Human Nutrition

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Human
Nutrition
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Life Sciences
Unit
Human
Nutrition
Unit Structure
Cover Page
The unit title is highlighted and the learn-
ing objectives presented. An index of the
contents according to the 5-E Model is also
provided. The digital version also includes an
activity to review the skills and knowledge
required to undertake the unit.
Engage
A video and a related activity are available
with the digital version. Both versions have
a summary on page one. Different activities
are proposed for the video; some of these
may be interactive in the digital version, but
they all contain open-ended questions.
Explore
This exploratory and discovery activity is
devised to mobilize prior knowledge and
check it against the results obtained from
the experience. The digital version con-
tains the necessary multimedia resources
required for this activity: simulators, videos,
interactivities, etc.
4 www.science-bits.com
Unit Structure
Explain
The unit’s key concepts are formally and
systematically addressed. The digital version
includes a wide range of multimedia resourc-
es to facilitate understanding of the ideas
presented. The printable version includes
all basic graphical elements and references
to the digital resources available. The digital
version may also include reinforcement or
enrichment activities.
Elaborate
In this section, the newly acquired knowl-
edge can be applied in a practical way.
Thus, a problem-solving activity is pro-
posed, one which requires the application
of the concepts, attitudes, and procedures
learned throughout the unit. The digital
version may provide multimedia tools (such
as simulators or videos) to help develop
and solve the activity.
Exercises
Each of the concepts addressed in the
“Explain” section is related to interactive
or open-ended exercises with the aim of
consolidating the topics covered through
practice. The printable version includes all
the exercises except for reinforcement or en-
richment activities, and they are organized
in accordance with the contents from the
“Explain” section.
www.science-bits.com 5
Human Nutrition
Index
· Engage
· Space Food ............................................................................08
· Explore
· Exploring Digestion ..............................................................10
· Explain
· Nutrients ................................................................................13
· Food Nutrients
· Carbohydrates .................................................................14
· Fats ....................................................................................14
· Proteins .............................................................................14
· Vitamins ............................................................................15
· Water and Minerals .........................................................15
· Diet .........................................................................................16
· The Processes of Human Nutrition ...................................17
· Obtaining Nutrients
· Digestion .........................................................................18
· Digestive Glands .............................................................19
· Intestinal Absorption .....................................................20
· Breathing ..........................................................................20
· Transportation of Substances ........................................... 21
· Blood ................................................................................22
· Blood Vessels ...................................................................22
· The Heart .........................................................................23
· The Circulation of Blood ................................................23
· Removing Waste Substances .............................................. 24
· Regulation of the Body’s Internal Environment ................ 26
· Nutrition and Health
· Diet-Related Diseases .....................................................26
· Eating Disorders ..............................................................28
· Guidelines for Maintaining Healthy Habits ..................29
· Elaborate
· Analyze Your Diet! .................................................................30
· Exercises ................................................................................... 35
In this unit, you will learn:

About the information that is included on food What happens to the food you eat, from inges-
labels. tion to the absorption of its nutrients by your
cells.
Why it is not recommended to eat junk foods or
sugary sodas. How oxygen from the air reaches all of your cells.
Why it is a good idea have a varied diet, rich in How you eliminate the waste products of the
greens, vegetables, and fruits. cells in your body through urine.
About the body systems involved in nutrition. About the steps recommended to lead a healthy life.
Engage
Space Food
Video
Ever since manned spacecraft first went to space a few decades ago,
one important question has needed to be solved: how should astro-
nauts be fed?
Under weightless conditions, it is difficult to sit down and eat a yo-

ghurt, never mind cook something. At the same time, the room avail-
able on spacecraft and space stations to store food is quite limited.
That’s why scientists thought that the astronauts’ food should most-
ly be rich in the substances needed by the body. They reduced the
amount of less necessary substances.
Early astronaut meals consisted of puréed food packed into tubes like
toothpaste.
Later, they used cubes of concentrated food containing the substanc-

es astronauts needed.
Scientists even dreamed of creating a pill that could replace a full,

healthy, balanced meal.
If that was ever possible, which substances

froma well-balanced, healthy meal
should this pill include, so that the
basic food needs of an astronaut
could be met?
Questions
What Is There in Food?

a. The video in the digital version explains that
foods made for space travel have to be rich in
substances that the body needs. What is the
name used to refer to this group of essential
substances?
b. What are the main types of essential substanc-

es found in food?
5 mm 0.005 mm
Comparing the size of a grain of corn and a cell.
What must happen to the foods for the nutrients

they contain to be incorporated into the cells?
Indicate whether the transformations expe-
rienced by foods in your digestive system are
physical, chemical, or both.
c. Once the nutrients have been extracted from

the foods, they must be transported to all the
cells in your body.
c. Not all foods contain the same essential
substances, and the relative amounts of each es- How does this transportation happen?
sential substance may vary from food to food.
Design two menus. The first should be a healthy,

balanced meal that contains all the essential sub- d. Are all the substances essential to the body
stances in the appropriate amounts. The second obtained from food? Explain your answer.
should be an unhealthy, unbalanced meal.
Explain your two menus.
e. Nutrients participate in several chemical reac-

tions in the cells and are converted into other
substances. Some of the resulting substances—
Nourishing the Cells such as CO2 and urea—can be toxic if they build
a. Ultimately, the cells that make up your body up in your body. These are called waste substanc-
use the nutrients contained in food. es.
What roles do nutrients play in the cells? What does your body do with the waste sub-
stances produced by the cells?
b. Cells are much smaller than the bits of food
you eat. In fact, most food molecules cannot be
directly absorbed by cells.
Explore
Exploring Digestion
The foods you eat contain nutrients that your body needs to sustain life.
However, the nutrients in most of these foods can’t be used immedi-

ately, because they are large, complex molecules.
These nutrients have to be broken down into much smaller and sim-
pler molecules for your cells to be able to absorb and use them. This
process, called digestion, occurs in your digestive system.
In this activity, you will explore the digestion of an extremely popular

food: the potato.
Potato, Starch, and Glucose

The potato is a tuber—a reserve organ in which the plant stores up a
substance called starch.
Starch is a molecule that is too large to be taken in by cells. This large
molecule is composed of thousands of tiny glucose molecules joined
together.
Glucose, in contrast, is a molecule that can pass through a cell mem-
Video brane. Glucose, which is a simple sugar, is the primary energy source for
the cells in your body.
As shown in the video in the digital version, we can test for the
presence of starch in the potato with the iodine test: when
starch is present, the iodine changes color from brown to blue-
black.
Complete this diagram comparing the
main characteristics of glucose and starch:
Molecule name [starch / glucose] [starch / glucose]
Molecular size [very large / small] [very large / small]

Is it found in large amounts in potatoes? [yes / no] [yes / no]
Can it be detected with the iodine test? [yes / no] [yes / no]
Can our cells absorb it? [yes / no] [yes / no]
Digestion of Potatoes
The digestion of food begins in the mouth. That’s why it is important to
chew foods well.
a. What effect does chewing have on the food?
b. What effect does saliva have on the food?
c. Next, you will investigate the action of teeth and saliva on the digestion
of potato starch—that is, on the conversion of starch into simple sugars.
To do this, we will apply a different treatment to four equal slices of boiled
potato to simulate the action of teeth and of saliva.
Video
Carefully watch the video in the digital version and indicate, for each of the
treatments, whether the actions of teeth and saliva are being assessed.
Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Treatment 4

Teeth action [assessed [assessed [assessed [assessed
/ not assessed] / not assessed] / not assessed] / not assessed]
Saliva action [assessed [assessed [assessed [assessed
/ not assessed] / not assessed] / not assessed] / not assessed]
d. What do you think will be the effect of each of the treatments on the
potato starch?
e. To test the hypotheses, follow these steps: pore

dialysis
tubing bag
1. Insert small pieces of potato in dialysis tubing bags and seal both ends.
2. Place each of the bags into a glass filled with 200 mL of water. 1 µm
A dialysis tubing bag is a type of membrane with microscopic pores that

separate smaller molecules from larger molecules, only allowing the smaller
ones to pass through. These tubes are a model of your intestine.
tubing
Which molecules can diffuse through these membranes? closures
water
q The water molecules
q The glucose molecules
q The starch molecules Test system with the dialysis tubing
bag and one of the glasses of water.
f. After a few hours, remove a sample of 15 mL of water from each of the
glasses.
Video
First of all, apply the iodine test to each of the samples to assess whether
the potato starch has diffused through the bags.
Watch the video in the digital version and indicate the test results for each
of the four experimental treatments.
g. Next, test the water for the presence of glucose with Benedict’s test.
Watch the video in the digital version.
Rank the treatments according to their sugar content, from most concen-
Video trated (red) to the least concentrated (blue).
The test involves adding a blue reagent to the water. When the water is
heated, the reagent detects the presence of simple sugars and changes the
color of water to green, and then to yellow, to orange, and to red, depend-
ing on the concentration of sugar.
h. In light of the experimental results, explain how important it is, when eat-
ing foods like potatoes, to chew the food well and to moisten it with saliva.
Conclusions
Many of the nutrients found in food are in the
form of large molecules. However, your cells can-
not absorb large molecules.
Foods need to be digested to enable your

cells to absorb and use the nutrients they
contain.
One one hand, chemical digestion occurs:

Your saliva, as well as gastric juices and other di-
gestive secretions, contain digestive enzymes
that chemically transform the large molecules in
food into smaller molecules so that they can be ab-
sorbed by cells.
On the other hand, mechanical digestion occurs:

Your teeth, as well as the muscles in your digestive
tract, break the food down into smaller fragments,
enhancing the action of the digestive enzymes.
Explain
Nutrients
Nutrients are substances the body takes in to sustain the life

of cells.
Nutrients provide cells with the raw materials they need to build cellu-
lar structures, repair, grow, and multiply. Nutrients also supply the energy
needed to perform life processes and allow regulation of the chemical
reactions that occur within the cells.
Nutrients can be classified as:

Organic
Organic nutrients are complex molecules produced by living organ-
isms. They are needed to obtain the energy and build the biomol-
ecules that make up your body.
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins—by far the most common nutri-
ents—supply us with energy and raw materials. In contrast, vitamins
regulate the metabolism.

Inorganic
Inorganic nutrients are simple molecules that can be found in living
organisms, but have not been produced by them. These nutrients are
essential to your body but do not supply any energy.
Minerals (such as calcium and sodium), water, and oxygen are inor-
ganic nutrients. Oxygen is a gas you obtain from the air, and not from
food.
All nutrients apart from oxygen can be found in food. Your body needs
to process the food you eat in order to extract the nutrients and trans-
port them to your cells.
Food Nutrients
Gallery Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are water-soluble molecules composed of carbon, oxy-
gen, and hydrogen. These:
1. Are the main source of energy for cells;

2. Provide the raw materials from which cells can form biomolecules.
The carbohydrates we eat are of two types:

Fruits contain a type of sugar called ugars or simple carbohydrates. These easily enter the cells and
S
fructose in the pulp, and have fiber supply energy for immediate consumption. All the different types
in the skin.
of sugars are ultimately converted into glucose, which is deliv-
ered to the cells.

Complex carbohydrates. Carbs such as starch, are made of long
chains of glucose. Cells cannot take in these chains, as they are
too large, but they are able to take in the sugars produced by the
digestion of starches in the digestive tract.
Unrefined flour and whole grain ce- Fiber is a complex carbohydrate of plant origin. Humans cannot digest
reals are rich in starches and fiber. fiber or use it as a source of energy or matter, but it is nonetheless essen-
tial for the functioning of the digestive system.
Fats
Gallery
Fats or lipids are water-insoluble molecules composed of carbon, oxy-
gen, and hydrogen.
1.
Fats, the nutrients that contain the most energy, are stored in spe-
cialized tissues and are the body’s main energy reserve.
2.
Fats are used in the formation of biomolecules and are the main
component of cellular membranes.
The foods we eat contain different types of fats:

Some processed baked goods are
rich in hydrogenated fats.
Unsaturated fats, which are usually liquid at room temperature.
They are considered to be healthy.

Saturated fats, which are usually solid at room temperature. They
are considered to be less healthy.
Trans fats or hydrogenated fats. These fats, which are originally
unsaturated, have been transformed into saturated fats in the in-
dustrial processing of some foods. These fats are best avoided in
Olive oil and oily fish are rich in un- the diet.
saturated fats.
Cholesterol is a lipid found in foods of animal origin. Humans syn-
thesize an adequate amount of cholesterol in the liver already, so no
additional intake is needed.
Proteins
Proteins are molecules that are mainly made up of carbon, oxygen, hy-
drogen, and nitrogen. These nutrients:
1.
Play a key role in the synthesis of biomolecules—a process that the
body needs for growth and repair.
an be used as an energy source if all the carbohydrates and fats
2. C
have been used up by the body.
Gallery
Proteins are made up of long chains of simpler molecules called amino
acids.
20 different amino acids are necessary to produce all of the proteins re-
quired by your body. Your cells are unable to produce 10 of these mole-
cules. These are called the essential amino acids and must be obtained
from the foods you eat.

Complete proteins are found in foods of animal origin and pro-
Individually, foods of plant origin
vide the 10 essential amino acids. are incomplete protein sources.

Incomplete proteins are found in foods of plant origin, and are miss-
ing one or more of the essential amino acids. However, the 10 essen-
tial amino acids can be obtained by combining foods of plant origin.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic components that the body either cannot pro-
duce or produces only in insufficient quantities. These must be ob- Table
tained from food.
All vitamins:
1.
Are needed in small quantities.
2.
Are essential for regulating many cellular processes in the body.
Vitamins are classified into two groups:

Fat-soluble vitamins, which are stored in the fatty tissues of your
body.

Water-soluble vitamins, which cannot be stored in the body and
must be taken daily.
Water and Minerals

Foods are also a source of inorganic nutrients: water and minerals.
Water is essential to life: Table

It makes up two thirds of the human body.
The chemical reactions that make life possible occur in water.
The human body needs a daily intake of about 2 L of water, which

is obtained from food and drink.
On the other hand, minerals:

Are nutrients that humans need in small quantities.
re involved in the regulation of internal processes and used as build-
A
ing materials.
Plants obtain minerals through their roots; you obtain minerals by eat-
ing vegetables or animals that feed on plants.
Main sources Main processes
Formation and maintenance of bones and teeth; blood clot-

Calcium Dairy products, greens, and legumes
ting; muscle and nerve function
Phosphorus Dairy products, nuts, legumes, meat, and fish Formation of bones and teeth; cellular metabolism
Meat (especially red meat), fish, legumes, shellfish, and

Iron nuts
Enables red blood cells to carry oxygen
Fluorine Fish and drinking water Maintenance of healthy teeth and bones
Magnesium Nuts, legumes, whole grains, and vegetables Muscle and nerve function; cellular metabolism
Thyroid hormone production (regulates several body

Iodine Seafood, iodized table salt
processes)
Muscle and nerve function; water balance; functioning

Potassium Fruits, vegetables, red meat, and fish
of pancreas
Sodium Salt, soy sauce, snacks, convenience foods Muscle and nerve function; water balance
Other Manganese, selenium, zinc, chlorine, and others are es-

Found in a very wide range of sources
sential minerals for the human body
Interactive chart with 12 minerals found in food.
Healthy
fats
Dairy
products
Diet
Your health and growth depend greatly on the food you eat.
W
ho
ts
Your diet means the foods you eat throughout the day.
le
ui
gr
Fr
ai
ns
A balanced diet provides the appropriate amounts

of nutrients you need to stay healthy and grow both
physically and mentally.
Knowing the nutritional composition of foods allows us to

combine these foods and design a balanced diet.
Gr
ns
ee
ei
ns
ot
The nutrients obtained from a balanced diet have three

Pr
functions in your body and cells:

Approximate relative proportions of different food
types in a a balanced diet.
Maintenance and growth

Proteins provide cells with matter for the maintenance and growth of your body. This is the
main role in your diet of foods rich in proteins. 100 g of soy beans contain 36 g of protein.
Energy Supply
The cells in your body need energy to survive. To obtain energy, they perform cellular respiration.
This is the main way that cells consume carbohydrates and fats. This is the main role in our diet
of foods rich in these nutrients. 100 g of couscous contain 77 g of carbohydrate.
Regulation
Millions of coordinated chemical reactions take place in your body. The tiny quantities of vita-
mins and minerals that certain foods provide are enough to regulate these processes.Spinach
is rich in vitamins A, B9, C, and K; in iron, magnesium, and potassium; and in water.
The Processes of Human Nutrition

Human nutrition is a series of biological processes that enable hu-
mans to:
1.
Obtain nutrients. Interactivity
2.
Transport these nutrients to the cells and remove the metabolic
wastes from the cells. The four systems involved in
nutrition.
3.
Carry the wastes out of the body.
pharynx
Esophagus
Mouth nasal cavity epiglottis
Gall bladder larynx

mouth
Liver trachea
Stomach
Pancreas bronchi Lungs
Large
Small intestine
intestine
diaphragm
Digestive Respiratory
The digestive system extracts nutrients from foods, breaking down The respiratory system obtains oxygen from the air and adds it to the
foods into molecular components that can be absorbed by cells. blood; it also releases carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular res-
piration.
Oxygen-poor blood
Oxygen-rich blood
kidneys
heart ureters
urinary
bladder
blood vessels
urethra
Circulatory Urinary
The circulatory system transports nutrients to all cells in the body and The urinary system filters waste and extra salt from the blood. These
removes metabolic waste from the cells. are eliminated in the urine. This system also regulates the body’s water
balance.
Obtaining Nutrients
Digestion
The first step in nutrition involves obtaining nutrients from

foods.
Video
The nutrients in food are part of complex molecules that cannot be
absorbed by cells. Food first needs to be transformed, and only then
can the nutrient molecules be absorbed.
Video Digestion is the physical and chemical process by which foods are con-
verted into nutrients that can be absorbed by cells.
1 2 3
stomach
Mastication bolus
+
gastric juices
Chemical action
of saliva
In the mouth, the teeth and tongue initi- The digestive enzymes in saliva, called The bolus is pushed by the muscles of
ate the mechanical digestion of food, glycosidases, break the large molecules the esophagus down to the stomach,
which is broken down into smaller por- of complex carbohydrates, such as where it mixes with the gastric juices.
tions. Simultaneously, saliva initiates the starch, down into sugars like glucose.
chemical breakdown of food, which is
converted into a mass called a bolus.
4 5 liver 6
gall bladder
chyme pancreas
digestive
enzymes
duodenus
The gastric juices contain digestive In a few hours, the gastric juices and In the first part of the small intestine,
enzymes, such as proteases, that act the muscular contraction of the stom- called the duodenum, the chyme mix-
on proteins and release the amino ac- ach walls complete the digestion of the es with bile (produced by the liver and
ids within them. bolus, which leaves the stomach as a secreted by the gall bladder) and with
mass of partially digested food and acids the digestive juices secreted by the
called chyme. pancreas.
7 8 9
large
small intestine
intestine
rectum
anus
These secretions contain digestive en- The muscular contractions of the small The remnants of undigested chyme in
zymes, such as lipases. These enzymes intestine move the chyme inside it, and the large intestine still contain some
break large fat molecules down into the enzymes produced by the intes- minerals and water, which are absorbed
smaller molecules. tinal glands finish the digestion. The by the intestinal lining. The waste mate-
released nutrients are absorbed by the rials move to the rectum, build up, and
epithelium cells lining the walls of the form the feces that will be eliminated
intestine. through the anus.
Digestive Blands
Digestive glands are organs and structures that secrete diges- Glycosidase
tive juices and discharge them into the digestive tract.
Digestive juices contain digestive enzymes that act chemically on

food macromolecules and break them down into smaller nutrient mol- Lipase
ecules.
There are several types of enzymes, distinguished by whether they

act on carbohydrates (glycosidases), fats (lipases), or proteins (pepti-
dases). Peptidase
oral cavity
gastric glands
salivary glands stomach
The salivary glands secrete saliva inside the oral cavity. Saliva The gastric glands, found in tiny crypts of the stomach lining,
hydrates foods, facilitates chewing, and contains enzymes secrete gastric juice. These juices contain hydrochloric ac-
called glycosidases that initiate the chemical digestion of ids and enzymes called peptidases that act together on food
complex carbohydrates, such as starch. proteins. These glands also secrete mucus to protect the walls
of the stomach from the corrosive action of the acid.
entrance to duodenum liver
pancreatic duct bile duct
pancreas entrance to duodenum

gall bladder
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice in the duodenum, The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and
the first section of the small intestine. This juice contains a drains into the duodenum. Bile does not contain enzymes, but
wide variety of digestive enzymes that act on all types of food it acts to break down large droplets of fat, allowing the pancre-
biomolecules. atic juices to digest them.
Along with the digestive system, the pancreas plays a key role Apart from taking part in food digestion, the liver stores glu-
in the regulation of glucose levels in blood. cose, iron, and vitamins, and has a key role in the removal of
toxic substances from the blood.
villi The intestinal glands are tiny crypts found in the lining of the
intestine that secrete intestinal juice. These glands produce
a wide variety of enzymes—acting on carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins—and secrete mucus, a substance to protect the walls
of the intestine.
intestinal glands
intestine
Intestinal Absorption
Video Intestinal absorption is the process by which nutrients—ex-

tracted during digestion—pass through the cells that line the
walls of the intestine and are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Generally:

The lining of the small intestine absorbs organic nutrients, as
well as most minerals and water.

The lining of the large intestine absorbs minerals, water, and some
vitamins.
The food remnants that were not digested build up at the bottom of
the large intestine and are eliminated in the form of feces.
The walls of the small intestine are covered in villi. Inside each villus,
there is a network of blood capillaries.
Nutrients are absorbed into the intestinal epithelial cells of the villi,
and then diffuse into blood capillaries and into the bloodstream.
Breathing
All your cells need to consume oxygen (O2) to obtain energy

from organic nutrients through cellular respiration.
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a waste product of this chemical reaction. It is

a toxic substance for cells.
Nutrients other than oxygen are taken in by the digestive system.

Oxygen is provided by the respiratory system through the breathing
process.
Breathing is the process by which oxygen in the air is transferred to

the blood, and carbon dioxide in the blood is released into the air.
Video
Inspiration 1 nasal
2 bronchi 3
lungs
cavity
pharynx bronchioles
During inspiration, the diaphragm The air enters through the nose, where The lungs are not empty, but are spongy
contracts to expand the chest cavity. it is screened, moistened, and warmed structures. Inside them, the bronchioles
The lungs expand, and the difference in up. It then passes through the pharynx branch several times, each ultimately
pressure allows the air to move into the and larynx and moves into the trachea, leading to a space enclosed by minute
lungs. a tubelike passageway that divides into sacs called alveoli. Each lung contains
two bronchi. The bronchi enter the approximately 300 million alveoli.
lungs, where they become branched
tubes called bronchioles.
alveoli 4 capillary
red blood cell
5 O2 6
alveolus
capillaries
The alveoli have very thin, delicate Blood in the capillaries contains less On the other hand, the blood in the
walls, surrounded by a myriad of thin oxygen than air in the alveoli. To even capillaries contains more carbon dioxide
blood capillaries. Gas exchange occurs out this difference in concentration, oxy- than the air in the alveoli. This gas
between air in the alveoli and blood in gen diffuses across the alveolar wall and penetrates through the capillary walls
the capillaries. moves into the blood flow—a process and into the alveoli in another process of
called diffusion. diffusion.
CO2
CO2 7 Expiration
8
These processes occur simultaneously

so, once the blood has passed through
the alveoli, the amount of oxygen in it
has increased and the amount of carbon
dioxide has decreased.
Finally, the air in the alveoli, rich in
carbon dioxide, leaves the body: the
diaphragm relaxes, the lungs reduce in
volume, and the pressure inside them
increases. This process is called expira-
O2
tion (exhalation).
Transportation of Substances
Once nutrients enter the body through the digestive and respiratory Outlines
systems, they must reach all the cells in the body. Carrying and trans-
porting the waste products of cellular metabolism is also a very impor-
tant process. Oxygen-poor
blood
Oxygen-rich
The circulatory system is responsible for transporting substances blood
throughout the body.
The circulatory system is a vast network of blood vessels. Your heart

pumps your blood, which flows through these vessels.
Blood flow distributes nutrients to all cells in the body and transports
waste products from the cells. The Circulatory System
Blood
55% plasma
Blood is a liquid made up of two elements:
45 % Blood cells
Blood plasma is a yellowish aqueous solution made up of several > 99 %
solutes. It contains several nutrients (but no oxygen) and waste red blood cells
products.
<1%

Blood cells, which may be red blood cells, white blood cells, or white blood cells
platelets. + platelets
Blood composition (in volume).
Electron microscope Light microscope Electron microscope Light microscope
6 µm 18 µm 6 µm 18 µm
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells

Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, make up the White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are smaller in
largest volume of blood cells (approximately 4–6 million per volume (there are approximately 5,000–10.000 per microlit-
microliter). These cells lack a nucleus and are specialized in er). There are different types of leukocytes, all of which have
transporting oxygen through the blood. This is possible nuclei and are part of the body’s response to infections and
because of hemoglobin, an iron-rich protein that gives other foreign substances.
blood its red color.
Electron microscope Light microscope Platelets
Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments
that participate in blood clotting and control the bleed-
ing process. When a blood vessel is broken due to injury,
platelets are attracted to the site of injury and form a clot to
stop the bleeding.
Blood cells are produced in the bone

6 µm 18 µm
marrow, a tissue found inside many bones.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels are the tubes that blood flows through.
The blood vessels form a network through which the blood flows in
a closed circuit and always in the same direction. There are three
main types of blood vessels in the human body. Each type plays a dif-
Gallery ferent role in blood circulation and has a different structure. They are:
connective tissue valve

epithelium
muscular layer connective tissue
muscular layer
epithelium
epithelium
Arteries are the vessels that carry blood Capillaries are blood vessels of microscopic Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood
from the heart to all other organs in the diameter. The exchange of substances be- back to the heart. The capillaries connect to
body, where they branch into arteries of in- tween the blood and the cells of body tissues minor veins, which in turn connect to major
creasingly smaller diameter and ultimately and organs occurs across the thin, delicate veins. The walls of the veins are less muscular
into capillaries. The walls of the arteries are walls of the capillaries. To allow the exchange and less elastic than the walls of the arteries.
highly elastic due to the thick muscular layer of nutrients and waste products, the walls of Veins have one-way valves that prevent the
covering the epithelium, which is the layer of capillaries are made up of a single-cell layer blood from flowing in the wrong direction.
cells that forms the lining of all blood vessels. called the epithelium.
The Heart
The heart is a hollow muscular organ that maintains the circu-

lation of blood by pumping it in a cyclic manner.
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity (the chest), between the
lungs. It is about the size of a fist and has a left side and a right side,
each divided into two interconnected chambers called the atrium and Gallery
the ventricle.
superior aorta right

pulmonary left
vena cava atrium atrium
artery
pulmonary
veins
pulmonary
veins
Veins and arteries are the blood vessels that connect the heart The atria are the heart’s two upper chambers. Each atrium has
with the organs and tissues of the body. Blood flows out of the heart thin walls and is connected to a large vein.
through the arteries and flows back to the heart through the veins.
pulmonary valve
septum
right
ventricle
mitral valve
tricuspid valve
chordae tendinae left
ventricle
Valves separate the chambers and ensure that blood flows in the cor- The ventricles are the heart’s lower chambers. When the muscular
rect direction, opening or closing as the heart contracts. walls of the ventricle contract, blood is pumped out. They are con-
nected to large arteries.
The Circulation of Blood

To circulate throughout the body, blood must pass through the heart
twice and complete two circuits:

The first circuit is called pulmonary respiration. Blood rich in CO2
and poor in O2 flows from the heart to the pulmonary alveoli. Gas
exchange takes place there, and the oxygen-rich blood flows back
to the heart.

In the second circuit, called systemic circulation, oxygen-rich blood
flows from the heart to all organs and tissues throughout the body.
Video Once there, the cells in the body absorb O2 and release CO2, the prod-
uct of cellular respiration, into the blood. The blood flows back to the
heart carrying the waste carbon dioxide.
Circulatory
system 1 2 3
The circulatory system is a complex ar- The heart is always filled with blood and Oxygen-poor blood enters the right
rangement of blood vessels. To better un- works as a pump that pushes blood side of the heart through the vena
derstand the process of circulation, this is a through the two circuits: blood flows cava. The heart’s muscles are relaxed.
simplified model consisting of two circuits: due to differences in pressure at vari-
pulmonary circulation and systemic ous points in the circuits.
circulation.
4 5 6
Next, the atrium contracts, increasing Blood flows from the pulmonary artery Oxygen-rich blood enters the left side
blood pressure in the ventricle. When to pulmonary capillaries, and gas ex- of the heart through the pulmonary
the ventricle contracts, the tricuspid change takes place: the amounts of veins. The heart’s muscles are relaxed.
valve closes, and blood is pumped out CO2 and O2 in the blood decrease and
through the pulmonary valve. increase, respectively.
7 8 9
Next, the atrium contracts, increasing Blood flows from the aorta to all the cap- In reality, pulmonary and systematic
blood pressure in the ventricle. When illaries throughout the body, and gas circulation occur simultaneously. The
the ventricle contracts, the mitral valve exchange takes place, but this time in sounds that the heart produces—a re-
closes, and blood is pumped out the opposite way: the amounts of O2 and peated double beat—are due to the si-
through the aortic valve. CO2 in the blood decrease and increase, multaneous closure of the tricuspid and
respectively. mitral valves (giving the the first sound),
and of the pulmonary and aortic valves
(giving the second sound).
Removing Waste Substances

The chemical reactions in cells produce waste substances that build up
and can be toxic to the body.
That’s why it is necessary to remove waste substances from

the body.
Two systems are responsible for this process:

The respiratory system releases CO2 from the blood as it flows
through the capillaries surrounding the pulmonary alveoli in the
lungs.

The urinary system removes excess minerals and other toxic
substances, such as urea (a product of protein metabolism) in the
urine. Video
urine
1 2 3
renal renal Filtered
artery blood bladder
artery
kidney
kidney
Salts Urea urine
Nutrients urethra
Blood enters the kidneys through the Blood filtration, which takes place in The fluid waste resulting from filtration
renal arteries. This blood is nutrient- the kidneys, involves filtering out cell in the kidneys is called urine, and passes
dense and has a high concentration of wastes and excess salts and water. The though the ureters to the urinary bladder.
waste substances. One such substance, filtered blood flows out of the kidneys The urinary bladder is a hollow organ
urea, is produced in the liver and is as- through the renal veins. with muscular walls that can hold up to
sociated with protein metabolism. 500 mL of urine. When the bladder is full,
you feel the need to urinate. Urine enters
the bladder and exits through the urethra.
renal
artery 4 5 Blood
6
Blood
capillaries renal vein
Primary
urine
ureter
Kidney
Filtration occurs in multiple tiny filtering Almost all water and blood serum sol- Primary urine passes through the tu-
units called nephrons. Blood from the utes—including nutrients and cell bule to the collecting duct. There are
renal artery enters the capsule—a cup- wastes—is filtered by the renal capsules millions of collecting ducts connecting
like structure in the nephron—through a surrounding the glomerulus. These the nephron to the ureter.
ball of capillaries called the glomerulus. substances form primary urine.
The capsule is connected to a snakelike
structure called the tubule.
initial filtration
7 8 final
urine 9
primary
urine
Glucose final
to the Water filtration
renal vein Salts
In turn, blood exiting through the glo- In this process, most of the nutrients With this process, the filtered blood reab-
merulus circulates through the capil- and water in the primary urine pass sorbs the nutrients from primary urine.
laries surrounding the nephron’s tu- through the walls of the tubule and are This urine, a concentrated waste liquid
bule. Capillaries like this one merge at reabsorbed back into the capillaries sur- with no nutrients, is then eliminated from
the renal vein in each of the kidneys. rounding the nephron’s tubule. the body, while the filtered blood returns
to the bloodstream with the nutrients.
Regulation of the Body’s Internal Environment
To ensure cell survival, living organisms tend to maintain the appropria-
Gallery te concentrations of water and mineral salts in the body. This process
is part of homeostasis.
The urinary system plays a key role in the elimination of excess

salts and the maintenance of the correct level of water in your body.
The volume and composition of the urine produced varies depen-

ding on the concentration of water in the body: the more water
you drink, the less concentrated the urine will be.
Other organs and systems help in maintaining homeostasis:

The skin eliminates water and excess mineral salts by secreting
sweat.

The respiratory system eliminates water through evaporation every
time air is exhaled.

The large intestine absorbs varying amounts of water and minerals
Sweat also regulates the body’s in- from undigested food remnants.
ternal temperature.
Nutrition and Health
Diet-Related Diseases
The process of human nutrition may be altered if any of the many organs
or structures involved in it isn’t working properly.
The list on your right includes some of the main nutritional diseases, or-
ganized by the body system they affect:
A disease is a physiological disorder that affects one or several

Gallery parts of the body.
Digestive System Diseases
Disease Description Causes
Breakdown of the mineral tissues that form teeth due to Excessive intake of sugars, lack of oral hygiene, ge-
Dental caries the activity of infectious bacteria. netic predisposition.
A disorder related to the insufficient production of in- Genetic predisposition, obesity, excessive intake of
sulin by the pancreas or a lack of cellular response to sugars.
Diabetes this hormone, leading to high blood sugar levels. It is
a chronic disease, and not treating it leads to serious
health problems.
An abnormal response to food that is triggered by a Heredity factors determining hypersensitivity to

Food allergies reaction in the immune system and commonly experi- certain food substances, or lack of certain digestive
and intolerances enced as skin rashes, inflammation, digestive and ab- enzymes.
dominal pains, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and so on.
Disorders related to the production of feces. In the case Food poisoning, intestinal infections (diarrhea), infre-
of diarrhea, the stool (fecal matter) contains too much quent bowel movement, low fiber intake, sedentary
Diarrhea water and the frequency of bowel movements increas- lifestyle (constipation).
and constipation es. In the case of constipation, stools are infrequent and
bowel movements involve strain.
Disorder of the organs or structures of the digestive Exposure to pathogenic microorganisms through food
system caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, poisoning, contaminated water, or poor hygiene when
Infections etc.). Commonly involves inflammation, pain, fever, and handling food.
other digestive abnormalities.
Gastritis and Inflammation of the stomach lining, which may lead to Genetic predisposition, poor eating habits, stress, smok-
stomach ulcer injuries (ulcers) and bleeding. ing, alcohol abuse, infections.
Abnormal cell growth that alters the normal function of Genetic predisposition. Major risk factors include radia-
Cancer an organ or tissue. It may spread to other parts of the tion exposure, toxic substances, smoking, and obesity.
body, leading to death if not treated.
Respiratory System Diseases
Chronic airway inflammation characterized by narrow- Genetic predisposition, aggravated by certain envi-
Asthma ing or obstruction of the airways, resulting in shortness ronmental factors (cold and humidity), allergies, ex-
of breath and other breathing-related problems. cessive physical exercise, or stress.
Disorder of the organs or structures of the digestive Exposure to pathogenic microorganisms.

system caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi,
Infections etc.). Commonly involves inflammation, pain, fever, and
other digestive abnormalities.
Disorder of the pulmonary alveoli involving poor air- Smoking.

Pulmonary emphysema flow, leading a lower than normal level of oxygen in the
blood.
Abnormal cell growth that alters the normal function of Smoking, genetic predisposition.
Cancer an organ or tissue. It may spread to other parts of the
body, leading to death if not treated.
Circulatory System Diseases

Red blood cell count or hemoglobin is less than normal and Genetic predisposition, low iron intake, bleeding.
Anemia the blood carries less oxygen. Symptoms include fatigue,
the feeling of the heart racing, and a shortness of breath.
Pathologies related to abnormal blood flow, either af- Excessive intake of saturated fats and cholesterol,
fecting the heart or obstructing blood vessels. Obstruc- sedentary lifestyle, obesity, genetic predisposition,
tions prevent the supply of nutrients to vital organs— smoking.
Cardiovascular diseases causing, for example, heart attacks and strokes—and
may lead to death.
Abnormal blood cell production in the bone marrow, Genetic predisposition, aggravated by risk factors that
Cancer resulting in disorders of the immune system and other are not yet sufficiently known.
serious effects that may lead to death.
Urinary System Diseases
Excessive concentrations of salts in the urine causes the High salt diet, genetic predisposition.
Kidney stones formation of stones in the kidney or urinary tract. When
passing through the tract, blockage of the ureter leads to
pain and bleeding.
Infection by pathogenic agents (such as bacteria, vi- Exposure to pathogenic microorganisms.

ruses, and fungi) of the organs and structures that urine
Infections passes through. Usually involves inflammation, pain,
and fever and may lead to renal failure if the kidney is
affected.
Disorder in the nephrons that prevents the kidneys from Genetic predisposition, aggravated by risk factors
adequately filtering waste products from the blood. that are not yet sufficiently known.
Renal failure The patient must undergo hemodialysis treatment for
proper filtering of the blood.
Abnormal cell growth that alters the normal function of Genetic predisposition. Major risk factors include
an organ or tissue. It may spread to other parts of the radiation exposure, toxic substances, smoking, and
Cancer body, leading to death if not treated. obesity.
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders can have a devastating effect on your health. These dis-
Gallery orders are related to some kind of imbalance in your diet, such as exces-
sive overnutrition or undernutrition. The main eating disorders are:
Malnutrition. Malnutrition results from eating a diet that lacks sufficient nutrients—often because
of not having enough good-quality food to eat. This disorder may lead to severe weight loss, multiple
organ failure, and other serious diseases, that mostly affect children, pregnant women, and older
adults. According to WHO, malnutrition is one of the most serious health problems in the world.
Obesity is excessive fat accumulation in the body due to overeating and lack of physical exercise.
The health consequences of being overweight include cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and
it is a risk factor for some cancers. A person is considered obese when their weight exceeds the
recommended for their age, sex, and height by over 25% or more.
Anorexia nervosa is a psychiatric illness in which the person has an irrational fear of being
overweight and an unusual perception of body image. This condition predominantly affects ado-
lescents. In order to lose weight, people with anorexia undergo fasting and exercise excessively,
which may lead to severe undernourishment. This disorder leads to death in 10% of all cases.
Bulimia nervosa is a psychiatric illness associated with an unbalanced diet. It is characterized by
eating large amounts of foods—binge eating—followed by feelings of regret and guilt. These
episodes may involve purging, which is accomplished by vomiting, and mood swings that usually
lead to depression. Bulimia most commonly occurs to young women.
Guidelines for Maintaining Healthy Habits
It is vital to eat healthily and follow dietary guidelines to re-

duce the risk of nutrition-related diseases and help in main-
taining optimal health.
Eating a varied and balanced diet is crucial to good health. Some of

the key recommendations that can help the organ systems involved in Gallery
nutrition to work efficiently are as follows:
Key Recommendations for the Digestive System Key Recommendations for the Respiratory System

Wash your hands before meals. Don’t smoke.

Wash foods and handle them with clean hands.
Ventilate rooms and avoid a buildup of smoke, dust, or pollen.

Brush your teeth after your meals.
Inhale air through the nose (not through the mouth) in order to

Eat slowly and chew foods well. filter it properly.

Don’t overeat; eat smaller meals more frequently.
Use disposable tissues if you have a cold or flu.
Key Recommendations for the Circulatory System Key Recommendations for the Urinary System

Eat a diet low in saturated fat and trans fat, reducing your intake Drink 2 liters of water every day.
of fatty meat and processed foods.
Eat a balanced diet, avoiding heavily salted foods.

Have an active lifestyle and exercise moderately.
Urinate 4 to 6 times every day.

Don’t smoke and avoid drinking alcohol.
Practice good hygiene.

Maintain a healthy weight, following recommendations for your
age and sex.
Elaborate
Analyze Your Diet!

Eating adequately is crucial to having good health, both physically
and mentally. So it’s a good idea to spend some time thinking about
your diet and eating habits.
From a scientific perspective, the best diet:
eets all energy needs on a daily basis.

M
Combines all major classes of nutrients in appropriate proportions.

In this activity, you will assess whether your diet over the course of a
day fulfills these requirements. To this end, you will have to:
1.
Determine your total daily energy expenditure (TDEE).
alculate the energy intake from the foods you eat over the course
2. C
of a day and the relative proportions of each type of nutrients.
For this activity, you can use a free online spreadsheet program, such as
Google Spreadsheets (https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/).
Total Energy Expenditure

Your total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) is the number of kilocalories
Outline (kcal) your body consumes in one day. The TDEE depends mostly on:
Y
our resting energy expenditure (REE)
Women Your level of physical activity

REE=
8.365 × weight in kg
+ There are several ways of calculating a person’s REE. It is impor-
4.65 × height in cm
+ tant to know that these only provide estimates, as factors such
200 as the person’s developmental stage and health conditions are
Males
not considered.
GER=
16.25 × weight in kg For example, an adolescent’s REE is often much higher than
+ would be suggested by the various equations, which are more
1.372 × height in cm
+ suited to adult individuals.
515.5
cm kg kg The Schofield equations are a series of formulas used to esti-
mate REE based on height and weight. There is a different equa-
tion for each sex and age group.
The Schofield equations for use in

individuals in the 10–18 age group.
Task
a. Open the spreadsheet program and follow the steps below:
1.
Create a new file and save it with a name you can easily remember. Table
Image
2.
In the sheets toolbar, name Sheet 1 Energy Expenditure.
A B
3.
Build a worksheet table like the table on the right (Table A). 1 Age (years) 14
2 Sex female
4.
Estimate your REE in cell B5, following the steps provided in the
3 Height (cm) 155
image. 4 Weight (Kg) 50
5 REE (kcal) 1.339
b. An accurate estimate of a person’s TDEE must consider variables
other than the REE. An example is physical activity: the more active
you are, the greater the amount of energy you use. 8.365 B3
The TDEE is obtained by multiplying a person’s REE by a factor repre-
senting the daily level of physical activity. 4.65 B4
To calculate your TDEE, determine the activity factors that apply to you
and add two new rows to your table (Table B). 200
Recall that the results of these calculations are only estimates. To get Table A. Example of a worksheet table
an accurate value of your metabolic expenditure, a clinical evaluation displaying the formula to calculate REE in
would be necessary. women.
Activity Activity
level Description Sex
level Table
female 1.3
Sedentary light physical activity A B
male 1.3
1 Age (years) 14
female 1.5 2 Sex female
Light low-intensity activities,
such as walking 3 Height (cm) 155
male 1.6 4 Weight (Kg) 50
female 1.6 5 REE (kcal) 1,339
moderate-intensity physical
Moderate activity, such as brisk walking 6 Activity factor 1.6
for at least one hour male 1.7 7 TDEE (kcal) 2,142.4
high-intensity daily exercise, female 1.9

Moderately such as practicing sport for at least
heavy 1 hour male 2.1
B6 B5
female 2.2
Heavy heavy physical exercise: training
male 2.4 Table B. Once you insert your activity
factor in cell B6, create or use a formula in
Table of factors based on physical activity and sex. cell B7 to calculate your TDEE.
Energy Intake
a. Once the TDEE has been calculated, we need to know the energy intake
of the foods we consume over the course of one day. To do this, we need
to create a new spreadsheet that will be shared with your classmates. It
will be used as a database of nutrition facts about foods.
Foods are organized into groups, and the database will contain informa-
tion about the foods commonly found in three meals—breakfast, lunch,
and dinner.
Data relating to each of the meals is added to separate sheets of the
database spreadsheet.
Table
Add the amount of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins contained
A B C D in 100 grams of the foods you eat (Table C).
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
1 Food (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) For information about the nutrition facts that appear on food
2 Brown bread 50.0 3.0 10.0 labels, visit, for example, http://nutritiondata.self.com/.
3 Margarine 1.0 82.0 1.0
4 Jelly 80.0 1.0 0.0
b. Once the database has been completed, you will use it as a
5 Orange juice 10.0 1.0 0.0 source of information during the following activity steps (Table
6 Whole milk 12.0 12.0 17.0 D):
7 Cronflakes 87.0 7.0 1.0
Go back to your file and do the following:
8 Cocoa 20.0 9.0 3.0
9 Yogurt 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.
Create three new worksheets and name them breakfast,
10 Peanut butter 22.0 50 24 lunch, and dinner.
11 Banana 23.0 0.0 1.0 2. Find the foods you ate for your meal in the database. Copy
Table C. Example of shared data base including nu- the information about these foods and paste it into the cor-
trition facts of breakfast foods. responding worksheet.
reate a new column to the right and specify the amount
3. C
of each food consumed.
Table c. To determine the energy provided by the nutrients, both the

serving size and the calorie content typical of each nutrient must
A B C D E
be considered (Table E):
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Serving size
Food (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g) arbohydrates: 4 kcal/g
C
Brown bread 50.0 3.0 10.0 52.0 Fats: 9 kcal/g

Margarine 1.0 82.0 1.0 10.0
Proteins: 4 kcal/g

Jelly 80.0 1.0 1.0 25.0
Milk 12.0 12.0 17.0 250.0 To calculate these energy intakes, complete the meal tables
Cocoa 20.0 9.0 3.0 10 adding by columns, as shown in the image. To automatically fill
Table D. Sample displaying the nutrition facts about cells with a formula, click the cell whose formula you want to
breakfast foods and serving sizes. copy. A square appears in the lower right corner of the cell. Click
on the square and drag it down the column or across the row.
E2 B2 100 4
Table
A B C D E F G H
Carbohydra- Fats Proteins Serving size Energy Energy Energy
Table E. Example of a worksheet ta- 1 Food tes g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g (g) Carbs Fats Proteins
ble displaying the food energy pro- (kcal) (kcal) (kcal)
2 Brown bread 50.0 3.0 10.0 52.0 104.0 14.0 20.8
vided by nutrients at breakfast.
3 Margarine 1.0 82.0 1.0 10.0 0.4 73.8 0.4
4 Jelly 80.0 1.0 1.0 25.0 80.0 2.3 1.0
5 Milk 12.0 12.0 17.0 250.0 120.0 270.0 170.0
6 Cocoa 20.0 9.0 3.0 10.0 8.0 8.1 1.2
E2 C2 100 9
E2 D2 100 4
d. Next, calculate the total energy provided by each type of nutrient for each
of the meals. Complete the meal tables by adding new rows, as shown in
table F.
You can use the SUM function in the spreadsheet program to add up rows
or columns.
e. Build a summary table in a new worksheet. Calculate the total daily energy
intake, distinguishing between the energy available from each of the meals
and the energy each type of nutrient yields.
To build your summary table, you can use the values of the cells in other
worksheets (see Table G). To calculate the additions, you can use the SUM
function in the spreadsheet program.
f. Finally, let’s calculate the percentage of the total energy intake contributed
by each type of energy-yielding nutrient. Complete your summary table by
adding some rows, as shown in table H.
Tables
A B C D E F G H A B C D
Carbohydra- Fats Proteins Serving size Energy Car- Energy Energy
1 Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
1 Food tes (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g) bohydrates Fats Proteins
(kcal) (kcal) (kcal) 2 Breakfast 312 368 193
2 Brown bread 50.0 3.0 10.0 52.0 104.0 14.0 20.8
3 Lunch 351 233 188
3 Margarine 1.0 82.0 1.0 10.0 0.4 73.8 0.4
4 Dinner 287 183 25
4 Jelly 80.0 1.0 1.0 25.0 80.0 230 1.0
12.0 12.0 17.0 250.0 120.0 270.0 170.0 5 Daily calorie intake per nutrient 950 784 406
5 Milk
6 Cocoa 20.0 9.0 3.0 10.0 8.0 8.1 1.2 6 Total energy intake 2,140
312.4 368.2 193.4
SUM (B2 : B4)
B2 + B3 + B4 SUM (B5 : D5)
SUM (F2 : F6)
B5 + C5 + D5
F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 + F6
Table F. Example of a worksheet table displaying the total calorie intake Table G. Example of a summary table including the daily calorie in-
per nutrient at breakfast. take per nutrient—and per meal—and the total daily energy intake.
A B C D
1 Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
2 Breakfast 312 368 193
3 Lunch 351 233 188
4 Dinner 287 183 25
5 Daily calorie intake per nutrient 950 784 406
6 Total energy intake 2,140
7 Percentage
per nutrient
of energy 44 % 37 % 19 %
B5 / D6 * 100 D5 / D6 * 100
C5 / D6 * 100
Table H. Example of a summary table including the percentage of en-

ergy each of the nutrients contributes to the total.
Analysis of Results and Conclusions
It’s time to find out whether your diet is balanced or not. To do this,
compare the energy intake to the energy expenditure and see if the
relative proportions of the three macronutrients are appropriate.
According to the recommendations of the scientific community, the

percentages of daily calorie intake should be:
Table
A B C D
about 55% as carbohydrates;
1 Carbohydrates Fats Proteins about 35% as fats; and

2 Breakfast 312 368 193 about 10% as proteins.

3 Lunch 120 5 10
a. Complete the summary table by adding a
4 Dinner 251 213 88
cell that calculates the difference between your
5 Daily calorie intake per nutrient 950 784 406
TDEE and the energy you expend.
6 Total energy intake 2,140
44 % 37 % 44 %
b. Is the energy intake of your diet appropriate,
7 Percentage of energy per nutrient
considering your total energy expenditure?
8 TDEE 2,142
9 Energy balance -2
D6 D8
Example of a summary table includ-

ing TDEE, the total energy intake, and c. Do the relative amounts of nutrients in your diet meet the relative propor-
the percentage of calorie intake de- tions required by your body?
rived from each type of nutrient.
d. Looking at your results, would you make any change to your diet?
e. What other aspects should you consider to make sure you have a healthy
diet?
EXERCISES
Nutrients
1. Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Nutrients can be broadly classified in two groups, depending on how much of them is needed daily:
Macronutrients are the nutrients that supply energy to your body and provide most of the raw mat-
ter needed for growth and repair. These include most organic nutrients and water.
Micronutrients are those nutrients you need to take in in very small amounts, but which nonetheless
play a key role in the regulation of your internal environment and the performance of some basic func-
tions. These include mineral salts and vitamins.
This list shows most of the nutrients contained in 100 g of boiled white rice. Select the macronutrients
from the list.
Potassium: 0.08 g Fats: 0.7 g Carbohydrates: 23.5 g Proteins: 2.3 g
Magnesium: 0.04 g Water: 73 g Phosphorus: 0.07 g
2. Energy Value
Apart from vitamins, all organic nutrients can sup-
ply cells with energy.
The amount of energy supply in a given quantity

of nutrients is often expressed in kilocalories Nutrients Energy content
(kcal) or large calories.
Carbohydrates are the primary source of en-

1.
ergy for cells. Carbohydrates 4 kcal/g
2.
If the body runs out of carbohydrates, it resorts
to fats (also called lipids), which are usually
Fats 9 kcal/g
stored in specialized tissues as energy reserves.
3.
In cases of extreme need, proteins can also be
used as a source of energy. Proteins 4 kcal/g
The table shows the amount of energy contained in

1 gram of each of these organic nutrients. Energy provided by 1 gram of each of these three types
of nutrient.
a. Calculate, in kilocalories, the amount of energy contained in 42 g of the foods below. The nutrition facts
from the foods’ labels are shown in the tables. If necessary, round your answers to two decimal places.
1. atural Yogurt: .......... 3.
Soft drink: .......... 2. N Pineapple juice: ........... 4.
Chips: ...........
Nutritional values Nutritional values Nutritional values Nutritional values

per100 g of food per100 g of food per100 g of food per100 g of food
Fats 0g Fats 2.7 g Fats 0.1 g Fats 31.6 g
Carbohydrates 12.7 g Carbohydrates 3g Carbohydrates 10.6 g Carbohydrates 45.5 g
Proteins 0g Proteins 3.3 g Proteins 0.4 g Proteins 7.7 g
Sal 0 mg Sal 130 mg Sal 0 mg Sal 1.5 g
Soft drink Natural yogurt Pineapple juice Chips
EXERCISES
b. The nutrients highlighted do not add up to 100 g in any of the tables. What is the main substance not
shown on the food label but contained in all these foods?
3. Ash contents
The amount of organic and ininorganic substances
in a given food can be quantified in a laboratory.
The wet weight is the total mass of the food
sample.
The dry weight is the mass of the sample after all
its water has been removed.
To measure the dry weight, all the water the food
contains must be vaporized.
Ash content is the mass of the inorganic minerals
in the food sample.
To measure the ash weight, all the inorganic sub-
stances in the food must be eliminated through
combustion.
a. The amount of organic and inorganic content varies widely across different foods. Apart from water, which
of the two types of substances do you think is more common in these biological structures?
[inorganic substances / inorganic substances]
An apple: .......... Some almonds: .......... A cookie: .......... A piece of lean pork: ..........
Some spinach leaves: ..........
b. Quantify the amount of organic matter in these structures as a percentage of their wet weight. Use the
simulator in the digital version:
Wet Dry % Water % organic matter

Food weight (g) (relative to Ash weight
weight (g) wet (g) (relative to dry
weight) weight)
Apple .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
Almonds .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
Cookie .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
Lean pork .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
Spinach .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
c. Next, rank the following foods by the percentage of organic matter they contain, from greatest to least.
Use the percentages of dry weight.
A. Almonds B. Lean meat C. Cookie D. Spinach E. Apple
EXERCISES
Carbohydrates
4. Dietary Fiber
a. These tables show the nutrient content of various foods, including the amount of dietary fiber in each.
Below is a list of different foods. How much fiber is contained in 65 grams of each of these foods?
If necessary, give your answers correct to one decimal place.
Natural Yogurt : ......... g Spaghetti: ......... g White bread: ......... g Brown bread: ......... g
Orange juice with bits: ......... g Green asparagus: ......... g Chicken breast: ......... g
Salmon fillet: ......... g Chicken eggs: ......... g Chickpeas: ......... g
Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per
serving (125g) serving (100g) serving (50g) serving (50g) serving (250g)
Fats 3.4 g Fats 1.8 g Fats 1.9 g Fats 1.6 g Fats 0.5 g
Carbohydrates 3.8 g Carbohydrates 68 g Carbohydrates 24.5 g Carbohydrates 32 g Carbohydrates 25.3 g
Proteins 4.2 g Proteins 13 g Proteins 4.3 g Proteins 5.1 g Proteins 1.7 g
Dietary fiber 0g Dietary fiber 4.2 g Dietary fiber 1.2 g Dietary fiber 3.4 g Dietary fiber 0.5 g
Sodium 162 mg Sodium 0 mg Sodium 490 mg Sodium 410 mg Sodium 5 mg
Natural Yogurt Spaghetti (uncooked) White bread Brown bread Orange juice with bits
Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per Nutritional values per
serving (180g) serving (150g) serving (150g) serving (45g) serving (45g)
Fats 2.4 g Fats 1.9 g Fats 33.5 g Fats 4.5 g Fats 6g
Carbohydrates 6.3 g Carbohydrates 0g Carbohydrates 0g Carbohydrates 0.3 g Carbohydrates 43.2 g
Proteins 4.1 g Proteins 32.2 g Proteins 58.7 g Proteins 6.2 g Proteins 19.3 g
Dietary fiber 2.7 g Dietary fiber 0g Dietary fiber 0g Dietary fiber 0g Dietary fiber 17.4 g
Sodium 49 mg Sodium 212 mg Sodium 42 mg Sodium 159 mg Sodium 62 mg
Green asparagus Chicken breast Salmon fillet Chicken eggs Chickpeas
b. What do foods containing fiber have in common?

qThey have nothing in common.
q They are low in proteins.
qThey are of plant origin.
q They are of animal origin.
q They have no fats.
5. Simple and Complex Carbohydrates

Classify each of the following foods by the type of carbohydrate—sugars or complex carbohydrates—it
contains the most of.
Rice Candies Brown sugar Soft drink Corn Tomato
Brown bread Orange juice Muesli Chips Pasta Honey
6. Different Carbohydrates
Complete the following table by indicating whether each of following descriptions applies to sugars, com-
plex carbohydrates (such as starch), or dietary fiber.
EXERCISES
Sugars Complex Dietary fiber

carbohydrates
Are a primary source of energy and matter [Yes / No] [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Can be used immediately [Yes / No] [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Are a primary source of glucose [Yes / No] [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Facilitate intestinal transit [Yes / No] [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Are complex molecules [Yes / No] [Yes / No] [Yes / No]
Fats
7. Foods and Fats

Classify the following foods according to the 3 main types of fat contained in each of them (unsaturated
fats / saturated fats / trans fats):
Avocado Walnuts Full-fat cheese Junk food Sardines Chips Bacon
8. Fats on Food Labels c. What is the percentage of unsaturated fats relative

Food labels show nutrition facts that you can use to the total fats in each of these foods? Round off the
to decide whether to eat certain foods and how result to the whole nearest unit.
much of them to eat.
Extra virgin olive oil: .......... %
These labels often give a detailed description of Butter: .......... %
the food’s fat content.
Margarine: .......... %
These tables in the gallery show the nutrition facts
regarding the fats and cholesterol in three foods: d. Indicate whether each the following statements
extra virgin olive oil, butter, and margarine. about these foods is true or false.
Despite not containing hydrogenated fats, butter
a. What is the percentage in fats of each of the foods? should be consumed sparingly, since it contains
Neglect the cholesterol. saturated fats and cholesterol.
It is recommended that you consume olive oil,
since it is rich in unsaturated fats.
Butter: .......... %
These foods should not be consumed because
Margarine: .......... % the human body does not need fats.
b. Calculate the amount of unsaturated fats per 100 g You should eat margarine because it contains
of each of these foods: the three types of fats your body requires.
Olive oil is very high in fats, so you should limit
its use.
Butter: .......... %
The use of margarine rich in hydrogenated fats
Margarine: .......... % should be limited.
Fat content Fat content Fat content

per 100 g per 100 g per 100 g
Totals fats 90 g Totals fats 81 g Totals fats 81 g

Saturated fats 15 g Saturated fats 51 g Saturated fats 15 g
Hydrogenated fats 0g Hydrogenated fats 0g Hydrogenated fats 15 g

Cholesterol 0 mg Cholesterol 215 mg Cholesterol 0 mg
Extra virgin olive oil Butter Margarine
EXERCISES
e. What types of food contain cholesterol?
qFoods that come from animals. q Industrially processed foods.
q Foods containing hydrogenated fats. q Foods containing unsaturated fats.
qFoods that come from plants. qFoods containing saturated fats.
9. Cholesterol
Carefully read the text below and answer the ques- cholesterol. For some people, cholesterol-lower-
tions on the following pages. ing medication may also be needed to reduce the
risk of heart attack and stroke.
Adapted from “About Cholesterol,” American
Heart Association, www.heart.org/HEARTORG/
Conditions/Cholesterol/AboutCholesterol/
About-Cholesterol_UCM_001220_Article.jsp,
July 31, 2014
a. What is cholesterol?
q
An unsaturated fat.
q
A saturated fat.
q
A hydrogenated fat.
q
Another type of fat.
It may surprise you to learn that cholesterol itself
isn’t bad. In fact, cholesterol is just one of the b. Why does you body require cholesterol?
many substances created and used by our bodies
q
To build cell membranes and other structures.
to keep us healthy.
q
To have energy reserves readily available.
Cholesterol is a waxy substance that comes from q
It helps prevent strokes and heart attacks.
two sources: your own body and the food you
q
It doesn’t; cholesterol is harmful to your body.
eat. Your body, and especially your liver, makes
all the cholesterol you need and circulates it
c. What is the recommended level of cholesterol in
through the blood. But cholesterol is also found
the bloodstream?
in foods from animal sources, such as meat,
poultry, and full-fat dairy products. Your liver q More than 200 mg/dL.
produces more cholesterol when you eat a diet qAs low as possible.
high in saturated and trans fats. qAs high as possible.
Excess cholesterol can form a plaque on the qLess than 200 mg/dL.
layers of artery walls, making it harder for your
heart to circulate blood. Plaques can break open d. What is the source of the cholesterol in your
and cause blood clots. If a clot blocks an artery body?
that feeds the brain, it causes a stroke. If it blocks q
Some foods.
an artery that feeds the heart, it causes a heart
q
Your liver.
attack.
q
Other organs and structures in your body.
There are two types of cholesterol: “good” and q
All of these.
“bad.” Too much of one type—or not enough of
the other—can put you at risk of coronary heart e. What foods contain cholesterol?
disease, heart attack, or stroke. It’s important to
know the levels of cholesterol in your blood so q
Foods that come from plants.
that you and your doctor can determine the best q
All foods.
strategy to lower your risk. q
Foods rich in inorganic nutrients.
Making healthy eating choices and exercising q
Foods that come from animals.
more are important first steps in improving your
EXERCISES
f. How do the fats you eat and cholesterol relate? h. What can be done to reduce the levels of choles-
terol in the blood?
q
The liver produces less cholesterol if your diet is
rich in trans fats and saturated fats. q
Decrease the intake of cholesterol-rich foods.
q Fats and cholesterol are two ways of referring q
Decrease the intake of hydrogenated fats and
to the same thing. saturated fats.
q
It can only be reduced by taking medicine.
q The liver produces more cholesterol if your
diet is rich in trans fats and saturated fats. q
Increase physical exercise.
q
They are unrelated. i. Who needs to monitor and control their levels of
cholesterol?
g. Excess cholesterol in the blood may lead to q
Only adults, because children cannot have high
health problems. Indicate these problems: cholesterol levels in the blood.
q
Strokes and heart attacks q
Only overweight people, because thin people
q
Bleeding and blood clotting cannot have high cholesterol levels in the blood.
q
Only people with a family history of heart
q
High levels of glucose in the blood disease or nutrition-related illnesses.
q
Atherosclerosis q
Everyone.
Proteins
10. Nutrient-Dense Foods

Classify the following foods according to the main type of nutrient contained in each of them [Carbohy-
drates / Fats / Proteins].
Jelly Almonds Egg white Pork loin Honey Pasta Egg yolk Peanuts Rice
Sunflower oil Butter Tofu Salted cod
11. What Nutrient Are We Talking About?

Read the following statements and indicate whether
they refer to carbohydrates, fats, or proteins:
These molecules are not soluble in water: ..........
Sugars are part of this group: ..........
These molecules are essential in the synthesis of
biomolecules and can also be used as an energy
source: ..........
These molecules are made up of chains of amino
acids: ..........
Glucose is found in this group of nutrients?: ...........
These molecules are the primary source of en-
ergy used by cells: .........
These molecules partake in building cell mem-
branes: .........
Large amounts of these molecules may build up
in reserve tissues: .........
EXERCISES
Vitamins
12. Facts about Vitamins

Indicate whether each of the following statements
is true or false:
Vitamins are macronutrients: your body needs

them in large amounts.
In contrast to all other organic nutrients, vitamins
can be synthesized by the cells in your body.
Only water-soluble vitamins are essential.
Vitamins are essential in regulating the different
processes that occur in the body.
Eating a varied diet helps to ensure that you
receive all the necessary vitamins.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble and can
therefore be stored in fatty tissues in the body.
Vitamins are a source of energy for your cells.
You need to take vitamin supplements in order
to get all the vitamins your body requires.
13. Two Types of Vitamins Water and Minerals

a. Classify each vitamin according to whether it is
water-soluble or fat-soluble. 14. Concentration of Minerals in Foods
a. All foods contain minerals. Review the mineral
Vitamin A: .......... Vitamin B1: .......... content of different foods and complete the table
Vitamin B2: .......... Vitamin B3: .......... on the next page.
Vitamin B5: .......... Vitamin B6: .......... Round off the answers and express them without
Vitamin B7: .......... Vitamin B9: .......... decimals.
Vitamin B12: .......... Vitamin C: ..........
Mineral Concentration Mineral Concentration
Vitamin D: .......... Vitamin K: .......... elements (mg/250 g) elements (mg/200 g)
Vitamin E: .......... Potassium 349 Potassium 1.750
b. Indicate which vitamins each of the following Calcium 276 Calcium 210
characteristics refers to [all vitamins / water-solu- Phosphorus 222 Phosphorus 732
ble vitamins / fat-soluble vitamins].
Sodium 98 Sodium 48
These regulate certain key chemical reactions in
Magnesium 24 Magnesium 230
your cells: ..........
Mineral content of a glass Mineral content of a cup of
They can be stored in certain tissues of the body: of milk. dried chickpeas.
..........
Mineral Concentration Mineral Concentration
These are not stored in your body, so they need elements (mg/100 g) elements (mg/6 g)
to be taken daily: ..........
Potassium 362 Potassium 107
These are found in small quantities in many
foods: ........... Calcium 5 Calcium 56
A lack of these can cause health problems: .......... Phosphorus 22 Phosphorus 30
These are only needed in small quantities: .......... Sodium 1 Sodium 10
Magnesium 27 Magnesium 22
Mineral content of a banana. Mineral content of a table-

spoon of cumin.
EXERCISES
Mineral Milk Chickpeas Bananas Cumin
elements (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)
Water content
Mineral in100 g
Potassium ........... ........... ........... ........... elements of food (g)
Calcium ........... ........... ........... ........... Milk 88
Phosphorus ........... ........... ........... ...........

Cumin 8
Sodium ........... ........... ........... ...........
Bananas 76
Magnesium ........... ........... ........... ...........
Chickpeas 12
b. Rank these foods by their phosphorus content,
from highest to lowest.
Water content of 100 grams of milk, cumin, banana, and
A. umin
Milk B. C chickpeas.
C. hickpeas
Bananas D. C
d. The mineral contents of these four foods vary
c. Rank these foods by their potassium content, from widely. Cumin and chickpeas, both of which are
highest to lowest. seeds, have higher relative amounts of minerals.
A. umin
Milk B. C Observe the table above and try to explain these
C. Bananas D.
Chickpeas differences.
15. Mineral Requirements b. Indicate whether each of the following state-

Humans obtain minerals from the food and water ments is true or false.
they consume.
Daily requirements of calcium and phosphorus
a. What information is shown in the table below? decrease after age 25.
Men require a smaller amount of zinc than
q
The average amount of minerals humans need
women.
to take in daily, by age and sex.
Men and women of the same age require the
q
The average amount of minerals humans need
same amounts of iodine and calcium.
throughout their lives, by age and sex.
Adult men require a smaller amount of magne-
q
The average amount of minerals found in the
sium than adult women.
human body, by age and sex.
Younger women require a greater amount of
iron than younger men.
Age Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Iron Zinc Iodine Selenium

(years) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
< 0,5 400 300 40 6 5 0.11 0.01

Babies
0,5 a 1 600 500 60 10 5 0.13 0.02
1-3 800 800 80 10 10 0.07 0.02
Children 4-6 800 800 120 10 10 0.09 0.02
7-10 800 800 170 10 10 0.12 0.03
11-14 1,200 1,200 270 12 15 0.15 0.04
15-18 1,200 1,200 400 12 15 0.15 0.05
Men 19-24 1,200 1,200 350 10 15 0.15 0.07
25-50 800 800 350 10 15 0.15 0.07
> 51 800 800 350 10 15 0.15 0.07
EXERCISES
11-14 1,200 1,200 280 15 12 0.15 0.05
15-18 1,200 1,200 300 15 12 0.15 0.05
Women 19-24 1,200 1,200 280 15 12 0.15 0.06
25-50 800 800 280 15 12 0.15 0.06
> 51 800 800 280 10 12 0.15 0.06
Recommended daily mineral intake, by age and sex.
Diet
16. The Food Pyramid

The food pyramid is a guide to healthy food choic- Red meat and butter Soda, salt,
and candies
es and balanced diets that has been used in many
places around the world over the last 20 years.
Dairy products
The different food groups in the pyramid—often (1–2 servings)
Fish, poultry,
shown as a triangle—occupy levels that show and eggs
their relevance in your diet. The foundations of a Nuts,
balanced diet appear at the base of the triangle. legumes, and tofu
Whole
At the base of the pyramid are essential foods in grains
your daily diet, whereas the top of the pyramid
includes foods that should be consumed sparingly.
Indicate which of the following statements about

the food pyramid are correct: Greens, Healthy
vegetables, and fruits fats
Fat-rich foods that come from animals are at the
base of the pyramid. The food pyramid.
The second row from the bottom of the pyramid
includes protein-rich foods. The role played by milk and milk derivatives in
The base of the pyramid includes foods that the diet is the same as that of cereal derivatives.
come from plants. The use of salt, sugary soda drinks, and fats
Olive oil should only be consumed sparingly. should be reduced.
17. Guidelines for a Balanced Diet

The following guidelines are helpful if you want to choose a healthy diet. Look at next plate, for example:
it shows the relative amounts of the different types of foods that are part of a balanced diet.
The guidelines for a balanced diet are based on the following principles:
Eat lots greens and vegetables, other than potatoes.
Use grain derivatives (bread, pasta, rice, muesli, etc.), and especially whole-grain products.
Eat meat, cheese, fish, legumes, and nuts, except for protein-based foods high in fats.
Eat a range of fruit, instead of packaged juices.
Eat low-fat dairy products one or twice a day.
Replace butter by vegetable oils and avoid using hydrogenated foods.
Remember to drink liquid, but avoid sugary sodas.
EXERCISES
a. Look at the meal in the image and complete the
following statements about the relative impor- Healthy Dairy
fats products
tance of the different types of food:
The amount of greens and vegetables in our diet
W
ho
should be [greater than / almost the same as /
ts
le
ui
lower than] that of fruit.
gr
Fr
ai
ns
The amount of grains in our diet should be
[greater than / almost the same as / lower than]
that of fruit.
The amount of greens and vegetables in our diet
lower than] that of grains.
The amount of protein-based foods in our diet
Gr
s
n
ee
ei
ns
ot
lower than] that of fruit.
Pr
b. The guidelines for a healthy diet recommend
eating a variety of greens and vegetables in large Guidelines for a healthy diet.
quantities.
Whole grains are also a source of vitamins.
How can this be explained from a nutritional point
of view? Wholegrain pasta, rice, and bread are sources of
fiber and therefore facilitate the intestinal pas-
Greens and vegetables are important sources of sage of food.
complete proteins.
These foods provide complex carbohydrates,
Greens and vegetables are rich in fiber, and this especially if they are made from wholewheat
facilitates intestinal passage. flours.
Eating varied greens and vegetables ensures the Whole grains are a complete source of proteins.
intake of most of the minerals the body needs.
Grains provide the unsaturated fats the body
Eating varied greens and vegetables ensures needs.
the intake of all the different vitamins the body
needs. d. Regarding protein-based foods, it is recom-
Greens and vegetables tend to be high in satu- mended to eat a range of meats and fish, as well as
rated fats. legumes and nuts, and to avoid red meat and fats.
Greens and vegetables are high in sugars, im- How can you explain this recommendation?
mediately boosting energy levels. Meat, fish, legumes, and nuts provide the body
c. It is recommended to eat grain-based foods in with immediate energy due to their high sugar
large quantities, especially if they are made from content.
wholegrain flour. Both meat and fish are sources of complete
proteins.
How can you explain this recommendation?
EXERCISES
Legumes and nuts are protein-rich, but must be By contrast, if the energy intake is too low, the
mixed in order to obtain the 10 essential amino body draws on nutrients stored as fat in reserve
acids the body needs. tissues to maintain energy balance.
Meat is also a source of saturated fats and cho-
Both situations may lead to serious health and
lesterol, so its use should be limited.
development problems. It is therefore important
Bacon and fatty cheese are too high in saturated to know your energy needs.
fats.
Are We Always Using Energy?
e. It is recommended to eat a variety of fruit in a. Examine the table. What information does it
large quantities and to avoid packaged juices. contain?
How can you explain this recommendation? qThe amount of food humans must eat to en-
Eating fruit is another way of taking in liquid, as gage in activity over the course of one hour.
its water content is high. qThe amount of energy humans consume per
A variety of fruits provides different vitamins and hour, depending on the type of activity.
minerals.
q The amount of heat humans release per hour,
Fruits provide the sufficient amount of proteins depending on the type of activity.
humans need.
Activity Energy consumed
The proportional amount of sugar in packaged per hour (kcal)
juices tends to be much higher than that of
Sleeping 72
fruits.
Studying 108
Fruits are usually high in unsaturated fats.
Walking (5 km/h) 216
Fruits provide simple carbohydrates, an immedi-
Jogging
ate source of energy. (10 km/h) 540 Energy
Eating too much fruit provides too much sugar. Cycling 432 consumed in
different human
f. The recommended guidelines also touch upon Swimming 612 activities.
drinking habits and the use of vegetable oils.
b. What do humans use energy for when sleeping?
How are these recommendations explained?
q
To maintain the cells’ metabolic activity.
Milk is a source of proteins, carbohydrates, q
To maintain the activity of organs such as the
minerals, and vitamins, although it also contains lungs and heart.
saturated fats.
q
To maintain internal growth of structures and
Sodas are high in sugar and very low in other tissue regeneration.
nutrients. That’s why it is better to avoid them.
q
To stay alive.
Vegetable oils are unsaturated fats; animal fats
like butter are saturated fats. c. As you can see, you use energy even when you
The main nutrients obtained from drinking sleep. This is the energy use of the biological process-
water are mineral salts. es occurring in your body that keep you alive.
Foods processed with hydrogenated fats are not The daily energy expenditure of a person that is
recommended because they are low in proteins. not engaged in any activity —apart from surviv-
ing—is called resting energy expenditure (REE).
18. Energy Expenditure This energy is ultimately consumed by the cells in
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide you with the body.
the energy you need every day. The amount of en-
ergy taken in through food in a day must match the Is REE the same for everyone?
amount of energy used in a day—that is, the total
No. Humans with a greater body mass have a
daily energy expenditure (TDEE).
greater number of cells, and therefore, a higher REE.
If the energy intake exceeds the amount of Yes. All humans have the same number of body
energy used, the excess energy is stored as fat in cells.
reserve tissues in the body.
EXERCISES
d. Therefore, resting energy expenditure depends on a. Examine the Mifflin equations and complete
body mass. But it also depends on other factors. the text below.
Indicate whether the resting energy expenditure The REE [increases / decreases] with body mass.
(REE) depends on each of the following factors: It also [increases / decreases] with height and
[increases / decreases] with age.
Look up the information if necessary.
Hair length b. Apply the Mifflin equations to estimate the
Gender daily resting energy expenditure of:
Eye color A 25 year-old female, 159 cm tall and weighing
Height 60 kg. REE = .......... kcal/day
Age A 47 year-old male, 182 cm tall and weighing 80
kg. REE = .......... kcal/day
Calculating Resting Energy Expenditure
Indeed, your daily resting energy expenditure
Calculating the Total Daily Energy Expenditure
depends on many factors. However, there are a
As seen in the previous table, energy use increases
number of methods for calculating the REE based
with physical activity. Therefore, provided you
on gender, body mass, height, and age. One such
don’t spend the entire day sleeping, your total
method is the Mifflin equations.
daily energy expenditure (TDEE) will be higher
These equations are adapted to people over the than your REE.
age of 20, since the REE varies widely during the
developmental stages of infancy and adolescence. Your total daily energy expenditure can be esti-
mated by multipling the REE value by the physical
Females: activity level (PAL).
REE = 10 · body mass + 6.25 · height – 5 · age – 161
Males:
REE = 10 · body mass + 6.25 · height – 5 · age + 5
TDEE = REE · PAL
To determine the REE in kcal/day, body mass must
be expressed in kg; height, in cm; and age, in years.
As you can see in the table on the next page, the
physical activity level increases with the intensity
of the activity.
c. Calculate the total daily energy expenditure

(TDEE) of the individuals in step b, given that they
have the following physical activity levels:
25 year-old female, 159 cm tall and weighing

60 kg. Moderate level of physical activity.
GET = .......... kcal/day

47 year-old male, 182 cm tall and weighing 80 kg.
Sedentary level of physical activity.
GET = .......... kcal/day
EXERCISES
b. Which system or systems are involved in
Activity Description Gender
Activity
level
transporting nutrients to all the cells in the
level
body and collecting the waste products of cell
Sedentary lack of physical activity
female 1.3 metabolism?
male 1.3
occasional low-intensity female 1.5 q

The circulatory system
Light
activity, like walking
male 1.6
q
The digestive system
moderate physical activity, female 1.6
Moderate like brisk walking for at least one
hour daily male 1.7
q
The respiratory system
high-intensity physical activity, female 1.9 q
The urinary system
Active like doing sport for at least 1
hour daily male 2.1
intense physical exercise:

female 2.2
Very Active
sports training
male 2.4
Physical activity levels (PAL) for males and females.
Conclusions c. Which system or systems are involved in

Diets need to provide an adequate supply of en- carrying waste substances out of the body?
ergy—avoiding a lack or an excess of nutrients—in
order to match your daily energy expenditure. q
Your body’s daily energy expenditure depends on: q
Your physical activity level q
Your body’s energy expenditure at rest
q
The urinary system
The resting energy expenditure depends on vari-
ous factors, such as:
When you sleep, your cells carry out the chemical
process that keep them alive, and these processes use
up energy.
sex
body size (body mass and height) 20. Parts of the Digestive System
age and developmental stage Complete the diagram of the digestive system.
[rectum / salivary gland / stomach / liver / pan-
creas / colon / small intestine / appendix / cecum /
The Processes of Human Nutrition esophagus / tongue / gall bladder]
19. Processes and Systems

a. Which system or systems are involved in
obtaining nutrients? ..........
q
q
q
q
The urinary system ..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
EXERCISES
21. Parts of the Respiratory System 22. Parts of the Urinary System
Complete the diagram of the respiratory system. Complete the diagram of the urinary system.
[alveoli / nose / trachea / lung / bronchi / [rectum / kidney / ureter / urinary bladder /
diaphragm / bronchioles / oral cavity / esophagus urethra / vessels / anus / liver / gall bladder]
/ capillary / tongue]
.......... ..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
.......... ..........
..........
..........
Digestion
24. Digestion of Different Molecules a. Bread is rich in starch. Its main ingredient, flour,
As food passes through the digestive system, comes from plants and is obtained by milling
digestive enzymes attack the complex molecules wheat grains. To test for the presence of starch in
of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The action bread, we can do the iodine test.
of these enzymes, together with the mechanical
Explain what the iodine test for starch involves.
action of different organs, enables the digestion
of the macromolecules and the release of simple If necessary, look up information.
nutrient molecules.
b. In the next experiment, the iodine test is done
Indicate the part of the digestive system in which to assess the action of saliva on the starch in bread.
each of the following biomolecules begins to be The following two treatments are proposed:
digested:
1.
Treatment A: bread crumbs are mixed with sa-
[mouth / stomach / duodenum / ileum / large
liva and left to stand for 3 hours.
intestine / liver / pancreas / gall bladder / jejunum
/ esophagus]
2. Treatment B: bread crumbs are mixed with wa-
ter and left to stand for 3 hours.
Complex carbohydrates: ..........
Why do we need a treatment that uses water?
Proteins: ..........
Fats: ........... c. What will be the result of the iodine test in each
of the treatments?
25. The Power of Saliva
The foods we eat are too large for the cells to incor-
porate them. That’s why they have to be first broken
down to particles of basic organic nutrients.
The process of digestion is responsible for break-
ing down foods into particles that can be ab-
sorbed by cells. As soon as you place food in your
mouth, digestion begins. Saliva contains digestive
enzymes that can break large starch molecules— d. Observe what happens in the experiment in the
the reserve substance of plants—down into tiny digital version. Explain the results. Are these results
glucose molecules. what you expected?
EXERCISES
Digestive Glands
26. Digestive Enzymes

Complete these statements about the digestion of the various biomolecules contained in food:
The first step in the digestion of carbohydrates Lipid digestion begins in the duodenum with the
occurs in the mouth through the action of the action of the [glycosidases / peptidases / lipases]
[glycosidases / peptidases / lipases] in [saliva / found in [saliva / gastric juices / bile / pancreatic
gastric juices / bile / pancreatic / mucous], which / mucous], a substance secreted by the [salivary
is secreted by the [salivary glands / gastric glands glands / gastric glands / liver / pancreas / intesti-
/ liver / pancreas / intestinal glands]. nal glands].
The digestion of proteins begins in the stomach Lipid digestion would not be possible without
with the action of the [glycosidases / peptidases the previous action of emulsifiers found in [sa-
/ lipases] found in [saliva / gastric juices / bile / liva / gastric juices / bile / pancreatic / mucous],
pancreatic / mucous], a substance secreted by a substance secreted by the [salivary glands
the [salivary glands / gastric glands / liver / pan- / gastric glands / liver / pancreas / intestinal
creas / intestinal glands]. glands].
Intestinal Absorption
27. The Surface of the Intestine

Although food digestion continues in the intestine, microvilli
the main function of this organ of digestion is the
absorption of nutrients.
The intestine is a flexible, tube-shaped organ. As

chyme moves through it, nutrients pass through
the thin linings of the walls and into the blood-
stream.
The linings of the intestine is not smooth. It has

many folds and is covered in numerous projections
villi
called villi. The villi, in turn, are covered with even
smaller projections called microvilli. The wall of the small intestine.
a. What is the effect of all these folds and villi that cover the internal surface of the intestine?
They [increase / does not alter / decrease] the surface area of the intestine, allowing the [rapid / slow]
absorption of nutrients.
b. These diagrams show a section of the wall of three models of the intestine. One model shows the
villi and microvilli, one shows just the villi, and one shows a smooth intestine. Rank these models by
their surface area, from greatest to smallest.
A. ”Smooth” intestine B. Intestine with villi and microvilli C. Intestine with villi
EXERCISES
c. What is the average length of the small intestine?
Look up information if necessary.
q
7 cm
q
7m
q
7 dm
d. What is the average diameter of the small intes-
tine? Look up information if necessary.
q
3 dm
Microvilli seen under the electron microscope.
q
3 cm
q
3 mm b. What is the approximate length of microvilli?
Look up information if necessary.
The Surface of the Intestine Seen as a Smooth Cylinder q
Between 1 nm and 2 nm
The small intestine can be represented as a long
cylinder. q
Between 1 mm and 2 mm
q
Between 1 μm and 2 μm
c. Determining the actual surface area of the intes-

tine, taking the villi and microvilli into account, is
complicated. Recent studies suggest that the total
surface area of the intestine is about 30 m2. How
many times larger is this surface than the surface
of the smooth cylinder in the previous step?
It is [4.3 / 43 / 430 / 4,300] times larger.
d. Which of the following surfaces has about the

same area as the small intestine?
Surface of the walls of a cylinder of length l
q
A small classroom.
and diamater d.
q
A city.
a. In model above, what is the equation that re- q
A tennis court.
lates surface (S), diameter (d), and length (l )? q
A table.
q S = π · d · l
q S = 2π · d · l
π·d
q S =
l
b. What is the total surface area of the small intes-
tine? Give the result correct to one decimal place.
S = .......... m2
The Actual Surface Area of the Intestine

a. The inner walls of the intestine are covered by a
vast number of villi and microvilli.
What is the approximate length of villi? Look up
information if necessary.
q
Between 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm
q
Between 0.5 μm and 1.5 μm
q
Between 0.5 cm and 1.5 cm
EXERCISES
Breathing
28. A Model of the Respiratory System

a. In the video of the digital version, watch the
steps in building a model of the respiratory
system and then indicate the parts that were
mentioned.
[trachea and bronchi / lungs / thoracic cavity /
diaphragm]
Straw: ..........
Balloons: ...........
Plastic bottle: ..........
Rubber glove: ............
c. All the scientific models that are used to gain
b. Rank the steps in the process of breathing, be- greater knowledge of the phenomena in the world
ginning with breathing in. around us have some limitations. It is important to
be aware of these limitations, as we do not want
A.
The diaphragm contracts and draws downward.
to draw the wrong conclusions when using these
B.
The pressure of air inside the thoracic cavity is models.
lower than outside it.
C.
The pressure of air inside the thoracic cavity is What are the limitations of the model used in this
higher than outside it. activity?
D. The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases. q
It does not show the branched structure of the
E.
The volume of the thoracic cavity increases. tracts drawing air into the alveoli.
F.
The diaphragm relaxes and pushes upward. q
It does not adequately show the changes in
volume of the thoracic cavity.
G. T o even out the difference in pressures, the air
flows out, passing through the bronchi and q
It only includes the main parts of the respira-
trachea. tory system.
H. T o even out the difference in air pressures, the q
It does not correctly depict how the dia-
air passes through the trachea and bronchi phragm works.
and is drawn into the lungs, inflating them.
29. Gas Exchange
During breathing, gas exchange occurs between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries sur-
rounding them.
These tables show the composition of atmospheric air before it enters your body, the air that reaches
your lungs when you breathe in, and the air that leaves your body when you breathe out.
Percent by Total volume Percent by Total volume Percent by Total volume

volume (%) gas (mL) volume(%) gas (mL) volume (%) gas (mL)
Nitrogen (N2) 78 390 Nitrogen (N2) 73.18 390 Nitrogen (N2) 73.18 390
Oxygen (O2) 21 105 Oxygen (O2) 15.73 83.83 Oxygen (O2) 19.7 105
Carbon 0.03 0.15 Carbon 4 21.32 Carbon 0.03 0.15

dioxide(CO2) dioxide(CO2) dioxide(CO2)
Other gases 0.97 4.85 Other gases 0.91 4.85 Other gases 0.91 4.85
(Ar, O3, etc.) (Ar, O3, etc.) (Ar, O3, etc.)
Vapor de Water 0 0 Vapor de Water 6.18 32.93 Vapor de Water 6.18 32.93
(H2O) (H2O) (H2O)
Total 100 500 Total 100 532.93 Total 100 532.93
Atmospheric air. Inhaled air. Exhaled air.
EXERCISES
a. Which gas is most abundant in atmospheric air? q
Because the total air volume increases when
the water vapor is added.
q
H2O q
N2 q
O2 q
Another gas q
CO2
b. Which gas is most abundant in the air you inhale? Inhaled Air versus Exhaled Air
Consider the data from the three previous tables
q
H2O q
N2 q
O2 nother gas q
qA CO2 and answer the following questions:
c. Which gas is most most abundant in the air you a. Complete the following sentences:
exhale?
The amount of N2 in the exhaled air [remains
q
H2O q
N2 q
O2 nother gas q
qA CO2 constant / decreases / increases] with respect to
the amount of N2 in the inhaled air.
Air Moistening
The amount of O2 in the exhaled air [remains
The tidal volume is the volume of air that enters
constant / decreases / increases] with respect to
the lungs with each breath under normal, relaxed
the amount of O2 in the inhaled air.
conditions. The inhaled air becomes moistened in
the upper section of the respiratory system. In this The amount of CO2 in the exhaled air [remains
way, a certain volume of water vapor is added to constant / decreases / increases] with respect to
the tidal volume. the amount of CO2 in the inhaled air.
The amount of H2O in the exhaled air [remains
constant / decreases / increases] with respect to
the amount of H2O in the inhaled air.
Dry atmospheric The amount of other gases in the exhaled air
air 500 mL
[remains constant / decreases / increases] with
respect to the amount of other gases in the
Moistened air
(inhaled) 532.93 mL inhaled air.
b. Why does the amount of O2 change?

qBecause a certain amount of O2 in the air is
transferred to the blood in the alveoli.
qBecause the blood supplies O2 to the air in
the alveoli.
qBecause O2 is converted to CO2 in the alveoli.

q Because a certain amount of O2 is stored in the
How inhaled air becomes moist.
alveoli.
c. Why does the amount of CO2 change?

a. What is the average tidal volume of a healthy
adult? q
Because CO2 converts into O2 in the alveoli.
q 5L q 0
.5 mL q
532.93 L q
0.5 L q
Because a certain amount of CO2 in the air is
transferred to the blood in the alveoli.
b. What volume of water vapor is added to dry air q
Because a certain amount of CO2 is stored in
during inhalation? Express your answer correct to the alveoli.
two decimal places. q
Because the blood supplies CO2 to the air in
.......... mL of water vapor the alveoli.
c. Why do the relative proportions of most gases in d. To summarize, when you breathe, your body…
the inhaled air decrease with respect to their rela- [takes in / releases / neither takes in nor releases]
tive proportions in the atmospheric air?
... oxygen.

qB ecause certain gases disappear. ... carbon dioxide.
ecause not all gases are inhaled.
qB ... water.
ecause the volume of the gases in the
qB ... nitrogen.
inhaled air decreases due to the effect of the
water vapor. ... other gases.
EXERCISES
Blood
30. Blood Cells plasma. These markers (also called antigens) and
The image below was obtained by electron micros- antibodies are proteins and sugars that our bodies
copy. Identify the cells which are highlighted. use to identify the blood cells as belonging to our
own bodies.
1.
[Red blood cells / White blood cells / Platelets]
or [erythrocytes / leukocytes / thrombocytes] Blood cell markers can make the difference
2.
[Red blood cells / White blood cells / Platelets]
between blood being accepted or rejected after a
or [erythrocytes / leukocytes / thrombocytes] transfusion. So medical experts group blood into
types based on the different markers. The four
3.
[Red blood cells / White blood cells / Platelets] main blood types are:
or [erythrocytes / leukocytes / thrombocytes]
Type A: individuals have the A antigen on the
surface of their RBCs, and their plasma contains
antibodies against the B antigen.
Type B: individuals have the B antigen on the surface

of their RBCs, and their plasma contains antibodies
against the A antigen.
Type AB: individuals have both A and B antigens on

the surface of their RBCs, and their plasma does
not contain any antibodies.
Type 0: individuals do not have antigens on the

surface of their RBCs, and their plasma contains
Blood cells viewed under the electron microscope.
antibodies against the A and B antigens.
31. Blood Types The Rh Factor

Carefully read the text below and answer the ques- Some people have an additional marker, called
tions on the following pages. Rh factor, in their blood. Because each of the four
main blood groups (A, B, AB, and 0) may or may
About 5 million Americans need blood transfusions not have the Rh factor, scientists further classify
every year, for a variety of reasons. Sometimes, a blood as either “positive” (meaning it has Rh fac-
transfusion is needed because of an emergency tor) or “negative” (without Rh factor).
(such as blood loss after an accident). Sometimes,
the transfusion is expected (as with treatment for Eight Blood Types
cancer). Whatever the reason, blood transfusions Having some of these markers (or none of them)
are among the most common hospital procedures. doesn’t make a person’s blood any healthier or
better. It’s just a genetic difference, like having green
While blood transfusion is common, there’s a lot eyes instead of blue eyes, or straight hair instead of
more to it than just taking blood from one person curly hair.
and using it to help someone else. It’s very impor-
tant to keep the blood supply safe. Each unit of The different markers that can be found in blood
blood goes through many tests to check for infec- make up eight possible blood types: A+, A–, B+,
tious diseases and to determine its blood type. B–, AB+, AB–, 0+, 0–. Blood banks and hospitals
keep careful tabs on blood type to be sure that do-
It might seem like blood is blood—it all looks pretty nated blood matches the blood type of the person
much the same to the naked eye. But although all receiving the transfusion.
blood contains the same basic components (red
cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma), not every- Why Blood Type Matters
one has the same types of markers on the surface Giving someone the wrong blood type can cause
of their red blood cells (RBCs) and antibodies in their serious health problems.
EXERCISES
The immune system produces proteins known as q
… have different markers on them, depend-
antibodies that act as protectors if foreign cells en- ing on the blood type.
ter the body. Depending on which blood type you
have, your immune system will produce antibodies f. Plasma…
to react against other blood types.
q
… has different antibodies, depending on the
If a patient is given the wrong blood type, the anti- blood type.
bodies immediately set out to destroy the invading q
… has the same antibodies, regardless of
cells. This aggressive, whole-body response can give blood type.
someone a fever, chills, and low blood pressure. It
can even lead vital body systems—like breathing or q
… contains a greater number of dissolved
kidneys—to fail. substances in negative blood types than in
positive blood types.
Adapted from “Blood Types,” KidsHealth.org,
http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/medi- g. Indicate whether each of the following state-
cal_care/blood_types.html#, June 22, 2015 ments is true or false.
a. How many blood types are there? It is important to know what your blood type is.
q 2 q
3 q
6 q
8 Positive blood types are common to people
with healthy habits.
b. What characterizes the blood of a given blood Everyone can receive blood transfusions from
type? any donor.
qT he type of cells that make up blood. Negative blood types are common to people
q The relative proportion of cells it contains. prone to nutrition-related problems.
q
The presence or absence of certain markers A person’s blood type is genetically deter-
and antibodies. mined.
q The density of blood plasma. It is better to have blood type A than blood
type B.
c. Red blood cells…
are more numerous in positive blood types
q…
than in negative blood types.
q
… have the same markers on them, regard-
less of blood type.
q
ing on the blood type.
d. White blood cells…

have the same markers on them, regardless
q…
of blood type.
q…
q
ing on the blood type.
e. Platelets…
q…
q
… have the same markers on them, regard-
less of blood type.
EXERCISES
Blood Vessels
32. Vessels under the Microscope 33. Facts about Blood Vessels
The image below was obtained by light microscopy. Indicate whether each of the following statements
Identify the blood vessels which are highlighted. about blood vessels is true or false:
1.
[ Vein / Artery / Capillary] Arteries are longer than veins.
2.
[ Vein / Artery / Capillary]

Arteries do not need one-way valves because
the pressure exerted on the blood by the
heart is strong enough to propel the blood in
the right direction.
Veins have one-way valves to prevent the
blood from flowing backwards.
Veins run from the heart to other body parts.
Capillaries are made of thin, delicate walls that
allow substance exchange to occur between
them and other body parts.
Arteries run from different body parts to the
heart.
Blood vessels viewed under the light microscope.

Arteries have thicker walls than veins.
The Heart The Circulation of Blood
34. The Parts of the Heart 35. Circulation of Blood and Stages
Complete the following simplified diagram of the a. Put the stages of pulmonary circulation in the
heart. correct order. Assume the heart is relaxed.
[atria / ventricles / atrioventricular valves / chordae A.
The atrium contracts, which causes the pres-
tendineae / septum / arteries / veins / semilunar sure in the ventricle to increase, because the
valves / capillaries] tricuspid valve remains open.
B.
Blood is pumped out of the ventricle through

the semilunar valve and into in the pulmonary
artery.
.......... C.
The ventricle begins contracting, which causes

.......... the tricuspid valve to close.
.......... D.
Blood enters the lungs and exchanges O2 and

.......... CO2 with the alveoli.
E.
Freshly oxygen-rich blood flows back to the

heart through the pulmonary veins.
.......... .......... F.
Blood enters the right atrium through the vena

cava and flows to the ventricle through the tri-
cuspid valve, which is open.
.......... .......... b. Put the stages of systemic circulation in the cor-
rect order. Assume the heart is relaxed.
Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood A.
Blood enters the left atrium through the pul-
monary veins and flows into the ventricle
through the mitral valve, which is open.
xygen-poor blood flows back to the heart
B.
O
through the vena cava.
EXERCISES
C.
The ventricle begins to contract, which causes

Removing Waste Substances
the mitral valve to close.
D.
Blood pumps out of the ventricle through the
37. Urine Formation
aortic semilunar valve and into the aortic artery. Put the steps involved in urine formation in the cor-
rect order.
E.
Blood is distributed through the organs of the

body and exchanges O2 and CO2 with their cells. A.
Urine is released through the urethra.
atrium contracts, which causes the pres-
F. The B.
Urine enters the collecting tubule and moves

sure in the ventricle to increase because the towards the urether, while blood moves to-
mitral valve remains open. wards the veins.
C.
As the primary urine circulates, the blood mov-

36. Facts about the Circulation of Blood ing out of the glomerulus flows through the
Indicate whether each of the following statements capillaries surrounding the tubule.
about the circulation of blood is true or false: D.
Water and blood solutes enter the renal tubule.

E.
Blood enters the glomerulus flowing through

The circulatory system is always filled with blood
arteries that branch into capillaries.
at different pressures.
F.
Primary urine, which contains both waste and

The right side of the heart pumps blood out to nutrients, moves through the nephron’s tubule.
the alveoli of the lungs.
G.
Some of the nutrients in the primary urine pass

When the blood is flowing through one of through the walls of the tubule and return to
the two circuits, the other circuit has no the blood.
blood in it. H.
The ureters carry urine to the bladder.

All blood flowing into the heart is oxygen-
poor and rich in carbon dioxide. 38. The Collecting Ducts of the Urinary System
a. Select the urinary system duct that is involved in
The left side of the heart pumps blood to all transporting each of the following fluids:
body organs.
[renal arteries / renal veins / ureters and urethra]
The heart is a pump with two separate sides.
Unfiltered blood: ...........
The circulation of blood can be represented as Filtered blood: ..........
a double-loop circulatory system.
Urine: ..........
b. Complete these sentences by choosing the most

suitable option:
[renal arteries / renal veins / ureters / urethra]
Blood enters the kidneys through the ...........
Blood exits the kidneys through the ..........
Urine leaves the kidneys through the ..........
Urine is eliminated from the bladder through the
..........
Regulation of the Body’s Internal Environment
39. Urine Composition

Complete the following sentences:
If you drink a lot of water, the salt concentra-
tion in blood plasma [decreases / increases].
The kidneys respond by producing a [greater
/ lesser] volume of urine, which is [dilute /
concentrated] and very [clear / dark].
EXERCISES
By contrast, if you drink little water, the salt concentration in blood plasma [decreases / increases].
The kidneys respond by producing a [greater / lesser] volume of urine, which is [dilute / concen-
trated] and highly [clear / dark].
Diet-Related Diseases
40. What System Is Affected?

Indicate which system is affected by each of the following diseases. Look up information if necessary.
[digestive system / respiratory system / circulatory system / urinary system / any system]
Dental caries: .......... Asthma: .......... Anemia: .......... Diabetes: ........... Diarrhea: .......... Infections: ..........
Kidney stones: .......... Heart attack: ........... Cancer: .......... Stroke: ......... Gastritis: ..........
Emphysema: .......... sHigh blood pressure: ..........
41. Blood Tests

Patient A
Blood tests are indicative of a person’s overall (female)
Reference values Units
health status. A person’s blood sample is extracted Erythrocyte females: 4 - 5.5
3,5 106 cells/ μL
for analysis in the laboratory. count males: 4.3 - 6.2
Leukocyte count 7 4 - 11 103 cells/ μL

In general, these tests involve blood counts and
Thrombocyte
give the concentration of substances in a person’s count 20 15 - 45 104 cells/ μL
blood—such as glucose, urea, and cholesterol. If Glucose level 74 70 - 100 mg/ dl
the doctor thinks that a disorder is at play, a more
Total blood
complete test can be done to assess specific blood cholesterol level 187 0 - 200 mg/ dl
parameters. Blood urea level 9 7 - 20 mg/ dl
Blood test results for patient A.

a. In light of the test results, which diseases or risk
factors for diseases do you think patient A has?
nemia q D
qA iabetes Patient B
(female)
q I
nfection q
Kidney-related problems Erythrocyte 5.1
females: 4 - 5.5
106 cells/ μL
count males: 4.3 - 6.2
q
Risk of cardiovascular disease Leukocyte count 55 4 - 11 103 cells/ μL
q
Risk of bleeding Thrombocyte 40 15 - 45 104 cells/ μL
count
b. In light of the test results, which diseases or risk Glucose level 81 70 - 100 mg/ dl
factors for diseases do you think patient B has? Total blood

cholesterol level 125 0 - 200 mg/ dl
q
Anemia q
Diabetes Blood urea level 14 7 - 20 mg/ dl
q
Infection q
Kidney-related problems Blood test results for patient B.
isk of cardiovascular disease
qR
isk of bleeding
qR
Patient C
(male)
c. In light of the test results, which diseases or risk Erythrocyte 6.1
females: 4 - 5.5
106 cells/ μL
count males: 4.3 - 6.2
factors for diseases do you think patient C has?
Leukocyte count 8 4 - 11 103 cells/ μL
nemia q
qA Diabetes
Thrombocyte 32 15 - 45 104 cells/ μL
count
q I
nfection q
Kidney-related problems
Glucose level 93 70 - 100 mg/ dl
q
Risk of cardiovascular disease
Total blood
cholesterol level 194 0 - 200 mg/ dl
q
Risk of bleeding
Blood urea level 45 7 - 20 mg/ dl
Blood test results for patient C.
EXERCISES
d. In light of the test results, which diseases or risk e. In light of the test results, which diseases or risk
factors for diseases do you think patient D has? factors for diseases do you think patient E has?
nemia q
qA Diabetes q
Anemia q
Diabetes
q I
nfection q
Kidney-related problems q
Infection q
Kidney-related problems
q
Risk of cardiovascular disease q
Risk of cardiovascular disease
q
Risk of bleeding q
Risk of bleeding
Patient D Patient E
Reference values Units Reference values Units
(female) (male)
Erythrocyte females: 4 - 5.5 Erythrocyte females: 4 - 5.5
count 4.1 males: 4.3 - 6.2 106 cells/ μL count 4.5 males: 4.3 - 6.2 106 cells/ μL
Leukocyte count 5 4 - 11 103 cells/ μL Leukocyte count 16 4 - 11 103 cells/ μL
Thrombocyte 16 15 - 45 104 cells/ μL Thrombocyte 5 15 - 45 104 cells/ μL

count count
Glucose level 180 70 - 100 mg/ dl Glucose level 71 70 - 100 mg/ dl

Total blood Total blood
cholesterol level 210 0 - 200 mg/ dl cholesterol level 177 0 - 200 mg/ dl
Blood urea level 11 7 - 20 mg/ dl Blood urea level 19 7 - 20 mg/ dl
Blood test results for patient D Blood test results for patient E
Eating Disorders
42. Fighting Child Malnutrition which is based on peanut butter mixed with dried
Carefully read the text below and answer the ques- skimmed milk and added vitamins and minerals,
tions on the following pages. can be consumed directly by the child and provides
sufficient nutrient intake for complete recovery.
Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more It can be stored for three to four months without
than one third of all child deaths, although it is refrigeration, even at tropical temperatures. Local
rarely listed as the direct cause. Lack of access to production of RUTF paste is already under way
highly nutritious foods, especially in the pre- in several countries including Congo, Ethiopia,
sent context of rising food prices, is a common Malawi, and Niger.
cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices,
Adapted from “Malnutrition,” World Health
such as inadequate breastfeeding, offering the
Organization, http://www.who.int/maternal_
wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child
child_adolescent/topics/child/malnutrition/en/
gets enough nutritious food all contribute to
June 26, 2015
malnutrition. Infection–particularly frequent or
persistent diarrhea, pneumonia, measles and a. Which of the following factors cause or lead to
malaria–also undermines a child’s nutritional child malnutrition?
status.
q Certain diseases.
A recently developed home-based treatment for qLack of access to foods.
severe acute malnutrition is improving the lives of
qPoor feeding practices.
hundreds of thousands of children a year. Ready-
to-use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) has revolutionized qRising food prices.
the treatment of severe malnutrition, providing b. Why is malnutrition considered a serious public
foods that are safe to use at home and which health concern?
ensure rapid weight gain in severely malnourished
children. q
Because it affects millions of people worldwide.
q
Because it has no cure.
The advantage of RUTF is that it is a ready-to-use
paste that does not need to be mixed with water, q
Because it is responsible for more than one
thereby avoiding the risk of bacterial proliferation third of all child deaths.
in case of accidental contamination. The product, q
It is not a public health concern.
EXERCISES
c. What is ready-to-use therapeutic food? This was the 1980s. The same time, I began treating
ready-to-use paste used to nourish children lung cancer patients at a hospital in Brazil and saw
qA
first-hand the impact of smoking. During my 6
affected by serious malnutrition.
years there, I saw many patients lose their lives—of-
q
Foods aimed to replace all other foods in ten within 2 years of diagnosis.
countries most affected by hunger and mal-
nutrition. I also lost my mother to cancer. Some years later,
my father died of the same disease. Both were
q
Foods produced by the consumers themselves.
exposed to smoke. My father was a smoker and my
d. What are the advantages of this particular food? mother spent years breathing in his second-hand
smoke.
q It is very tasty.
q It can be stored for months without refrigera- As a result, I saw the need to prevent cancer by spe-
tion. cifically targeting its biggest risk factor: tobacco.
q It doesn’t need to be mixed with water to be Adapted from Dr. Vera Luiza da Costa e Silva,
consumed, which avoids the risk of certain “Tobacco: Ending an Unhealthy Trend,” World
diseases. Health Organization, http://www.who.int/me-
diacentre/commentaries/reducing-tobacco-use/
e. These foods are based on peanut butter and en/, June 25, 2015
milk, and are therefore rich in sugars, fats, and
proteins. What type of nutrients are these? a. The World Health Organization estimates that
q
Macronutrients about half of all smokers die of smoking-related
q
Micronutrients diseases. That’s why antismoking campaigns have
spread all over the world in the last few years.
f. Why are ready-to-use-foods fortified with vita-
You can learn more about smoking from the
mins and minerals?
World Health Organization by following this link:

qBecause all industrially-processed foods must
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/
be supplemented with vitamins and minerals.
fs339/es/
q
To ensure adequate energy intake.
What diseases or health-related problems are
q
Because diets are not varied under conditions
linked to smoking?
of malnutrition, so supplementary intake of
minerals and vitamins is needed. b. What are passive smokers? What health prob-
lems can passive smokers develop?
Guidelines for Maintaining Healthy Habits
c. Provide three sound arguments to convince
43. Smoking someone to quit smoking.
Carefully read the text below and answer the ques- Provide data to support your view.
tions on the following pages. d. Why is it hard to quit smoking?
There was a time, not too long ago, when smok- e. What measures can be taken to prevent young
ing was trendy. people from starting to smoke and to help smok-
Televisions, billboards, and magazines were ers quit?
covered in advertisements glorifying smoking.
Concerts and sporting events were places for the
tobacco industry to hand out free products and
branded promotional items.
And everyone from your dad to your doctor smoked
everywhere–cars, elevators, restaurants, houses, and
even hospitals.
ANOTATIONS
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International Science Teaching Foundation Science Bits, S.L.

In this unit, you will learn:

Under weightless conditions, it is difficult to sit down and eat a yo-

Later, they used cubes of concentrated food containing the substanc-

Scientists even dreamed of creating a pill that could replace a full,

If that was ever possible, which substances

What Is There in Food?

b. What are the main types of essential substanc-

Comparing the size of a grain of corn and a cell.

What must happen to the foods for the nutrients

c. Once the nutrients have been extracted from

Design two menus. The first should be a healthy,

e. Nutrients participate in several chemical reac-

However, the nutrients in most of these foods can’t be used immedi-

In this activity, you will explore the digestion of an extremely popular

Potato, Starch, and Glucose

Molecular size [very large / small] [very large / small]

Can our cells absorb it? [yes / no] [yes / no]

b. What effect does saliva have on the food?

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Treatment 4

e. To test the hypotheses, follow these steps: pore

A dialysis tubing bag is a type of membrane with microscopic pores that

Foods need to be digested to enable your

One one hand, chemical digestion occurs:

On the other hand, mechanical digestion occurs:

Nutrients are substances the body takes in to sustain the life

1. Are the main source of energy for cells;

The carbohydrates we eat are of two types:

The foods we eat contain different types of fats:

Water and Minerals

The human body needs a daily intake of about 2 L of water, which

On the other hand, minerals:

Formation and maintenance of bones and teeth; blood clot-

Meat (especially red meat), fish, legumes, shellfish, and

Thyroid hormone production (regulates several body

Muscle and nerve function; water balance; functioning

Other Manganese, selenium, zinc, chlorine, and others are es-

Interactive chart with 12 minerals found in food.

A balanced diet provides the appropriate amounts

Knowing the nutritional composition of foods allows us to

The nutrients obtained from a balanced diet have three

functions in your body and cells:

Maintenance and growth

The Processes of Human Nutrition

Gall bladder larynx

The first step in nutrition involves obtaining nutrients from

Digestive juices contain digestive enzymes that act chemically on

There are several types of enzymes, distinguished by whether they

salivary glands stomach

entrance to duodenum liver

pancreatic duct bile duct

pancreas entrance to duodenum

Video Intestinal absorption is the process by which nutrients—ex-

All your cells need to consume oxygen (O2) to obtain energy

Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a waste product of this chemical reaction. It is

Nutrients other than oxygen are taken in by the digestive system.

Breathing is the process by which oxygen in the air is transferred to

These processes occur simultaneously

The circulatory system is a vast network of blood vessels. Your heart

Blood composition (in volume).

Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells

eets all energy needs on a daily basis.