1025_1038_14 8/15/02 9:23 AM Page 1028
Back to Basics
Volumetric X-Ray Testing
by Harold Berger* and Robert L. Schulte*
As radiographic techniques be-
come more sophisticated to solve
more sophisticated problems, the
basics of the technique become
more complicated. Here is a great
explanation of how one of the new
imaging techniques, tomography,
works. Berger and Schulte give a
really short and to the point expla-
nation — and without the pages of
math usually found in such arti-
cles. The photographs of how it
works are worth many thousands
of words that would never have
done the job — at least for me.
Frank A. Iddings
Tutorial Projects Editor
INTRODUCTION
ost radiographers have come
M across an X-ray testing problem
that was not solved by a conven-
tional two dimensional X-ray image. The
information sought was hidden behind
other structures in the object. If the system
was a realtime radioscopic system, the in-
formation might be obtained (or might not,
depending on the geometry) by rotating
the object in the beam while the test was
being conducted. However, many installed
X-ray testing systems, even realtime radio-
scopic systems, don’t have the necessary
object rotation capability. In these cases, the
desired information may be obtained by a
repositioning of the object in the beam, per-
haps several times, to see the desired X-ray
image detail. An alternative to this ap-
proach is a volumetric X-ray imaging sys-
tem. Volumetric X-ray image techniques
have existed for some time (Ellingson and
Berger, 1980), but many X-ray people will
think first about computed tomography
(ASTM International, 1997; Bossi, 1996).
However, there are many testing situations
* Industrial Quality, Inc., 640 E. Diamond
Ave., Suite C, Gaithersburg, MD 20877;
(301) 948-2460; fax (301) 948-9037; e-mail
<hberger@indqual.com>.
1028 Materials Evaluation/September 2002
From Materials Evaluation, Vol. 60, No. 9, pp: 1028-1031.
Copyright © 2002 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
where the size, shape or location of the ob-
ject is not suitable for testing using comput-
ed tomography methods.
Images of any region
of a testing object can
be obtained quickly
and easily with
volumetric X-ray
systems.
There are various terms that have been
used to describe the process of creating a
useful X-ray image of a selected plane
within an object. Planigraphy and laminog-
raphy are some of the older terms used for
this process of bringing a selected plane in
the object into good focus. The technique
was used for many years in the medical
community (Plantes, 1932). In the simplest
form, the object remained stationary while
the X-ray source was moved linearly in the
+X direction and the imaging detector
(usually film) was moved at the same time
and rate in the -X direction. This resulted in
a single image plane in the object (the ful-
crum plane) remaining in focus while im-
ages from other object planes were blurred
along the direction of the source detector
movement. The process could be repeated
to image other object image planes. The
motion for the source detector movement
may also be more complicated than the
simple linear motion described; the blur-
ring of out of plane detail is more effective
when more complex source detector move-
ments are used. For example, circular or
hypocycloidal motions provide images of
the desired object plane with less blurring
from out of plane object details.
The terms used to describe this process
for computer methods are “tomography”
and “tomosynthesis.” Tomography is de-
fined in ASTM E-1316 (1999) as follows:
“any radiologic technique that provides an
image of a selected plane in an object to the
relative exclusion of structures that lie out-
side the plane of interest.” Tomosynthesis
is normally used to describe a technique in
which the X-rays are directed through the
object in a limited number of views, with
the objective of reconstructing multiple
image planes within the object.
Computed tomography is widely used
in the medical community and is receiving
increased attention from industrial users.
Computed tomography systems are usual-
ly configured to take many views of the ob-
ject, often more than 100; this provides re-
constructed images of good quality, with
excellent density discrimination. Limited
view tomosynthetic techniques are begin-
ning to attract attention from a number of
investigators, many of whom are taking
advantage of new, semiconductor digital
imaging detectors — particularly flat pan-
els (Antonuk, 1995; Jones and Berger, 2000;
Jones, 2001). Many reports on advances in
computed tomography and tomosynthesis
X-ray imaging are described in recent sym-
posium proceedings (Antonuk and Yaffe,
2001; Boone and Dobbins, 1999; Dobbins
and Boone, 2000). These advanced tech-
niques have also been described at the re-
cent series of ASNT topical meetings on
digital imaging (for example, see American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2001).
An example of an advanced volumetric
X-ray testing technique is an all electronic,
digital, multiimage technique that permits
an operator to reconstruct any horizontal
or vertical X-ray image plane in the object
(Schulte et al., 2001; Schulte 2001; Schulte,
2002). This capability allows the viewer to
look behind obstructing details that may
hide the testing region of interest. The oper-
ator also has the capability to scan through
selected regions of the object in both the
horizontal and vertical directions. Since an
integral part of this system is an immediate
response (realtime radioscopic capability),
the operator can view the usual two di-
mensional X-ray image and decide if more
information is needed to complete the test.
If that is the case, additional images can be
taken while the testing object is in place to
provide the volumetric images needed to
complete the test.
VOLUMETRIC IMAGING SYSTEM
A simple system for stereo imaging re-
quires only two images taken from angles
that permit stereo image viewing. X-ray
image stereo viewing can be accomplished
1025_1038_14 8/15/02 9:23 AM Page 1029

with film or filmlike detectors (American

Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1985;
Evans and Robinson, 2000) or in realtime
radioscopy by rapid movement of the
X-ray focal spot in a microfocus X-ray tube
(Polansky et al., 1990). However, more than
two X-ray views are required for recon-
struction of multiple X-ray image planes
within an object. True tomosynthesis X-ray
systems for viewing of multiple image
planes require more than two X-ray images
and provide much more image informa-
tion. The system, like all tomosynthesis
techniques, makes use of multiple two di-
mensional X-ray images taken from differ-
ent perspectives.
The tomosynthesis process requires a
series of projection X-ray images taken
from different angles through the test ob-
ject. A schematic of the technique is shown
in Figure 1. (Jones and Berger, 2000; Schulte
et al., 2001; Schulte, 2001). A typical testing Figure 1 — Schematic drawing showing the multiview oblique incidence technique of
geometry is shown with the source located tomosynthesis. The X-ray view illustrated shows the projection of a discontinuity onto the
at an oblique angle with respect to the ver- detector plane. The X-ray images acquired at each position have the discontinuity projected to a
tical direction. The object under test is ro- different location on the detector plate.
tated to eight different positions and an
X-ray image is acquired at each position.
The process is very flexible and is not con-
strained to any specific positions, number
of images or geometry. The circular image
pattern, however, is convenient to demon-
strate the technique. The image detector
can be any flat detector, film, scintillator or
flat panel. The flat panel, as used in this
system, provides rapid response, excellent
dynamic range and digital images for
input to the reconstruction software. In this
case, eight two dimensional digital images
are collected, showing details in the testing
object from the different image perspec-
tives. Any view through the object can be
reconstructed with software using the basic (a) (b)
set of oblique incidence images acquired
during the X-ray test.
After acquiring the limited X-ray image Figure 2 — Horizontal views at two different levels within the assembled plate object: (a)
data set, the application software is used to horizontal X-ray image through the bottom plate (at 10 mm [0.4 in.]) of the 25 mm (1 in.) thick
reconstruct views of any horizontal X-ray aluminum plate assembly, showing only the holes in the lower plate; (b) horizontal X-ray image
image plane parallel to the flat panel image at 15 mm (0.6 in.), showing the two holes in the upper plate.
detector face. In addition, the software can
display any vertical X-ray image plane
(perpendicular to the flat panel face). The prepared — each 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) thick
reconstructed X-ray image planes provide plate contains a pair of flat bottom 3.175
an excellent dimensional measurement ca- mm (0.125 in.) diameter holes at various
pability with the accuracy dependent on depths. The plates were assembled into a
the resolution of the image detector. An in- single 25 mm (1 in.) thick object with the
teresting feature of the application software hole openings facing the interface between
is a realtime scan through the X-ray image the two plates. Reconstructed horizontal
planes. This dynamic display of internal X-ray images of each plate show only the
X-ray images is very useful. It allows an holes in that plate. Figure 2 shows horizon-
operator to look rapidly through the X-ray tal views at two different levels within the
image volume of the object, stop at any assembled plate object. Figure 2a shows a
point and reconstruct the entire X-ray horizontal X-ray image view at a level of 10
image plane at that level. This dynamic re- mm (0.4 in.) above the detector plane, well
sponse can’t be shown in a hard copy arti- within the lower aluminum block (two
cle, but several examples of reconstructed holes are shown). Figure 2b, taken at 15
X-ray images are shown in the following mm (0.6 in.), shows only the other two
section. holes in the upper block. A cross sectional
view of the plates can be obtained through Figure 3 — A horizontal X-ray image at the
Applications a vertical image reconstruction. Figure 3 interface of the two aluminum plates,
A tomosynthetic examination of a test shows the horizontal view at the interface showing the Z configuration line for
object can be used to illustrate the power of of the two plates at which each of the four reconstruction of a vertical view through the
this technique. Two aluminum plates were holes is just visible. Using the application thickness of the assembly.

Materials Evaluation/September 2002 1029

1025_1038_14 8/15/02 9:23 AM Page 1030

software, a multisegment line is drawn
over all the holes, as is shown in Figure 3.
A vertical reconstruction is made along
the line segments, starting in the upper
right corner (Figure 4). The image is a
cross section of the stacked plates show-
ing all of the holes as a function of depth;
the holes in each plate extend only to the
interface between the plates. The diame-
ters and depths of all the holes can be
measured with precision on the order of
127 µm (5 × 10-3 in.).

Figure 4 — A vertical (cross sectional) image taken along the Z configuration line shown in
Figure 3, showing the image of all four holes, two in each block along the interface between the
blocks.

Figure 5 — Horizontal X-ray image of aluminum weld, taken at a height of 16 mm (0.63 in.)
above the bottom of the weld. A pore is located in the upper left side of the weld area. Tungsten
inclusions are also visible at this level.

Figure 6 — A vertical X-ray image taken through the pore shows the vertical image of the pore.
The dimensions of the pore, height and diameter can be measured with high precision.

1030 Materials Evaluation/September 2002

1025_1038_14 8/15/02 9:23 AM Page 1031

The test object described above illus-
trates what can be done with this tomosyn-
thesis X-ray imaging system. A practical
application of X-ray tomosynthetic imag-
ing is weld testing. The horizontal and/or
vertical X-ray reconstructed images pro-
vide excellent location information about
weld discontinuities. This, coupled with
the capability for dimensional measure-
ment, gives an inspector the information
needed to decide about repair and from
which side of the weld to start. Figure 5
shows a horizontal X-ray image recon-
struction through a butt weld of two 12.7
mm (0.5 in.) thick aluminum plates with a
single V groove. The total thickness of the
weld is 18 mm (0.7 in.). This horizontal
image, at a level of 16 mm (0.63 in.) is just
below the level of the plates, showing dis-
continuities (a pore and inclusions) in the
weld bead. A vertical X-ray image (Figure
6) reconstructed along the direction of the
weld and through the center of the pore
shows the size and location of the pore.
This information makes it easier to assess
the quality of the weld.
CONCLUSION
Full volumetric X-ray images provide
additional information for the detection
and characterization of discontinuities or
components in all kinds of structures, in-
cluding welds, castings, electronic devices
and electromechanical assemblies. Use of a
digital flat panel provides high sensitivity,
fast response and good resolution. Images
of any region of a testing object can be ob-
tained quickly and easily with volumetric
X-ray systems. This includes systems such
as the electronic X-ray system described in
this article. Compared to other volumetric
X-ray image systems, the X-ray system of-
fers advantages, including reconstructed
viewing of any horizontal or vertical X-ray
image plane, scanning through selected
horizontal or vertical image regions and a
precision measurement capability. Volu-
metric X-ray imaging, using methods such
as tomosynthesis or computed tomogra-
phy, can provide the additional informa-
tion often needed for critical nondestruc-
tive testing applications.
Imaging 2001: Physics of Medical Imaging, Pro-
ceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4320, 2001.
ASTM International, ASTM E-1441, Standard
Guide for Computed Tomography (CT) Imaging,
West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, ASTM In-
ternational, 1997.
ASTM International, ASTM E-1316, Standard Ter-
minology for Nondestructive Examinations, West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, ASTM Interna-
tional, 1999.
Boone, J.M. and J.T. Dobbins, III, eds., Medical
Imaging 1999: Physics of Medical Imaging, Pro-
ceedings of SPIE, Vol. 3659, 1999.
Bossi, R.H., “Radioscopy and Tomography,”
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edi-
tion: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing
Overview, S. Ness, C.N. Sherlock, P.O. Moore
and P. McIntire, eds., Columbus, Ohio, Ameri-
can Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1996,
pp. 173-198.
Dobbins, J.T., III, and J.M. Boone, eds., Medical
Physics 2000 — Physics Medical Imaging, Pro-
ceedings of SPIE, Vol. 3977, 2000.
Ellingson, W.A. and H. Berger, “Three-Dimen-
sional Radiographic Imaging,” Research Tech-
niques in Nondestructive Testing, R.S. Sharpe,
ed., London, Academic Press, Vol. 4, 1980, pp.
1-38.
Evans, J.P.O. and M. Robinson, “Design of a
Stereoscopic X-Ray Imaging System Using a
Single X-Ray Source,” NDT&E International,
Vol. 33, 2000, pp. 325-332.
Jones, T.S. and H. Berger, “Performance Charac-
teristics of an Electronic Three-Dimensional Ra-
diographic Technique,” ASNT Spring Conference
and 9th Annual Research Symposium Abstracts,
Columbus, Ohio, ASNT, 2000, pp. 29-31.
Jones, T.S., “Evaluation of Digital X-Radiological
Imaging Systems for US Air Force Applica-
tions,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 59, 2001, pp.
971-975.
Plantes, Ziedes des, “Eine Neu Method zur Dif-
ferenzierung in der Roentgenographie,” Acta
Radiologica, Vol. 13, 1932, pp. 182-192.
Polansky, D., T. Jones, R. Placious, H. Berger and
J. Reed, “Real-Time Stereo X-Ray Imaging,”
1990 ASNT Spring Conference — NDE: the Next
Decade and Beyond, Columbus, Ohio, ASNT,
1990, pp. 193-195.
Schulte, R.L., T.S. Jones and H. Berger, “A Digital
X-Ray Inspection System for Full Volumetric
Imaging,” Digital Imaging IV, Columbus,
Ohio, ASNT, 2001.
Schulte, R.L., “Full Volumetric Imaging Using a
Digital Flat Panel,” ASNT Fall Conference,
Columbus, OH, October 2001.
Schulte, R.L., “Full Volumetric Digital Imaging
of Welds,” American Welding Society, Nonde-
structive Testing of Welds Conference, Houston,
Texas, American Welding Society, May 2002,
pp. 195-208.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Donald
Twyman, of the Digitome Corporation, for
his assistance with the preparation and re-
view of the paper.

REFERENCES
American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Digital Imaging IV, Columbus, Ohio, ASNT,
2001.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
“Radiographic Flaw Depth Determination,”
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edi-
tion: Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Test-
ing, L.E. Bryant and P. McIntire, eds., Colum-
bus, Ohio, ASNT, 1985, pp. 808-816.
Antonuk, L.E., “Flat-panel Horizons in Digital
X-Ray Imaging,” Photonics Spectra, Vol. 29, No.
6, 1995, pp. 108-116.
Antonuk, L.E. and M.J. Yaffe, eds., Medical

Materials Evaluation/September 2002 1031