 1973.

34 The Journal of Negro Education

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 Curtis Mayfield, Curtis/Live (CRS 8008). New York: Buddah Records, n.d.
Curtis Mayfield, Curtis Mayfield: His Early Years With the Impressions
(ABCX 780/2). Los Angeles, California: ABC Records, Inc., 1973.
Curtis Mayfield, Super Fly (CBS 8014-ST). New York: Curtom Records,
1972.
Newport in New York '72: The Soul Sessions, Volume 6 (CST 9028). New
York: Buddah Records, Inc., 1972.
Odetta, Odetta Sings Dylan (LPM 3324). New York: RCA Records, 1965.
Wilson Pickett, Wilson Pickett's Greatest Hits (SD 2-501). New York: At-
lantic Recording Corporation. 1973.
Pop Origins (CHESS LP 1544). Chicago: Chess Records, n.d.
Lou Rawls, The Best of Lou Rawls (SM 2948). Hollywood, California: Cap-
itol Records, Inc., n.d.
Otis Redding, The Best of Otis Redding (SD 2-801). New York: ATCO
Records, 1972.
Rock 'N' Soul: The History of Rock in the Pre-Beatle Decade of Rock-9
Volumes (ABCX 1955-63). Los Angeles, California: ABC Records, Inc.,
1973.
The Roots of Rock 'N' Roll (SJL 221). New York: Arista Records, Inc., 1977.
Diana Ross and the Supremes, Diana Ross and the Supremes Anthology
M7 794 A3). Hollywood, California: Motown Record Corporation, 1974.
The Super Hits-5 volumes (SD 501/8188/8203/8224/8274). New York:
Atlantic Recording Corporation, 1967, 1968, and 1970.
Taj Mahal, The Natch'l Blues (CS 9698). New York: Columbia Records,
n.d.
The Temptations, Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, Jr. Walker and the
All Stars, and Edwin Starr, Motown's Preferred Stock: Option No. 3
(M6 883 S1). Hollywood, California: Motown Record Corporation,
1977.
This Is How It All Began: The Roots of Rock 'N' Roll As Recorded From
1945 to 1955 On Specialty Records-2 Volumes (SPS 21117/8). Holly-
wood, California: Specialty Records, Inc., 1969, 1970.
Muddy Waters (McKidley Morganfield), Folk Singer (CHESS LP 1483).
Chicago: Chess Recording Corporation, n.d.
Stevie Wonder, Greatest Hits (T 282). Detroit, Michigan: Tamla Records,
1968.
Stevie Wonder, Stevie Wonder's Greatest Hits, Volume 2 (T6 313 S1). De-
troit, Michigan: Tamla Records, 1971.

CONCLUSION

Until the formal historical scholarship and the inf

tradition of the black man is synthesized in the clas
value of black history will never be realized. This es
only two innovative instructional approaches- (a) bio
popular music artists and (b) lyrical demonstration of so

The Journal of Negro Education 35

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-as models for historical study in the classroom. The ability of
teachers to adopt non-traditional (though popular) oral resources
remains a question mark. It is my opinion that without the intro-
duction of such innovative instructional techniques, the majority of
students will continue to question the validity of black history in
their lives.

36 The Journal of Negro Education

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